University of karbala

College Of Medicine

Mohammed Ali Riyhad

Sub Group Members:

1. Bilal Rabah
2. Mohammed Hameed
3. Ghoson Nashwan
4. Ali Dhiaa

Name of the EXP : The cathode ray oscilloscope.

Aim Of the EXP : Uses of C.R.O in:

a- Measurement of d.c voltages.

b. Measurement of a.c voltages.

APPARATUS:
1-D.C volt meter.
2-A.C volt meter.
3-Resistants.
4-Power Supply.
5- Y amplifier.

Oscilloscope :
An oscilloscope, previously called an oscillograph, and informally
known as modern digital storage oscilloscope), is r cathode-ray
oscilloscope), or constantly a type of electronic test instrument that
allows observation of varying signal voltages, usually as a two-
dimensional graph of one or more electrical potential differences
using the vertical or y-axis, plotted as a function of time (horizontal or
x-axis). Many signals can be converted to voltages and displayed this
way. Signals are often periodic and repeat constantly, so that
multiple samples of a signal which is actually varying with time are
displayed as a steady picture. Many oscilloscopes(storage
oscilloscopes) can also capture non-repeating waveforms for a
specified time, and show a steady display of the captured segment.
oscilloscopes are used to observe the exact wave shape of an
electrical signal. Oscilloscopes are usually calibrated so that voltage
and time can be read as well as possible by the eye this allows the
measurement of peak-to-peak voltage of a waveform, the frequency
of periodic signals, the time between pulses, the time taken for a
signal to rise to full amplitude(rise time), and relative timing of
several related signals.

THEORY:
The oscilloscope is an electronic instrument widely used in
making electronic measurements. The most noteworthy attribute
of an (ideal) oscilloscope is that it does not affect the quantity
being measured. The main component of the scope is the
cathode-ray tube, or CRT. The CRT consists of a vacuum tube
in which electrons are "boiled off" a cathode and accelerated,
using an electric field, towards a phosphorescent screen. When
the electrons strike the screen, a burst of light is given off. The
beam is deflected along the way by vertical and horizontal plates
that use electric fields to deflect the electrons. The screen of the
oscilloscope has a grid on it called a gradecule. The gradecule is
used to read information from the screen of the oscilloscope.
The dials on the oscilloscope give the scale of the gradecule in
VOLTS/DIVISION in the vertical direction and
SECONDS/DIVISION in the horizontal direction
METHOD:
EXP : (1) Measurement of D.C. Voltage .
1- Switch on the circuit .
2- A stationary spot of light (Green spot ) will appear on the screen . 3-
Adjust spot of light on the screen .The point (0) represent the spot on
C.R.O when the reading of D.C. voltmeter =zero .
4- By using rheostat ; apply the D.C. voltage to the plates of
oscilloscope .The spot of light will move to position (0) on the screen 5-
Measurement the deflection d (mm) on the screen. The distance
between 0 and 0 = deflection (d) . 6- Repeat steps 4 and 5 for different
values of (V) .
EXP : ( 2 ) Measurement of A.C. Voltage .
1- Replace the A.C. supply by a variable D.C. supply .
2- Replace the D.C. Voltmeter by an A .C. voltmeter .
3-Repeat the procedure of experiment 1.
4- Mote that the length of the vertical line (GREEN LINE) .
5- Traced out by the spot of light correspond to the peak value of the
applied voltage.
6- Plot a graph .
7- Find the slope of the graph .
8- This experiment provided the A.C. supply is truly sinusoidal the A.C
deflection sensitivity should be 2* (root 2) times the D.C. deflection
sensitivity.

DISCUSSION :

Electrocardiogram - ECG
An electrocardiogram is commonly called an ECG or EKG and uses a
machine to measure and record (on paper or a computer screen) the
electrical activity in the heart. With each heartbeat, the heart emits a
series of electrical discharge spikes that can be recorded using
electrodes on the surface of the body.

What is the test used for?

The shape and pattern of the ECG spikes can assist in diagnosing
a wide range of heart problems such as:

1- muscle defect;
2- enlargement of the heart;

3- congenital defects;
4- heart valve disease;
5- arrhythmias (abnormal heart rhythms);
6- tachycardia or bradycardia (heart rate too fast or too slow);
7- ectopic heartbeat;
 8- coronary artery disease;

9- inflammation of the heart (myocarditis);

10- inflammation around the heart (pericarditis);
11- changes in the amount of electrolytes (chemicals in the
blood); and
12- myocardial infarction (heart attack), past or present.

How the test is done

You will be asked to remove all clothes and jewellery to the waist

(including bras in women) so the electrodes can be placed on

specific sites on the chest wall, arms and legs. The electrodes are
held in place by elastic straps, suction caps or sticky pads.
Sometimes the skin may need to be shaved where the electrode
recording patches are to be placed to make the electrical signal
easier to detect and to reduce discomfort when the patches are

removed. For a standard 12-lead ECG, the electrodes are placed

on all 4 limbs and 6 positions on the chest wall. Additional leads
are sometimes added for a 15-lead ECG.
You will be asked to remain still, breathing normally while the
machine is started and a sample (usually 3 to 4 seconds) from
each electrode site is recorded. The ECG is usually monitored
continuously and you may be asked to hold your breath for short
periods during the procedure (to stop the movement of your
 chest wall interfering with the signal). The machine will pick up

electrical activity from the leads and then produce a graph

consisting of a continuous up and down line that can look a little
like a geographical map, but represents your heart's activity.

ECG results
A normal healthy heart has a regular characteristic pattern, but
any abnormality or damage to the heart will show up differently to
the normal heart pattern. Letters of the alphabet (P, R, Q, S, T)
identify the different spikes of the printout and these are then
read by the doctor to indicate problem areas in the heart. The
reading of an ECG is quite complex and may take time; doctors
receive special training in this area. Some ECG machines have
special software that helps with the interpretation of the test.
The ECG may be used continuously during some procedures and
surgeries. People who are in hospital with certain conditions may
also need continuous ECG monitoring. In an attempt to diagnose
certain heart rhythm problems, portable ECG monitors may need
to be worn for 24 hours or more to give an extended picture of

the heart's rhythm.

Unfortunately, the ECG shows only the condition and function of
the heart at the exact time that the reading is recorded — it
cannot always predict what will happen to the heart in the future.

References:
1.John R. Cameron Medical Physics
2. Www.mydre.com.au