FUNCTION OF THE MAGIC MELO~IES OR ICA~OS OF SO~E ~ESTIZO SHAMAMS OF

IQUI-Tos--iNT~[F~Ruvr A~-AHA7"C Nt,S-I---------- -------- --- --- -- -

,;--- - - -- - -- --- - -

The Amazonian provinces of Peru. like those of all other

countries sharing the Amazonian basin. have experienced great socio-
economic changes during the last decades. due to the intense and
chaotic exploitation of jungle products. However, there are many
elements of native cultures still present in the mestizo population. '_·,_~_~·.· ••,•. '4·_," .'._,_... ~__

Among them the persistence of ~.~-~-_.~-'~''''''''~'''----------

a rich shamanic tradition, .-"--,._--. __
probably ."'-

originated through the contact, often extremely violent (San Roman

~
1975: 142-149; Whitten 1981: 140-141; Taussig 1984) between whLte or
mestizo rubber collectors and Indian groups during the last decades
of the 19th century and the beginning of this century.
Distinctive elements of Amazonian native sWamanism still
persist among people who consider themselves Peruvian, and who
accordingly do not identify themselves with any particul~r tribal
group. P~actitioners locally know as vegetalistas, or simply maestros,
sti 11 cure and perform other shamanic tasks through the u·se,of. tobacco-<
and psychotropic plants~ through. magic chants or melodies 'called
'"
icaros, with which they communicate with the spiritual worl~~ ~~d
)4With the help of a ~~~"ic :..ubstance, variously know as flema(phlegm),
mariri, yausa or yachay. ~achay, a Quechua term, is also found
7\,,"

among Lamista shamans, who used it both to refer to the magic

substance, and to a "ritual knowledge giving rise to spiritual power"
(Scazzoc~hio 1979: 178-183). As in many intances of Amazonian
shamanism, shamans acquire their powers from spirits of plants and
~=~~.""!:'"'::"--""""'''''''~-'"._":-:',:.:::-~~.-'~---~~-'''''''---~'~----'' ----"---~'._'~---..
~~ima~s through periods of isolation, food restrictions and tfi--e"-""
ingestion of psychotropic plants. Native ideas of the supernatural
~ cause of illness are still ubiquitous in the mestizo population,
coexisting with modern Western concepts (see Dobkin de Rios
19 72: 8 3-88; "Reg a n 19 8 3: 2: 3 1- 34) •

1 An earlier version of this paper was presented at a Conference on

Shamanism at the Santa Sabina Center, San Rafael, California, on
May 11-13, 1984.
 Among the psychotropic plants used along with tobacco,
~special1y important ~re th~se that are used in the preparation of
ayahuasca, a narcotic beverage know under such names as ~, natem,
caapi, Santo Daime, etc. which is used by large sections of the
populations of the Amazonas and Orinoco basins (Friedberg 1965;~~it
Uscategui 1959; Schultes 1982). In l' ~h..e<"~tea .....
"'-
where I have carried out
most of my fieldwork, the city of\!quitos',and its vicinity, it is
• ~ ••.•,~.,' ~,."'''~", ••."~<.

prepared by cooking the stem of Banisteriopsis caapi (Spruce ex

Griseb.) Morton (Ma1phigiaceae) , a jungle vine, and the leaves of
Psychotria viridis Ruiz & Pavon (Rubiaceae). Only one of my
informants use~Dip10pterys cabrerana (Cuatrecasas) Gates (Malpighiaceae)
instead of P. viridis. This plant was brought to Iquitos by his wife,
who purchased it from Huambiza Indians in Rio Santiago, near the
Ecuadorian border. Other species of Banisteriopsis have also been
reported (Schultes 1982, 1957), and also a large number of additives
(Pinkley & Lindgren 1972; Luna 1984b). These plants belong to a series
)( of species called doctores by local practitioners, because if ingested
under certain conditions, they are believed .to be able to "teach" the
shamans (Luna 1984a; 1984b). During the initiation period, which may
last from some montbs up to several years, these plants are ingested
periodic~lly and successively, while a very strict diet and sexual
continence are observed." The informants I worked with affirm that
the spirits or'"mothers'" of the plants
-== - - - - .. . - ••__ .•••.•• I;, - ••• 0.- •..
_'"', •.•.. ,. (Kuczinski 1947: XXVIII;
Chevalier 1982:346; Chaumeil 1982, 1983:74-89, etc.) present
themselv~s to the initiated, either during the visions they elicit,
or during dreams, and teach them how to diagnose and cure certain
illnesses, how to dominate evil spirits who live in the earth, in
th~ water o~~in the air, how to travel through time and space, and
how to perform a ser-ie's of shamanic tasks.~.!.~-.--p..~~.~r.:~ __~rg_iH:JU!Lr.:_~.~._
mainly
_______ .,__ through
,.--- ., ~,~.."."--~-- the ,_,.,mem~r.~~tion
.__ ".".~._' _~f--m~ic--w.n- melodies
,· or songs,
-... __ ,_.~'_._ ..N_.~~ called
icaros. The number and quality of their lcaros is the best gauge of
the knowledge and power of a shaman. All my informants claim to know
dozens of them .. r taped almost a1l the icaros (totalling about 70) of
Don Emilio Andr.de Gbmez, a p~ac~itioner who lives 12 kilometers from
the city of Iquitos, and also a number of the icaros of other
vegeta1istas, which is the te~m by which they call themselves.
 This paper is a preliminary attempt to make a survey of the
most important functions of my informants icaros,' and a presentation
of some of the ideas that are intimately linked to the learning and
use of these magic melodies.A lot more fieldwork should be carried
out in order to clarify this interesting and little studied aspect
of mestizo shamanism.
To my knowledge only two papers have been writen on the
magic melodies of the vegetalistas of the Amazonian provinces of Peru.
They both analyse only the icaros taped during one ayahuasca
session (Katz & Dobkin de Rios 1971: Stocks 1979)2. Until now no
attempt has been made to make a systemattt survey of the whole
repertoire of a mestizo shaman.A. Padilla (1984), wrote a paper on
the melody. harmony rhythm and expressive features of seve~ of Don
Emilio's icaros, based on the material I gathered during my first
period of fieldwork. It is to be hoped that ethno-musico10gists will
carry out new studies in this interesting area.

lCARoS AND PLANT TEACHERS

Th~ word icaro seems to be a castilianism derived from the

Quichua -verb ikaray, which means lito blow smoke" in order to heal
----~.~ ~""~;':":'::::'">--<'.

