Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351 – 380

www.elsevier.com/locate/tecto

Geomorphic evidence of active deformation and uplift in a

modern continental wedge-top–foredeep transition:
Example of the eastern Ecuadorian Andes
S. Bès de Berca,b,1, J.C. Soulab,*, P. Babyb, M. Sourisc, F. Christophoulb, J. Roserod
a
IFEA (Institut Français d’Etudes Andines), Whymper 442 y Coruña, AP 17 12 857 Quito, Ecuador
b
LMTGT, IRD/CNRS/Université Paul Sabatier, 38, rue des Trente Six Ponts, 31400 Toulouse, France
c
IRD, Quality House Convent, 38 Convent Rd, Silom, Bangrak, Bangkok 10500, Thailand
d
PerezCompanc, Suiza 209 y Eloy Alfaro, Quito, Ecuador
Received 15 November 2002; received in revised form 20 November 2003; accepted 23 December 2004
Available online 24 February 2005

Abstract

The eastern Ecuadorian Andes appear as a fold-and-thrust belt adjacent to a continental foredeep represented by one of the
world’s largest tropical alluvial megafans, the Pastaza megafan, debouching into the Amazonian lowland. The apex of the
Pliocene–Pleistocene megafan situated in the present-day wedge top (Subandean Zone) has been cut by an erosion surface, the
western part of which has been uplifted of ~500 m along the frontal thrust, forming a poorly dissected plateau, the Mera plateau.
This erosion surface erased most of the previous fluvial landscape but preserved a large thrust-related anticlinal hinge deforming
less erodible underlying strata, the Mirador fold and smaller-sized anticlines. This surface has been then incised by two
antecedent major rivers, the Pastaza and the Napo, and few tributaries. The plateau edge is marked by a series of large scale
gently sloping landslides clustered along a 70 km long concave eastward line associated with the frontal thrust fault. The newly
formed immature rivers issued from the landslides or sourced within east-dipping remnants of the erosion surface downstream
of the landslide line constitute the greatest part of the streams feeding the Ecuadorian Amazonian basin. At 70 to 100 km from
the landslide line, the drainage abruptly changes from highly immature to mature with a well-defined hinge line representing the
outer limit of landslide and tectonic control. The diversions of the Pastaza River indicate ongoing fold growth since at least the
late Pleistocene in the Eastern Cordillera, and the early Holocene in the Mera plateau. The preserved terraces of the Pastaza
valley are all degradational and are ascribed to periods of tectonic (seismic) activity alternating with periods of tectonic
quiescence or decreased seismic activity rather than to climatic events. 14C dating of the plateau erosion surface and of the upper
Pastaza terraces indicates that the minimum average incision rate since ~18,000 years BP varies locally in the upper Pastaza
valley from 0.5 to 0.67 cm year 1 , increasing from ~18,000 years BP to now. A comparison of these incision rates with fold-
and-thrust fault uplift rates indicates that incision in the upper Pastaza valley was a result of rapid uplift (up to 1 cm year 1)
along the Mirador fold-and-thrust which caused a restoration of the local equilibrium profile of the upper reach, combined with

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 561556465: fax: +33 561558250.

E-mail address: soula@lmtg.obs-mip.fr (J.C. Soula).
1
Now at BRGM, -SGR/GUA, Morne HouJlmont, Route de l’Observatoire, 97 113 Gourbeyre, Guadeloupe, France.

0040-1951/$ - see front matter D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2004.12.030
352 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380

smaller local fault uplift along the westernmost thrust faults. The uplift of the whole Mera plateau with respect to the upper
Amazonian basin gives a minimum average uplift rate of 2.8 cm year 1 since 18,000 years BP. The overall uplift of the Mera
plateau and the Eastern Cordillera is likely to have been caused by a regional-scale low angle thrust ramp emerging as the
frontal thrust fault.
D 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Holocene incision; Drainage network; Thrust tectonics; Landslides; Ecuador; Subandean zone; Upper Amazonian basin

1. Introduction the Pliocene–Pleistocene fan (Christophoul et al.,

The Ecuadorian Andes (Fig. 1) are characterized
by frequent earthquakes with magnitudes greater than
M=5 (Yepes et al., 1996; Baby et al., 2002) and
numerous active volcanoes with compositions ranging
from calk-alkaline to shoshonitic (Barragan et al.,
1998; Hall et al., 1999; Bourdon et al., 1998, 1999,
2002; Monzier et al., 1999), which can be related to a
subduction context. They also show large-scale frontal
landslides well apparent in satellite images and digital
elevation models (Fig. 2). The Ecuadorian Andes have
been shown to have risen during the whole Neogene
(Delfaud et al., 1999; Spikings et al., 2000; Hunger-
bühler et al., 2002; Christophoul et al., 2002), with
elevations and uplift rates similar to the nearby
Peruvian and Bolivian Andes to the south and
Colombian Andes to the north (Cooper et al., 1995;
Horton, 1999; Horton and DeCelles, 2000; Taboada et
al., 2000; Gil Rodriguez et al., 2001). Although being
markedly narrower than the Peruvian/Bolivian and
Colombian Andes, the Ecuadorian Andes are, in the
same way, constituted in their eastern part by a fold-
and-thrust belt. Small-sized depositional areas filled
with Pleistocene sediment have been preserved in the
thrust–fold belt, which allow it to be interpreted as the
wedge-top of the foreland basin system (De Celles
and Giles, 1996; Horton and DeCelles, 2000).
The most spectacular characteristic of this area is
the presence in front of the thrust and fold belt, of a
large-scale humid tropical alluvial fan, the Pastaza
megafan, which, with an area of 60,000 km2, could be
considered as the largest in the world (Räsänen et al.,
1992). This modern megafan is partly situated above
2002; Fig. 1c). It covers the south of the arcuate
depression of the northern Andes, which constitutes a
significant part of the eastern catchment of the
Amazon basin and feed most of the sediment-rich
dwhite-water riversT that represent the Andean con-
tribution to the Amazon. In spite of the forest cover,
the slightly deformed hardened surface of the Plio-
cene–Pleistocene fan, the Mera plateau (Fig. 2), offers
a unique opportunity of studying the recent propaga-
tion of fold-and-thrust structures, the development of
landslides, and the fluvial incision.
The present study develops a geomorphic approach
supported by incision rate measurements aimed at
arriving to a better knowledge of the characteristics
and evolution of a modern continental wedge-top–
foredeep transition in a region where the tectonic
contraction proceeded and still proceeds together with
widening and eastward expansion of a single con-
tinental foreland basin interpreted as a continental
foredeep.
2. Geological and climatic setting
The Eastern Cordillera is constituted by a sequence
of east-verging thrusts involving the metamorphic/
plutonic and Palaeozoic, Triassic and Jurassic base-
ment (Pratt et al., 2005) whereas Mesozoic to
Cainozoic strata are also involved in the fold-and-
thrust structures of the Subandean Zone (Figs. 1b–4).
The Pastaza valley traverses five of these thrusts and
related folds, from west to east, the Subandean fault,
the Santa Ines fault-bend fold deforming the Santa

