FABRICATION OF THREE AXIS PNEUMATIC MODERN TRAILER

SYNOPSIS

“FABRICATION OF THREE AXIS PNEUMATIC MODERN

TRAILER” is nothing but one of the Lifting system in automobile at the
time of emergency. In this Lifting system pneumatically operated one. Here
the additional pneumatic cylinder and Control Valve is provided in the
automobile itself.
In this project, the Control Valve is used to activate/deactivate the Air
input. The Valve is ‘ON’ at the time of emergency; the compressed air goes
to the pneumatic cylinder. Then the compressed air passes through the tube,
and then pushes the pneumatic cylinder, so that the Lifting is applied at the
time of Valve in “ON” position (i.e.-Emergency time).

The speed of the pneumatic cylinder is varied by using flow control

valve. This is the way of controlling Lifting speed of the Trailer at the time
of emergency. In our project, we have to apply this Pneumatic Modern
Trailer Mechanism in Load Lifting Vehicles.

In most of the garages the vehicles are Lifting by using ordinary

Hydraulic and Mechanical system. In the case of emergency (Quick Lifting)
time, driver All control Valves are fitted, near the driver. In order to avoid all
such disadvantages, this Pneumatic Modern Trailer has been designed in
such a way that it can be used to lift the Loads very smoothly without any

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impact force. The operation is made be simple that even any person can
handled, by just pressing the Control Valve.

1. PROJECT PLANNING

Before starting every project its planning is to be done. Planning is

very important task and should be taken with great care, as the efficiency of
the whole project largely depends upon its planning while planning a project
each and every details should be worked out in anticipation and should
carefully is considered with all the relating provisions in advance. Project
planning consists of the following steps.

PROJECT CAPACITY
The capacity of the project must be decided considering the amount of
money which can be invested and availability of material and machines.

DRAWINGS
Drawing been decided for the project to be manufacture. Its detailed
drawing specification for raw material and finished products should be
decided carefully along with the specification of the machines required for
their manufacture.

MATERIAL EQUIPMENT
The list of materials required for manufacture is prepared from the
drawings. The list of is known as “BILL OF MATERIALS”. This passes to
the store keeper and the required materials taken from the store under

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permission of store keeper operation, the necessity of operation, the person
to do the job, machine to be used to do the job are considered while planning
the operation. After considering tea above questions a best method is
developed and the best method is applied to the operation.

MACHINE LODING
While planning proper care should be taken to find the machining
time for each operation as correct as possible. So that the arrangement for
full utilization of machine can be made machine loading programmed is also
known.

PURCHASE CONSIDERATION
It is different to manufacture all the component needed for the
equipment in the workshop it self. The decision about a particular item
whether to purchase or to manufacture is taken by planning after making
through study of relative merits demerits.

EQUIPMENT CONSIDERATION
Result obtained from “PROCESS PLANNING” and “MACHINE
LODING” helps in calculating the equipment requirement specification of
the equipment should be laid down by considering the drawing. Drawing
will also help in deciding and necessary requirement of tools, accessories.

COST CALCULATION3
The cost of the project can be calculated by adding following.

Material Cost
Machining Cost

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Overhead Expenses.

COMPARION
The various items in the finished project are compared to the
standards for the further correction.

REPORT
At the end of the project work report is prepared for future references.
The report consists of all the items done the project work.

2. INTRODUCTION OF TRAILOR

United States

A truck pulling a semi-trailer using a trailer dolly.

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In the United States, the term is sometimes used interchangeably with travel
trailer and mobile home, varieties of trailers and manufactured housing
designed for human habitation. Their origins lay in utility trailers built in a
similar fashion to horse-drawn wagons. A trailer park is an area where
mobile homes are placed for habitation.

In the United States trailers ranging in size from single-axle dollies to 6-

axle, 13 ft 6 in (4,115 mm) high, 53 ft 0 in (16,154 mm) long semi-trailers
are commonplace. The latter, when towed as part of a tractor-trailer or "18-
wheeler", carries a large percentage of the freight that travels over land in
North America.

