Lag network characterization

Signals and Control lab
Experiment No. 1
PRE-DETERMINATION AND VERIFICATION OF FREQUENCY

RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF LAG NETWORK
AIM
 To design and setup a phase lag network of 300 at 200 Hz.

 To obtain it's Bode plot theoretically and experimentally.
 Find out asymptotic bode plot.
THEORY
Feedback control systems are often required to maintain specified minimum gain
margins and phase margins. This requirement is physically satisfied by incorporating
compensating networks in the forward and/or feedback paths.
In any control system we have an array of equipments called the plant to achieve
some given tasks. For example, let the given task be to maintain the speed of the given
spindle constant at a given value. We need a motor and a controllable power supply to
achieve this task. The power supply and the motor constitute the plant. we may require that
transient for a step input should have a certain specified settling time, or and an overshoot
not more thn some specified value and so on. These may be called objectives the resources
available to achieve these objectives may be limited, representing the constraints. The
constraints may be voltage or current of the power supply. The plant may not be able to
satisfy these objectives. In such cases we need some signal processing networks to bring the
systems within the bounds specified in the objectives. These network called compensating
networks, may be inserted into the system either in cascade with the forward element or as a
part of feedback elements. The cascade technique is usually concerned with the addition of
phase lag, phase lead or lag lead devices.
A compensator having the characteristics of a lag network is called a lag

compensator. When a sinusoidal signal is applied to lag network, then in steady state the
output will have a phase lag with respect to input. Here the pole is nearer to the origin
compared to zero, hence the effect of the pole is dominant. So, when this lag network is
introduced to the cascade forward path the phase shift is reduced. Bode plot of the
compensator reveals that it is essentially a low pass filter and a high frequency noise signal
is attenuated.
1
Dept. of Electrical Engineering College of Engineering Trivandrum
The general form of lead compensator transfer function is given by,
1
1 (𝑠+ ) 1+𝑠𝜏
𝐺𝑐 (𝑠) = ( 𝜏
1 )=( ) where 𝜏 > 0 and 𝛽 < 1 (2.1)
𝛽 (𝑠+ ) 1+𝛽𝑠𝜏
𝛼𝜏
Fig. 1.1 Pole-zero plot of lag compensator

Lag compensator results in a large improvement in steady state performance but results in
slower response due to reduced bandwidth. The attenuation due to lag compensator will
shift the gain crossover frequency to a lower frequency point where the phase margin is
acceptable. Thus the lag compensator will reduce the bandwidth of the system and will
result in lower transient response.
Fig. 1.2 Electrical lag network
2
The lag compensator can be realized by the RC network shown in fig.(1.2). let 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠)
be input voltage and 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) be the output voltage. In the network shown in fig.(1.2), the
input voltage is applied to a series combination of 𝑅1 , 𝑅2 and C. The output voltage is
obtained across series combination of 𝑅2 and C.
From the circuit diagram,
1 (1.2)
𝑒𝑖 = 𝑖𝑅1 + 𝑖𝑅2 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
1
𝑒0 = 𝑖𝑅2 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
On taking Laplace transform,
1 (1.3)
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) [𝑅2 + ] 𝑠𝐶𝑅2 +1 1+𝑅2 𝐶𝑠
𝑠𝐶
= 1 =𝑠𝐶(𝑅 = 𝑅 +𝑅
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅2 +𝑅1 +
𝑠𝐶 1 +𝑅2 )+1 1+( 1 2 )(𝑅2 𝐶𝑠)
𝑅1
Computing with the general form of lag compensator we obtain
𝑅1 +𝑅1
𝜏 = 𝑅2 𝐶 and 𝛽 = (1.4)
𝑅2
Similarly, frequency response of the lag compensator involves the analysis of

sinusoidal transfer function which is obtained by letting 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔
𝛼(1+𝑗𝜔𝜏)
𝐺𝑐 (𝑗𝜔) = (1+𝑗𝜔𝛽𝜏) (1.5)
1+𝑗𝜔𝜏 √1+(𝜔𝜏)2 tan−1 𝜔𝜏

𝐺𝑐 (𝑗𝜔) = 1+𝑗𝜔𝛽𝜏 = (1.6)
√1+(𝜔𝛽𝜏)2 tan−1 𝜔𝛽𝜏
The bode plot of lag compensator is shown in fig. (1.4). Lag compensator has two corner
1 1
frequencies, 𝜔𝑐1 = and 𝜔𝑐2 = . Also, it can be shown from the phase plot that the
𝛽𝜏 𝜏
maximum phase lag occurs at the geometric mean of the two corner frequencies.
1
Frequencies at maximum phase lag = 𝜔𝑚 = √𝜔𝑐1 𝜔𝑐2 = (1.7)
𝜏√𝛽
3
1−𝛽 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑
Maximum lag angle, 𝜑𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 [ ]or 𝛽 = 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑚 (1.8)
2√𝛽 𝑚
DESIGN
Step 1:
Find the relationship between 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 from the values of maximum lead angle.
Let 𝜑𝑚 = 30 at 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200𝐻𝑧
1−𝛽
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑚 = ;𝛽=3
1+𝛽
𝑅1 +𝑅1
𝛽= = 3; 𝑅1 = 2𝑅2
𝑅2
Step 2:
Find the value for time constant from the frequency at maximum lag
1
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥
√𝛽𝜏
1
𝜏= = 0.4599𝑚𝑠
√𝛽𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜏 = 𝑅2 𝐶
Step 3:
Choose an arbitrary value for C and find the value of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2
Choose 𝐶 = 0.022𝜇𝐹
𝜏
𝑅2 = = 20.904𝑘Ω
𝐶
𝑅1 = 2𝑅1 = 44𝑘Ω
Step 4:
Determine the corner frequencies
4
1
𝜔𝑐1 = = 725.53 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 = 115.47𝐻𝑧
𝛽𝜏
1
𝜔𝑐2 = = 2176.534 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 = 346.415 𝐻𝑧
𝜏
PROCEDURE
1. Wire up the circuit as per the diagram.