Fig. 1. (a) Location of the study area. (b) Structural zones in the Ecuadorian Andes and Amazonian foreland. (c) Simplified geological map.
Note that the Holocene and modern Pastaza megafan as defined by Räsänen et al. (1992) is limited to the north by the watershed divide
associated with the uplift of the Mera plateau (see Fig. 4) and to the west by the frontal thrust whereas the apex of the Pliocene–Pleistocene
Pastaza fan was situated at the outlet of the Pastaza River where debouching from the eastern Cordillera.
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380 353

80°W 78°W 76°W

Venezuela
▲ 1°N

▲
Colombia ▲ ▲

▲ n
▲

▲
io
ss

▲a
▲
epre
Inte ▲ ▲ r▲ a

r
▲
0°

one
Coastal plain

▲
Brazil

ean D

onian
Napo

▲
C▲ o▲ r▲ d▲ i l l e
Peru

▲
Dome

i▲ ▲l l

▲
Bolivia

r a nd

Z
▲

▲
▲
1°S

▲
Ecuador

▲
▲

▲
Pastaza

o ▲r d▲
Depression

Amaz
▲
n t in a

n
2°S ▲

▲
▲

Basi
▲
Arge

ean
C
▲

▲
▲
rn
te ▲▲

▲
▲
▲
n
3°S

▲
▲

nd
▲
▲
e r
Cutucu

per
▲

▲
Wes Cordillera

a
a

▲
▲
E a s t
Sub
4°S

▲
▲

Up
▲▲

5°S
81°W 79°W 77°W

b
Cenozoic
80°W 78°W 76°W Forearc basins
1°N Late Cretaceous
- Paleocene

.
Forearc basins
Early Cretaceous
0° QUITO Forearc basins

Cretaceous/Paleogene
Na Arcs and Ocean floor
po

.
Ambato Tena
Pliocene-
1°S
Cenozoic
Foreland basins

Cenozoic
PuyoPleistocene
Pastaza
Continental arc

2°S megafan Cretaceous of the

P Subandean Zone
Guayalquil
.
as

taz Jurassic to Paleozoic

Cuenca a
basement
3°S Fault

Holocene Fault

4°S Pastaza megafan Thrust fault

Major River

5°S Ecuadorian border

c 81°W 79°W 77°W
354 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380

EASTERN CORDILLERA NE
Tungurahua
Altar

-1.8° Abitagua granite

-7
8.
5°
CT

MA
za
Rio Anzu -77
a sta Mera plateau .5°
Ri oP

yo
-1.5°
Rio Pu

n
me gafa
20 km Pas taza

Fig. 2. Digital elevation model of the studied area viewed from the southeast (Savane software (n IRD/MS, France). In the foreground the
landslide scar line affecting the Mera plateau domed along the line joining the Mirador anticline (MA, centre of the print) and Bobonaza axial
culminations (beneath the M of Mera plateau) is shown. To the south of the Mirador, the Rio Pastaza is diverted first toward the southwest, then
toward the south and the east, and finally flows parallel to the landslide scar line at less than 1 km to it. Interrupted lines indicate preceding
courses of the river. On top and southeast of the Mirador anticlinal culmination, a wind gap and remnants of the former valley of the Pastaza
oriented west–east (interrupted line) are observed. Immediately north, the water gap and the west–east and then north–south valley of the Rio
Puyo joining the former Pastaza valley are observed. On the other side of the Mirador anticlinal culmination the water gap and the valley of the
Rio Anzu, flowing toward the northeast are observed. West of the Mirador anticline, the Abitagua granite transported by the Cosanga thrust–fold
is traversed by the present-day Pastaza to the south. The Rio Alpayacu flows north–west, in front of the Cosanga thrust. Behind the Abitagua
granite, the bayonet-shaped diversion of the Pastaza is observed. The wind gap representing the former course of the Pastaza through the granite
is visible in prolongation of the Rio Puyo (CT=Cosanga thrust).

