Paste 2014 – R.J. Jewell, A.B. Fourie, P.S. Wells and D.

van Zyl (eds)

© 2014 InfoMine Inc., Canada, ISBN 978-0-9917905-3-1

S. Javadi RMIT University, Australia

R. Gupta RMIT University, Australia
P. Slatter ATC Williams, Australia
S.N. Bhattacharya RMIT University, Australia

Tailings system facilities are changing, and thickening of mineral processing plant tailings slurry to achieve
high solids content discharge is becoming common. Therefore, understanding free surface flow behaviour and
the characterisation of paste and thickened tailings material is critically important in tailings management
system design. With concentration, tailings material becomes more viscous and non-Newtonian in nature,
and its flow behaviour becomes complex and more difficult to predict. This complexity increases when a fluid
is transferred through an open channel; rheological properties and free surface flow hydraulics must then be
incorporated into the flow model.
This paper compares the predictions of several models describing the pipe and free surface flow of
non-Newtonian fluids and compares the results of previously published data. This comparison indicates that
pipe-flow models using the approaches of Haldenwang and Slatter, and of Chilton and Stainsby, predict
velocity even better than analytical models developed for the shallow flow of non-Newtonian fluids down an
inclined plane. Additionally, an investigation of the transitional flow of viscous material through open
channels shows that the transition occurs over a range of Reynolds numbers, and also that the onset of
transition occurs at different Reynolds numbers and velocities, both of which vary with channel geometry,
even for the same slurry. These two parameters generally increase as the channel becomes wider.

With water now recognised as a scarce commodity, the mining industry is considering modern tailings
dewatering technologies such as high density thickeners, paste thickeners, and filtration with higher density
at discharge compared to previous conventional methods. Besides saving water, hyper-concentrated
thickened tailings also help to reduce embankment construction costs and reduce environmental risks. As a
result, slurry densities continue to increase; this means that tailings exhibit significantly viscous fluid
behaviour and their flow to the disposal area becomes increasingly like a non-Newtonian flow in a laminar
regime (Slatter et al., 2011). Dewatered tailings normally travel a long distance to the disposal site. If the
terrain allows gravity flow, an open-top flume is one economical alternative to a pipeline. Unlike pipe flow,
the flow of non-Newtonian material, including settling and nonsettling slurry, through an open channel has
not received much attention. However, many studies use the pipe flow paradigm as a basis for open-channel
design by adapting the hydraulic radius.
The main objective of this paper is to define the most reliable design basis for transferring non-Newtonian
thickened tailings through open channels in laminar flow based on approaches reported in the literature.
This paper demonstrates the validity and limitations of existing models, including free surface and
pressurised conduit flow of non-Newtonian fluid models. It quantifies the accuracy of the outputs of these
models by comparing these with previously published flume data (Pirouz et al., 2013; Haldenwang and
Slatter, 2006). This paper also focuses on the transitional behaviour of viscous material in an open channel.

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Investigation of open-channel design of non-Newtonian thickened tailings flow S. Javadi, R. Gupta, P. Slatter and S. N. Bhattacharya

As thickened tailings technology evolves and low-grade ores are mined, the resulting flow of dewatered
tailings tends to behave like an equivalent homogeneous fluid; theoretically, it can be denoted as a
nonsettling and nonsegregating homogeneous fluid. This type of slurry is increasingly common and should
be considered in slurry flow categorization. The first scientific study of slurry flow (Durand and Condolios,
1952 cited by Abulnaga, 2002) divided the flow into four groups based on particle size. This initial
classification was refined by a number of researchers, who took other aspects of flow, such as particle
interaction and rheology, into consideration (Abulnaga, 2002). Table 1 defines five main slurry flows
according to their physical and hydrodynamic characteristics.

Solids
Size
Slurry type content by Particle size Flow regime Fluid type Deposition
degradation
volume
Medium to Fine to Transitional Non- Non-
Homogeneous Nonsettling
thick medium to turbulent Newtonian segregating
Pseudo- Low to Fine to Non-
Turbulent Newtonian Nonsettling
homogeneous medium medium segregating
Medium to Fine to Non- Non-
Laminar Zone settling
thick medium Newtonian segregating
Heterogeneous
Low to Medium to Laminar to
Newtonian Settling Segregating
medium coarse transitional
Low to Medium to Single
Stratified Laminar Newtonian Segregating
medium coarse settling

