Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 7 (2019) 102942

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Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering

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Design optimization of hydrodynamic cavitation for effectual lipid T

extraction from wet microalgae
⁎
Ilgyu Leea, You-Kwan Ohb, Jong-In Hanc,
a
Bio-based Cemistry Resesarch Center, Korea Research Institute of Chemical Technology, 141 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Pusan National University, 2 Busandaehak-ro 63beon-gil, Geumjeong-gu, Busan 46241, Republic of Korea
c
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Design optimization of hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) was performed for the sake of maximally extracting in-
Hydrodynamic cavitation ternal lipids directly from wet microalgae. Different types of orifice plates (α = 2.5–10%; β = 1–10%) were
Microalgae designed for a HC system and examined in terms of cavity formation; and cavitation effect was demonstrated by
Lipid extraction way of lipid extraction from microalgae. Basic operating parameters of HC, such as flux, flow rate, and the
Orifice plate
number of rotation, were examined and based on them, the upper and lower limits of cavitation number
Computational fluid dynamics
identified to be 3.37 ± 0.01 (α = 2.5% and β = 1%) and 1.01 ± 0.00 (α = 7.5% and β = 1%), respectively.
The maximum lipid extraction (46.0 ± 3.7%) was obtained at 5% of both α and β. A low β value resulted in
high vapor pressure, which has a crucial effect on the cell disruption caused by the creation and extinction of
cavities. Also, the number of treatment per minute through the orifice proved to be a crucial factor for cell
disruption. On the other hand, a high α value caused a surge pressure driven by violent fluctuation of flow. The
cavitation effects of HC were able to be well visualized in terms of pressure variation using CFD. This study
showed that the HC is indeed a very promising cell disruptor and its effectiveness can be further enhanced by
way of design optimization.

1. Introduction due in part process departmentalization. Direct lipid extraction from

Emissions of greenhouse gases resulting from the exhaustion of
fossil fuels and the consequent global warming have driven the devel-
opment of renewable and sustainable energy sources. One solution in
the transportation sector to this ever-increasing problem is the use of
biofuels including biodiesel. Biodiesel is currently produced from ve-
getable oils and animal fats [1], whose sustainable nature is debatable
[2]; in recent years microalgae have been intensively studied as a truly
sustainable source [3,4]. Its potential, which is far greater than the
terrestrial counterparts, arises from the fact that some species, de-
pending on cultivation environment, are able to synthesize and accu-
mulate lipids in their cell bodies, an amount ranging from 5 to 77 wt. %
[5,6]. In addition, being microorganisms, they can grow in unused
marginal areas such as brackish water or seawater, unlike the land oil
plants growing in the arable location [2,7–9].
The whole process of the microalgae-based biodiesel production, all
the way from mass cultivation to transesterification, are far removed
from techno-economic feasibility from harvesting and lyophilizing of
wet microalgae to extracting of internal lipids, it is lengthy and costly
wet microalgae is a way of lessening such a burden [10–12]. In this, it is
prerequisite to first disrupt microalgal cells for the sake of effectively
causing internal lipids and extraneously added solvent to come in
contact with each other in an effective manner, and it is because those
cell walls are generally composed of hardly breakable lignocellulose
[13]. Thus far, various mechanical means for the purpose of cell dis-
ruption, such as autoclaving, bead-beating, high-pressure homo-
genization, and ultrasonication, have been studied [14–16]; these ap-
proaches, although proven to be effective, are energy-intensive, and
have limitations in particular in terms of scale-up [17].
Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) is an alternative solution and free of
many issues that the others possess. HC is a fluid dynamics phenom-
enon leading to an immense rise in temperature and pressure, together
with resulting vigorous turbulence. Such destructive nature has been
known to have a great deal of potential as a physical means. HC is
produced by the flow of a fluid through a constricted channel such as
venturi meter, nozzle, or orifice plate; and by way of the variation of
pressure and kinetic energy [18,19]. When the cavitation occurs in a
reactor, temperature and pressure, short-lived as they are, rise in an