Ines depression, the Cosanga fault-bend fold trans-
porting the Abitagua granite over the dPastaza
DepressionT, the Mirador and the smaller-sized
Bobonaza thrust fault-related folds (Fig. 3) deforming
Palaeozoic to Lower Miocene basement strata and in a
less extent the Mesa/Mera formation. The Mirador
and Bobonaza anticlines are characterized by well-
marked axial culminations, which are responsible for
an apparent east–west doming in the centre of the
dPastaza depressionT (Figs. 2 and 3).
The study area covers the Eastern Cordillera, the
Subandean Zone and the western (apical) part of the
Pastaza megafan which is part of the Amazonian
retroforeland basin (Figs. 1b,c and 2). The Eastern
Cordillera is made up of metamorphic rocks (gneisses
and metasediments), of Palaeozoic to Jurassic age,
intruded by Jurassic granitoids (Aspden and Lither-
land, 1992; Pratt et al., 2005). These overthrust the
Subandean Zone, represented by the Cosanga (Abita-
gua) thrust sheet, and the thrust-related antiformal
culminations of Napo and Cutucu separated by the
dPastaza depressionT, in which is localized the apex of
the Pliocene–Pleistocene Pastaza megafan (Figs. 1c–
3). Smaller-sized thrust fault related antiformal culmi-
nations are observed in the dPastaza DepressionT
(Figs. 3–5). The Eastern Cordillera and Subandean
thrust faults are very active today as shown by
numerous recent earthquakes, including the 1987
Baeza (Ms=6.9) and 1995 Macas (Ms=6.8) seismic
events (Yepes et al., 1996; Baby et al., 2002).
Moreover, the majority of the 55 active volcanoes in
Ecuador (Hall, 1977; Hall and Beate, 1991) are
situated in the Interandean Depression and the Eastern
Cordillera and two, the Reventador and the Sumaco
are located in the Subandean Zone.
Four formations have been recognized in the
Subandean Zone and the upper Amazonian basin:
the Chalcana Fm., of Upper Oligocene through
Miocene age, the Arajuno Fm., of late Miocene age
(Tschopp, 1953; Baldock, 1982; Rosero, 1999), the
Chambira Fm. (Tschopp, 1953; Baldock, 1982), of
late Miocene through Pliocene/early Pleistocene age
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380 355

-78.55 -77.30
-0.35
Cotopaxi (5897m) Napo
Culmination

INTERANDEAN
VALLEY
Latacunga

SUBANDEAN
ZONE

nite
Ambato

gra
Rio

ua
Pa

SIT

itag
tat

CT
Carihuairazo (5020m)
e

Ab
1 2 3 ALT MT
Baños
BT
ST 4 AUT
Tungurahua Puyo
Chimborazo
(6310) (5023m)
EASTERN
bo

CORDILLERA
am
Ch

Rio P
Rio

asta
za LSL

Sangay
(5320 m)

Cutucú Culmination
a -2.05
EASTERN CORDILLERA SUBANDEAN ZONE
TUNGURAHUA Upper Pastaza Lower Pastaza = Pastaza Megafan
(Km) Santa Inès Abitagua Mirador Seismic line
1 2
ST depression granite CT ALT
SIT
anticline MT BT Autapi-1 AUT
2 3 4
0
-2 ?

b
QUATERNARY NEOGENE-QUATERNARY
VOLCANICS 1- Agoyan fall 5 Km
JURASSIC GRANITE CRETACEOUS-PALEOGENE 2- El Paílon del Diablo (Fig. 9)
METAMORPHIC JURASSIC 3- Santa Inès (Fig. 7) 0 5 10 Km
JURASSIC
4- Mera (Fig. 5)
METAMORPHIC

AUT- Autapi Thruts

BT- Bobonaza Thrust
MT- Mirador Thrust
ALT- Alapayacu Thrust
CT- Cosanga Thrust
SIT- Santa Inès Thrust
ST- Subandean Thrust

Fig. 3. (a) Structural sketch. Cross-section shown in (b) indicated by interrupted line. (b) Structural cross-section. ST: Subandean thrust; SIT:
Santa Ines Thrust; CT: Cosanga thrust; ALT: Alpayacu thrust; MT: Mirador Thrust; BT: Bobonaza Thrust; AUT: Autapi Thrust; LSL: Landslide
scar line.
356 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380

Interandean Eastern Subandean Upper Pastaza Lower Pastaza

Depression Cordillera Zone Fan Fan
Reventador

Ag
ua
ric
Quito o

Napo
Cotopaxi Sumaco Na
po

Tena
ST

CF SIT

uBT
nz

L
oA

DH
Ri
AUT
MT

Chimborazo Tungurahua Puyo WD

LSL

BT

Sangay
Pasta
za

Macas
cu

0 50 100
tu

kilomètres
Cu

Fig. 4. Drainage of northeastern Ecuador. The major antecedent Pastaza and Napo Rivers are diverted on both sides of the line joining the
Mirador and Bobonaza antiformal culminations. The watershed divide between the Napo-Aguarico and the Pastaza-Marañon drainage basins is
in prolongation of this line (interrupted line WD). The drainage hinge line (DHL) separates the immature drainage network from the mature
drainage network. Thrust faults are those shown in Fig. 3a. LSL: Landslide scar line; MA: Mirador anticline; BA: Bobonaza anticline. Large
interrupted line: Ecuadorian border.

and the Mesa/Mera Fm. (Tschopp, 1953; Baldock,
1982) of late Pleistocene age (Liu and Colinvaux,
1985). All these formations were deposited in a single
depocentre, east of the Pastaza depression. The
construction of the Pastaza megafan started approx-
imately at the Miocene–Pliocene boundary (Baby et
al., 1999; Christophoul et al., 2001, 2002) and
continued until the late Pleistocene. A sedimentolog-
ical study of the sedimentary infill (Christophoul et
al., 2002) enabled to define an evolution of the fluvial
system from an alluvial plain (Chalcana and Arajuno
formations) to an alluvial fan with a topographic slope
increasing in the same time as the drainage changed
from mostly longitudinal to transverse (Chambira and
Mesa/Mera formations). This evolution is consistent
with the denudation and uplift of the Interandean
depression and the Eastern Cordillera inferred from
Zircon and Apatite Fission Track Analyses in the
northern Eastern Cordillera (Spikings et al., 2000;
Hungerbühler et al., 2002).
The early (?) to late Pleistocene deposits consid-
ered in the present paper correspond to the Mesa/Mera
formation limited at its top by a widely exposed
erosional surface, the Mera surface (Figs. 2 and 3a). In
the west, this formation comprises coarse conglom-
erates with matrix-supported gravels showing no or
inverse to normal grading (lithofacies Gmm to Gmc,
Miall, 1996) characteristic of debris flow deposits
where volcanic pebbles included in a volcanic sandy
to silty matrix are predominant. These are likely to
represent lahar deposits issued from the western
volcanoes of the Eastern Cordillera. Boulders (N1
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380 357