Kozicki and Tiu (1967) proposed a method to predict the flow rate and maximum velocity of
time-independent non-Newtonian fluid in a straight open channel with an arbitrary cross section. They used
the Rabinowitsch-Mooney equation of flow down an inclined plane in developing their model. This model
uses the non-Newtonian viscosity of the fluid, or equivalent information, and two geometric coefficients,
characteristics of the shape of the flow cross section. It also introduces a new generalised Reynolds number,
64
𝑅𝑒 ∗, which is defined so that the relationship 𝑓 = 𝑅𝑒 ∗ is applicable to a fully developed laminar flow in an
arbitrary channel with a constant cross section. Kozicki and Tiu did not conduct test work to validate their
model.
Naik (1983) reported extensive results on the flow of sand slurries, mainly in turbulent flow. He presented a
formula, published in a hydraulics textbook, for rough-wall turbulent Newtonian open-channel flow and
derived from it a formula for the mean velocity of a Bingham fluid.
Coussot (1994) conducted experimental work on kaolin suspensions, which were characterised as a Herschel-
Bulkley fluid. For the concentrations used, Coussot fitted all data by fixing the value of n = 0.333 and then
derived a value for average wall shear stress in a rectangular flume from this value (Coussot, 1994).
Haldenwang and (2006) studied non-Newtonian fluid behaviour in a rectangular open channel, using kaolin
as a Herschel-Bulkley fluid, bentonite as a Bingham plastic, and a carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) as a power-
law fluid. By analogy to Slatter’s (1994) work on pipe flow, Haldenwang used a hydraulic radius concept in a
laminar region to develop a new Reynolds number, 𝑅𝑒2, applicable to flow in an open channel (Haldenwang,
2003).
Burger et al. (2010) investigated the non-Newtonian fluid laminar-flow friction factor in an open channel with
a different cross section. For the three non-Newtonian fluids in four different channel shapes, the overall

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average K value was found to be 14.6 for triangular channels with a vertex angle of 90⁰, 16.2 for semicircular
channels, 16.4 for rectangular channels, and 17.6 for trapezoidal channels with 60⁰ sides (Burger et al., 2010).
In addition to the aforementioned open-channel studies, gravity-driven shallow flows of non-Newtonian
fluids along inclined surfaces have also been studied by several researchers (Astarita et al., 1964; Uhlherr et
al., 1984; Wilson, 1991; De Kee et al., 1990; Coussot, 1994; Šutalo et al., 2006; Slatter, 2013; and Slatter et
al., 2010). Although most of these studies were aimed at obtaining data on rheological behaviour, in
particular yield stress, the sheet flow paradigm defined by Slatter et al. (2010) has been claimed as a potential
basis for open-channel design (De Kee et al., 1990; Šutalo et al., 2006; Slatter, 2013).

Many researchers have developed models for non-Newtonian fluid flow through open channels and pipes.
The initial models (Rabinowitsch-Money, Metzner-Reed, and Kozicki-Tiu) were applicable to non-Newtonian
homogeneous fluid, while the recent models have focused more on particulate slurry flow. Table 2 lists the
models that are evaluated along with the experimental measurements used in this study.

Model Model equation Description Developed for

𝑓(𝜏): Shear
3𝑉 3 𝜏0 Shallow
Sheet flow rate
= 2 ∫ 𝜏. 𝑓(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 gravity flow,
model 𝑅ℎ 𝜏0 0 rheological
laminar
function
a and b:
2𝑉 1 −𝑏/𝑎 𝜏0 𝑏 −1 Shallow
Kozicki-Tiu = 𝜏 ∫ 𝜏 𝑎 𝑓(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 channel
gravity flow,
model 𝑅ℎ 𝑎 𝜏𝑦 geometry
laminar
coefficient
8𝜌𝑉 2 Pipe flow and
Haldenwang- 𝑅𝑒2 =
2𝑉 − open channel,
Slatter Re 𝜏𝑦 + 𝐾( )𝑛
𝑅ℎ laminar
𝜌𝑉𝐷 a, b, c:
Chilton- 𝑅𝑒𝑀𝑅 = Pipe flow,
8𝑉 𝑛−1
3𝑛 + 1𝑛
1 1 rheological
Stainsby Re 𝐾( )
𝐷
(
4𝑛
) ( )(
1 − 𝑋 1 − 𝑎𝑋 − 𝑏𝑋 2 + 𝑐𝑋 3
)𝑛 laminar
coefficient
4𝜌𝑉𝑅ℎ Pipe flow,
Newtonian Re 𝑅𝑒 = −
µ𝑎𝑝𝑝 (100) laminar

