Unit - IV

Heat Treatment Processes

Prepared by
K Vijaya Bhaskar Reddy
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering
CBIT, Hyderabad.
Carbon atoms in octahedral sites of FCC iron
δ-ferrite: Interstitial
solid solution of C in
δ- iron (BCC); max.
solubility is 0.1%C

Austenite: Interstitial
solid solution of C in
γ - iron (FCC) ; max.
solubility is 2.01%C

α -ferrite: Interstitial
solid solution of C
in α - iron (BCC) );
max. solubility is
0.02%C
Cementite: Fe3C
Interstitial compound
of C & Fe containing
6.67%C

4
Solidification of Fe-C alloys:
Micro-constituents:

0.01% C Steel : 100% Ferrite

0.2% C Steel : 75% Ferrite +25 % Pearlite
0.4% C Steel : 50% Ferrite +50 % Pearlite
0.6% C Steel : 25% Ferrite +75 % Pearlite
0.8% C Steel : 100% Pearlite

Percentage of pearlite increases with C content in

hypo eutectoid steels.
Typical microstructures

100% Ferrite 100% Austenite

0.1%C 0.2%C

0.35%C 0.45%C
0.2%C 0.6%C

0.8%C 1.1%C

10
 Formation of pearlite from Austenite
•A series of experiments are
conducted on small test pieces of
eutectoid steel.
•Samples are heated to austenitic
condition and quenched in salt
baths maintained at different
temperatures such as T1, T2,
T3..below the eutectoid
temperature.
•They are held at each
temperature for various lengths of
time until the decomposition of
austenite is completed.
•Time required for the beginning
of transformation and end of
transformation at each
temperature are noted.
At the temperature range from
723°C to about 500°C, pearlite is
found to be formed
11
Formation of pearlite from Austenite

12
Successive stages of formation of pearlite from Austenite

13
 Formation of bainite from Austenite
At the temperature range from about 500°C to about 220°C, bainite is formed.
Bainite is a mixture of ferrite and carbide.
It is also a diffusion controlled process. Diffusion of C takes place where as
diffusion of atoms of iron and other alloying elements is practically nil.
When austenite is under cooled, carbon atoms redistribute in austenite. Low
carbon regions transform to ferrite by diffusion less processes and result in fine
needles of ferrite. As the time passes, carbon diffuses out and precipitates in the
form of fine carbides.

Stages of formation of bainite from Austenite

14
Formation of bainite from Austenite

Upper bainite

Lower bainite

15
 Formation of Martensite from Austenite
When the eutectoid steel is quenched below say 220°C, the diffusion of
even the carbon atoms becomes negligible. Austenite transforms to a
product called as Martensite.
Martensitic transformation is (i) diffusion less
(ii) athermal
(iv) shear transformation
Since it is a diffusion less transformation, the composition of martensite
will be same as that of austenite from which it has formed.
The crystal structure of martensite is Body centered tetragonal; the
tetragonality is due to the entrapped carbon atoms.
Characterized by
Ms – Martensite start and Mf – martensite finish temperatures.
16
The final dimensions of
martensite unit cell are
achieved by decreasing the
parameters along a and b
axis and increasing along
the c axis.

17
 T T T Diagram of eutectoid steel

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 Martensite Bainite

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 Variation of lattice parameter Variation of hardness of
of martensite with C content martensite with C content

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 Variation of Ms and Mf with Effect of alloying elements on Ms
C content

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 Schematic of Time Temperature Transformation Diagram with
different cooling rates superimposed

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Time-Temperature-Transformation (TTT)Curve

Fig. TTT diagram for eutectoid steel

 Transformation on continuous cooling:

On continuous
cooling Austenite
will not transform
to Bainite

CCT diagram

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 Definitions

• Martensite: Martensite (BCT) is a super saturated solid

solution of carbon in α- iron.
Note : The minimum rate of cooling at which austenite is
transformed into martensite is called critical rate of cooling.
• Bainite : (350- 450°C ) Bainite is a mixture of ferrite and
cementite and it is feather like in appearance.
• Troosite : (500-550°C) Troosite is a mixture of ferrite and
cementite and exist in a very fine lameller structure.
• Sorbite : (600-650°C) Sorbite is also a mixture of ferrite and
cementite, but possess finer grain structure than pearlite.
Heat Treatment
 Heat Treatment

WHAT IS HEAT TREATING?