(Park et al~ 19?6:45). This term seems to be used in various parts

of the Peruvian Amazonas, both among the mestizo as among Indians of
the Ucaya1i (cf. Karsten 1964:204-205). When I questioned a Shipibo
shaman living in Yarinacocha about the origin of this term, he
confirmed the Quechua origin of the word: the Shipibo terms for the
magic melodies are taquina, masha and cusho (to work through
b10wing)3. The vegeta1istas of Iquitos and other areas of the Peruvian
Amazonas use also the verb icarar, which means to sing or whistle an

2 I learned recently th~t Rosa A1arco pu~lished tn 1965 a brief article

"Ana1i'sis musical de 1as canciones 'de1 ayahuasca usadas por 10s brujos
de 1a tribu de 10s orejones del rio Napo y por 10s curanderos de
Iquitos. rnfo~me. ". This article is to be found in Chiappe et a1.
(1985:135-136' .
3 Angelika Ge~hart-Sayer in a recent article distinguishes six classes
of songs used in -therapy among -the Shipibo-Conibo. Icaro songs serves
for diagnosis~ huehua .songs feature the content of the visions and the
actual treatment; masha songs enhance the ~atient's shina(mind,
awareness); s~irohuehua(fun songs) animate the patient, induce joy and
hope, manchar: (som~times thought identical with masha) is sung to lead
an abducted s~ul back to its owner; muchay songs used to be sung
during eclipses of the moon (Gebhart-Sayer 1986)
 icaro on a person. object or preparation to give them power 4 The
icaros are used ritually, but not only in ayahuasca sessions, as has
been stated (Katz & Dobkin de Rios 1971:325; Dobkin de Rios 1972:131).
~ They are used also during the preparation of certain remedies, during
~'hea1ing sessions which take place independently of ayahuasca
ceremonies, and even during activities such as the fishing of certain
species. Upon special request my informants were even willing to
perform numerous icaros in interview situations, thus enabling me to
record them. The comparison of several versions of the same icaro
,\taped under such circumstances and during a ritual should be of
\/interest to ethnomusico1ogists. Most of Don Emilio's repertoire was
in fact taped during in~erviews, not in the actual context in which
they are used.
All my informants claim that they learned their icaros by
ingesting plant-teachers or doctores and keeping a diet, which
consists mainly of smoked fish and plantains without any salt, sugar,
or any other spices (Cf. Tessman 1930: 116, 229; Karsten 1964: 202;
Dobkin de Rios 1972:70; ~heva1ier 1982:346; Luna 1984b:145 etc.).
Sexual abstinence, isolation in the case of men, total separation
from women in their fertile age, and certain requirements of
ritualistic character are also necessary.
~ Each plant has its icaros, so that the repertoire of the
,I~ shaman apprentice expands as he keeps adding other plants to the basic
ayahuasca preparation (Banisteriopsis caapi + Psychotria viridis),

4 In Cesar C~lvo's novel 'on Manuel C~rdoba Rios and other shamans of
the Peruvian Amazonas~ the following definition of icarar is given:
"Icarar es devo1ver1e alas cosas 10s poderes
que no 1es vinieron de natural en esta su vida.
Icarar es magnettzar1as con fuerzas que 1as cosas
no aprendieron, no saben ••• "(Calvo 1981:104)
Rafael Karsten, in the section of his book on the religion of South
American Indians dedicate to the Shipibo of the Ucaya1i, writes:
Icaro is also the name of a especial formula of

--?
/
incantation
taken the narcotic fS~\.
which th e ..<;1 em 0 n teaches those who have
for every animal or ~
There is a special icaro
correctly speaking, every
animal demon conjured." (Karsten 1964:205)
 or when he ingests other plant-teachers that are taken by themselves.
The acquisition of magic chants or melodies and the memorization of
myths during shamanic initiation seems to be a widely reported
phenomenon (cf. Halifax 1979:29-33). The association of the learning
l!p" magic chants or melodies with the absorption of psychotropic plants
/~
is quite common (see Dobkin de Rios 1976:69-70). It is found among
the H uich 0 1 (J u anN e g r l'n, per son 'a1 com m un i cat ion; Mye rho ff 19 74 :9 7 ,
1975:425; La Barre 1970:49-52), who ingest peyotl (Lophophora
wi11iamsii) and other psychotropic plants; among the Mazatec (Wasson,
Cowan & Rhodes 1974~; Estrada 1977:82), who take mushrooms of the genus
Psi1ocybe; among mestizo practitioners using San Pedro ( Trichocereus
Eachanoi) (Sharon 1978; Gonzalez Viana 1979); among the Yanomama of
southern Venezuela and northern Brazil, who use epena (Viro1a theidora)
(Schultes & Hofmann 1980: 122-3; Donner 1984:171-4, 187); (Viro1a
ca11ophy11oidea)-(Seitz 1979), and among numerous tribes using tobacco
and Banisteriopsis (see Goldman 1963:210-11; Elick 1969:206-7, cited
by Wilbert 1979:21; Reiche1-Do1matoff 1972: 104; Kensinger 1973: 11;
Siskind 1973:24; etc.).
It is also found among the mestizo popu1a~ion. Dobkin de Rios
(1972:120), for instance, reports' that patients under the effect of
ayahuasca see a very large snake enter.ing the circle where they are
sitting. If they are not frightened, the snake begins to tea_~b.th,.e
______ i~""'9.,·'"'*'r."""O~ •.".-.<.',-'''_ ••···,~., ••'"·· •. ,··_,''··-",,','---'

person
____ -----._------
his song. r have found the idea that certain plants .".,_.«.'< ••• _.,."
teach
..
_~a.,.2.!.E_ ,--c" .

melodies intimately linked with the use of ayahuasca among Indian and
-Me-s't-i~:o-'popu1atio'ns of Caqueta. in Colombia, and in the provinces of
Loretc, Ucayali and Madre de Dios in Peru. In the state of Acre, in
Brazil, there are communities who ingest the preparation Banisteriopsis
caapi + Psychotria viridis under the name Santo Daime. All these
commur.ities possess himnarios, collections of songs inspired by Santo
Daime to certain privileged members~ Some of these communities
have nemorized up to 3000 hymns (see Monteiro da Silva 1983).
Pe rhars, as Ro u get (19 8e :187) po inted 0 ut, ch ama n~.!:-Eli._!!!u~
II ..
i9.uer
sont deux aspects d'une seu1e et meme activite:' It would be very
-in te r;~'ting .i ;;d-;-;Ci''tO- frna'out'wheiherCt"h""~";;";~ci a ti 0 n 0 f ma g i c ch ants
or me~odies,' shamanism in general, and the use of psychotropic
p 1a n t~ in par tic u 1 a r , is 0 r is not con s is ten t .