The root mean squared error (RMSE) approach is used to assess the accuracy of each model prediction. RMSE
is applied to the average velocity prediction; it measures the average of the squares of the errors. An error is
the amount by which the average velocity implied by the models differs from the velocity measured in
experimental work.
To establish the onset of the transition zone, a series of plots of wall shear stress against bulk shear rate for
kaolin, bentonite, and CMC are drawn, and the same graphical approach as for pipe flow is taken (Wilson,
1991). On the logarithmic axes of this figure, the locus of laminar flow approximates a straight line of slope
less than unity (a straight line of unit slope represents laminar flow of a Newtonian fluid). Turbulent flow, on
the other hand, plots as a series of parallel lines, one for each slope (one for each diameter in the pipe flow),
with different slopes. The intersection of these two lines indicates the transitional point.
Two series of tilting flume datasets for hyper-concentrated viscous slurry were obtained from previous
works. The first dataset is the result of extensive tests carried out in three different rectangular flumes at the
Flow Process Research Centre at the Cape Peninsula University of Technology (Haldenwang and Slatter,

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Investigation of open-channel design of non-Newtonian thickened tailings flow S. Javadi, R. Gupta, P. Slatter and S. N. Bhattacharya

2006). The second dataset is beach slope prediction flume results from the Chuquicamata copper mine for a
range of different slurry flow rates and solids concentrations.

Figures 1 and 2 show a series of plots of real measured velocity against the velocity predicted by different
models. For kaolin 10% and bentonite 6% suspensions, the pipe flow models applying Haldenwang-Slatter
𝑅𝑒2 and Chilton-Stainsly 𝑅𝑒𝑀𝑅 obtained the best fits. Two free surface models, the sheet flow and Kozicki-Tiu
models, under-predict the velocity, while, in general, the Newtonian approach is overly mannered.

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 Thickened Tailings

For both suspensions, Figure 2 shows that the Newtonian approach tends to predict the flow velocity
accurately at the two extremes of laminar flow, particularly at the upper extreme. This is likely because of
the rheological behaviour of viscous material, which is Newtonian in the high and low range of shear rates.
At low enough shear rates, the viscosity reaches a plateau; similarly, at high enough shear rates, there is a
so-called “second Newtonian” region. Between these two extremes, viscosity falls monotonically and obeys
a “power-law” behaviour (Barnes and Walters, 1985).

To further evaluate the validity of each model, predictions for copper tailings in self-formed channels were
compared against the measured values (Figure 3). It should be noted that there is an equilibrium slope in a
self-formed channel, which is naturally channelised by slurry particles and carrier fluid, where the erosion of
the underlying bed material is equal to the deposition of the new sediment (Fitton, 2007). Therefore, despite
an ongoing controversy regarding beach slope mechanisms, the flow must necessarily be in transitional
status with slight eddy turbulences for low viscous slurry. As a result, it was expected that these models might
not work well. Figure 3 confirms that none of the models predicts the flow behaviour at equilibrium slope.
Throughout the laminar regime, the Haldenwang-Slatter 𝑅𝑒2 number generally achieves the best fit for
experimental data; but if attention is restricted to the high velocity in laminar regime (where the flow is
approaching the transitional zone), the Newtonian approach can also be seen to work accurately. This is
because of a limitation of Haldenwang-Slatter 𝑅𝑒2 in high velocity, as the ratio of shear stress on the wall to
the bulk shear stress becomes higher in the laminar regime. In other words, this model under-predicts the
friction on the wall, which is more significant while velocity increases.
The error bars and table in Figure 4 quantify the level of deviation of each model. In spite of the fact that
sheet flow and Kozicki-Tiu are analytically rigorous, they poorly predict the average velocity of the free
surface flow of non-Newtonian material. Whereas these two models strongly rely on the rheology of fluids
under shear and were derived from fluid shear behaviour basics, their accuracy seems to be completely
dependent on how well the rheological model fits onto the rheogram curve.