Types of trailers

ACP Backtracking genet trailer

Some trailers are made for personal (or small business) use with practically
any powered vehicle having an appropriate hitch, but some trailers are part
of large trucks called semi-trailer trucks for transportation of cargo.

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Enclosed toy trailers and motorcycle trailers can be towed by commonly
accessible pickup truck or van, which generally require no special permit
beyond a regular driver's license. Specialized trailers like open-air
motorcycle trailers, bicycle trailers are much smaller, accessible to small
automobiles, as are some simple trailers, pulled by a drawbar and riding on a
single set of axles. Other trailers, such as utility trailers and travel trailers or
campers come in single and multiple axle varieties, to allow for varying
sizes of tow vehicles.

There also exist highly specialized trailers, such as genset trailers and their
ilk that are also used to power the towing vehicle. Others are custom-built to

hold entire kitchens and other specialized equipment used by carnival

vendors. There are also trailers for hauling boats.

Travel trailer

A custom made popup camper

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Main article: Travel trailer

Popup campers are lightweight, aerodynamic trailers that can be towed by a

small car, such as the BMW Air Camper and the Coleman Bayside. They are
built to be lower than the tow vehicle, minimizing drag.

Others range from two-axle campers that can be pulled by most mid-sized
pickups to trailers that are as long as the host country's law allows for drivers
without special permits. Larger campers tend to be fully integrated
recreational vehicles, which often are used to tow single-axle dolly trailers to
allow the driver to bring small cars on their travels.

Semi-trailer
Main articles: Semi-trailer and Semi-trailer truck

A semi-trailer is a trailer without a front axle. A large proportion of its

weight is supported either by a road tractor or by a detachable front axle
assembly known as a dolly. A semi-trailer is normally equipped with legs,
called "landing gear", which can be lowered to support it when it is
uncoupled. In the United States, a single trailer cannot exceed a length of
57 ft 0 in (17.37 m) on interstate highways (unless a special permit is
granted), although it is possible to link two smaller trailers together to a
maximum length of 63 ft 0 in (19.20 m).

Semi-trailers vary considerably in design, ranging from open-topped grain

haulers through Tautliners to normal-looking but refrigerated 13 ft 0 in
(3.96 m) x 53 ft 0 in (16.15 m) enclosures. Many semi-trailers are part of

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semi-trailer trucks. Other types of semi-trailers include dry vans, reefers,
flatbeds and chassis.

Many commercial organizations choose to rent or lease semi-trailer

equipment rather than own their own semi-trailers, to free up capital and to
keep trailer debt from appearing on their balance sheet.

Full-trailer
This section requires expansion.

A full-trailer is the US term for a freight trailer supported by front and rear
axles and pulled by a drawbar. In Europe this is known as an A-Frame
drawbar trailer. A full-trailer is 96 or 102 in (2,438 or 2,591 mm) wide and
35 or 40 ft (10.67 or 12.19 m) long.

Close-coupled trailer
This section requires expansion.

A close-coupled trailer. The drawbar is not shown

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A close-coupled trailer is fitted with a rigid towbar which projects from its
front and hooks onto a hook on the tractor. It does not pivot as a drawbar
does.

Motorcycle trailer

An enclosed motorcycle trailer

Main article: Motorcycle trailer

A motorcycle trailer may be a trailer designed to haul motorcycles behind an

automobile or truck. Such trailers may be open or enclosed, ranging in size
from trailers capable of carrying several motorcycles or only one. They may
be designed specifically to carry motorcycles, with ramps and tie-downs, or
may be a utility trailer adapted permanently or occasionally to haul one or
more motorcycles.

Another type of motorcycle trailer is a wheeled frame with a hitch system

designed for transporting cargo by motorcycle. Motorcycle trailers are often
narrow and styled to match the appearance of the motorcycle they are
intended to be towed behind. You can get either two wheeled versions or

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single wheeled version. The single wheeled versions, such as the Unigo or
Pav 40/41, are designed to allow the bike to have all the normal flexibility of
a motorcycle, usually using a universal joint to enable the trailer to lean and
turn with the motorcycle. No motorcycle manufacturer recommends that its
motorcycles be used to tow a trailer because it creates additional safety
hazards for motorcyclists.