Controlled Heating And Cooling of Metal to Change Its Properties and
Performance.
Through:
•Change in Microstructure
•Change in Chemistry or Composition
Definition:
Heat treatment is an operation or combination of operations involving heating at
a specific rate, soaking at that temperature for a period of time and cooling at
some specified rate. The aim is to obtain a desired microstructure or morphology
to achieve certain predetermined properties (physical, mechanical, magnetic or
electrical).
 Process Variables
• Heating rate
• Temperature
• Holding time
• Cooling rate
• Atmosphere
 Who Uses Heat Treating?
SIC Industry
Commonly Heat 331 Steel Mills
Why Heat Treat?
Treated Metals 332 Iron and Steel Foundries
34 Metal Fabrication
• To improve Toughness Machinery and
Ferrous Metals 35 & 36
Electrical/Electronic Equipment
• Steel • To increase Hardness
37 Transportation Equipment
• Cast Iron • To increase Ductility 3398 Commercial Heat Treating
• Alloys 5051 Steel Service Centers
• Stainless Steel • To improve Machineability
• Tool Steel • To refine Grain Structure • Primary Producers
Non-ferrous Metals – Steel Mills: Hardening of Bars, Rods Tubes,
• Aluminum • To remove Residual Stresses
Pipes, etc.
• Copper • To improve Wear Resistance Annealing of Plates, Sheets, Wires, etc.
• Brass
• Titanium • Captive Plants
– Melt and Casting Shops, Forging Plants,
Typical Heat Treating Cycle Manufacturers of Automotive Parts, Farm and
Earth Moving Machinery, Machine Tools, etc.
• Heating to the Control Temperature
• Holding at Temperature (Soak) • Commercial Heat Treaters
• Cooling (Rapid or at Slow / Controlled – Service Providers for a Variety of Heat Treating
Rate) Processes for Different Parts to Manufacturers.

Holding
Temperature

(soak)

Heating

Time
Who uses Heat Treating ?

• Aircraft Industry
• Automobile Manufacturing
• Defense Sector
• Forging
• Foundry
• Heavy Machinery
Manufacturing
• Powder Metal Industries
 Heat Treatment
Processes

Recrystallization Hardening Case Hardening

•Annealing •carburizing
•Normalizing •Nitriding
•Cyaniding
•Tempering •CarboNitriding
•Austempering •Induction hardening
•Martempering •Flame hardening
 Post carburizing

Tempering / age hardening

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Gas Fired Metal Heat Treating Furnaces
 Annealing

1)Heat the material to the

asutenitic temperature (i.e.
above 723°C).
2)Hold steel at that temperature
for specific period of time
may be 1hr or more.
3)Allow the material to cool
very very slowly.
4) Depending on requirement
we have many ctagories of
Annealing processes
 Annealing Cont..
Need of annealing:
Dispersion and Precipitate Strengthening

Successive positions of a dislocation as it bypasses particles that obstruct its

motion.The critical configuration is that with the tightest curvature, shown in
(b).
 Types of Annealing

• Diffusion Annealing
• Full Annealing
• Isothermal Annealing
• Partial Annealing
• Stress relief Annealing
• Process Annealing
 Diffusion Annealing
• Diffusion Annealing is done for Casted products, where they
have Dendritic structures, segregated foreign elements.

1)Heat the material to the asutenitic temperature (i.e. about 1100 -

1200°C)
2)Hold steel at that temperature for 1hr and keep moving the steel
component or furnace.
3)The impurities inside the material move solid to liquid for that
furnace also moved.
4) For example if we are moving furnace from left to right the
left portion will solidify and right portion will be liquidous
phase only the impurities come and occupy the liquid, By
moving at last we will get all the impurities at last of
component. This process have to do so many times.
Micro structure of Dendrite
 Full Annealing