Don Emilio, my main informant, told me how during his initiation

to ayahuasca an old man appeared both in'the visions. produced
by t~e beverage and in his dreams in order to teach¢Vhim
 icaros. When he took other plants he learned more icaros. On occasions,
'he dreamed of being taught an icaro during his dreams,which he brought
back and memori2ed perfectly during ayahuasca visions. I have heard
similar descriptions from other informants. It should be observe~~
however,that learning icaros is not synonymous with being a shaman.
I have met several persons who have learned a few icaros from
ayahuasca, but ~ho do not consider themselves qualified for curing or
performing other shamanic tasks.
There is a clear association between the qualities or properties
of certain plants and the icaros they inspire~ .Some examples, may be
i 1 ~:ustrative.

Icaro de la Bobinzana

Bobinzana is a beautiful tree(Swartzia arborecens (Aubl.)

Pittier (Leguminosae) (Soukup 1970:332) which is considered a plant-
teacher by the vegetalistas of Loreto. According to Don Emilio the
smell oft.h ..
___ '" ••
~ __
owers of this tree has healing properties.
, .• ,~. , ••.. n. • _ .. ,." ..
Birds,
.. ,.. .., ••• " ••••• " •• ,_., •••• '_ •••••••• ". .~"_"."~ •. ,.,.,._ •••• ~,,..."',, •• ""~ .• ~_ ••..• _" _.,' .. Co' •• ' •• ". ,~, •.••...•• _ ,_, _." .. _"""~., ••. ~ •..•• ' .. ,.

monkeys and insects use it as "their medicine", and it has the virtue
to c1arify" the mind of human beings. !he spirit _~.f....
I . !.~.t~_.!!ee.is a
'iJ !:!':ince,.who presents himself dressed in beautiful garments and a
sword. The_. tree is his palace,
._ _
and this is the reason why it always
-,,_.- ... .- •...... __ .. .. "."

has flowers. Emilio says that the icaro of this tree is used both
for healing and as a melody to win the love of a woman.

Icaro de La Catahua

Catahua Chura crepitans L.) (Euphorbiaceae) is considered

to be a very st"ong and even dangerous plant-teacher. It is possible
to "learn" from this tree if a few milliliters of its latex are
consumed, after a good vegetalista has cooked it carefully, and has
sung a powerful icaro during the preparation. A strict diet of
several months ~s required, other wise the tree"can kill the person".
Don Emilio exp12ined to me that a mixture of the latex of this tree,
together with patiquina (Dieffenbachi! sp.}, a genus containing very
toxic constituerts (Arditti & Rodriguez 1982) and pucunucho
( unidentified) is used to destroy lakes .where there are yacuruna or
_ 11('''' emu.,,; .:::•••••••
_ ...,.,.~"""';._.,,<,_ ..••~.••.•.,...•••

evil inhabitant$ of the water (see Valdizan & Madonado 1922:11; .....
,
~-Karst;~i964:19:-; Dobkin cre-Rios 1972:80); often identified with
hl..ge 'anaco·ndas.·fresh water do1phins~ and mermaids (Regan 1983:
---.---...-._,..." ~ ~~.".,,, •.... ,,-~,.,,-.

176-185). --
 As a matter of fact this plant contains strong piscicidal
(Sakata & Kawasu 1971) and other biodynamic compounds(Evans & Soper
1978;Pere, Pere & Rouge 1981).According to Don Emilio the icaro de la
catahua is whistled before one enters dangerous lakes. If this is not
done, diabolic spirits can produce heavy winds and r~in~ and the person
runs the risk of being devoured by an anaconda.
Icaro del Doctor Oje

Oje (Ficus anthe1mintica Mart.; F. insi2ida Wi1ld.; I.

glabrata HBK) (Moraceae) is a large tree, whose latex is widely used
in the Peruvian Amazonas as antihe1mintic. Scientific study of its
properties as medicinal plant is in progress (Hansson 1984). Species
---..--.~
of this genus are ri~hin biodynamic
··'~_~'~X"'~~.""""
coumpounds (Eid1er, Genkina & '-"''''''''~''''_~'''''''.''''''''.'·", •..·_",·,.,,..,.~._'~'-""_.,.'

Shakirov 1975; E1gama1~ El-Tawil & Fayez 1975; Venkatacha1am &

Mulchandani 1982). Don Emilio considers Oje a powerful plant-teacher.