Powered trailer mover

Trailer mover

A powered trailer[1] mover is a powered vehicle made to push and pull

trailers that require lifting on one end before maneuvering. Some are also
called trailer pushers or powered trailer pullers. The powered mover is
capable of pushing and pulling an RV, a camper, an equipment trailer, or a
boat.

The trailer mover was designed to prevent the strain usually associated with
moving large trailered equipment.

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Trailer winches

Empty boat trailer with winch

Main article: Winch

Trailer winches are designed to load (or unload) boats and other cargo to and
from a trailer. They are made up of a ratchet mechanism and cable. The
handle on the ratchet mechanism is turned to tighten or loosen the tension on
the winch cable. There are both manual and motorized trailer winches.

Livestock trailer
See also: Horse trailer

A horse trailer

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There are a number of different styles of trailers used to haul livestock such
as cattle and horses. The most common is the stock trailer, a trailer that is
enclosed on the bottom, but has openings at approximately the eye level of
the animals to allow ventilation. The horse trailer is a more elaborate form of
stock trailer. Because horses are usually hauled for the purpose of
competition or work, where they must be in peak physical condition, horse
trailers are designed for the comfort and safety of the animals. They usually
have adjustable vents and windows as well as suspension designed to
provide a smooth ride and less stress on the animals. In addition, horse
trailers have internal partitions that assist the animal in staying upright
during travel and protect horses from injuring each other in transit. Larger
horse trailers may incorporate additional storage areas for horse tack and
may even include elaborate living quarters with sleeping areas, bathroom
and cooking facilities, and other comforts.

Both stock trailers and horse trailers range in size from small units capable
of holding one to three animals, able to be pulled by a pickup truck or even
an SUV; to large semi-trailers that can haul a significant number of animals..

[edit] Hitching a trailer

Main articles: Tow hitch, Fifth wheel coupling, and Ringfeder

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Trailer-hitch on a large vehicle

A trailer coupler is used to secure the trailer to the towing vehicle. The trailer
coupler attaches to the trailer ball. This forms a ball and socket connection to
allow for relative movement between the towing vehicle and trailer while
towing over uneven road surfaces. The trailer ball is mounted to the draw
bar, which is usually removable. The draw bar is secured to the trailer hitch
by inserting it into the hitch receiver and pinning it. The three most common
types of couplers are Straight Couplers, A-Frame Couplers, and Adjustable
Couplers.

A gooseneck trailer attached to a pickup truck.Another type of hitch is

known as a "fifth" wheel. Fifth wheel coupling is when trailers attach to a
"fifth wheel" mounted within the bed of the tow vehicle. Though a fifth
wheel and a gooseneck trailer look the same, their method for coupling is
different. A goosneck trailer couples to a trailer ball mounted in the tow
vehicle, usually a pickup truck. This type of hitch is used for larger trailers

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and provides considerably more stability than does a traditional bumper-pull
hitch.A trailer hitch, fifth wheel coupling or other type of tow hitch is needed
to draw a trailer with a car, truck or other traction engine.The basic function
of a trailer jack is to lift the trailer to a height that allows the trailer to be
hitched or unhitched to and from the towing vehicle. Trailer jacks are also
used for leveling the trailer during storage. The most common types of
trailer jacks are A-Frame Jacks, Swivel Jacks, and Drop-Leg Jacks. Some
trailers, such as horse trailers, have a built-in jack at the tongue for this
purpose.