2. Apply a sinusoidal input of 10V(p-p)
3. Put the CRO in X-Y mode and give the input and output signals to the two channel
of the CRO simultaneously.
4. Observe the Lissajous pattern and take measurement.
5. Vary the frequency in steps and take readings.
LISSAJOUS PATTERN
Fig1.3 Lissajous pattern
TABULAR COLUMN
Table I Tabular column
Gain,
−1
𝑚
Sl.no. Frequency m n 𝜙 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝑛 𝐾 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝑉𝑖
5
Bode plots can be approximated with

straight-line segments that are
asymptotes.Straight lines meet at the corner
frequencies.
ACTUAL PLOT
Fig. 1.4 Bode plot of lag compensator
RESULT
 A phase lag network is realized

 Bode plot of lag compensator is obtained
Table II Results
Parameter Theoretical Practical

Maximum lag angle
Frequency at maximum lag
6
Experiment No. 2
PRE-DETERMINATION AND VERIFICATION OF FREQUENCY

RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS OF LEAD NETWORK
AIM
 To design and setup a phase lead network for maximum phase lead of 300 at 200
Hz.
 To obtain it's Bode plot theoretically and experimentally.
 Find out asymptotic bode plot.
THEORY
A compensator having the characteristics of a lead network is called a lead

compensator. When a sinusoidal signal is applied to lead network, then in steady state the
output will have a phase lead with respect to input. Lead compensator increases the
bandwidth which improves the speed of the response and also reduces the amount of
overshoot. Lead compensation appreciably improves the transient response, whereas there
is a small change in steady state accuracy.
Lead compensator is essentially a high pass filter and so noise signals are amplified.
1 1
The lead compensator has a zero at 𝑠 = − and a pole at 𝑠 = − . Here 𝛼 < 1, so the zero
𝜏 𝛼𝜏
is closer to the origin than the pole. The general form of lead compensator transfer function
is given by,
1
(𝑠+ ) 1+𝑠𝜏
𝐺𝑐 (𝑠) = 𝜏
1 = 𝛼 (1+𝛼𝑠𝜏 ) where 𝜏 > 0 and 𝛼 < 1 (2.1)
(𝑠+ )
𝛼𝜏
7
Fig. 2.1 Pole-zero plot of lead compensator

The lead compensator can be realized by the RC network shown in fig.(2.2). let
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) be input voltage and 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) be the output voltage. In the network shown in fig.(2.2),
the input voltage is applied to a series combination of 𝑅1 ||𝐶 and 𝑅2 . The output voltage is
obtained across 𝑅2 .
Fig. 2.2 Electrical lead network
From the circuit diagram,
𝑒𝑖 − 𝑒𝑜 𝑑 𝑒𝑜 (2.2)
+ 𝐶 (𝑒𝑖 − 𝑒𝑜 ) =
𝑅1 𝑑𝑡 𝑅2
On taking Laplace transform,
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) (2.3)

+ 𝐶𝑠(𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)) =
𝑅1 𝑅2
(2.4)
8
(2.5)
1 1 1
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) ( + 𝐶𝑠) = 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) ( + + 𝐶𝑠)
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅1
1
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) [𝑠 + ]
𝑅1 𝐶
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑠 + (𝑅2 + 𝑅1 ) 1
𝑅2 𝑅1 𝐶
Computing with the general form of lead compensator we obtain 𝜏 = 𝑅1 𝐶 and𝛼 =

𝑅2
𝑅1 +𝑅2
Similarly, frequency response of the lead compensator involves the analysis of

sinusoidal transfer function which is obtained by letting 𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔
𝛼(1 + 𝑗𝜔𝜏)
𝐺𝑐 (𝑗𝜔) = (2.6)
(1 + 𝑗𝜔𝛼𝜏)
Note: In case 𝛼 is assumed to be eliminated by suitable amplification network, 𝐺𝑐 (𝑗𝜔) can

be written as in eqn (2.6)
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝜏 √1 + (𝜔𝜏)2 tan−1 𝜔𝜏 (2.7)

𝐺𝑐 (𝑗𝜔) = =
1 + 𝑗𝜔𝛼𝜏 √1 + (𝜔𝛼𝜏)2 tan−1 𝜔𝛼𝜏
The bode plot of lead compensator is shown in fig. (2.4). Lead compensator has two corner
1 1
frequencies, 𝜔𝑐1 = and 𝜔𝑐2 = . Also, it can be shown from the phase plot that the
𝜏 𝛼𝜏
maximum phase lead occurs at the geometric mean of the two corner frequencies.
1
Frequencies at maximum phase lead = 𝜔𝑚 = √𝜔𝑐1 𝜔𝑐2 = (2.8)
𝜏√𝛼
1−𝛼 1−𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑚
Maximum lead angle, 𝜑𝑚 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 [ ]or 𝛼 = (2.9)
2 √𝛼 1+𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑚
DESIGN
Step 1:
Find the relationship between 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 from the values of maximum lead angle.
9
Let 𝜑𝑚 = 30 at 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200𝐻𝑧
1−𝛼 1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜑𝑚 = 1+𝛼 ; 𝛼 = 3
𝑅2 1
𝛼= = ; 𝑅1 = 2𝑅2
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 3
Step 2:
Find the value for time constant from the frequency at maximum lead
1
𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 2𝜋𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 400𝜋
√𝛼𝜏
1
𝜏= = 1.3783𝑚𝑠
√𝛼𝜔𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜏 = 𝑅1 𝐶
Step 3:
Choose an arbitrary value for C and find the value of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2
Choose 𝐶 = 0.022𝜇𝐹
𝜏
𝑅1 = = 62.65𝑘Ω
𝐶
𝑅2 = 0.5𝑅1 = 31.14𝑘Ω
Step 4:
Determine the corner frequencies
1
𝜔𝑐1 = = 725.53 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 = 115.47𝐻𝑧
𝜏
1
𝜔𝑐2 = = 2176.534 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 = 346.415 𝐻𝑧
𝛼𝜏
PROCEDURE
6. Wire up the circuit as per the diagram.

7. Apply a sinusoidal input of 10V(p-p)
10
8. Put the CRO in X-Y mode and give the input and output signals to the two channel
of the CRO simultaneously.
9. Observe the Lissajous pattern and take measurement.
10. Vary the frequency in steps and take readings.
LISSAJOUS PATTERN
Fig. 2 Lissajous pattern
TABULAR COLUMN
Table III Tabular column
Gain,
𝑚
Sl.no. Frequency m n 𝜙 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑜 1 𝑉𝑜
𝑛 𝐾 = 20𝑙𝑜𝑔
𝛼 𝑉𝑖
11
ACTUAL PLOT
Fig. 3.4 Bode plot of lead compensator
12
Bode plots can be approximated with straight-line segments that are asymptotes.Straight
lines meet at the corner frequencies. (here upper and lower corner frequencies 𝜔𝑐1 and
𝜔𝑐2 ).
RESULT
 A phase lead network is realized

 Bode plot of lead compensator is obtained
Table IV Results
Parameter Theoretical Practical