---~
The spirit ,r,rG" this tree is supposed to be a big.
man, _ •.-wearing
.•......
a
,,,.,

hat and a
-.........•.._-- _" .. -.
-'

who calls him how to cure certain illnesses.

walking
..•. •. •..
stick,
_.---_.-,.~._ -..
who,
instructs
The icaro
fat.~_,~.~9.gJll_~.Xl.ht:te
-~~~.--,.,
...•.~,_.
the shaman
''''''''-

of this tree
--'_""~--~' ~-"""

;4 is a powerful defense against evil shamans. By whistling this melody,

a dense fog will be created around the witch, rendering him incapable
of seeing where he is and causing any harm. Dom Emilio's repertoire
include~ the icaros of several other plant-teachers such as the icaro
del Clavohuasca (Tynnanthus panurensis (bur.) Sandwith) (Bignoniaceae),
i caro de la rayabalsa (Montrichardia arborecens Schott) (Araceae),
icaro del ayahuman (Couroupita guianensis Aubl.) (Lecythidaceae},etc.
Don Emilio explained to·-me that it is also possible dietar m;;o
(a term ••••. _ •••_ ••.•..••
__ -.- •. "._ •..••_~ ..._ .. _._ ..,_ .._ ..~~, """'''_''"_ .•".,<,~,.,~.~',,•• ~ •._

.that means to ingest, keep the diet and learn from).-e,er,f.u.JE~ certain
~minerals
~-"
like ~edernal (flintstone)~
..••.•
~.,~..
and even metals such as steel, so ...:;:-- . ._ .. __ . ~'__ "'''''-_'-'''''~''-''''_'~'''A

that one will be able to learn their icaros. By adding some drops of
_ •••••••• _.".~, .. " •••• ""' •••• o> .••.•• _'''_~~.~ .••• ,_". __ . .'. ':te!'...... _

a perfume to the ayahuasca beverage during its preparation it is

possible to learn 'huarmi icaros·for attracting women. By putting a
piece of flintstone or of steel is glass of water for several days,
drinking the water and keeping the diet, it is possible to assimilate
certain qualities of these objects. The icaro del pederna1 is used
by witches to cause destruction by fire.
The icaro del acero (icaro of the steel) makes the body
strong enough to resist rains and heavy winds. In Yarinacocha, near
Pucallpa, by the Ucaya1i river, Don Guillermo Arevalo, a Shipibo, son
of Don Benito; a well known shaman in the area, a practitioner himself
 and seriously engaged in the study of the medicinal flora of his ethnic
group, told me that he believes that it is also possible to learn from
;xl gasoline and cet'tain acids, not by ingestion, but~2.nha1i"!]'.9....J:<~,~~_.
and
keeping the prescribed diet.
-"",.~•..

The spirits of the plant-teachers,

_.".'_ .•. _,_._"-.,,_.>.-, ..•,',. __ .,,.,".,...
> •. , .•• _._ .•••.•• .- ••.••••••••••••
in their turn, teach. the
,--' ••• ,.,~"" ••.. - ..• - ~~'."." .. _-., ••. "~._ •• , •• ,.'>..
- ._,.~--- ,••>"..,.
••••. .•..•••••. "~.~- •• ,.",.» •._ ••.,.....",., .••.. ,,.."" ..- ..,,,., ~~---

shaman apprentice during his initiation other icaros by which some

qua 1i tie s 0 f ce " t a i n ani mal s c~ n b e i n cor p~r<;ite"(r:"~'"'H;;~'- ~;;._.~-~;;-"---_._
..,,-
eXample s: .. -.....
-.-....------.- ....
-.-~-_."'''"
...-.--.-"
...,..""<'-"""-

Icaro del Pelejo

The pel~jo (sloth) (Bradypus tridacty1us) is, according to

Don Emilio, a ve~y clean and strong animal. It is not disturbed by
rain or heavy wi '.ds. It never eats meat or fruit, only the shoots of
certain trees. r'e icaro of this animal is used for curing children
with digestive ~isturbances, or affected by illnesses "produced by the
water."(see appe.rdix).

Icaro de La Pinsbe

The pin!Jle (toucan), according to Don Emilio, is a bird that

sings in"the eve.ring. to attract females. Its song is sad and
beautiful. By si1ging the icaro of this bi rd, one can make a woman cry ~-""-~"'"'

)J ~,.",
a n.~_..~.!_r:'_~..~ r 10 YE·.

Icaro del Flaute.~-Pinsbe

The flc~tero-pinshe is another bird (unidentified) whose

icaro is used as a defense against the Yashingo, Chullachaqui, or
Shapshico: a Myt4u10gica1 being which, although having some of the
characteristics 0f a "master of game animals", is generally
considered evil ~~cause of the madness that an encounter with it may
cause (Valdizan . Maldonado 1922:11-12; Kuczynski 1947: XXII).

Icaro Del NinacOY~

Accordir'9 to Don Emilio, the ninacuru is an insect w.hose

eyes look. the the headlights of a car. By singing this icaro one
is able to lo~k r)r a person that has been stolen by the yakuruna
(people from thE \,tater). The shaman, projectins.,.Jj.9.b.J......Q.!Jt of his eyes,
.-.."!f".--"'''-''-''--'''--'''''''''''' --""",,,~,,,,,

wi 11 become 11 Kc one of these insects and wi 11 more easi 1y find'fne

per son i nth e u r' : rw ate r w 0 r 1 d •
 Invocations to other animals are frequent. as I could
establish through conversations with other practitioners. Animals such
as the eagle, the condor, the eel and the jaguar, are called
upon for healing, as protection, or even, in the case of evil shamans,
to cause harm.
All my informants claim to be good hunters and are
___
extremely good at imitating anLJM,_~_. Don Emilio says that he
-"-""'~_.- .•• , ..•• ." •..• ··h ..•.•· ,', .... ' ".-",' "'.'-.-,,- "'''_''''''"''~''~':''''''':'~'',"",''''''''''''__ __----~-~ •• , •• ~ ...,-~ .•

_.,"understands"
.,'~
..,.~..,~-,
the ... 1an ua e of certain animals.
..,., ... '~--'-"'" .•. ,

the period in which the novice is keeping the diet, one of the tasks
.
It seems that during ,.-

,~"' ..... -'

he has is to watch carefully the animals and plants of the jungle, in

order to learn from them. According to Calvo (1981:232) and Lamb
(1985:247), Don Manuel Co;.doba'R(os is able to bring ul?Q!l_E-eo.p1e,when
taking ayahuasca, the vision of birds and animals by imitating them . •••••• --_ •••••. --.., ••••••• ,-, ••• _ •• " •• _.-_." •. "'." •• ,~.~,..,- •. ,~" .•• '< .. ,',' ~-"' •••• ~. __ .".- •••. _.,~

The person is ~hen able to study their behavior. Through the icaros
the shaman is able to "become one" with the animal; and see the world
accordingly. This idea is admirably expressed in Lamb(1985:24), a
narration based on int~rviews with C6rdoba Rlos, a vegetalista from
Iquitos. It seems that in certain cases ----an animal can ....become
•..._:_ ... -,~ - the
~ .. -