Electrical Components

Many older cars took the feeds for the trailer's lights directly from the
towing vehicles rear light circuits. As bulb-check systems were introduced in
the 1990s "by-pass relays" were introduced. These took a small signal from
the rear lights to switch a relay which in turn powered the trailer's lights with
its own power feed. Many towing electrical installations, including vehicle-
specific kits incorporate some form of bypass relays.
In the US trailer lights usually has a shared light for brake and turn indicator.
If such a trailer is to be connected to a car with separate lamps for turn
indicator and brake a Trailer light converter is needed.
Nowadays some vehicles are being fitted with CANbus networks, and some
of these use the CANbus to connect the tow bar electrics to various safety
systems and controls. For vehicles that use the CANbus to activate towing-
related safety systems, a wiring kit that can interact appropriately must be
used. Without such a towbar wiring kit the vehicle can not detect the

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presence of a trailer and can therefore not activate safety features such as
Trailer stability program which can electronically control a snaking trailer or
caravan.
By-pass systems are very cost effective but are not appropriate on cars with
interactive safety features.

Brakes

Bus trailer

bus and trailer. Larger trailers must be fitted with brakes. These can be either
electrically operated, air operated, or in some countries overrun brakes are
permitted.

Stability

Trailer stability can be defined as the tendency of a trailer to dissipate side-

to-side motion. The initial motion may be caused by aerodynamic forces,
such as from a cross wind or a passing vehicle. One common criterion for

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stability is the center of mass location with respect to the wheels, which can
usually be detected by tongue weight. If the center of mass of the trailer is
behind its wheels, therefore having a negative tongue weight, the trailer will
likely be unstable. Another parameter which is less commonly a factor is the
trailer moment of inertia. Even if the center of mass is forward of the
wheels, a trailer with a long load, and thus large moment of inertia, may be
unstable.[2]

Some vehicles are equipped with a Trailer Stability Program that may be
able to compensate for improper loading.

2. FLUID POWER

Fluid power technology is a means to convert, transmit, convert and apply

fluid energy to perform useful work. Since a fluid can be either a liquid or a
gas, fluid power in general includes and pneumatics and hydraulics. Oil
hydraulics employs pressurized liquid and pneumatics employs compressed
air.

2.1GENERAL APPLICATION OF FLUID POWER

Agriculture : Farm equipment

Construction : Earth moving equipment, concrete mixing equipment

Ships : Controllable pitch propellers

Aviation : Hydraulic retractable landing wheels

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 Defense : Missile launches system

Transportation : Hydraulic elevators

Fabrication : Hydraulic presses for metal forming pneumatic hand

tools, Injection moulding machine Fabrication

Material handling: Hydraulic jacks’ hydraulic ram, conveyor system,

pneumatically operated packing warping and bottling equipment.
Automation : Hydraulically operated machine tools, robots’,
pneumatically Operated indexing holding gripping and feeding devices.

3. BASIC PRINCIPLES&INTRODUCTION OF HYDRAULICS AND

PNEUMATICS

Pneumatic cylinders are the devices for converting the air pressure into
linear mechanical force and motion. They are basically used for single
purpose applications such as clamping, tilting, bending, turning and many
other applications.

The Pneumatic power is converted to straight line reciprocating motion by

pneumatic cylinders. The various industrial applications for which air
cylinders are used can be divided duty wise into the groups. They are light
duty, medium duty and heavy duty but according to the operating principle
air cylinders can be sub divided as 1.single-acting, 2.Double- acting

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cylinders. Since our project is based on single acting cylinder we shall see
deep about it.

In a single-acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only in one side hence, this
cylinder can produce work only in one direction the return movement of the
piston is affected by a built–in spring or by application of an external force
the spring is designed to return the piston to its initial position with a
sufficiently high speed.

 Most industrial processes require substances to be transformed from

one place to another. Also the final products should be shaped (or)
compressed (or) held by applying a great force. Such activities are
performed by using prime movers.
 The prime movers are operated by (i) electrical system (ii) Hydraulic
system (iii) Pneumatic system.
 In electrical system, the rotary motion is provided by simple motors.
The linear motions can be obtained by converting rotary motions with
the aid of screw jack (or) Rack and pinion.
 In ‘Hydraulic system, enclosed water (or) oil can be used to convey
energy from one location to another. In Greek, hydra means water.
 In Pneumatic system, enclosed gas (normally compressed air) is used
to transfer energy from one location to another). In Greek, Pneumatic
means wind.