Maximum lead angle 300
Frequency at maximum lead 200Hz
13
Experiment No. 3
3(a) STEP RESPONSE OF A FIRST ORDER SYSTEM
AIM
To find the response of a first order system for a step input.
THEORY
In the study of control systems linear constant coefficient first order

differential equations of the form
𝑑𝑦
𝜏 + 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 (3.1)
𝑑𝑡
Applying Laplace Transform,
𝜏𝑠𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑌 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑋(𝑠) (3.2)
𝑌 (𝑠)[1 + 𝑠𝜏] = 𝐾𝑋(𝑠)

(3.3)
The transfer function obtained is given below,
𝐘(𝐬) 𝐊 (3.4)
𝑮(𝑺) = =
𝐗(𝐬) 𝟏 + 𝐬𝛕
Now consider the RC circuit which is a example for first order system,
Laplace transform on both sides of the above equations we get
1 1
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) = 𝑅𝐼 (𝑠) + 𝐼 (𝑠) ; 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝐼 (𝑠) 𝑜𝑟 (3.5)
𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑠
𝐼 (𝑠) = 𝐶𝑠𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)
1
From equation (3.5) 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) = (𝑅 + ) 𝐶𝑠𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) (3.6)
𝐶𝑠
14
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 1
Transfer function = = (3.7)
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅𝐶𝑠+1
Comparing equation (3.6) with equation (3.3), we get 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶
Rise Time is the time takenby the step response to go from 10% to 90% of the
steady-state value and theoretically calculated as 𝑡𝑟 = 2.2𝜏.
Delay Time is the time takenby the step response to reach 50% of the steady-
state value and theoretically calculated as 𝑡𝑑 = 0.69𝜏.
CONNECTION DIAGRAM
Figure 3.1 First Order RC circuit
Fig. 3.2 First order system response
15
DESIGN
Assume C = 0.1µF, 𝛕 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝐬
Design the value of R for the given value of C and 𝜏
PROCEDURE
1. Set up the circuit as shown in the figure.

2. A step input of 10V is given. The 1kHz frequency square wave can be
considered as a step input.
3. The output response across the capacitor is then measured using a CRO.
4. Also plot the response.
RESULT
The step response of a first order system (R-C circuit) was obtained and
plotted. The transient response parameters for underdamped system are,
Parameter Practical Theoretical

Rise Time (𝑡𝑟 )
Delay Time (𝑡𝑑 )
Settling Time (𝑇𝑠 )
16
3(b) STEP RESPONSE OF A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM
AIM
To find the transient response of a second order system for a step input.
THEORY
In the study of control systems linear constant coefficient second order

𝑑 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 (3.1)
2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑦 = 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Are very important because higher order systems can often be approximated
by second order system. The constant 𝛿 is called the damping ratio.𝛿𝜔𝑛 is
called the damping coefficient and 𝜔𝑛 is called the undamped natural
frequency of the system. In the above equation x is the input ,y is the output
and both are the functions of time. Taking Laplace transform on both sides of
the equation and considering zero initial conditions we get
(𝑠 2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 )𝑌(𝑠) = 𝜔𝑛2 𝑋(𝑠) (3.2)
The transfer function of the system is written as
𝒀(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (3.3)

𝑮( 𝒔 ) = =
𝑿(𝒔) 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐𝜹𝝎𝒏𝒔 + 𝝎𝟐𝒏
Now consider the RLC circuit which is a typical example for second order
system with 𝑒𝑖 (𝑡) as input and 𝑒𝑜 (𝑡) as output.
𝑑𝑖 1 1
𝑒𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 + ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑒𝑜 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 (3.4)
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝐶
Taking Laplace transform on both sides of the above equations we get
17
(3.5)
1 1
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) = 𝑅𝐼 (𝑠) + 𝐿𝑠𝐼 (𝑠) + 𝐼 (𝑠) ; 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) = 𝐼 (𝑠) 𝑜𝑟
𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑠
𝐼 (𝑠) = 𝐶𝑠𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)

1
From equation (3.5) 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) = (𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠 + ) 𝐶𝑠𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) (3.6)
𝐶𝑠
1
𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 1 𝐶𝐿
Transfer function = = = 𝑅 1
(3.7)
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑅𝐶𝑠+𝐶𝐿𝑠 2 +1 𝑠 2 + 𝑠+
𝐿 𝐶𝐿
1
Comparing equation (3.6) with equation (3.3), we get 𝜔𝑛2 = 𝑜𝑟 𝜔𝑛 =
𝐶𝐿
1
√𝐶𝐿
𝑅 𝑅 𝐶
Or 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 = 𝑜𝑟 𝛿 = √ (3.8)
𝐿 2 𝐿
TRANSIENT RESPONSE
Damping ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual damping to the

critical damping. The response of the second order system depends on the
value of damping ratio. Depending on the value of damping ratio, the system
can be classified in to the following four types,
1. Undamped System (𝛿 = 0)
2. Underdamped System (0 < 𝛿 < 1)
3. Critically damped System (𝛿 = 1)
4. Over damped System (𝛿 > 1)
The transient response of a typical underdamped system may be characterized

by the following parameters
18
1. Rise Time (𝑡𝑟 ): Time taken by the waveform to go from 0.1 of the final
value to 0.9 of the final value.
𝜋−∅
𝑡𝑟 = 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 ∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1(𝜁)
𝜔𝑑
2. Peak Time (𝑡𝑝 ): Time taken to reach the first or maximum peak.
𝜋
𝑡𝑝 =
𝜔𝑑
3. Delay Time (𝑡𝑑 ): Time taken by response to change from zero to fifty
percent of the steady state value.
1 + 0.7𝜁
𝑡𝑑 =
𝜔𝑛
4. Peak or Maximum Overshoot ( 𝑀𝑝 ): The amount that the wave
overshoot the steady state, or final value at peak time.
−𝜁𝜋
[ ]
√1−𝜁 2
𝑀𝑝 = 𝑒
5. Settling Time ( 𝑇𝑠 ): The time required for the transient’s damped
oscillations to reach and stay within ±2% or±3% of the steady state
value.
3
𝑡𝑠 ≃ 5% 𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜁𝜔𝑛
4
𝑡𝑠 ≃ 2% 𝑡𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝜁𝜔𝑛
19
Figure 3.3 Second Order Responses for different damping ratios
CONNECTION DIAGRAM
Figure 3.4 Second Order R-L-C circuit
DESIGN
Three different cases of damping is to be considered during the design
 𝛿 = 0.5 (underdamped)
 𝛿 = 1.0 (critically damped)
 𝛿 = 2 (over damped)
20
Assume C = 0.1µF, L = 1.7 H.
Design the value of R or the given value of C and L, for above cases.
PROCEDURE
1. Set up the circuit as shown in the figure.