.--
teacher of a novice during his initiation.
••••"'.•__ .,•••"'.'""_~~~.w.,
__'~·_
On one occasion
••.••.__ ,._'•• ~~.__ ...__ .••__
I asked ' ,. ;,••.

a young man who had been keeping the diet who his teacher was. "A
hawk': he said. Another one, a very well educated man of about 36,
told me how years ago he kept the diet during several months. During
this time his mentor told him to observe the animals and plants very
carefully. When about taking ayahuasca, the older vegetalista asked
him which, of all the animals he had been observing, had impressed
him more. "The isula (a large ant)", he said. During his visions he
felt he became very ltttle. An ant appeared in his visions,
communicated
,,---- with. ~irn_in a--- - tridimensional
- "1... "',..- "" ..,." .." language,
__"' " .. _..,_ __ . and invited him
to visit the place where it l~ved. He did so, remained with this
ant during several days, and was aole to to learn all about its
hahi ts.
It seems to me that the central idea is that certain qualitie~ I
or- properties
. .
of plants, animals, minerals or metals can be incorporatt~ I
~ either by the ingestion of some part of this object, or by other means i
u nk nown to me . _,,~car~, wh i ch is th e resu 1t00 th is abs.~E.!?.::~
..
o n, .is .2.~_:"..
like the qUi~tessence~ithe corresponding obj~£t, and can be use~
.- -
by the shaman or healing, to cause harm, to protect himself against
evil shamans or spirits, etc.
 FUNCTION OF THE ICAROS

When a vegetalista is keeping the diet, he is in a situation

in which he may learn not only how to perform acts which may be
considered positive or morally neutral, but he may also learn hechi ceria
(withcraft), how to cause harm. My informants claim that the spirits
or "mothers"
""",,--., .
., ,.',
of the plants offer first the abilitY.,tQ cause harm .. " ,

through gi fts!.!'.th~form.of
_....
thorns, bones, insects or razors. If I

the shaman apprentice accepts them, he will then become a brujo or

lat~.r:-the ..~J~.1
evi 1 shaman. -",,---'.--, ..rt~.~.:\'IJ11 teach him how to cure and other
shamanistic activities. Don Emilio told me that he never learned
witchcraft. In fact, only one of my informants acknowledge knowing
how to cause harm, and I did not dare to question him about how he
~does it. However, all of them affirm that their powers are embobied
in their icaros. Don Alejandro, another of my informants put it in
these
'. words: MA man is like a tree. Under the appropriate conditions
.{.he grows branches. These branches are the icaros:
The material collected so far' does not allow great
generarizati6ns - nor closed classifications. However there are
certain icaro$ that seem to have specific functions:

Icaros for calling the spirit of a person, plant or animal

ImplIcit in the cosmovision of my informants, as it is also

the case amon; most if not all South American Indian tribes (cf.Karsten
1964:26 sp.) is the belief that plants, animals, human beings, rivers,
lakes, mountalns and perhaps also other inanimate objects, have a
s pi ri t. !.l_.~g-i.!!lL.tlt~:t.t.h~.\'I:~Y:
..J)fcQl11lJ!lJni
ca t ion P.~r exce 11 en ce
be tw ee n th.~,.s.~lI1C!I1,
<: ..
....
~rl..
.-
~ ,_ the, ~ pi ri ts is th ro ugh mag i c ch ants 0 r me 10 die s .
,._.'C, .., ".,.,.,- .. , - .....•. '.<,.'.- <>' " -' '"·,;- •••••. , _.'n~.'.~·_.-•.••~,..,.,.~· .. _.••..·".,·,
__.• __~_,."........... _.

The spirits often present themselves to the shaman singing or w~ist1ing

a particular icaro. When the shaman learn these icaros, he can use
them to call ~pon th~ spirits~ when in need of them. So, by singing or ~·_~,~.t __ -_ ,_ •• ~~._ •.• ~•.•••. "_,_,, •.•_

whistling th.,e
...
icaro of-.-!!!..~_p. ..
~._~-teachers, the shaman invites the
---~--"'-'-"'~"""-
-' .. '-"'-. ,..••.......• - ------- - _,..-~..
•...... ..,"".-.~..,--"',.,' .-,,.-".,.,
. -.,,, '""

l£j"rj~~~.~.!2~_er~~en_t_._~_h
ems e 1 v~,~. A 1so the g u~~~"i.,~~spTri ts "fhatall my
informants clJim to possess, and which may be anthropomorphic or
zoomorphic, 3re called through icaros.
~ By CJlling through an icaro the spirit of two persons, a man
/ and a woman, :hey can be attached emotionally. Don Emilio told me
how quite oft=n a man in love with a woman who does not return his
love goes to iisit him to ask for his help. In an ayahuasca session
 Don Emilio whistles the icaro de la piedra, by which he can call the
)f spirits of the man and the woman. A" black stone rotating very rapidly
on an axis also made of stone then appears. He will the~attach the
spirits of both the man and the woman to the stone so that the woman
wi 1 1 fee 1 dizzy, and af raid, and wi 11 em bra ce the man who s tan ds
at her side. The icaro will unite them for ever*
Through the icaro de la aranita, Don Emilio says, a similar
effect can be accomplished. By whistling this icaro a little spider
appears that will ~E,,~_!'.,".i.t~"~~p
around the spirit of the man and
the woman, ~JD-9-t.belJl..fQJ: __~t~r.~t!.l-"
__These sessions always take
place during the night. The woman, who at th~ ~me is supposed to be
sleeping in her home, dreams of the man. Wh~makes up she feels sad
and thinks of the man. She ends up by trying to get in touch wi th
him.
Don Alejandro, a vegetalista who lives in the city for Iquitos,
explained to me that there are witches who are able to cause harm with
the help of the spirit of the" pink fresh water
dolphin. lh:.
~lp~;in~ i"n the mythology of the area, is supposed to be
an intelfigent and~.v.il being, able to transform itself into a person,
in order to steal~ partner to its underwater world (cf. Camara Cascudo
1983:139; Reategu(1l983:40-43 etc.). By removing the penis of a dolphin
it is possible to call its spirit during a special session, and attach
it to the spirit of a woman, with the purpose of causing her harm.
)4She will then have an insatiable sexual appetite, and will have
" sexual intercourse with any man. Only through an appropriate icaro it
is possible to neutralize the effect of the icar2 used by the witch to
call the spirit of the dolphin (cf. Karsten 1964:197-198; see also
Dobkin de Rio 1972:81, for a similar report).