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4. INTRODUCTION OF PEUMATIC CYLINDER

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Pneumatic cylinders are the devices for converting the air pressure into
linear mechanical force and motion. They are basically used for single
purpose applications such as clamping, tilting, bending, turning and many
other applications.

The Pneumatic power is converted to straight line reciprocating motion by

pneumatic cylinders. The various industrial applications for which air
cylinders are used can be divided duty wise into the groups. They are light
duty, medium duty and heavy duty but according to the operating principle
air cylinders can be sub divided as 1.single-acting, 2.Double- acting
cylinders. Since our project is based on single acting cylinder we shall see
deep about it.

In a single-acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only in one side hence, this
cylinder can produce work only in one direction the return movement of the
piston is affected by a built–in spring or by application of an external force

20
the spring is designed to return the piston to its initial position with a
sufficiently high speed.

Pneumatic cylinders are the devices for converting the air pressure into
linear mechanical force and motion. They are basically used for single
purpose applications such as clamping, tilting, bending, turning and many
other applications.

The Pneumatic power is converted to straight line reciprocating motion by

pneumatic cylinders. The various industrial applications for which air
cylinders are used can be divided duty wise into the groups. They are light
duty, medium duty and heavy duty but according to the operating principle
air cylinders can be sub divided as 1.single-acting, 2.Double- acting
cylinders. Since our project is based on single acting cylinder we shall see
deep about it.

In a single-acting cylinder, compressed air is fed only in one side hence, this
cylinder can produce work only in one direction the return movement of the
piston is affected by a built–in spring or by application of an external force
the spring is designed to return the piston to its initial position with a
sufficiently high speed.

4.1 PNEUMATIC COMPONENTS

SELECTION OF PNEUMATICS

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 Mechanization is broadly defined as the replacement of manual
effort by mechanical power. Pneumatics is an attractive medium for low cost
mechanization particularly for sequential or repetitive operation. Many
factories and plants already have a compressed air system, which is capable
of providing both the power or energy requirements and the control system
(although equally pneumatic control system may be economic and can be
advantageously applied to other forms of power).

The main advantages of an all- pneumatic system are usually

economy and simplicity, the latter reducing maintenance to a low level. It
can also have out standing advantages in terms of safety.

The single acting pneumatic cylinder consists of the following

components to the requirements of complete operation of the machine.

4.2 COMPONENT DESCRIPTION

1. piston
2. cylinder
3. Ram
4. End plate
5. Return spring
6. Nipple

Cylinder

An air cylinder is an operating device in which the state input

energy of compressed air i.e., pneumatic power is converted into mechanical
output power by reducing the pressure of air to that of atmosphere

Ram

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 It is an output device when the pressure inside the cylinder
exceeds the limit the ram actuates. This actuation is used for the operation.

End plate

End plates are connected to both the ends of the cylinder.

Pressure acts mainly on both the end plates. It is made up of ms plate.

Nipple

Air from the compressor is passed through the nipple in to the

cylinder it is made up of mild steel

Stud and nut

It is used to connect two plates or some members of the setup.

Here stud and nut are used to connect the plates

Spring

Open coil spring is used in this system.

Piston

It is the main component which is placed inside the cylinder. It is

used to force the ram in and out by the action of compressed air.

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5. CLASSIFICATION OF AIR COMPRESSOR

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5.2 INTRODUCTION OF THE COMPRESSOR

A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the pressure of a gas

by reducing its volume.