2. A step input of 10V is given. A very low frequency (say 50 Hz) square
wave can be considered as a step input.
3. The output response across the capacitor is then measured using a CRO.
4. Also plot the variation in maximum overshoot with variation in 𝛿 from 0
to 1.
RESULT
The step response of a second order system (R-L-C circuit) was obtained and
plotted. The transient response parameters for underdamped system are,
Parameters Practical Theoretical

Rise Time (𝑡𝑟 )
Peak Time (𝑡𝑝 )
Delay Time (𝑡𝑑 )
Peak or Maximum Overshoot
(𝑀𝑝 )
Settling Time (𝑇𝑠 )
21
EXPERIMENT NO 4
TRANSFER FUNCTION OF DC SERVO MOTOR
AIM
To obtain the transfer function of a given DC Shunt motor under the constant field
excitation (armature controlled) and to develop the overall block diagram.
THEORY
The major phenomenon influencing the steady state and the transient performance of a DC
motor are
The rise and fall of armature and field currents and the electromagnetic interaction between
these circuits
 The electromechanical behaviour of the rotational system characterised by moment

of inertia ,friction and damping due to mechanical iron losses and load torque
 In armature controlled motor variation in armature current following an applied
voltage is given by
dia
V  Eb  ia Ra +L a where Eb  ke (4.1)
dt
Also Torque developed is given by Td  kt ia
d
Td  j  B  TL
dt (4.2)
Taking Laplace transform
V (s)  Eb (s)  ia ( s) Ra +sLaia ( s) where Eb  ke( s) (4.3)
Td  kt ia ( s) (4.4)
Also Td (s)  sJ  (s)  B ( s)  TL ( s) (4.5)
22
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Fig 5.1 No load experiment and retardation test
Fig 5.2 Determination of Ra
Fig 5.2 Determination of La
23
PROCEDURE
NO Load Test
1. Set the circuit as shown in fig (5.1). 200 V dc is obtaining from a 3-ph bridge circuit
controlled by 3- ph autotransformer
2. First wire up the circuit to rectifier output only
3. Then adjust the autotransformer so as to obtain say 200V dc at the output terminals
of the rectifier circuit ad note the tap position and switch off
4. Thereafter complete the connection and turn the autotransformer to the previously
marked position. Thus the dc input voltage to the motor is preset to the rated value
of 200V
5. The dc motor is started by following the usual starting procedure.
6. Adjust the field rheostat so that the field current is constant near the rated excitation
7. By varying the armature voltage the motor is run for a range of speeds
8. Tabulate the speeds and a voltages and currents
9. Calculate the no load power input to meet the losses
Determination of Ra and La
By varying the voltage applied to the armature circuit and measuring the current the
parameters Ra and La are obtained. The machine should be at standstill and the
average over a set of reading is taken
Retardation Test
1. The same set up as for no load test is used here. The input dc voltage is preset as
mentioned in the no load test
2. The field current is set at a constant value as before
3. The machine is run at a speed above rated rpm and the armature circuit is
disconnected by the opening switch s
4. As the machine coasts to a standstill reading of the rpm Vs time is recorded.
5. Field must be kept excited to take proper account of hysteresis and eddy current
losses
24
Fig4.4 basic Block diagram
Observations
NO load test
Retardation test
25
Sample graphs
Fig4.5
Fig 4.6
26
Transfer function calculation:
Gain coefficient ke = (slope of Eb vs ὡ curve)
ke  kb  kt 
B= (Slope of P/ὡ vs ὡ curve)
kt
k = (4.6)
Ra B
From retardation test
d

dt
A  B
j (4.7)
d / dt
J
Mechanical time constant = Tm  = (4.8)
B
k
Transfer function of DC shunt motor  kt k e (4.9)
(1  sTa )(1  sTm )  ( )
BRa
27
Result
Overall transfer function is
 ( s) 1

V ( s) (1  s a )(1  s m )  kt ke / Ra B
The block diagram of the system is
28
Experiment No. 5
SYNCHRO TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER
AIM:
1. To plot the variation of the synchro transmitter voltage with rotor position.
2. To study the rotor position of synchro transmitter and receiver.
THEORY:
Synchros are electromechanical devices resembling electric motors. Functionally,

they resemble transformers whose primary to secondary magnetic coupling may be varied
by physically changing the relative orientation of the two windings. By their inherent
physical properties and mechanical & electrical designs, Synchro make possible the
accurate transmission and reproduction to a remote location of any data or information
which can be converted to angular rotation.
CONSTRUCTION AND WORKING:
Synchro is essentially a transformer, in which the coupling between the winding

may be varied by rotating one winding. The fixed winding is wound in the iron slots of the
laminated iron stack called stator, while the rotating winding is wound on a laminated iron
stack, mounted on a shaft, forming the rotor. A Synchro transmitter consists of a single
phase rotor magnetically coupled to a 3-phase Y-connected stator. When an ac voltage is
applied to the rotor, voltages are induced in each of the stator phases. These induced
voltages vary directly, as the sine of the angle between the actual rotor position and a zero
reference position.
When the three stator leads of the transmitter ‘TX’ are connected to the Y-connected
stator of a second Synchro ‘TR’ , these voltages produce a resultant stator field in the
second Synchro, having the same angular orientation with respect to its zero reference as
the transmitter rotor. When the second Synchro, ‘TR’ has its single phase rotor winding
connected to the same power supply that energizes the transmitter rotor, the rotor aligns
itself to the same angle as the transmitter rotor. The Synchro ‘TR’ is called as receiver. The
transmitter and receiver are generally identical in construction.
29
Fig. 5.1. Synchro transmitter-receiver
Fig. 5.2. Basic block diagram
PRINCIPLE APPLICATION:
Torque Synchro system for remote indication will meet the demand for a simple,
robust and accurate method of transmitting functional information to a remote observation
point. The receiver is connected only electrically to the transmitter and can be remotely
located. With proper cables the distance between the transmitter and receiver can be as far
as 5 km. Pointer mounted on the receiver shaft will smoothly follow the motion of the
transmitter shaft.
ADVANTAGES:
1. Sometimes more than one receiver can be driven from one transmitter for remote
indication at more than one place.
30
2. Transmission is self synchronizing, i.e., the receiver rotor will align itself to the
correct position as soon as power is switched on.
3. Neither the receiver nor the transmitter have any mechanical stops and can go
through any number of revolutions.
APPLICATIONS:
Owing to the simple construction, the torque-synchros provide the equivalent of a flexible
mechanical connection between two or more remotely placed shafts and are oftenused in
situations where purely mechanical links fail or are impractical.
1. Remote dial indication of angular position.