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: jihan@kaist.ac.kr (J.-I. Han).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.102942
Received 31 October 2018; Received in revised form 2 February 2019; Accepted 4 February 2019
Available online 05 February 2019
2213-3437/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
I. Lee, et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 7 (2019) 102942

instantaneous manner and to an enormous degree (1,000–10,000 K of

temperature and 100–5,000 bar of pressure), thereby boosting the
aimed reactions [20]. Moreover, free radicals are concomitantly cre-
ated, further stimulating the chemical reactions or causing even
changes of the reaction mechanism [21]. Microalgal cell walls are da-
maged by cavities, which is the first line of attacks; and also both free
radicals that are created and high temperature that was caused in a
simultaneous manner synergistically stimulating the chemical reaction
associated with lipid extraction [22].
Such exceedingly destructive power, along with superb energy ef-
ficiency and scalability, has been exploited in various areas such as
chemical synthesis [23], biotechnology [24], wastewater treatment
[25], and lipid extraction from microalgae [11,22,26]. The application
potential of HC is indeed boundless. To make the best use of its great
potential, however, there is still in need of optimization of critical
parameters like types of orifice plate, inlet pressure, flow rate, and
cavitation number, which can serve as a guideline for field applications
of biodiesel production. Some researchers have already attempted to
design hydrodynamic cavitation reactor (hydrocavitator) and under-
stand cavitation phenomenon. Kumar and Moholkar [27] have pro-
posed a conceptual design of hydrocavitator that uses a con-
verging–diverging nozzle employed instead of orifice plate for creating Fig. 1. The setup of hydrodynamic cavitation reactor (Pu: upstream pressure;
Pd: downstream pressure).
pressure variation. They found that their design, though some dis-
tinctive merits do exist, was inferior to the orifice type, in terms of the
controllability of cavitation intensity. Braeutigam et al. [28] reported 2.2. Microalgae culture condition
that a smaller pipe system led to a higher conversion per pass, i.e.,
cavitation effectiveness, and proposed to apply smaller pipe diameters An oleaginous microalgal strain, Chlorella sp. KR-1 [31], was culti-
in hydrodynamic cavitation setups. Albanese et al. [29] found that vated in a medium composed of KH2PO4 (5.44 mM), KNO3 (3 mM),
frequency of hydrodynamic cavitation, that is, the number of rotation Na2HPO4 (1.83 mM), MgSO4·7H2O (0.2 mM), CaCl2 (0.12 mM),
through the reactor, was crucial; by means of arranging additional re- MnCl2·4H2O (0.07 mM), CuSO4 (0.07 mM), FeNaEDTA (0.03 mM),
actors in series, therefore, overall performance could be greatly im- ZnSO4·7H2O (0.01 mM), and Al2(SO4)3·18H2O (0.01 mM) and adjusted
proved. Vichare et al. [30], using multiple-hole orifice plates, revealed pH to 6.5. The cultivation was maintained at 30 °C in 6 L of a Pyrex
that turbulence in the shear layer and the area occupied by the shear bubble-column reactor equipped with 12 fluorescent lamps (light in-
layer were two important factors affecting cavitation yield. It appears tensity: 80 μmol/m2/s). CO2 (10%, v/v) was supplied with a flow rate
that the orifice plate set-up is advantageous in connection with HC of 0.75 L/min. The total lipid content was determined to be 35.0 (wt.
design flexibility. %).
In the present work, HC was operated by applying 12 orifice plates
with different geometries to find out the workable correlation of im-
portant parameters, such as flow rate, upstream pressure, and cavita- 2.3. Cell disruption and lipid extraction
tion number, and also to identify the hydraulic phenomena caused by
each HC operation. Extraction efficiency of lipids from microalgae was A Chlorella sp. suspension (20 g/L) was used for a cell disruption
used as a dependent parameter to reflect cavitation effect. Lastly, experiment, and 0.5% of sulfuric acid was added as a catalyst to aid in
computational fluid dynamics was employed to determine vapor frac- disintegrating the wall known to be mainly comprised of cellulose
tions and pressure variation of HC via optimal orifice design and to [11,26]. Duration of HC treatment was set at 20 min, and inlet pressure
visualize cavitation effect. was fixed at 4 bar of upstream and 0 bar of downstream. All pretreat-
ments were performed in triplicate to minimize random error.
Lipids were extracted from the pretreated microalgae, and extrac-
2. Materials and methods tion yield were determined to estimate disintegration efficiency. Lipid
measurement was done with a method developed by Hara and Radin
2.1. Hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) system [32] with some modifications. A pretreated sample was mixed with
hexane over 1 h, and the algae-hexane mixture was blended with
A hydrodynamic cavitation reactor (or hydrocavitator) was fabri- deionized water to remove any impurities. Phase separation was con-
cated as shown in Fig. 1. All parts of pipe lines were made of stainless ducted using centrifugation to separate a top hexane layer containing
steel (SUS 304 and SUS 316) to protect against acid corrosion. The lipid which was then recovered by evaporating the solvent. The lipid
inner diameter of pipe was all 20 mm. A centrifugal pump (Walrus yield (g extracted lipid / g total lipid content × 100, wt.%) was de-
Pump Ltd.; 60 Hz, 200–240 V, 6.0 A, 4.5/6 m3/h, 2100 W) was used to termined by weighing the solvent-evaporated compound.
give rise to fluid flow and needed pressure. A turbine flowmeter (TM-
0050, Sechang Ltd., Korea) was installed to check real-time flux and
flowrate. The maximum volume of the hydrocavitator was 1.8 L A ra- 2.4. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
dial form of orifice plate with a different pattern was installed in the
pump backend. Twelve different patterns were fabricated so that each Computational fluid dynamics with the software (Solidworks,
had a varied ratio of diameter of an orifice hole to pipe diameter (α) Dassault Systemes, Velizy-Villacoublay, France) was employed to si-
and a ratio of the summed area of all orifice holes to pipe area (β) mulate the phenomena of cavitation effect. Three orifice plates, α value
(Fig. 2), and these orifice plates were classified into four α values of of 5% and β values of each 1%, 5%, and 10%, were selected to run the
2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, and 10% and three β values of 1%, 5%, and 10%. simulation. The upstream pressure of fluid was fixed to 4 bar.
Detailed information on the orifice plates is given in Table 1.