Compressors are similar to pumps, both increase the pressure on a fluid and
both can transport the fluid through a pipe. As gases are compressible, the
compressor also reduces the volume of a gas. Liquids are relatively
incompressible, so the main action of a pump is to pressurize and transport

1 Types of compressors

1.1 Centrifugal compressors

1.2 Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors

1.3 Axial-flow compressors

1.4 Reciprocating compressors

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1.5 Rotary screw compressors

1.6 Rotary vane compressors

1.7 Scroll compressors

The main types of gas compressors are

CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

Centrifugal compressors use a rotating disk or impeller in a shaped

housing to force the gas to the rim of the impeller, increasing the velocity of
the gas. A diffuser (divergent duct) section converts the velocity energy to
pressure energy. They are primarily used for continuous, stationary service
in industries such as oil refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants and
natural gas processing plants. Their application can be from 100 horsepower
(75 kW) to thousands of horsepower. With multiple staging, they can
achieve extremely high output pressures greater than 10,000 psi (69 MPa).

Many large snow-making operations (like ski resorts) use this type of
compressor. They are also used in internal combustion engines as
superchargers and turbochargers. Centrifugal compressors are used in small
gas turbine engines or as the final compression stage of medium sized gas
turbines.

MIXED FLOW COMPRESSOR

Diagonal or mixed-flow compressors are similar to centrifugal compressors,

but have a radial and axial velocity component at the exit from the rotor. The
diffuser is often used to turn diagonal flow to the axial direction. The

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diagonal compressor has a lower diameter diffuser than the equivalent
centrifugal compressor.

Axial-flow compressors

Main article: Axial-flow compressor

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR

Axial-flow compressors are dynamic rotating compressors that use arrays of

fan-like airfoils to progressively compress the working fluid. They are used
where there is a requirement for a high flow rate or a compact design.The
arrays of airfoils are set in rows, usually as pairs: one rotating and one
stationary. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or rotors, accelerate
the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as a stators or vanes, decelerate
and redirect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor blades
of the next stage.[1] Axial compressors are almost always multi-staged, with
the cross-sectional area of the gas passage diminishing along the compressor
to maintain an optimum axial Mach number. Beyond about 5 stages or a 4:1
design pressure ratio, variable geometry is normally used to improve
operation.Axial compressors can have high efficiencies; around 90%
polytropic at their design conditions. However, they are relatively expensive,
requiring a large number of components, tight tolerances and high quality
materials. Axial-flow compressors can be found in medium to large gas
turbine engines, in natural gas pumping stations, and within certain chemical
plants.

RECIPROCATING COMPRSSOR

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A motor-driven six-cylinder reciprocating compressor that can operate with
two, four or six cylinders.

Reciprocating compressors use pistons driven by a crankshaft. They can be

either stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven
by electric motors or internal combustion engines. Small reciprocating
compressors from 5 to 30 horsepower (hp) are commonly seen in automotive
applications and are typically for intermittent duty. Larger reciprocating
compressors well over 1,000 hp (750 kW) are still commonly found in large
industrial and petroleum applications. Discharge pressures can range from
low pressure to very high pressure (>6000 psi or 41.4 MPa). In certain
applications, such as air compression, multi-stage double-acting
compressors are said to be the most efficient compressors available, and are
typically larger, noisier, and more costly than comparable rotary units.[6]
Another type of reciprocating compressor is the swash plate compressor,
which uses pistons which are moved by a swash plate mounted on a shaft.

ROTARY SCREW COMPRESSOR

Rotary screw compressors use two meshed rotating positive-displacement

helical screws to force the gas into a smaller space. These are usually used
for continuous operation in commercial and industrial applications and may
be either stationary or portable. Their application can be from 3 horsepower
(2.2 kW) to over 1,200 horsepower (890 kW) and from low pressure to very
high pressure (>1200 psi or 8.3 MPa).

ROTARY VANE COMPRESSOR

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Rotary vane compressors consist of a rotor with a number of blades inserted
in radial slots in the rotor. The rotor is mounted offset in a larger housing
which can be circular or a more complex shape. As the rotor turns, blades
slide in and out of the slots keeping contact with the outer wall of the
housing.[1] Thus, a series of decreasing volumes is created by the rotating
blades. Rotary Vane compressors are, with piston compressors one of the
oldest of compressor technologies.With suitable port connections, the
devices may be either a compressor or a vacuum pump. They can be either
stationary or portable, can be single or multi-staged, and can be driven by
electric motors or internal combustion engines. Dry vane machines are used
at relatively low pressures (e.g., 2 bar) for bulk material movement whilst
oil-injected machines have the necessary volumetric efficiency to achieve
pressures up to about 13 bar in a single stage. A rotary vane compressor is
well suited to electric motor drive and is significantly quieter in operation
than the equivalent piston compressor.