2. Remote positioning of low torque mechanisms.
PROCEDURE:
1. To plot the variation of the synchro transmitter voltage with rotor position.
 Connect Digital Voltmeter across the any two stator output of synchro transmitter.
 ON main AC line.
 Power ‘ON’ the ON/OFF switches, now rotor R1 and R2 will be supplied with
115V.
 Verify the stator output voltage of 0V at 0 degree, if it is not make 0V at 0 degree by
adjusting the pointer of both transmitter and receiver.
 Adjust the transmitter rotor position step by step.
 Now note down the output voltage for various rotor position in the table.
 Repeat the same procedure for other pair of synchro transmitter coils.
ROTOR STATOR TERMINAL VOLTAGE

POSITION VS1VS2 VS3VS1 VS2VS3
0o
60o
31
120o
180o
240o
300o
Now, plot the graph with rotor position along X-axis and stator terminal voltages along Y-
axis.
2. To study the rotor position of synchro transmitter and receiver.
 Connect Digital Voltmeter across to the any two stator output of synchro
transmitter.
 Connect synchro transmitter stator outputs to corresponding stator terminals of
synchro receiver.
 ON main AC line.
 Power ‘ON’ the ON/OFF swiches, now rotor R1 and R2 will be supplied with
115V.
 Connect synchro transmitter rotor terminals to the corresponding rotor terminals of
synchro receiver.
 Verify the stator output voltage 0V at 0 degree, if it is not make 0V at 0 degree by
adjusting the pointer of both transmitter and receiver.
 Adjust the transmitter rotor position step by step using the knob.
 Now note down the rotor positon of transmitter and receiver in the table.
Synchro Transmitter Synchro Receiver Rotor

Rotor position (degree) position (degree)
32
Now, plot the graph with rotor position of transmitter along X-axis and rotor position of
receiver along Y-axis.
RESULTS:
1. The synchro transmitter stator output voltage with respect to rotor position was
studied and the graph was plotted.
2. The rotor position of synchro transmitter and receiver was studied.
33
Experiment No.6
STUDY OF MATLAB AND CONTROL SYSTEM TOOLBOX
AIM
 To study MATLAB and to work out problems using control system toolbox
INTRODUCTION
MATLAB is a high performance language for technical computing. It
integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where
problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation. The name MATLAB stands
for matrix laboratory. Typical uses include Math and Computation Algorithm development,
including graphical user interface building.
There are also several optional toolboxes available from the developer of
MATLAB. These toolboxes are collections of functions written for special applications such
as symbolic computations, image processing, statics, control system design/ neural network
etc.
The basic building block of MATLAB is a matrix. The fundamental data type
is the array. Vectors, scalars, real and complex numbers are all automatically handled as
the special cases of basic data type.
Elementary Matrix Operations
In MATLAB, a matrix is entered with a rectangular array of numbers surrounded by

brackets. The elements in each row are separated by blanks or comma. A semicolon is used to
indicate the end of a row, In MATLAB, ‘:’ is used to generate a row vector.
J:K is same as [J J+1…………….K]
J:K is empty if J>K
34
J:D:K is same as [J J+D ................ J + m*D]
J:D:K is empty if D>0 and J>K or if D<0 and J<K
Colon(J,K) is same as J:K
Colon(J,D,K) is same as J:D:K
A=[1 2 3;4 5 6;7 8 9] gives result as
A=
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
COMMANDS
 inv - Matrix inverse
Y=inv(X) returns the inverse of the square matrix X.A warning message is printed if X is
badly scaled or nearly singular.
 conv - Convolution and polynomial multiplication

w = conv (u, v) convolves vectors u and v. Algebraically, convolution is the same
operation as multiplying the polynomials whose coefficients are the elements of u and v.
C=conv (…,’shape’ ) returns a subsection of the convolution, as specified by the
shape parameter.
 si ze - Array dimension s
d=size (X)
[m,n] =size(X)
m=size (X, dim)

[ d l , d 2 , d 3 , . . . , dn ] = s i z e ( X )
35
d = size (X) returns the sizes of each dimension of array X in a vector d with
ndims(X) elements. If X is a scalar, which MATLAB software regards as a 1-by-1
array.size(X) returns the vector [1 1].
[m, n] = size (X) returns the size of matrix X in separate variables m and n.
m = size (X, dim) returns the size of the dimension of X specified by scalar dim.
 plot – 2-D line p lot
plot (Y)
p lo t ( X1, Y1 ,. .., Xn, Yn)
p lo t(X1,Y1,…,Xn, Yn , LineSpe c)
plot (X1,Y1,LineSpec,'PropertyName',PropertyValue)
plot(a)
h = plot(X1,Y1,LineSpec,'PropertyName',PropertyValue
plot (Y) plots the columns of Y versus the index of each value when Y is a
realnumber. For complex Y, plot (Y) is equivalent to plot ( real ( Y) imaq (Y) ).
 Subplot- Create axes in tiled positions
h — s u bp lo t ( m, n, p ) o r s u b p lo t ( m np )
subp lo t ( m, n, p, ' r eplace ' )
subplot (m, n, P)
subplot (h)
s u b p lo t ( 'P o s it io n ' , [ l e ft bo t t o m w i d t h h e i g ht ] )
subp lo t (..., pro pl, va lue1, pro p2, va lue2, ...)
h — subplot ( )
subplot ( m, n,p, ’v6’)
36
subplot divides the current figure into rectangular panes that are numbered row wise.
Each pane contains an axes object which you can manipulate using Axes Properties.
Subsequent plots are output to the current pane.
h = subplot (m, n, p) or subplot (mnp) breaks the figure window into an m-by--
n matrix of small axes, selects the𝑝𝑡ℎ , axes object for the current plot, and returns the axes
handle. The axes are counted along the top row of the figure window, then the second
row, etc. For example,
subplot (2, 1, 1) , plot ( inco me)
s u bp lo t ( 2, 1, 2 ) , p lo t ( o ut g o )
plots income on the top half of the window and outgo on the bottom half, if the
Current Axes is nested in a uipanel, the panel is used as the parent for the subplot instead
of the current figure. The new axes object becomes the current axes.
 eig – Eigen values and eigen vectors
d=eig( A)
d=eig(A,B)
[V,D]=eig (A)
[V,D]=eig(A,‘nobalance’) [V,D]=e
ig (A, B)
[V, D] =eig ( A, B, flag)
d = eig (A) returns a vector of the eigenvalues of matrix A.
d = eig (A, B) returns a vector containing the generalized eigcnvalues, if A and B are
square matrices.
 roots - Polynomial roots

r = root s ( c)
37
r = roots (c) returns a column vector whose elements are the roots of the
polynomial
 ss - specify state-space models or convert LTI Imodel to state space