2
I. Lee, et al. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 7 (2019) 102942

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of 12 orifice plates.

Table 1 to expected rises in flux and the number of rotation. Flow rate at the
Flow geometry of 12 orifice plates. orifice plate, on the other hand, reached maximum at 5% of β, rather
Hole diameter α (orifice hole Number of 1 hole β (total area
than 1% of β. Water temperature was increased to 70 °C at 5% and 10%
(mm) diameter/pipe holes area/pipe of holes/pipe of β, whereas with 1% of β it only stopped at around 60 °C. Considering
diameter, %) area area, %) dynamic viscosity and density in terms of specific water temperature
(viscosity of 0.467 MPa s at 60 °C and 0.404 MPa s at 70 °C; density of
0.5 2.5 16 0.0006 0.01
80 0.05
0.983 g/cm3 at 60 °C and 0.978 g/cm3 at 70 °C), the difference of final
160 0.1 temperature would affect the cavitation formation. For example, an
1.0 5 4 0.0025 0.01 increase in water viscosity causes reduction in the size and number of
20 0.05 cavities [34].
40 0.1
The Bernoulli equation, though not completely precise, is a con-
1.5 7.5 2 0.005 0.01
9 0.05 venient and useful way of at least conceptually expounding the cavi-
18 0.1 tation phenomenon: sudden contraction in a confined flow leads to
2.0 10 1 0.01 0.01 corresponding flow rate elevation and concomitant pressure drop, even
5 0.05 down to vapor pressure (Eq. 1). It is in this condition that micro-sized
10 0.1
bubbles are formed, which are subsequently exploded and yield such
destructive force when flow rate and pressure recover.
3. Results and discussion P2 = P1 + ρ (u12 − u22)/2 (1)

3.1. Correlation analysis of parameters by different orifice plates
Cavitation formation via hydrodynamic cavitation (HC) is described
in terms of its intensity and the number of generated cavities (micro-
bubble) [33], both of which are influenced by mechanical factors like
type of orifice plate, pipe size, and input power of the pump and/or
hydraulic parameters such as flow rate, inlet pressure, and liquid den-
sity. Table 2 shows that orifice plates with varied α and β resulted in
different values of flux, flow rate at orifice plate, and number of rota-
tions per minute (total flux/internal volume, min–1). An increase in β,
which in effect means an enlarged effective area of the orifice hole, led
The cavitation effect can be described in a lump sum way by
adopting a dimensionless number, termed cavitation number denoted
as Cv. The cavitation number is defined as:
Cv = 2(Pu − Pd )/ ρu2 (2)
where Pu is the upstream pressure, Pd is the downstream pressure, ρ is
the density of the fluid, and u is the flow rate. Fig. 3 shows cavitation
number calculated using the value of flow rate by each orifice plate
(Table 2). The upper and lower limits of cavitation number were