78°13 N
S

1°20
WG

Abitagua Granite

yacu
Rio Alpa

a Mirador Anticline
astaz WG
Rio P
Rio An
zu
Puyo
Rio

e
Mera plateau
Scar Lin
slide
Land
1°35

77°45

Fig. 5. Digital elevation model of the Puyo–Mera area showing the wind gaps representing the former courses of the Pastaza River through the
Cosanga thrust sheet (Abitagua granite) (west) and the Mirador fold (centre). The Rio Puyo is now issued from the westernmost wind gap and
traverses the Mirador fold. A right-bank tributary is issued from the southern wind gap in the Mirador fold. The Rio Alpayacu is restrained
between the backlimb of the Mirador fold and the front of the Cosanga thrust. WG: Wind gap.

m) and smaller sized debris of granite and gneiss have
also been observed (Tschopp, 1953), indicating that
debris flows issued from the Abitagua thrust sheet
complete this formation. Eastward, the conglomerates
are finer-grained and form stacked large and shallow
channels showing trough cross bedding (lithofacies
Gt, Miall, 1996). Overall, these deposits can be
interpreted as representing large gravel-braided rivers,
lacking mudflow deposits in their distal part (Chris-
tophoul et al., 2002). To the south, the fluvial deposits
are covered with upper lahar deposits issued from the
Sangay volcano. The Mera erosion surface cut across
the fluvial deposits in the north and the upper lahar
deposits in the south (Bès de Berc, 2003). Palae-
ocurrent data indicate a west–east mean flow direction
in the west diverging to SW–NE and NW–SE in the
east. Together these data indicate a typical alluvial fan
drainage system in a depositional phase (Räsänen et
al., 1992; Christophoul et al., 2002).
The depositional period considered in the present
paper covers the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), the
Younger Dryas (YD) and the Holocene interglacial.
From a general study of the humid tropics, Thomas
(2000) concludes that the LGM was a worldwide
cooler and more arid period, leading to the absence of
sediment in the Brazilian lowland between 24,000 and
17,000 14C years BP (Ledru et al., 1998). In the
northern/central Andes, several authors (Hastenrath,
1981; Hastenrath and Kutzbach, 1985; Heine and
Heine, 1996) indicate that climate was not only cooler
but also more arid during the LGM in the Amazon
basin whereas other authors indicate cool but wet
conditions from 30 to 15 ka BP in the Peruvian
Altiplano (Seltzer et al., 2002). In Ecuador, the
moraines related to the LGM are 14C dated between
b25 and N15 ka (Heine, 2000, Table 1) although the
maximum extent of glaciers is estimated to be reached
between 30 and 25 14C ka BP (Heine, 2000, p. 10, line
8). A shift to a greater aridity is inferred at about 25 14C
ka BP and the terminal moraines of the LGM glaciers
formed between 25 and 16 14C ka BP are ascribed to
glacier shrink because of increased aridity (but not
358 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
increased temperature). Therefore, the period 20–18
14
C ka BP would be in Ecuador a more arid period
(Heine, 2000, Fig. 4). In the southern Interandean
Depression, pollen analyses indicate that climate was
cooler and moister than today during the late-glacial
period (17,000–11,000 cal. years BP, Rodbell et al.,
1999; Hansen et al., 2003). According to Keefer et al.
(2003), 10 severe El Niño events took place between
ca. 38,200 and 12,900 cal. years ago (Keefer et al.,
2003). For Clapperton et al. (1997), a significant re-
advance of glaciers occurred during the YD (11,000 to
10,000 14C years BP), whereas for Heine and Heine
(1996) and Heine (1995, 2000), this advance took
place at least 500 years later. Storms-induced lake
deposits in the Interandean depression suggest that El
Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) became significant
there only after ~5 ka, with highest spectral density and
frequencies between ~3.5 and 2.6 ka and during the
last 660 years (Rodbell et al., 1999). The other climatic
data for the Holocene in the Interandean Depression
based on vegetational changes (Hansen et al., 2003) are
less relevant to the Subandean Zone and upper
Amazonian foreland because local climatic fluctua-
tions, notably aridity, are highly dependent on the
prevailing winds and the Interandean Depression may
have been influenced by winds from the west as well as
from the east (Hansen et al., 2003). Data from the
Amazonian lowland are therefore more convenient to
the Subandean Zone and upper Amazonian foreland,
although obtained at greater distances from the studied
area. According to Weng et al.’s (2002) analyses of
sediment core in the Yasuni National Park, moist
tropical rain forest has developed throughout the
Holocene with, however, climatic oscillations recorded
by vegetational changes (Weng et al., 2002). Accord-
ing to these authors, severe droughts occurred in the
period 8700–5800 cal years BP, and should be
correlated with other records from Amazonia, adjacent
savannas and the Andes (Hastenrath and Kutzbach,
1985; Frost, 1988; Behling and Hooghiemstra, 1998,
1999). This period should be thus correlated with the
reduced El Niño activity evidenced in the Interandean
Depression (Rodbell et al., 1999). This was followed
by more uniform and wetter conditions with alternating
wetter and drier millennial-scale events (Weng et al.,
2002), which could be correlated with the increased El
Niño activity inferred in the Interandean Depression
(Rodbell et al., 1999).
3. Geomorphology and drainage
The Mera plateau is well apparent in the proximal
part of the fan (the dmesa of MeraT, as originally
termed by Tschopp, 1953), with elevations between
1100 and 1000 m a.s.l., and 90 to 135 m above the
present-day Rio Pastaza. This plateau corresponds to
the hardened Mera surface that cut across the fluvial
deposits of the upper Mera Formation to the north and
across the lahars that rest over (and not within) these
fluvial deposits to the south (Bès de Berc, 2003). The
erosion that was at the origin of the Mera surface
smoothed out the previous fluvial landscape, and
preserved the hinges of active folds where these folds
deformed the less erodible Cretaceous and Palaeocene
strata. This surface will be used hereafter as a
reference surface for studying tectonic deformation.
The plateau edge is marked by a semi-circular
aggregate of large (z5 km), spoon-shaped landslide