s ys= ss ( a, b, c, d)
s ys = s s ( a , b, c, d, T s)
sys=ss (d)
s ys = s s ( a , b, c, d, l t is ys )
sys_ ss = ss (sys)
ss is used to create real- or complex-valued, state-space models (SS objects) or to

convert transfer function or zero-pole-gain models to state space.
 tf - Create or convert to transfer function model
tf
s ys=t f ( nu m, de n)
sys=t f (num, den, Ts)
sys=t f (M)
s ys =t f ( nu m, d e n, lt is ys )
t f s ys = t f ( s ys )
tf is used to create real- or complex-valued transfer function models (TF: objects) or to

convert slate-space or zero-pole-gain models to transfer function form.
 tf2ss - Create or convert to transfer function model
[A,B,C,D] = t f2 s s ( b, a )
tf2ss converts the parameters of a transfer function representation of a given system to those of
an equivalent state-space representation.
38
[A, B, C, D] = tf2ss (b, a) returns the A, B, C, and D matrices of a state space

representation for the single-input transfer function.
 ss2tf - Convert state-space fitter parameters to transfer function form
[ b, a] = ss2t f (A, B,C, D, iu)
ss2tf converts a state-space representation of a given system to an equivalent transfer function

representation.
[ b , a] = ss2tf (A, B, C, D, iu) returns the transfer function
 step - Generate step function
The Step block provides a step between two definable levels at a specified time. If
the simulation time is less than the Step time parameter value, the block's output is the
Initial value parameter value. For simulation time greater than or equal to the Step time, the
output is the Final value parameter value.
The block's numeric parameters must be of the same dimensions after scalar
expansion. If the Interpret vector parameters as 1- Doption is off, the block outputs a signal
of the same dimensions and dimensionality as the parameters. If the Interpret vector
parameters as 1-Doption is on and the numeric parameters are row or column vectors (i.e.,
single row or column 2-D arrays), the block outputs a vector (1-D array) signal; otherwise,
the block outputs a signal of the same dimensionality and dimensions as the parameters.
 rlocu s - Evan s root locu s
rlocus
rlocus (sys)
r lo cus ( sys l, sys2, … )
rlocus computes the Evans root locus of a SISO open-loop model. The root locus gives
the closed--loop pole trajectories as a function of the feedback gain (assuming negative
feedback). Root loci are used to study the effects of varying feedback gains on closed-loop
39
pole locations. In turn, these locations provide indirect information on the time and
frequency responses.
 bode - Bode diagram of frequency response
bode
bode (sys)
bode(sys,w)
bo d e ( s ys l, s ys2 , … , s ysN )
bode(sys l,s ys2,...,sysN , w)

bo de( s ys l, 'P lo t St yle l', . . . , sys N, 'P lo t S t yleN ')
bode computes the magnitude and phase of the frequency response of LTI models.
When you invoke this function without left-side arguments, bode produces a Bode plot
on the screen. The magnitude is plotted in decibels (dB), and the phase in degrees. The
decibel calculation for magnitude is computed as 20log io. You can use bode plots to
analyze system properties such as the gain margin, phase margin, DC gain, bandwidth,
disturbance rejection, and stability.
 Margin - Gain and phase margins and associated crossover frequencies
margin
[Gm, Prn,Wg,Wp] = margin (sys)
[Gm, P m, wg,Wp] = margin ( mag,phase,w)
margin calculates the minimum gain margin, G m, phase margin, P m, and associated
crossover frequencies of S1S0 open-loop models, 𝑤𝑔 and 𝑤𝑝 . The gain and phase
margins indicate the relative stability of the control system when the loop is closed.
When invoked without left-hand arguments, margin produces a Bode plot and displays the
margins on this plot
 logspace - Generate logarithmically spaced vectors
40
y = lo g s p a c e ( a , b)
y = lo g sp ace( a, b, n)
y = lo g sp ace( a, p i)
The logspace function generates logarithmically spaced vectors. Especially useful for
creating frequency vectors, it is a logarithmic equivalent of linspace and the ":" or colon
operator.
y=loospace(a,b) generates a row vector y of 50 logarithmically spaced pointsbetween decades