Table 2
Hydraulic parameters of 12 orifice plates.
α (%) β (%) Flux (L/min) Flow rate (m/s) No. of rotation (min–1)

2.5 1 2.9 ± 0.0 15.4 ± 0.0 1.6 ± 0.0

5 18.2 ± 0.0 19.3 ± 0.0 10.1 ± 0.0
10 30.4 ± 0.1 16.1 ± 0.1 16.1 ± 0.1
5 1 3.8 ± 0.0 20.2 ± 0.1 2.1 ± 0.0
5 21.2 ± 0.1 22.5 ± 0.1 11.8 ± 0.1
10 31.5 ± 0.0 16.7 ± 0.0 17.5 ± 0.0
7.5 1 5.3 ± 0.0 28.1 ± 0.1 2.9 ± 0.0
5 25.7 ± 0.1 27.3 ± 0.1 14.3 ± 0.0
10 35.4 ± 0.1 18.8 ± 0.1 19.7 ± 0.1
10 1 4.4 ± 0.1 23.4 ± 0.4 2.4 ± 0.0
5 22.8 ± 0.3 24.2 ± 0.3 12.7 ± 0.2
10 37.2 ± 0.7 19.8 ± 0.4 20.7 ± 0.4
Fig. 3. Cavitation numbers according to the different values of α and β.