Icaros to modidy the effect of ayahuasca and other plant-teachers

By using icaros my informants claim to be able to modify the

..,.--- .------
hall UCif1_~_~.t~ns;:,roduced by ayahuasca and other psychotropi c pl ants.
Th;;;-a re i ~~;~~-'-for-'-i;Cre-as-ing or d imi n ish ing th e in te ns ty of th e
visions produced by the plants, for changing the ~l~rs perceived, for
d ire c tin g the e:-;
0J~~l" co.~ten t 0 f the h all uci na t ion s, e tc. Du r i ng
the ceremony th~ first icaros which are sung or whistled are usually---
for calling the hall~cinations (see appendix). When several persons
that k~ow icaros are present at a ceremony,they all often sing their
 icaros at the same time. I have not yet heard two persons to sing
exactly the same icaro. The effect is highly sugestive, and indeed
it contributes to enhance the emotional state of the participants,
and may even alterate or intensify the content of their visions.

achieved
I would like to point out
without the consumption
~-~
of
that a trance state can be
psychotropic
""---".
plants alone by
•..",~_._~----,-
~;~"."",--

singing or whistling ...,.•~_.

--~--._-..,-,,~
...•..............•.. _.
certain
. icaros.
/ ~.
During summer 1982 I spent one
month in the home of Don Jose Coral, who at that time was treating
two very sick ladies. He took ayahuasca aproximately one5a week,
but conducted healing sessions three or four times a week. In those
occasions he entered in a trance state merely by singing .and smoRing
one or two ciga~ettes of mapacho (a local variety of tobacco
normally employed by shamans). The trance state cannot be atributed
to tobacco, as he did not inhale large quantities. I would rather
say that was auto-induced throught concentration and the
whistling of magic melodies. He engaged thereafter in long
cODersations with the spirits in a language he told me was Cocama.
These observations are in accord with those of Olsen (1975) among
Warao Indians, and certainly reinforce his hypothesis that altered
states of consciousness may be also reached throught music alone.

Icaros arkana

Once the vegetalist~ has enter~d· into that other reality, he

needs defenses. Through the 'caros arkana the vegetalista protects
himself against attacks by witches or evil spirits of the air, water
or earth. When a vegetalista is healing, or when he enters the other
dimensions throught the ingestion of psychotropic plants, he is
particularly vulnerable and exposed to the attack of the agents who
 caused the i11ness5• If the vegeta1ista does not possess stronger
icaros than those of the witch who caused the illness, he runs the risk
of being killed by him. One of the ways a witch attacks a rival
shaman is by darkening his visions through an icaro. But there are
~ , "." '" -~'''',,,,,,,,,,"" """"'" ",,,,"" .. ,"', "" ""'" .",,' , ,,"" ,'".,

also icaros 0 counteract this effect and to recover the clarity of

the visions produced by ayahuasca or other plant teachers.
Arkana seems to be an abstract concept meaning protection.It
includes guardian spirits, some of which are ingested symbolically
~ during ayahuasca ceremonies (see Luna 1984b:143-4), magic melodies,
/~ and also an invisible "shirt" which covers the body of the shaman to
.,.--. ---" -~ ......•

protect him from magic darts. The idea of a magic garment is also
/r",'·-···'·-'"~'''''''''

: 0 u n~ inee r ta i n t r ;b e s, for ex am p 1e am 0 ng C.~a.,r.O (H a r ne r 19 73 :24) and

(Yagu~(Chaumeil 1983:125,230) s,hamans, where it is made out of the

magic darts the shamans keep in' their bodies. As Metraux clearly
pointed Qut in his discussion on Amazonian shamanism (1967:91), the
shaman's magic substance that shamans keep in their bodies, the
pathogenic darts which they use to cause harm, and the guardian
spirits, are three different aspects of the same magic power. Perhaps
the magic melodies are also another ~.~~,!~estat;on of the same power.

lcaros fo~ Healing

Some examples bave already been described above. According to

Don Alejandro, icaros are especially effective for curing illnesses
caused by witchcraft or due to the action of evil spirits. But there
are also icaros to cure otbe'r illnesses, for example snake .. bites. I .....,.~,--,.,'''''.~..,." ... _."''_

want to stress the following point: _.....-."..

It is believed ......-..-o-< _ "'~•...""'"' ' ' ' ' .'.,- that it is _._-<'_
the_,_~"' , ··,'".'·_h_ ..·• _"'.," .. _ .•...• _.~ __ ~, ., ••• _ •••

~
~elody itself which has curative powers. One example may illustrate
•• "", •.•. _,,,,,,_ .•. ;.~ ..,,,,.• ~J""""" ..• -'''''''''~'''''''--~''"""",~,,,,<.> .••~.,.••.••,,,~,..-- •••.•
,,- •••••.•,",,,,,,,, ,.,., ..~,-'.".J.,."""."'"
" .... ' '.,',. ,...."'..•.--....

this idea. During my last period of fieldwork, in August 1984, I met

Don Manuel Ahuanari, an eighty-year-old man who lives with his second

5 I n Ces arC a 1 v 0 's no vel 0 n Man u a 1 Cdr d 0 baR;' 0 san d 0 th e r II b ru j 0 S II

of the Amazonas, there is the following paragraph:

"When one takes ayahuasca, dne becomes like a
crysta1,'"said Ino Moxo. ".Q"~,~.J~g(:g.mgs.Jj~g"~"
y cry~taJ exposed to all sRnits that live in the
...,air, e v i ~ and g Q?a ci n e s. n::-l.S.....~f.Q.!'__!.vi~
..,r:.~,~,~,Q,D
~~ have lcaros; lcaros to protect oneself,
icaros to heal, songs that call a certain spirit
to counteract others "(Calvo 1981:208)
(My translation).
 wife near the city of Iquitos. He was a vegetalista" but did not
practice anymore, since he had become seriously ill. I met him in an
ayahuasca session at the home of Don Jose Coral, one of my informants.
He told me that when he was 12 ears old he was bitten by a jergon ""~ • "-,,, .•. ,., .. "" •. , .• _ •.• " "'~,~,., .'_'J._".,,_,~~...•• ~~'.'~"'<~'-- _"_ ..c'" '~"'C'_"'~'~""'_"_.""'~_'_'"~ __ -"'""'''''''_~'"_<'" _,,_
.. .,,_' ,-''''. ~"'"

(Bothrops atrox~_~n_~'~.!'~~M~'~~~~"'~ When he was near death, a young

man happened to visit the plantation on which he lived with his
family. The young man heard about this case, and said that he was
going to try anicaro he hadJg.grng~".,!l9.~inst snake bites. By singing
-"" ," ',-,'.. ' .. - .. " ••••--.-'"'~ •. '"'•• " ''"-, ·,......._,_"'~_·"'_,...,._..,._~ •••,..••..'J>-.-..;~·,_.~,..,_".",,.. J:,.k~_~'-' .•

and blowing smoke over Don Manuel he managed to cure him. Don Manual
learned this icaro during the healing process, and said he had cured
many cases of snake bites during his long life with the help of this
mag ic me 10 dy •
Don Emilio told me once a significative sentence. He said,
"lf
.•.•. yo,!h ...
" .
.fX.~~
~Ve..J,~3!.r.~,~.<!
..
"..

also used in the extraction

_.. ayahuman ."....... (one of \ the plant-teachers
of the virote, a magic dart thrown by
-.-
evil shamans), you do not!1l:!edt:Q 9.Q ...o.u;t.,.,t~ ..t:he fore~t to bring its
bark, because you-aT~'~'~d~
"'"".~'."" .'_",,_._.,.
know its icaro". This showS' that at least
<'._~••--. ••.•.•~..,",_ ",_~.~~....•".,., .._.; ~'••.•...
,~•.,~.'.•..." ..~-'.,.".".•.,.••~.'."' .•'.". ~ " ".,~;-,-"._,-.;'.,.-.
"",' ,',.;,., ,.' '--.• '- ' .'n".'. __.·."' __'. "','" • i ~

in certain cases, the ~ery essence of the tree is thought of being

)d :::=s ' e t

in the magic melody, and therefore can be used instead of the tree
itself. In other cases, the icaros ---
are used to reinforce the effect
of medicinal plants. All the shamans I have been working with always
sing or whistle an icaro during the preparation or application of
medicinal ~lants.
r~ the healing
sessions in which I participated in the area
of Iquitos~ the vegetalistas usually combined several elements:
icaros, tobacco blowing, sucking the afflicted parts and the use of
plants, both for bealing and for returning the illness to the person
who caused it. In yarinacoch~, however, I participated in an
ayahuasca session conducted by Don Benito Arevalo, a Shipibo shaman,
and his 501 Guillermo. They were treating a young ~n's-~ff~-~'i"ng from
malaria. During the whole session they never physically
approached their patient, who was lying under his mosquito net. At a
distance 0: two meters they sang their icaros ~
in his direction. They ~,-",~,"- ,. . .._. - , ", ,. ""':;--"',

told me th3t he bad been near death a few days earlie·r, but was now
recovering. A similar practice has been reported by Siskind(1973:3l)
among the ~!:~"!l.a!l.u.~-,
who use ayahuasca only to diagnose the illness.
:t{ }{but who cu~e with magic chants.
 Huarmi means "woman" in Quechua. These are icaros for
winning the love of a woman. ...•..
One
~ of the most important .._.m_,.-_-.-~..,...,.~__
tasks ....,.,._ the
.._.,~."'.,
_ __,~
shaman has is to solve emotional conflicts ~-=in his community.
_"";'''_''''<''~''-'''C'", , __.._. •••_. __
Iquitos_
._ •.,._."".._'~,.•" ..~"""""•.•..,,,.,.,
.•••,,.,'.-~' •.•..•.
_.,- ..•".-~.-, ".~,

and its vicinity, as probably many other Amazonian settlements, ",--- is

characterized
______
by a very unstable emotional life. Couples easily break
·-·--~·_'.,,--''''''~~ ••-...·'''' ••••_ ••_~_,~.~, ,''''''''''~.oo~.,-,··.' •..,.,.f;.""O"'"'_""'''"._
.••.~~.~•..•...• •••• ''''-,'"'''''''''~· ----.

apart. Many women with large families are abandoned by their husbands,
or, conversely, men coming back from work in the jungle find,that their
wives have left their homes. Many of the clientes of Don Emilio and
other ~vegetalistas are men and women looking for advice or help to
recover or retain their partners. Love icaros are extremely important
in this context. Some of these icaros are sung or whistled in
association with ritual baths with sachaajos (~ansoa al1iacea (Lam) A.
Gentry), a plant. These baths, very popular in Iquitos, are believed
to bring good luck in work and love. -
In the repertoire of ~y informants there are other icaros
which are not classified. Don Emilio has for instance a beautiful
)4 icaro to wish farewell to a Rgvod person" (Icaro para despedir a un
personaje bueno). There is one icaro by which he is able to attract
a pauche (Arapaima gigas), a huge fish which is much appreciated for
its delicious taste. Throught the }caro del alcanfor (icaro of camphor)
Don emi1io is able to make a witch fall asleep, so that he can try to
convince the witch in his dre~~s to stop doing harm to people. Camphor,
~ an organic compound extracted ~romCi nnamomum camphora , is wi de 1y
used in the Peruvian Amazonas ~y shamans and curanderos. It is
normally always present both in healing sessions and in ayahuasca
ceremonies. Like tobacco, it i5 used-fpr:' b.~J..P..t~vh~"~bam.~JLiq.
~
---_._-._
regurgitate........•..the .•..•......
magic phlegm
_ ".-.".••....... .,..~ .
" "
WJich is used as an aid for substracting
•...... "