10â and 10^b,
y=logspace( a,b,n) generates n points between decades 10a and 10b .
y=logspace(a,pi) generates the points between 10a and pi, which is useful for digital signal
processing where frequencies over this interval go around the unit circle.
 nyquist- Nyquist plot of LTI models
nyquist
nyquist (sys)
nyquist(sys,w)
nyquist(sys1,sys2,...,sysN)
nyquist(sysl,sys2,...,sysN,w)
nyquistcalculates the Nyquist frequency response of LTI models. When invoked without
left-hand arguments. nyquist produces a Nyquist plot on the screen. Nyquist plots are used to
analyze system properties including gain margin, phase margin. and stability.
 nichols - Nichols plot of LTI models
nichols
nichols (sys)
nichols(sys,w)
nichols(sysl,sys2,...,sysN,w)
41
nichols computes the frequency response or an LTI model and plots it in the Nichols
coordinates. Nichols plots are useful to analyze open- and closed-loop properties of SISO
systems, but offer little insight into MIMO control loops. Use ngrid to superimpose a Nichols
chart on an existing SISO Nichols plot.
 grid - Grid lines for 2-D and 3-D plots
grid on
grid off
grid
grid(axes handle,...)
grid minor
The gr id function turns the current axes' grid lines on and off.
grid on adds major grid lines to the current axes.
gridof f removes major and minor grid lines from the current axes.
grid toggles the major grid visibility state.
• hold - Retain current graph in figure
ho ld on
ho ld o ff
ho ld a ll
ho ld
ho ld( axes_ hand le, .. .)
The hold function determines whether new graphics objects are added to the graph or
replace objects in the graph.
42
hold on retains the current plot and certain axes properties so that subsequent graphing commands add
to the existing graph.
holdoff resets axes properties to their defaults before drawing new plots. Hold off is the
default.
holdall. holds the plot and the current line color and line style so that subsequent plotting
commands do not reset the color order and color order property values to the beginning of the list.
Plotting commands continue cycling through the predefined colors and line styles from where the
last plot stopped in the list.
hold toggles the hold state between adding to the graph and replacing the graph.
EXERCISE
𝐸0 (𝑠)
1. Find the transfer functions for the R-C network shown in fig 6.1 and obtain
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠)
step response using MATLAB. Take R=1kΩ, C=10μF.
Fig. 6.1: R-C Network
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 1
𝐸0 (𝑠) = 1 × or
𝑅+𝑠𝐶 𝑠𝐶
𝐸0 (𝑠) 1
=
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) 1+𝑠𝐶𝑅
43
MATLAB Program:
R=1000;
C=10*10^(-6) ;
num= [1]
den= [R*C 1] ;
sys=tf (num, den)
st ep ( s ys )
44
Step Response:
Fig. 6.2: Step Response
2. .Using MATLAB find the poles of the system given by
G(s)=1 / (s6 + 16. 5 s5 + 165 s4 + 1075 s3 + 4688 s2 + 12500s+15625)
And also plot the pole zero map and root locus.
MatlabProgram :
num=[1];
45
den=[1 16.5 165 1075 4688 12500 15625];
sys=tf(num,den);
eig (sys)
figure(1); figure(2);
pzmap(sys);
rlocus (sys) ;
Fig.6.3: Pole-zero plot
46
Fig.6.4: Root Locus
Poles: -1.3159∓6.1956i , -3.2119∓3.826i , -3.7221∓-1.3238i
3. Using MATLAB
For the system shown below,
0.5𝑠+1
G(s) =
𝑠 3 +1.2𝑠 2 +1.6𝑠+1
47
Find:
(1)Closed loop transfer function
(2)Pole-Zero map
(3)Step response
(4)Bode plot, Root Locus, Gain margin, Phase margin
(5)Comment on stability of the system
RESULT
MATLAB familiarized.
48
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
7(a). FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF FIRST ORDER SYSTEM
A first order system or network is one that contains but a single energy storage element
such as an inductor or capacitor. Each of these elements, either singly or in combination
and in association with resistors, may be arranged in series, parallel, series-parallel or
parallel-series.Whatever the arrangement, the differential equation that governs the
behaviour of the network is of first order.Below two classical examples of first order
systems are shown.
EXAMPLE 1
Using the voltage divider rule:
𝑉𝑖 × 𝑋𝑐
𝑉0 =
𝑅 + 𝑋𝑐
1 1
But 𝑋𝑐 = =
𝑗𝜔𝑐 𝑗2𝜋𝑓𝐶
1
𝑉𝑖 ×𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑉𝑖
Then 𝑉0 = 1 =
𝑅+𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅+1
1
𝑉0 1 𝐶𝑅
T(j𝜔)= = = 1 ……………………(1)
𝑉𝑖 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅+1 𝑗𝜔+𝐶𝑅
Since s=j𝜔 then the transfer function is frequency dependent.
49
1
𝑉 𝑉 1 1
𝑖
𝑉0 = 𝑆𝐶𝑅+1 = 𝑉0 = 𝑆𝐶𝑅+1= 1 = 𝐶𝑅
1
𝑖 𝐶𝑅(𝑠+ ) 𝑆+
𝐶𝑅 𝐶𝑅
1
We can set ∝= 𝐶𝑅 ,
𝑉0 𝛼
And transfer function T(s)= = ……………….(2)
𝑉𝑖 𝛼+𝑆
1
It is obvious that we have a single pole at S=-𝛼 = − 𝐶𝑅 . By this method we can examine
the frequency response of this circuit. Gain varies with frequency.
Gain in decibels=G(db)=20log(Vo/Vi)
Plotting the gain response graph we obtain:
Pole – Zero Diagram
50
Example-2
By simply interchanging the two components of the circuit we have:
Vi ∗R 1
Vi = and as before𝑋𝑐 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶 so we get ,
R+Xc
𝑉 𝑅 𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅
T(j𝜔) = 𝑉0 = 1 = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅+1 => T(j𝜔) =𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅+1 ……………….(1)
𝐼 𝑅+
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑗𝜔𝐶
𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝑗𝜔
T(j𝜔) = 𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑅+1 = 1 => T(j𝜔)= 1 ………………….(2)
𝐶𝑅 ( +𝑗𝜔) 𝑗𝜔+
𝐶𝑅 𝐶𝑅
𝑆𝐶𝑅 𝑆𝐶𝑅
By substituting S= 𝑗𝜔 => T(s)= 𝑆𝐶𝑅+1 = 1 =>
𝐶𝑅 ( +𝑆)
𝐶𝑅
𝑆
T(S)= 1 ….(3)
𝑆+
𝐶𝑅
1 𝑗𝜔
We get 𝛼 = and get T(s) =𝛼+𝑗𝜔 …………………..(4)
𝑅𝐶
51
This would result an amplitude response of the form:
Plotting the Pole – Zero Diagram
52
7(b). FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF SECOND ORDER SYSTEM
AIM:
1. To find the frequency response of second order system.
INTRODUCTION:
In the study of control systems linear constant coefficient second order

𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+2𝛿𝑤𝑛 + +𝑤𝑛 2y = 𝑤𝑛 2x
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
are very important because higher order systems can often be approximated by second
order system. The constant 𝛿is called the damping ratio. So 𝛿𝑤𝑛 is called the damping
coefficient and 𝑤𝑛 , is called the undamped natural frequency of the system. In the
above equation x is the input,and y is the output and both are functions of time. Taking
Laplace Transform on both sides of the equation and considering zero initial
conditions we get
(𝑠 2 +2𝛿𝑤𝑛 𝑠 + 𝑤𝑛 2 )𝑌(𝑠) = 𝑤𝑛 2 X(s)
The transfer function of the system is written as
𝑌(𝑆) 𝑤 2
G(s) = 𝑋(𝑆) = 𝑠 2+2𝛿𝑤𝑛 𝑠+𝑤 2 (1)
𝑛 𝑛
Now consider an RLC circuit which is a typical example for second order system
with 𝑒𝑖 (𝑡)𝑎𝑠 input and 𝑒𝑜 (𝑡)as output
𝑑𝑖 1 1
𝑒𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 ; 𝑒𝑜 (𝑡) = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡
𝐶
Taking Laplace transform on both sides of the above equations we get
1 1
𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) = RI(s)+LsI(s) +𝐶𝑠I(s) ; 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) = I(s) or I(s) = Cs𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)
𝐶𝑠
53
1
Ie 𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) = (R+Ls+𝐶𝑠) Cs𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) (2)
1
𝐸 (𝑠) 1
Transfer function = 𝐸𝑜(𝑠) =𝑅𝐶𝑠+𝐶𝐿𝑠 2+1 = 𝐶𝐿
𝑅 1
𝑖 𝑠 2+( 𝑠)+
𝐿 𝐶𝐿
1 1
Comparing equation (1) and (2),we get 𝑤𝑛 2 = 𝐶𝐿 or 𝑤𝑛 =
√𝐿𝐶
𝑅 𝑅 𝐶
Or 2𝛿𝑤𝑛 = 𝐿 or 𝛿 = 2 √ 𝐿
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
In steady state, sinusoidal inputs to a linear system generate sinusoidal responses of