1)Heat the material to the asutenitic temperature

2)Hold steel at that temperature for 1hr
3)Allow the material to cool in furnace itself it takes 1 day.
4) Annealing temp. depends on corbon content in the steel. for
hypoeutectoid steels is heated 30 - 50°C above A3 line.
hypereutectoid steels is heated above A1 line.
• Component end up with coarse ferrite and pearlite
• This treatment given for Cold rolled, Forged and Casted
products. so that dendrudes converted into equiaxed grains and
elimination segregated zones.
• If you heat hypereutectoid steel above Am line. by cooling to
room temp. the component end up with Cementite network
along the grain boundary.
 Purpose of Full Annealing
• To soten the steel,
• To refine the grain
• To relieve the internal stresses
• To improve electrical and magnetic properties
• To improve machinability
• To reduce the hardness
• To improve the ductility
Micro structure after Full Annealing
• Note: slow cooling allows the C to precipitate out so
resulting structure is coarse pearlite with excess ferrite
After annealing steel is quite soft and ductile
 Properties after Annealing
1) Internal stress release
2) Ductility increases
3) Toughness increases
4) Grain size increases
5) Strength of material decreases
6) Hardness decreases
 Normalising

1) Heat the material to the

asutenitic temperature (i.e.
above 723°C)
2) Hold steel at that
temperature for 1hr
3) Allow the material to cool in
normal atmosphere.
Note: the hyper eutectoid steels
are having cementite
network along the grains,
these can be removed by
normalising process
 Normalising

Purpose:
• To refine the grain size
• To obtain uniform structure
• To break the Fe3C network
• To improve mechanical
properties
• To imrove machinability
• Normalised steels posses
higher strength and hardness
and lower ductility than
annealing
 Defferences b/w Annealing & Normalising

Annealing Normalising
• Coarser grain size • Fine pearlite
• Equillibrium amount of pro - • Lesser amount of pro -
eutectoid constituent eutectoid constituent
• High ductility • Less ductility
• Poor strength
• Good strength
• Good machinability
• More expensive • Moderate machinability
• Ex: cold rolled, forged, casted • Comparatively cheaper
products to be annealed process
• Ex: annealed materials can
be normalised
 Hardening

• Heat the material to above upper critical temperature in the

case of hypo eutectoid steel and above lower critical
temperature in the case of hyper eutectoid steel and keep at
that temp. for 1hr so that the material gets homogenious
structure i.e Austenite (γ) then quench in a quenching medium
Quenching mediums
• Brine (water and salt solution)
• Water
• Oil
• Air
• Turn off furnace
 Hardening of Eutectoid steel

• The metal is heated to over 870

degrees, which allows the carbon
to dissolve into the FCC
Austenite.
• Quenching the metal quickly in
water prevents the structure from
changing back into BCC.
• A different structure, Body Centre
Tectragonal (BCT) is formed. It is
called Martensite and is extremely
hard and brittle with a needle-like
microstructure.
 Purpose of Hardening

• To improve hardness
• To improve wear and
abrasion resistance
• To improve strength and
toughness

Martensite
 Concept of Hardenability:

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 Concept of Hardenability:

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 Concept of Hardenability :

Susceptibility of the steel to hardening when quenched.

Measure of depth of penetration of martensite on quenching
Depth and distribution of hardness (martensite) across the cross section.

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 Determination of Hardenability:

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 Determination of Hardenability:

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 Tempering:
Properties of Hardened steel:
- Hard, wear resistant
- poor ductility, impact toughness
- unstable microstructure
- not suitable for service

Tempering is done to attain stable state.

- Relieves internal stresses
- reduces brittleness
- restores ductility

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 Tempering
• tempering is a sub - critical heat treatmrnt process used to
improve the toughness and to decrease brittleness from
hardened steels.
• The metal is heated to the range of 220-450°C and kept for
some time at that temperature then cooled in air.
• at tempering temperature carbon atoms diffuses out and
precipitate carbon as fine cementite and softer ferrite
structure (sorbite) left behind.
• thus the structure of tempered steel consists of ferrite and
fine cementite
• Tempering colours are an indicator of temperature on
polished metals. Colours range from yellow to brown to
violet and blue.
 Stages of tempering:
Hardened steel contains predominantly martensite with small amount of
retained austenite.

First stage: 80oC-200oC

High carbon martensite decomposes to low C (0.3%) martensite +
ε-carbide (Fe2.4C)
- marginal decrease in hardness
- strength improves
- slight increase in toughness

Second stage: 200oC-350oC

Retained austenite transforms to bainite (ferrite+ ε-carbide)
- maximum elastic limit (spring steels)
- strength and hardness decreases
- increase in ductility and toughness

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Third stage: 300oC-450oC
Formation and growth of Fe3C from ε-carbide formed during first
and second stage
- strength and hardness decreases
- increase in ductility and toughness

Fourth stage: 400oC-700oC

Cementite (Fe3C) starts growing as spheroids. Growth of cementite
removes carbon from martensite resulting in acicular ferrite which
recrystallizes to equiaxed ferrite at about 600oC.