scars now vegetated, cutting the Mesa/Mera Fm. and
underlying deposits (Figs. 2–4). The landslide line is
situated at ~25 to 50 km to the east of the apex of the
fan, approximately in continuity with the front of the
Napo and Cutucu thrust culminations (Figs. 2–4).
Vertical failure is as high as 800 m and the landslide
line forms a major jump in the present-day topo-
graphic surface.
The drainage is characterized by the presence of
two major antecedent rivers, the Rio Napo (and its
principal tributary, the Rio Aguarico) to the north, and
the Rio Pastaza (main tributary of the Rio Marañon in
Peru) to the south, with catchments situated in the
eastern slopes of the western Cordillera and the
Interandean Depression (Fig. 4).
Today, the Rio Pastaza and the Rio Napo diverge
and flow on either side of the Pliocene–Pleistocene
megafan, the Rio Pastaza taking a direction sub-
parallel to the range east of the Cutucu dome. The
watershed divide appears to be determined by the
axial culminations aligned E–W of the Mirador and
Bobonaza anticlines that deform the surface of the
Mera plateau (Figs. 2–4). This watershed divide
marks the northern boundary of the modern Pastaza
megafan (Figs. 1c and 4). A marked diversion of the
modern Pastaza River from west–east to northwest–
southeast occurs on the rear of the Mirador anticline
(Figs. 2–5). The former course of the Pastaza River
is marked by a wind gap representing the uplifted
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
former water gap (Figs. 3 and 5). A recent stream,
the Rio Puyo positioned in prolongation of the
uppermost Pastaza valley and presently sourced in
the forelimb of the Cosanga (Abitagua) fault-bend
fold, traverses the Mirador anticline (Figs. 3 and 5).
An older diversion of the Pastaza is visible within
the Eastern Cordillera along the Santa Ines thrust-
fault and the western boundary of the Abitagua
granite (Figs. 2–4). The Rio Puyo is sourced in the
wind gap prolonging the uppermost reach of the
Pastaza River (Figs. 2, 3, 5, 13d). North of the Rio
Puyo, the Rio Anzu traverses the Mirador anticline
through a V-shaped water gap, first trending NW–SE
and then SW–NE (Figs. 5 and 13d). Like the major
Napo and Pastaza Rivers, the Rio Anzu and the Rio
Puyo are diverted to the north and to south on either
side of the E–W-trending line joining the axial
culminations of the Mirador and Bobonaza folds.
The upper Pastaza valley containing Mera conglom-
erates west of the westernmost diversion is the only
preserved morphological remnant of the paleo-
Pastaza valley. In the Subandean Zone, only channel
fills are observed in river banks and road cuts under
the Mera surface. Palaeocurrent measurements indi-
cate radial dispersion, thus showing that the Plio-
cene–Pleistocene fan originated at the outlet of the
paleo-Pastaza River, and bear evidence of a smaller
second-order fan formed at the outlet of the Napo
River (Christophoul et al., 2002).
Another significant feature of the Mera plateau and
upper Amazonian basin, which constitute the former
proximal part of the Pastaza megafan, is that both the
newly formed and antecedent rivers are all incising
the Mesa/Mera Fm. and underlying sediment, and no
overbank sedimentation has been observed. There, the
Holocene terraces show a limited lateral expansion,
even though thickness of alluvium may attain ~3 m
(Figs. 6 and 7). Therefore, the Mera surface appears as
a major discontinuity in the history of the Pastaza fan
and separates a Pliocene–Pleistocene stage dominated
by deposition from a Holocene stage where incision is
largely predominant.
Near the contact with the Napo dome, no land-
slides are observed but slope-parallel incipient fluvial
valleys incise the plateau edge, forming upstream
deep gorges (Figs. 2–5). This evolution from incipient
rivers to landslide-controlled large and deep valleys as
a function of increasing uplift is similar to that
359
evidenced in the Finisterre Mountains of Papua New
Guinea (Hovius et al., 1998) with the difference that,
in our study area, landslide-controlled valleys will
connect to the antecedent drainage downstream of the
deformed region.
East of the landslide line, the Upper Amazonian
basin is characterized by the presence of a well
preserved east-dipping planar geomorphic surface
dissected by the streams issued from the landslides,
which has created characteristic chevron morphology.
The average slope is 0.458 or 8x. A proper drainage
network develops in each of the chevrons, showing
elongate sub-basins, along-slope sub-parallel drains,
few tributaries at low angle to the main channel and
stream order (Strälher, 1952) rather low (z3). This
might be at first sight interpreted as the antecedent
distributary pattern on the fan surface. However, this
interpretation is opposed, at least in the upper part of
the chevrons, by several lines of evidence: (1) all the
streams are erosive with no aggradation; (2) the
streams initiate at some hundred metres or more
downstream of the chevron edge; (3) the drainage is
highly immature and no traces of an antecedent fluvial
network passing across the chevron edges are
observed here. This indicates that erosional planation
erased, at least in its upper part, the pre-existing
drainage having built the Pliocene–Pleistocene Pas-
taza megafan. Therefore, it is likely that this surface
was the eastern continuation of the Mera surface
separated by thrusting from its western part.
Most of the newly formed streams fan out from a
common catchment determined by the landslide line
(Fig. 4). The streams issued from the landslide walls
incise the chaotic deposits remaining from the debris
lobes formed as a result of failure of the Mesa–Mera
and underlying formations (Figs. 2, 3a, 5). The
morphology of the valley-head landslide structures
is well preserved, and fluvial headward erosion cause
only few of these newly formed streams to propagate
upstream of the landslide scar line (Figs. 2 and 4).
Catchment expansion is mainly determined by the
backward propagation of the landslide escarpment,
which is maximum to the east of Puyo in prolongation
of the Mirador and Bobonaza axial culmination (Figs.
2–4).
These streams issued from the landslide-headed
valleys and the other newly formed rivers sourced
within the remnants of the Mera east of the landslide
360 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380