SCROLL COMPRESSOR

Mechanism of a scroll pump.A scroll compressor, also known as scroll pump

and scroll vacuum pump, uses two interleaved spiral-like vanes to pump or
compress fluids such as liquids and gases. The vane geometry may be
involutes, Archimedean spiral, or hybrid curves. They operate more
smoothly, quietly, and reliably than other types of compressors in the lower
volume range

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Often, one of the scrolls is fixed, while the other orbits eccentrically without
rotating, thereby trapping and pumping or compressing pockets of fluid or
gas between the scrolls.

This type of compressor was used as the supercharger on Volkswagen G60

and G40 engines in the early 1990's.

6. INTRODUCTION OF THE STRUCTURE

Structural steel is steel construction material, a profile, formed with a

specific shape or cross section and certain standards of chemical
composition and strength. Structural steel shape, size, composition, strength,
storage, etc, is regulated in most industrialized countries.

Structural steel members, such as I-beams, have high second moments of

area, which allow them to be very stiff in respect to their cross-sectional
area.

A steel I-beam, in this case used to support wood beams in a house.

Structural steel in construction: A primed steel beam is holding up the floor

above, which consists of a metal deck (Q-Deck), upon which a concrete slab
has been poured.

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Steel beam through-penetration with incomplete fireproofing.

Metal deck and OWSJ (Open Web Steel Joist), receiving first coat of spray
fireproofing plaster, made of polystyrene leavened gypsum. Contents

1 Common structural shapes

2 Standards

2.1 Standard structural steels

2.2 Standard structural steels

2.2.1 Carbon steels

2.2.2 High strength low alloy steels

2.2.3 Corrosion resistant high strength low alloy steels

2.2.4 Quenched and tempered alloy steels

3 Steel vs. concrete

4 Thermal properties

5 Fireproofing of structural steel

COMMON STRUCTURAL SHAPES

In most developed countries, the shapes available are set out in

published standards, although a number of specialist and proprietary cross
sections are also available.

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I-beam (I-shaped cross-section - in Britain these include Universal Beams
(UB) and Universal Columns (UC); in Europe it includes the IPE, HE, HL,
HD and other sections; in the US it includes Wide Flange (WF) and H
sections)

Z-Shape (half a flange in opposite directions)

HSS-Shape (Hollow structural section also known as SHS (structural hollow

section) and including square, rectangular, circular (pipe) and elliptical cross
sections)

Angle (L-shaped cross-section)

Channel ( [-shaped cross-section)

Tee (T-shaped cross-section)

Rail profile (asymmetrical I-beam)

Railway rail

Vignoles rail

Flanged T rail

Grooved rail

Bar a piece of metal, rectangular cross sectioned (flat) and long, but not so
wide so as to be called a sheet.

Rod, a round or square and long piece of metal or wood, see also rebar and
dowel.

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Plate, sheet metal thicker than 6 mm or 1/4 in.

Open web steel joist

While many sections are made by hot or cold rolling, others are made by
welding together flat or bent plates (for example, the largest circular hollow
sections are made from flat plate bent into a circle and seam-welded).

Standard structural steels

Most steels used throughout Europe are specified to comply with the
European standard EN 10025. However, many national standards also
remain in force.

Typical grades are described as 'S275J2' or 'S355K2W'. In these examples,

'S' denotes structural rather than engineering steel; 275 or 355 denotes the
yield strength in newtons per square millimetre or the equivalent
megapascals; J2 or K2 denotes the materials toughness by reference to
Charpy impact test values; and the 'W' denotes weathering steel. Further
letters can be used to designate normalized steel ('N' or 'NL'); quenched and
tempered steel ('Q' or 'QL'); and thermomechanically rolled steel ('M' or
'ML').