Final structure (ideal):

Spherical carbides in
equiaxed ferrite matrix

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 Temper Colour Temp.°C Objects
Pale straw 230 Planing and slotting tools
Dark straw 240 Milling cutters, drills

Brown 250 Taps, shear blades for metals

Punches, cups, snaps, twist

Brownish-purple 260
drills, reamers

Purple 270 Press tools, axes

Dark purple 280 Cold chisels, setts for steel

Blue 300 Saws for wood, springs

Toughening for constructional

Blue 450-650
steels

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 Austempering

• Austempering consists of
austenitizing a steel, quenching it
into a suitable medium maintained
at a temperature in the bainite
transformation range, and cooling
it in air.
 • Steel is heated
to austenitizing
temperature.

• Held for
sufficient
length of time

• Quenched to an
intermediate
temp. (just above
Ms) and held for
sufficient
length of time untill
bainite
transformation
Cooled to RT

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 • Steel is heated
to austenitizing
temperature.

• Held for
sufficient
length of time

• Quenched to an
intermediate
temp. (just above
Ms)

Cooled below Mf and

tempered.

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• After martempering, the
component must be
conventionally tempered in
order to restore toughness
 Distortion:
Change in size and shape of the heat treated component due to thermal and
structural stresses.

Causes for Dimensional changes:

 Thermal expansion till 723oC
 Contraction on transformation to austenite
 Thermal expansion of austenite on further heating
 Thermal contraction on quenching
 Expansion due to austenite-martensite transformation
 Thermal contraction on tempering

Slower rates of heating and cooling cause uniform and simultaneous thermal
and transformational changes. Hence less distortion.

Faster rates, develop internal stresses due to differential expansion and

contraction of steel component.

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Surface Hardening Processes
By proper heat treatment produce a structure that is hard and
strong at the surface, so that excellent wear and fatigue
resistance are obtained, but at the same time gives a soft,
ductile, tough core that provides good resistance to impact
failure
 Surface Hardening Types

• Carburizing
• Nitriding
• Cyaniding
• Carbonitriding
• Induction Hardening
• Flame hardening
 Carburising
• Low carbon steels cannot be hardened by heating due to the small amounts (<0.3%C)
of carbon present.
• Case hardening seeks to give a hard outer skin over a softer core on the metal.
• The addition of carbon to the outer skin is known as carburising.
Process:
• Carburising process involves increasing the carbon contents on surface layers upto
about 0.7 - 0.8%
• In this process, the steel is heated in contact with cabonaceous material from which
it absorbs carbon
• This process is mostly used for securing hard and wear resistance surface with
tough core
• This processis done for Gears, Cams, Bearings, Clutches etc.
Three types of carburising processes
1. Pack Carburising
2. Gas Carburising
3. Liquid Carburising
Pack Carburising
 Pack Carburising Contd..

carbonatious mixture and reactions:

Charcoal - 85% (source of carbon)

BaCO3 - 12% (initiate the reaction)
CaCO3 - 3% (prevent caking of coal)
Reactions at 900°C:
BaCO3 BaO + CO2
CO2 + C 2CO
2CO + Fe CO2 + Fe(C)
 Pack carburising Contd..

• The component is packed surrounded

by a carbon-rich compound and
placed in the furnace at 900 degrees.
• Over a period of time carbon will
diffuse into the surface of the metal.
• The longer left in the furnace, the
greater the depth of hard carbon skin.
Grain refining is necessary in order to
prevent cracking.

Surface Characteristics:
• Surface Rc 50-60 (martensite or
tempered martensite)
• Interior Rc10-20 (pearlite)
 Post Carburising contd..
After the carburising take
out the sample and cool it to
room temperature and again
heat to austenite and then
quenched i.e. post
carburising
 Liquid Carburising

Salt Bath : NaCN - 17- 23%

BaCl2 - 15- 40%
NaCO3 - 20-30%
Na2CO3- 30% (max.)
Reactions at 880°C - 930°C :
2NaCN + O2 2NaCNO
4NaCNO 2NaCN + Na2CO3 + CO + 2N(Source
of nitrogen)
Fe + 2CO Fe(c) + CO2
(source of carbon)
BaCl2 + 2NaCN 2NaCl + Ba(CN)
Ba(CN)2 BaCN2 + C (source of carbon)
 Gas Carburising