3
I. Lee, et al.
Fig. 4. Lipid yields according to the different values of α and β.
3.37 ± 0.01 (α = 2.5% and β = 1%) and 1.01 ± 0.00 (α = 7.5% and
β = 1%), respectively. A cavitation number is inversely proportional to
the number of cavities and the collapse of the cavities [35]; and cavities
inception occurs at cavitation number between 1 and 2.5 [36]. It was
found that all the orifice plates were well designed to serve the purpose.
3.2. Lipid yield from HC pretreatment by different orifice plates
To demonstrate the cavitation effect at the given orifice design and
to establish a correlation between cavitation number and lipid yield,
HC-based cell disruption of microalgae was undertaken. Generally, cell
walls of microalgae are composed of cellulosic polymers [37], and
therefore physical disruption was prerequisite for effective lipid re-
covery.
Lipid extraction efficiency of the 12 orifice plates is illustrated in
Fig. 4. As expected, the HC operation without any orifice plate yielded
less than 10%. Relatively high lipid yields were obtained with the plates
which had 5% of α, compared to other plates with different α values
(i.e., 2.5%, 7.5%, and 10%). From Fig. 3, it was concluded that theo-
retical maximum lipid yield was reached at α = 7.5% and β = 1%
because a large number of cavities were generated at lower cavitation
number condition. It is widely known that cavities bring about micro-
algal cell disruption and as a result elevated efficiency of lipid extrac-
tion. Nevertheless, the maximum lipid extraction (46.0 ± 3.7%) was
obtained at 5% of both α and β. The potential reason may lie in a surge
pressure driven by a change in flow rate in the hydrocavitator. Such
violent fluctuation of flow happens by way of air expulsion from un-
steady flow regions. Such velocity-fluctuation-causing instability of
upstream pressure was noticed at an orifice design with α ≥ 7.5%, but
appeared to be negligible with β. It was therefore found that the surge
of pressures in a hydrodynamic cavitation system can be minimized if a
properly design orifice is used; for the purpose of algal lipid extraction
in this study, it happened to be at around 5% of α and β. Lipid yield
with the optimized orifice condition was about 10% higher than that
reported in the authors’ previous study [22], and this enhancement was
meaningful, because it could be interpreted to consume merely half of
energy.
Table 3
Volume and mass fraction of vapor with different orifice design.
α (%) β (%) Flux (L/min)
5 1 3.8 ± 0.0
5 21.2 ± 0.1
10 31.5 ± 0.0
Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 7 (2019) 102942
3.3. Analysis of computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
The cavitation starts with the formation of cavities in the liquid
which comprised of vapor and dissolved gases, and an area of two-
phase flow, also called a HC cavern, is formed at the downstream of this
region. If the characteristic time-scale of the vapor formation process is
much less than that of the liquid flow, the cavitation process occurs in
conditions close to thermodynamic equilibrium. The HC system can be
represented on the basis of a set of relations describing thermodynamic
equilibrium of a two-phase homogeneous fluid consisting of a liquid, its
vapor and an inert dissolved gas that is assumed to ideally behave. In
this system, density of the gas-liquid mixture can be calculated using
the following equation:
1
ρ=
v (3)
RT RTzv (T , P )
v = yg + (1 − yg − yv ) vl (T , P ) + yv
Pμg Pμ v (4)
where ρ is the density of the gas-liquid mixture, v is the specific volume
of the gas-liquid mixture, vl is the specific volume of liquid, zv(T, P) is
the vapor compressibility ratio, R is the universal gas constant, P is the
local static pressure, T is the local temperature, yv is the mass fraction of
vapor, μv is the molar mass of vapor, yg is the mass fraction of the non-
condensable gas, and μg is the molar mass of the non-condensable gas
[38]. The volume fraction of vapor (vv) is limited by 0.95, and this
requirement should be satisfied to generate cavitation. Mass fraction of
vapor yv was computed numerically from the following non-linear
equation for the full enthalpy gas-liquid mixture:
IC v 2 5
H = yg hg (T , P ) + (1 − yg − yv ) hl (T , P ) + yv h v (T , P ) + + k
2 2
(5)
Ic = (ρu x )2 + (ρu y )2 + (ρuz )2 (6)
where temperature of the mixture T is a function of pressure P. Here hg,
hl, hv are the enthalpies of non-condensable gas, liquid and vapor, re-
spectively, k is the turbulent energy, u is the flow rate inside the holes of
orifice plate, and IC is the squared impulse [38]. Typical values of mass
fraction of vapor were set at around 10−4 but could be extended to a
range of 10-5 to 10-3. Table 3 shows the vapor fraction of HC estimated
with the help of CFD with respect to the orifice design of α = 5% and
β = 1, 5, and 10%. Each volume and mass fraction of vapor fulfilled the
generation condition of cavities: vv ≤ 0.95; 10−5 ≤ yv ≤ 10−3. It was
true that both mass and volume vapor fraction increased with β low-
ered. Considering frequency of cells exposure to the cavities, 5% of β
better suited for the sake of lipid extraction, as the number of sample
rotation per minute was roughly six times higher than that with 1% that
had the greatest vapor fraction (Table 2; Fig.4).
Pressure variation at the optimum orifice condition for maximum
lipid yield (i.e. 5% of both α and β) is simulated using CFD so as to
scrutinize the creation and extinction of cavities (Fig. 5). As soon as
fluid passed through the orifice plate, pressure dropped to a negative
value and then gradually recovered above the vapor pressure. This
pressure variation made it possible to find regions of cavities creation,
which was confined within 20 mm of the downstream area of the orifice
plate. It was initially speculated that the generated cavities would be
collapsed on the flame-shaped boundary regions which started to be
Pressure (bar) Volume fraction of vapor Mass fraction of vapor
4 0.95 ± 0.01 0.0049 ± 0.0001
0.63 ± 0.01 0.0032 ± 0.0002
0.42 ± 0.01 0.0016 ± 0.0001
4
I. Lee, et al.
Fig. 5. The downstream pressure variation by CFD at the orifice condition of 5% of both α and β.
seen above the vapor pressure; to our surprise, however, it was found to
exist in the entire area above the vapor pressure, implying that the
extinction of cavities took effect in the downstream of the orifice plate
in a hydrocavitator. This was confirmed in a rather unpleasant way: the
inner impeller of a flowmeter made of abrasion-proof SUS316 was worn
out by a 60 min of HC operation, as shown in supplementary Fig. 1. This
destructive power, on the other hand, is indeed proven to be beneficial
as in the case of this study.
4. Conclusions
In this study, a hydrocavitator was optimized by way of design
consideration of orifice plate and through understanding of the asso-
ciated fluid dynamics; and it did so for the sake of lipid extraction from
microalgae. Cavitation number, which is known to be a reliable in-
dicator in connection with fluid dynamics, was found to be an in-
accurate index when it comes to cell disruption. Lipid extraction could
reach a maximum efficiency when surge pressure was minimized, along
with vapor fraction increased and the number of fluid rotation raised.
Besides, the homogenous nature of creation and extinction of cavities
could be demonstrated via visualizing pressure variation using CFD. It
appeared that hydrodynamic cavitation is indeed a potential means of
extracting lipids from microalgae.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Advanced Biomass R&D center
(ABC) of Global Frontier Project funded by the Ministry of Science and
ICT (ABC-2011-0031348).
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary material related to this article can be found, in the
online version, at doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2019.102942.
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