Abitagua
NE

C2
C1

10 km
a
C1
S

Rio Pastaza
T1 N
17920 +/- 70 y. BP 90 m
40580 +/- 1030 y. BP

T2
1800 +/- 50 y. BP 20 m

b
0 1km

T2 : modern stream Alpayacu River deposits

Tufaceous loam
deposits
+ Charcoal level Forest bed
Bedrock
Lahar

Clast-supported gravel (Gmc-Gh)

C2
WNW
T1 ESE
90 m Rio Alpayacu

c
2.0 km

Fig. 6. Stepped degradational terraces of the Pastaza and Alpayacu Rivers near Mera. (a) Situation of the cross-sections. (b) Cross-section
perpendicular to the Pastaza valley (C1 in the DEM). (c) Cross section perpendicular to the Alpayacu valley (C2 in the DEM). The 14C dated
beds are shown in C1. In both sections, Mera deposits are grey-coloured and Holocene deposits are left uncoloured.
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380 361

Alpayacu deposits 0
Forest bed Soil

Lahar Tuffaceous loam

1
Forest bed Gt
(40580 +/- 1030 y. BP)
Lahar
2

Gmc Gt
3
Forest bed
(17920 +/- 70 y. BP)
4
Gt
Gmc
5m
Lahar

Gmc
b - Alpayacu
10 m

a - Mera
Fig. 7. (a) Schematic section of the upper part of the Mera deposits overlain by the Alpayacu deposits observed near Mera. (b) Schematic section
of the Alpayacu deposits at 1 km from the preceding outcrop (x=78806V34.92UW, y=01827V20.16US, z=1100 m a.s.l.) showing the location of the
14
C dated beds. See explanations in text.