Carrier Gas :N2 - 40%

H2 - 40%
CO - 20%
CO2 - 0.3%
H2O - 0.8%
O2 - (transverse)
Reactions at 900 - 950°C :
C3H8 CH4 + C
CH4 + Fe Fe(c) + 2H2
CH4 + CO2 2CO + 2H2
2CO + Fe Fe(c) + CO2
 Nitriding
• Nitriding involves diffusion of nitrogen into the product to form nitrides.
• The resulting nitride case can be harder than the carburised steel
• Suitable for Alloy Steels alloy elements like Cr, V, Al, W form as Nitrides at
the surface of the steel.
• Operating temperature below 600°C (< critical temp.)
2NH3 2N + 3H2
• The depth (0.2 - 0.4mm) to which nitrides are formed in steel depends on the
temperature and time allowed for reaction
• After nitriding the part is allowed to cool slowly in the retort
• Due to absence of quenching, the chances of cracking and distortion of
component are less.
• Nitriding increase wear and corrosion resistance and fatigue strength of steel.
• Since nitriding is done at low temperature, it requires more time than
carburising, and also the capital cost of plant is higher than carburising
 Cyaniding

• Cyaniding involves diffusion of carbon and nitrogen into the

surface of steel.
• The components are heated to a temperature of about 800 -
900°C in a molten cyanide bah consisting of sodium cyanide,
sodium carbonate and sodium chloride.
• After allowing the components in the bath for about 15 - 20
min. so that carbon and nitrogen diffuses upto a depth of
0.25mm. then they are quenched in oil or water.
• Because of shorter time cycles, the process widely used for the
machine components subjected to moderate wear and service
loads, like Ex: screws, small gears, nuts and bolts etc.
 Cyaniding

Cyanide bath: NaCN (25 - 90%)

BaCl2
NaCO3
calculated amount of O2
Reactions at temp. 800 - 900°C :
2NaCN + O2 2NaCNO
2NaCNO + O2 Na2O3 + CO +
2N(source)
2CO CO2 + C (source)
 CarboNitriding
carbonitriding is a surface hardening process that involves
diffusion of carbon and nitrogen.
case depth of diffusion is depends on the composition of steel and
other processing parameters. most of the cases it ranges from
0.05 - 0.75mm.
Carrier gas ( neutral )
CO2 - 0.5
CO - 20 - 25%
H2 - 30 - 40%
N2 - 40 - 45%
80% carrier gas + 15% NH3 + 5% CH4
reactions:
CH4 + Fe Fe(c) + 2H2
2CO CO2 + C
CH4 + CO2 2CO + 2H2
2CO + Fe Fe(c) + CO2
2NH3 2N + 3H2
 CarboNitriding Contd..

• Carbonitriding result in hard and wear resistant surface with

good fatigue strength.
• These process generally used for mild steels and low - alloy
steels, and specially effective for smaller to medium size parts
such as gears, pistons, pins, small shafts etc.
 Induction Hardening
• Induction hardening involves placing the steel components
within a coil through which high frequency current is passed.
• The current in the coil induce eddy current in the surface
layers and heated upto austenite state.
• Then the surface is immediately quenched with cold water to
get martensite
• Advantage over flame hardening is its speed and ability of
harden small parts.
• It is suitable for medium carbon and low - alloy steels.
• But it is costly process
Applications:
Crank Shafts, Cam Shafts, Connecting Rods, Gears and Cyliders,
etc.
Induction Hardening
 conclusions

• Power potential has major influence on the

surface hardness and case depth of induction
hardened components.
• It indicates that more the hardness and case
depth more will be the residual stress formed.
The residual stresses formed are compressive
in nature and it improves the fatigue strength
of the material.
 Flame hardening

• Gas flames raise the

temperature of the
outer surface above
the upper critical
temp. The core will
heat by conduction.
• Water jets quench the
component.
• During flame hardening,
the component and the
flame heads move
relative to one another.
 Age hardening
• Hardening over a period of time
• Also known as precipitation hardening
• Occurs in duraluminium which is an
aluminium alloy that contains 4% copper.
This makes this alloy very useful as it is
light yet reasonably hard and strong, it is
used in the space industry.
• The metal is heated and soaked (solution
treatment) then cooled and left.