The normal yield strength grades available are 195, 235, 275, 355, 420, and
460, although some grades are more commonly used than others e.g. in the
UK, almost all structural steel is grades S275 and S355. Higher grades are

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available in quenched and tempered material (500, 550, 620, 690, 890 and
960 - although grades above 690 receive little if any use in construction at
present).

Thermal properties

The properties of steel vary widely, depending on its alloying elements.

The austenizing temperature, the temperature where a steel transforms to an

austenite crystal structure, for steel starts at 900°C for pure iron, then, as
more carbon is added, the temperature falls to a minimum 724°C for eutectic
steel (steel with only .83% by weight of carbon in it). As 2.1% carbon (by
mass) is approached, the austenizing temperature climbs back up, to 1130°C.
Similarly, the melting point of steel changes based on the alloy.

The lowest temperature at which a plain carbon steel can begin to melt, its
solidus, is 1130 °C. Steel never turns into a liquid below this temperature.
Pure Iron ('Steel' with 0% Carbon) starts to melt at 1492 °C (2720 °F), and is
completely liquid upon reaching 1539 °C (2802 °F). Steel with 2.1% Carbon
by weight begins melting at 1130 °C (2066 °F), and is completely molten
upon reaching 1315 °C (2400 °F). 'Steel' with more than 2.1% Carbon is no
longer Steel, but is known as Cast iron.

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 7. WORKING PRINCIPLE

The Control Valve is fixed in near of the driving persons in the four
wheeler. The air tank contains the compressed air already filled. The
Valve was ON at the time of emergency, the Control Valve was activated.

The compressed air flow is controlled by the valve is called

“FLOW CONTROL VALVE”. This air flow is already set. Then the
compressed air goes to the pneumatic cylinders. The pneumatic cylinders
piston moves forward at the time of compressed air inlet to the cylinder.
The pneumatic cylinders move towards the Lifting arrangement.

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 8. DIAGRAM

Trailer

Right
Left Cylinder
Center Cylinder

Cylinder

Control

Valves

36

Air In
 9. ADVANTAGES&DIS ADVANTAGES

1) Lifting cost will be less.

2) Free from wear adjustment.
3) Less power consumption
4) Less skill technicians is sufficient to operate.
5) Installation is simplified very much.

DISADVANTAGES

1. Need separate air tank

2. Efficiency is Low.
3. Addition cost is required to install this system to four wheeler.

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 10. COST ESTIMATION

S.NO COMPONENT QUANTITY MATERIAL COST(RS)

USED
1 Pneumatic 3 M.S 2800
cylinder
2 3/2 Direction 1 - 750
control valve
3 Air pump 1 - 450
4. Trailor model 1 1200
4 Structure work 1 M.S 750
TOTAL 5950

Total material cost =5950

Assembly cost =875

Total cost =material cost+labour cost=5950+875=6825

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CONCLUSION:

This report deals with the design and fabrication of

pneumatic three axis traior and it’s principle is attached with the line
diagram.. The pneumatic system can be found in almost all type of
industries /Earthmovers fields. However some of the industrial application is
lifting ,loading and unloading ,throughout the project period we gained
knowledge on all type of unloading Process and pneumatic system is
controlled. We have done to our ability and skill making maximum use of
available facilities.

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 BIBLOGRAPHY

 GUPTA J.K and KHURUMI R.S (1981) “Text book of Machine

Design”, S.Chand & comp and.

 Parr. ANDREW (2003) ‘Hydraulic & Pneumatics’ Butterworth

Heimann Ltd

 Dr.D.K.AGGARVAL & Dr.P.C SHARMA(2004) “machine design”,

S.K.Kataria and sons

 MAJUMDAR.S.R “Pneumatic systems”, Tata mcgraw-hills company

ltd.

 SRINIVASAN.R(2004) “Hydraulic & pneumatic controls”, vijay

Nicole imprints private ltd.

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