line display elongate sub-basins, sub-parallel drains,
and tributaries at low angle to the main channels (Fig.
4). Stream order (Strälher, 1952) of the main
tributaries of the Pastaza or Napo rivers is low (V3).
As shown above, fluvial headward erosion is limited
and adaptation to pre-existing tectonic structures is
poorly marked. All these elements indicate immaturity
of the drainage (Deffontaines and Chorowicz, 1991;
Delcaillau et al., 1998).
The drainage in the distal Pastaza fan (Amazonian
lowland) differs considerably from the drainage of the
proximal part (Fig. 4). At 70 to 100 km downstream
of the landslide line, fluvial incision gives rise to
valley-and-range structures characteristic of the Ama-
zonian foreland with large meandering valleys sepa-
rated by low elevation and flat interfluves. Traces of
recent avulsions can be identified, as in the Peruvian
lowland to the south-east of the studied area (Räsänen
et al., 1992). The drainage network is dendritic, the
sub-basins are more isotropic, the tributaries are at
high angle to the main channels, and the order of the
main tributaries of the Pastaza-Marañon and Napo-
Aguarico rivers is higher (4 to 5 instead of 3), which
indicates a significantly greater maturity and a lower
topographic slope (0.228 or 4x). This change from
immature to mature drainage is abrupt and defines a
hinge line separating the gently sloping and undis-
turbed lower Amazonian basin from its steeper
sloping upper part (Fig. 4). The divergence of the
major antecedent rivers, the absence of other rivers
issued from the plateau and the Eastern Cordillera,
and the connection of the newly formed streams to the
mature antecedent distributary rivers (Figs. 3 and 4)
indicate that these distributary rivers were initially fed
by the former fan apex, then disconnected from it by
thrust-related uplift and tilting, and finally re-ali-
mented by new streams issued from the landslides and
adjacent areas.
4. The Mera surface
As pointed out above, the surface of the Mera
plateau appears as an erosion surface cutting across
the Mera formation and erasing most of the previous
fluvial landscape. This erosion surface is incised
during subsequent fluvial erosion and no deposition
is observed above it. The age of this surface is thus
essential to the interpretation of the geomorphic and
tectonic evolution.
362 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
The age of the Mera Fm. in the type locality of
Mera has recently been discussed. According to Liu
and Colinvaux (1985), two forest beds separated by
consolidated lahar deposits have been dated at 26,500
14
C years BP and 33,50014C years BP, respectively.
These ages have been disputed by Heine (1994, 2000)
who obtained ages of 33,700 and 40,55014C years BP
in a single forest bed overlying lahar deposits he
correlates with Liu and Colinvaux’ (1985) upper bed,
and concluded that Liu and Colinvaux’ (1985) ages
are contaminated. New 14C dating has been performed
at the Beta Analytic Inc. Laboratory (Miami, Florida,
USA) where pre-treatments applied to samples
remove all potential contaminants (see the website
http://www.radiocarbon.com/pretreatment.htm). Two
forest beds have been dated, the lower one along a
section of the main road of the Pastaza valley, and the
upper one along a new road section in sediments of
the Rio Alpayacu, at ~1 km from the preceding one
(Fig. 7).
In the Mera section, near the Pastaza River (Figs. 6
and 7), the lower part of the sediment is composed of
rounded clasts (mainly volcaniclastic with minor
metamorphic fragments from the Eastern Cordillera)
with dimensions ranging from b1 cm to 20–50 cm,
rather well sorted, included in a volcanic sandy matrix
(lithofacies Gh, Gcm). These are arranged into at least
three units, each 15 m thick, with poorly convex
erosional bases, corresponding to large and shallow
channels. The median part (20 m) is made up of
unsorted angular andesitic clasts (60%) included in an
ash-rich silty–sandy matrix (lithofacies Gmm, Gmg).
These beds are likely to represent lahar deposits. The
upper surface of the lahar deposits is oxidized and
hardened and corresponds to the Mera surface. This
surface is covered with 5 m thick matrix-supported
deposits formed of non-weathered granitic clasts
included in a sand-rich matrix, and containing organic
remnants, representing the post-Mera Alpayacu
deposits described hereafter. In the Mera deposits, a
dforest bedT has been found at 7–8 m over the base of
the lahar flows (Fig. 6a). Its 14C age is 40,580F1030
years BP (BETA-169315). No dforest bedsT have been
found in the same formation on the other bank of the
Rio Pastaza (Fig. 6). We believe that the so-called
forest beds are discontinuous remnants or local
accumulations of trees (log dams?) preserved or
transported by lahar flows. This may explain the
differing 14C ages given by Colinvaux et al. (1997),
Bush et al. (1990), Heine (1994) and ourselves on
nearby but different outcrops.
In the south, to the north–west of the Cutucu
antiformal culmination, fluvial deposits, ~10 m thick,
are observed overlying the lahars but topped by the
Mera surface. These are fine-grained overbank depos-
its (lithofacies Fl) locally containing root-rich organic
layer (lithofacies Fr) and organic layers with no
recognizable structures (lithofacies C) probably rep-
resenting swamp deposits (Bès de Berc, 2003). Rare
channels containing subangular gravels included in a
fine-grained matrix (lithofacies Gmm/Gmg) with
occasional trough cross bedding (lithofacies Gt) are
also observed. Coal-rich fine-grained layers situated at
the bottom and at the top of these deposits have been
dated at 14C 30,920F350 years BP (BETA-171211)
and 14C 23,670F160 years BP (BETA-171212),
respectively (Bès de Berc, 2003). The thickness and
the sedimentological characteristics of these deposits
indicate that fluvial activity was reduced between
~14C 30,000 and 23,000–24,000 years BP and was
insignificant afterward. This also gives an older
possible age of ~23,000–24,000 years BP to the onset
of the erosion forming the Mera surface.
The Alpayacu section (x: 78806V34.92UW; y:
01827V20.16US; z: 1100 m a.s.l., Fig. 7b) comprises
a basal part made of unsorted angular volcanic clasts
included in an ash-rich silty–sandy volcanic matrix
(lithofacies Gmm, Gmg) probably representing the
upper part of a lahar flow. As indicated above, the
upper surface of the lahar is hardened, with the
presence of an oxidized crust, and represents the
preserved Mera erosion surface. This is succeeded by
three units of fluvial deposits with thicknesses of 1 m
or less. Each unit is composed of well sorted and
rounded non-weathered granitic gravels, with dimen-
sions of b1 to 15 cm, in a poorly weathered
arenaceous matrix, the proportion of which increases
from bottom to top. This matrix grades upward to a
more silty material where organic matter becomes
more and more important. The clasts are frequently
imbricate at the base of the unit and show well-
characterized trough cross bedding (lithofacies Gt).
These units form shallow and large channels incising
the Mera surface, and could be interpreted as braided
to wandering rivers (see Miall, 1996) flowing onto the
hardened surface of the lahars. The dated dforest bedT
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
is situated at the top of the lowest channel. It appears
as woody twigs up to 15 cm in diameter embedded in
the silty-organic matrix also containing non-weath-
ered gravels of more than 1 cm in size. Locally,
woody twigs are found in gravel-rich trough cross
beds. This indicates that wooden fragments were
transported by rivers, although probably originating
from river banks or log dams. Its 14C age is
17,920F100 years BP (BETA-144644). The fluvial
deposits are blanketed by a white tuffaceous loam,
upon which developed the modern soil. These fluvial
deposits resting on the higher terrace of the Alpayacu
River represent the first sediment deposited over the
Mera surface. Taken together, the above data indicate
that the formation of the Mera erosional surface
occurred between 14C 23–24 ky and 18 ky BP. This
period corresponds to the time of deposition of the
LGM terminal moraines (14C dated between b25 and
N15 ka., Heine, 2000, Table 1), which is ascribed to
glacier shrink because of increased aridity (Heine,
2000). This is consistent with the reduction and
cessation of fluvial activity, and the development of
an erosion surface (e.g. Leeder et al., 1998).
5. Terraces of the Puyo area
Stepped degradational terraces are observed in the
Mera–Puyo area (Figs. 6 and 9a). The Mera erosion
surface connects to the higher of these terraces in the
upper Pastaza valley. For convenience and contrary to
the common use, the Mera surface/terrace being the
reference level will be termed T1 and the younger
ones T2 to T6. The presence of deformed higher
terraces is suspected, notably on the Cosanga thrust
sheet (Fig. 3) and, more to the east, on top of the
Mirador anticline, but the forest cover did not allow a
systematic study.
Along the Pastaza valley, a lower terrace T2
bevelled into the Mera deposits is situated 70 m
below the Mera plateau (T1 terrace) and 20 m above
the Pastaza. Three degradational terraces are bevelled
in the Mesa/Mera Fm. in the right/western bank of
the Rio Alpayacu, which is a left-bank tributary of
the Pastaza (Fig. 6). The Rio Alpayacu flows along
the trace of the Cosanga thrust fault, between the
forelimb of the Cosanga anticline and the backlimb
of the Mirador anticline, and drains the Abitagua
363
granite. The orientation of this river and its situation
in the forelimb of the Cosanga anticline is respon-
sible for the development of a spectacular asym-
metrical arrangement of the terraces (Fig. 6c). All are
covered with a thin blanket of non-weathered granitic
clasts included in a sand-rich matrix originating from
the nearby Abitagua granite, infilling shallow and
large fluvial channels. As indicated above, the
deposits resting on the upper terrace contain wooden
fragments with 14C age of 17,920F100 years BP
(BETA-144644).
At Mera, the T2 terrace (Fig. 5b) is covered with
silts containing rare andesitic clasts (lithofacies Sh,
Fm), representing overbank deposits. These are over-
lain by a black layer of volcanic ashes including
carbonized wood that gave 14C ages of 1800F50
years BP (BETA-168282).
6. Terraces of the upper Pastaza valley
Discontinuous degradational terraces are observed
along the upper Pastaza valley where traversing the
Eastern Cordillera and the western Subandean Zone.
Only recent terraces have been identified and corre-
lated. The upper Pastaza valley appears in the Eastern
Cordillera as a narrow and deeply incised valley and
few terraces can be followed in continuity. The most
complete succession is exposed in the Santa Ines
depression, which appears as a marked enlargement of
the valley at the junction between the Rio Pastaza and
the Rio Topo (Figs. 7 and 8). The Santa Ines
depression is situated on the backlimb of the Cosanga
anticline (Fig. 2b) and is filled with Mesa/Mera
deposits, the hardened upper surface of which forms
the upper fluvial terrace T1. This terrace is at 1400 m
a.s.l. and 120 m to 135 m above the present-day
Pastaza, and, although 30 m higher, should be
correlated stratigraphically and geometrically with
the Mera plateau. The sediment is formed by debris
flows with matrix-supported and more or less well-
sorted rounded clasts (lithofacies Gci, Gcm), overlain
by unsorted, matrix-supported angular clasts probably
representing lahar deposits. This shows that the
lithological succession is similar to that observed at
Mera. The T1 terrace is no longer visible to the west.
Five younger terraces are observed in the Santa
Ines depression (Figs. 3a, 8, 9b). In any case, lateral
364 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380