the same frequency. Even though these responses are of same frequency as the input,
they differ in amplitude and phase angle from the input. These differences are functions of
frequency. Frequency response is a plot of such responses. Magnitude frequency response
is the ratio of output sinusoids magnitude to input sinusoids magnitude. We define phase
response to be the difference in phase angle between the output and the input sinusoids.
Both responses are functions of frequency and apply only to the steady state response of
the system.
Consider a typical second order system,
𝑌(𝑆) 𝑤𝑛 2
G(s) = =
𝑋(𝑆) 𝑠 2 +2𝛿𝑤𝑛 𝑠+𝑤𝑛 2
The magnitude of the closed loop frequency response is given by,
𝑤𝑛 2
M=|𝐺(𝑗𝑤)| =
√(𝑤𝑛 2 −𝑤 2 )+4𝛿2 𝑤𝑛 2 𝑤 2
Similarly the phase of the closed loop frequency response is given by

𝑤
2𝛿𝑤
〈𝐺(𝑗𝑤)〉 = -tan −1 𝑛
𝑤 2
1−(𝑤 )
𝑛
54
Figure1. Bode plot of second order system
The performance and characteristics of a system frequency domain are measured in

terms of frequency domain specifications.
1. Resonant Peak (𝑀𝑟 ):The maximum value of the magnitude of the closed loop transfer
function is called resonant peak. A large resonant peak corresponds to large
overshoot in transient response.
2. Resonant Frequency (𝑤𝑟 ): The frequency at which resonant peak occurs is called
resonant frequency. This is related to the frequency of oscillation in the step
responseand thus it is indicative of the speed of transient response.
3. Bandwidth (𝑤𝑔𝑚 ): It is defined as the frequency at which the magnitude
response curve is 3 decibal down from its value at zero frequency.
55
Connection diagram
Fig.2R-L-C circuit diagram
DESIGN
Three different cases of damping is to be considered during the design
𝛿= 0.5 (under damped)

𝛿= 1 ( cr it ica l l y da mped)
𝛿 = 2 (o ver damped)
Assume C=0.1pF, L=1.7H.Design the value of R for the given value of C and L,
for above cases.
PROCEDURE
 Set up the circuit as shown in the figure.
 Inorder to plot the frequency response, apply a sinusoidal input of 10V (p-
p).
 Put the CRO in X-Y mode and give the input and output signals to the two
channels of the CRO simultaneously.
 Observe the lissajous pattern and take measurements.
 Vary the frequency in steps and take readings
56
LISSAJOUS PATTERN
Figure2. Lissajous pattern observed in CRO
TABULAR COLUMN
SL NO Frequency m n ∅ 𝑣𝑖 𝑣𝑜 Gain
𝑚 𝑣
k=20log 𝑜
= sin−1 𝑣𝑖
𝑛
57
RESULT
Frequency response of second order system is studied
Comparison of results of frequency domain specifications:
SLNO Quantity Theoritical value Experimental value

1 Resonant peak
2 Resonance
frequency
3 Bandwidth
58

Lag network characterization

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Signals and Control lab

PRE-DETERMINATION AND VERIFICATION OF FREQUENCY

 To design and setup a phase lag network of 300 at 200 Hz.

A compensator having the characteristics of a lag network is called a lag

The general form of lead compensator transfer function is given by,

Fig. 1.1 Pole-zero plot of lag compensator

Fig. 1.2 Electrical lag network

From the circuit diagram,

On taking Laplace transform,

Computing with the general form of lag compensator we obtain

Similarly, frequency response of the lag compensator involves the analysis of

1+𝑗𝜔𝜏 √1+(𝜔𝜏)2 tan−1 𝜔𝜏

Let 𝜑𝑚 = 30 at 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200𝐻𝑧

Choose an arbitrary value for C and find the value of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2

Determine the corner frequencies

1. Wire up the circuit as per the diagram.

Fig1.3 Lissajous pattern

Bode plots can be approximated with

Fig. 1.4 Bode plot of lag compensator

 A phase lag network is realized

Parameter Theoretical Practical

PRE-DETERMINATION AND VERIFICATION OF FREQUENCY

A compensator having the characteristics of a lead network is called a lead

Fig. 2.1 Pole-zero plot of lead compensator

Fig. 2.2 Electrical lead network

From the circuit diagram,

On taking Laplace transform,

𝐸𝑖 (𝑠) − 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) 𝐸𝑜 (𝑠) (2.3)

Computing with the general form of lead compensator we obtain 𝜏 = 𝑅1 𝐶 and𝛼 =

Similarly, frequency response of the lead compensator involves the analysis of

Note: In case 𝛼 is assumed to be eliminated by suitable amplification network, 𝐺𝑐 (𝑗𝜔) can

1 + 𝑗𝜔𝜏 √1 + (𝜔𝜏)2 tan−1 𝜔𝜏 (2.7)

Let 𝜑𝑚 = 30 at 𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 200𝐻𝑧

Choose an arbitrary value for C and find the value of 𝑅1 and 𝑅2

Determine the corner frequencies

6. Wire up the circuit as per the diagram.

Fig. 2 Lissajous pattern

Table III Tabular column

Fig. 3.4 Bode plot of lead compensator

 A phase lead network is realized

Parameter Theoretical Practical

3(a) STEP RESPONSE OF A FIRST ORDER SYSTEM

To find the response of a first order system for a step input.

In the study of control systems linear constant coefficient first order

Applying Laplace Transform,

𝜏𝑠𝑌(𝑠) + 𝑌 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑋(𝑠) (3.2)

𝑌 (𝑠)[1 + 𝑠𝜏] = 𝐾𝑋(𝑠)

Laplace transform on both sides of the above equations we get

𝐼 (𝑠) = 𝐶𝑠𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)

Comparing equation (3.6) with equation (3.3), we get 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶

Figure 3.1 First Order RC circuit

Fig. 3.2 First order system response

Design the value of R for the given value of C and 𝜏

1. Set up the circuit as shown in the figure.

Parameter Practical Theoretical

3(b) STEP RESPONSE OF A SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

In the study of control systems linear constant coefficient second order

(𝑠 2 + 2𝛿𝜔𝑛 𝑠 + 𝜔𝑛2 )𝑌(𝑠) = 𝜔𝑛2 𝑋(𝑠) (3.2)

The transfer function of the system is written as

𝒀(𝒔) 𝝎𝟐𝒏 (3.3)

Taking Laplace transform on both sides of the above equations we get

𝐼 (𝑠) = 𝐶𝑠𝐸𝑜 (𝑠)