magic darts ,---_ ..«-

from t!'e body of a victim. The psychotr.Q.p...ic
P~~r.ti.es of camphor have bee] poi nted out by Lewi n (1980, 1927: 303-
-305). This is probably one of the reason of its use among the
vegetalistas of the Peruvian ~mazonas.
Don Emt1io also knows an icaro (icaro para llamar a un indio
yagua) by which be ca11s~ ~_2..~_~~_~_~.!..
Yaf-.. who presents himself_ ..
~_Taying _.
"a-.· /9J'.L._~,~ ..-!:2J~. Throuf- the icaro del Jlvaro he is able to
Ctrr'e illnesses caused en idiorr~~ that is, caused by chants or
xrecitations in native languagues. It is interesting to observe that
anthropomorphic spirits may adopt the form of Indians, foreign
entrepeneurs (the spirit of Doctor Oje above), black men (one of Don
~ Emilio's guardian spirits is a huge black Brazilian man with wings),
in other words modern inhabitants of the jungle, or also adopt the
form of angels or princesses. Chevalier (1982:352), describing the
cosmology of a highly accultured Campa shaman, reports how the
spirits communicate with each other via radio frequencies (~). All
this bears witness to the incorporation of ~_~Jements in A~an
-------------- '\

shamanism, and is probably of interest to the religious historian.

There
is a certain hierarchy among the icaros of a shaman.
~-=.~_:_~.~a ~~_?O.: ~~s ~':~~_-IU:i.llC-t~L __~"L~to ._,~_..•. w b.i .ch_,..r.~Q.r.E?~_~.[I..t.?
__!h e
essence .Q..L_b.U_g,WCier:. Don Alejandro
"";;",,",;,>,,,<,,,~,,~,."""""""'''~
says that if a vegetalista
manages to learn the main icaro of another practitioner, he will
inherit his knowledge upon his death. There is also a hierchy among
the shamans, depending on the icaros they know. Both Don Alejandro
and Don Jose Coral seem to value the fact that their icaros are
./' difficult to memorize. I caros ~iat'l ..l2-~Jl~S, in contrast with
i caros in Spani sh, ~der~.~.J!Jtfi~.LI~_.-.E.ID1U_fJJ..l- The 1 anguage
most frequently used is jungle Qufchua, a Quechua dialect, wich is
the mother tongue a several tribes of the Ecuadorian, Peruvian and
Colombian Amazonas (see Wliitten 1981:125). Don Jos{sings also in
Cocama and Omagua, and sometimes in a mixture of all three languages
~ ~~"""'''''''C'''''''''''_''''_'''.''' . -', "o\j;~

with the_._"._.>.,' ,.,purpose

_~""""-"""."~"""""""'' ' ' ....
of impressing
_4.,.~."."";""' .._
and confusing
•.••...••••
rival shamans.
-.,.,...•.•,.__ ~!!",.,...,~-... Don Manue
.•.._ •......-..,.~~_._~. ,..>".'._",. ""_'~"""'_""".'_~~"""""''''''''''''''''''''''''"''''''''''''P~~".V'''" ••..•..•.•.
,.,,~~ .• " ,..',
•.,.,..•..
_, .....,.,._,,,.. -•...~" ...,.~~ __

Ahuanari, on th~ other band, states that the icaros should be clearly
intelligible, so that everybody is aware of the animal spirits being
invoked.
What I have presented here is only a brief and incomplete
survey on the subject of th~ icaros of the vegetalistas in the
Peruvian Amazonas. Alone in the area where I have conducted my
fieldwork there are dozens of vegetalistas, each with his particular
repertoire. There are literally hundreds of chants and melodies which
should be recorded and studied before the bearers of this tradition
dissappear.
c.
Shamanism is connected to magic melodies where ever found.
One may even wonder how much music is part of the secret language
that many shamans are reported to use in their communications with
the spirit world. It may even seem as if music is the langugge of
..._'._-- •..•... -
communication with the spirits. Dr. Mihaly Hoppal (1983) recently
 reminded the specialists in shamanism of the importance of focusing
on an often neglected aspect of the shaman: the shaman as a poet and
-_._.--...,.----- ..._~--- """'-,._..-.,-- ...••. ..•

singer. Real shamans are not only mediators on behalf of their

-..,--,.--- ...-.--
communities, between this world and the spirit world. They are
often persons of great insight on many levels. In a way, the shaman
••••• _._~._ ..~ .. ~_"-"''''.''''-'''''-'.'_'--''''_''~.,_ •• : ••...•• ,--~.,~~ •.. ; ....'<.-r ..'4'.; ,,_:", •• _.-~ '''''.,' ,_."<"""""' .••."." •• ~.~.'"

is like a microcosmos which reflects the cosmology of his group, and

often he is the best source of information about his community. His
artistic _=~
oI.:..:.,.,;. •• -'-----_0._.' ..
and
.... creative faculties perhaps have not been emphasized
<>.,,._.,,,,'.,.,""'~ ..,,.~~~- •••••.•~-,·; •• """"'·"'·;;<"" .•.•;~•••A~~.".-,·.¥,:;.;,.\-.,._;_,
__
../'"" ••, "'T

enough. The work to be done is enormous and fascinating, and should

be carried out with urgency, before our old wise men are carried
away by time.

This ~ork was supported in part by Norges a1menwitenskapelige

forskinsrad (NAVF), Oslo, Norway, and by Donnerska Institutet f6r
Religionshistorisk' och Kulturhistorisk forskning, Turku, Finland. I
wish to thank: Dr. Timothy Plowman (Field Museum of Natural History,
Chicago), Dr. Gerrit Davidse (Missouri Botanical Garden), Dr. Bronwen
Gates (University of Michigan Herbarium) and colleagues for
identifjcation of plant material; Dr. Ilkka Kukkonen (Botanical Museum
of Helsinki University), for supporting the transportation and
preservation of voucher and living specimens; Prof. ~ke Hultkrantz
(Institute of Comparative Religion, Stockholm), Prof. Bo Holmstedt
(Karolinski Institut, Stockholm) and Prof. Richard Evans Schultes
(Botanical Museum of Harvard University) for their inspiration and
guidance; Mr. Alfonso Padilla (Department of Ethnomusicology, Helsinki,
University) for the transcription into musical notation of Don
Emilio's icaros.
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"--
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