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Investigation of open-channel design of non-Newtonian thickened tailings flow S. Javadi, R. Gupta, P. Slatter and S. N. Bhattacharya

The rheological behavioural properties of non-Newtonian fluids, including fine-particle slurry, cannot be
calculated from first principles but must be determined through experimental tests (Wilson, 1991). A
rotational experimental apparatus is commonly used to obtain the rheological characteristics of materials,
but this arrangement is not suitable for suspensions where there is a tendency for the material to settle out
(Slatter et al., 2010) since this introduces uncertainties in prediction in some data sets. It is the same at high
shear rates, where coarse particles accelerate toward the outer cylinder. So fluid tends to be multi-phase
rather than equivalent. Figure 5 displays the sensitivity of the sheet flow and Kozicki-Tiu models to rheological
parameters. It is clear that these models are completely sensitive to rheological parameters, particularly yield
stress. For example, velocity can deviate up to 40% if either of the rheology coefficients n or k has been
evaluated by a 10% deviation. This is even worse if the error is caused by yield stress measurement.

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 Thickened Tailings

To further develop the argument on models pertaining to shallow flow of non-Newtonian fluid, we performed
a closer survey of the homogeneous flow of CMC (1% Cw). As Figure 6 shows, in the case of this single-phase
fluid and excluding any settling particles, the sheet flow model has the best prediction. For a single-phase
fluid exhibiting non-Newtonian behaviour, the sheet flow model predicts flow behaviour better than the pipe
flow models.

According to empirical observations of viscous slurry fluids, Haldenwang and Slatter (2006) postulated that
the flow behaviour of a transitional flow of non-Newtonian fluid is fundamentally different from that of a
fluid such as water. They found that the more viscous a fluid became, the smoother the transition region
became, and the lower the Reynolds number was where the deviation from the 16/Re line occurred
(Haldenwang and Slatter, 2006). Recently, Slatter adapted the sheet flow concept to define a criterion, Re =
700, for transitional flow (Slatter et al., 2011).
Pursuing the previous findings, we noticed that the critical Reynolds number at the transition point, where
the onset of streamline irregularities takes place, is not a fixed number even for one fluid. It appears that the
critical Reynolds number is affected by channel geometry, and it generally increases as the channel shape
ratio (width/depth) increases. This indicates not only that the transition occurs over a range of Reynolds
numbers, but also that the onset is variable with channel geometry, even for one material. Table 3
summarises the transitional velocity and critical Reynolds numbers we observed over a range of channel
geometry ratios.

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 Investigation of open-channel design of non-Newtonian thickened tailings flow S. Javadi, R. Gupta, P. Slatter and S. N. Bhattacharya

CMC 3.8% Kaolin 10% Bentonite 6%

Critical Channel Critical Critical Channel Critical Critical Channel Critical
Reynolds width/depth velocity Reynolds width/depth velocity Reynolds width/depth velocity
596 1.74 0.71 509 5.17 0.69 364 3.75 0.76
723 3.00 0.95 753 7.50 0.85 655 5.17 1.03
669 4.29 1.00 1,982 8.82 1.35 1,108 6.82 1.35
819 4.84 1.22 2,309 9.38 1.46 1,488 7.89 1.59
953 5.17 1.40 − − − − − −

The first part of this work reviewed the accuracy of pipe and free surface flow models and confirmed that
the pipe flow model predictions applying Haldenwang-Slatter 𝑅𝑒2 and Chilton-Stainsby 𝑅𝑒𝑀𝑅 agreed more
closely with experimental flume test data for non-Newtonian fluids in laminar flow compared to sheet flow
model predictions. We also observed that the Newtonian approach is able to accurately predict the flow
velocity only at the two extremes of laminar flow. Haldenwang-Slatter 𝑅𝑒2 under-predicts the friction on the
wall as velocity increases. This is because of a limitation of Haldenwang-Slatter 𝑅𝑒2 in high velocity as the ratio
of shear stress on the wall to the bulk shear stress becomes higher in the laminar regime. Furthermore, we
indicated that analytically developed sheet flow models are not able to predict laminar slurry flow; they are
also too sensitive to small changes in the accuracy of rheological measurements. For example, velocity can
deviate up to 40% if either of the rheology coefficients n or k has been evaluated by a 10% deviation. This is
even worse if the error is caused by yield stress measurement.
Investigation of transitional flows of viscous material through open channels confirmed that the transition
occurs over a zone of Reynolds numbers and that the onset of the transition occurs at different Reynolds
numbers and critical velocities, both of which vary with channel geometry even for the same slurry. These
two parameters generally increase as the channel becomes wider.

The authors are grateful for the support of ATC Williams and RMIT University for this ongoing research
project. Furthermore, we would like to thank Behnam Pirouz and Tim Fitton for their technical advice.

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