ERA
N

DILL

ion
Dep ta Inès
ress
C OR

San

e
N

anit
TER

a gr
EAS

tagu
Abi
0 5km

NE SW
T1 120 m

T2
60 m
Lava Flow
1470<Age<2215 y.BP 14C
Flood plain : 1070+/- 65 y.BP 14C T3 35 m

T4 15 m
T6 T5 0 500m

Clast-supported gravel
Modern stream deposits
(Gmc - Gh)
Bedrock Columnar lava

Fig. 8. Degradational terraces of the Pastaza River in the Santa Ines Depression. See description in text.

incision is limited. The T2 Terrace is sealed there by
a thick lava flow, made of a two pyroxene andesite,
issued from the Tungurahua volcano, 30 km
upstream, and known as the dJuive Chico Pre-historic
flowT (Hall et al., 1999). Therefore, the base of this
lava flow can be used as a reference level for the
entire upper Pastaza. Its thickness varies from 80 m
in the west (Baños) to 15 m in the east. According to
Hall et al. (1999), this lava flow postdates a scoria-
rich pyroclastic flow containing charcoal dated at
2215F90 14C years BP and predates an ash fall layer
in which charcoal gave a 14C age of 1470F85 years
BP. The elevation of this terrace above the Pastaza
varies from 30 m in the west to 45 m in the east.
Although the age of the fluvial deposits underlying
the lava flow cannot be determined, the ages above
constrain the age of contact between the lava flow
and the fluvial deposits. This enables us to correlate
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380 365

b
N
Abitagua granite

T1

T3
T4

T2

T3

T4

T6

Fig. 9. (a) Incision of the terrace T1 by the Pastaza River near Mera, viewed from the west. (b) Terraces of the Santa Ines Depression viewed
from the west. Note the importance of the modern incision (bottom right).

the T2 terrace of the upper Pastaza with the lower incision at the origin of the T2 terrace reduced
fluvial terrace of the Mera area dated at 1800F50 vertical incision, which is localized at the contact
14
C years BP. The lava flow postdating the lateral between the lava flow and the metamorphic base-
366 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380

-78.5° -78.2°
-1.33°

Baños
1 San Francisco
2

0 5 km
-1.5°
1- Agoyan 2- Paílon del Diablo

S N
100 m

Andesitic Lava Flow Andesitic Lava Flow

1470<Age<2215 y.BP

Rio Pastaza
T2 Columnar lava

Debris Flow (Gcm)

0 500 m

Modern stream deposits Lava flow of Tungurahua

Clast-supported gravel (Gcm)

Paleochannel of Pastaza

Bedrock

Fig. 10. T2 terrace in the upper Pastaza near Baños in the Eastern Cordillera. The presence of the resistant andesitic lava flow caused incision to
be located at the contact between the lava flow and the metamorphic bedrock.

ment, and delayed the abandon of T2. Headward
erosion is responsible for a retreating lithological
knick point represented by the well-known Agoyan
falls (Figs. 10 and 11).
The T3 terrace is only found on the left bank of the
Pastaza. This terrace appears as a degradational
terrace bevelled in the Mesa/Mera deposits 35 m
above the modern Rio Pastaza and is covered with
flood plain deposits 2 to 3 m thick (Figs. 8 and 9b).
Pits excavated in these deposits showed sandy loam
and clay horizons with disseminated charcoal at
depths between 0.8 and 1 m. Dating of charcoal at
the University of Lyon (France) gave a 14C age of
1070F65 years BP (LY 11080).
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380 367

W
5000
Tungurahua

4500

4000

3500

3000

2500

Abitagua
2000
Photo 2
Past Agoyan fall Photo 1
a T1 E
prof za River T2 T1
ile T2 Mirador 1500
T2 T1 Bobonaza

0 20 km Landslide 1000
Alpayacu scar

Southward 500
deviation of
the Pastaza

Fig. 11. Long profile of the Pastaza River and terraces T1 and T2 showing fault offsets, downstream divergence of T1 with respect to the
present-day Pastaza in the backlimbs of the Cosanga, Mirador and Bobonaza thrust-related folds and convergence of the same T1 in the
forelimbs of the Cosanga and Mirador folds. Note that the profile of the Pastaza prolonged east of its diversion is at the same level as the Mera
plateau on the eastern side of the Mirador forethrust. Elevations in m a.s.l.

The T4 and T5 terraces are 15 and 10 m above the
present stream, respectively. The T6 terrace corre-
sponds to the deposits of the major bed of the present-
day Pastaza River (Fig. 8).
The T3 to T6 terraces are not found in the west,
upstream of the Santa Ines depression, because of the
presence of the lava flow and the localization of
vertical incision at the contact between this lava flow
and the metamorphic basement.
7. Incision and fault uplift rates
Near Mera, the Mera plateau/T1 terrace situated 90
m above the present-day river and having a 14C age of
17,920F100 years BP gives a minimum average
incision rate of ~0.5 cm year 1 from 18,000 years BP
to now. If we consider the incision necessary to bevel
the T2 terrace, this gives a minimum average incision
rate of 0.43 cm year 1. Incision of T2 terrace dated at
1800F50 14C years BP (1712 cal years BP) until
today gives a markedly higher minimum average
incision rate of ~1.10 cm year 1 (Fig. 12a).
In the Santa Ines depression, incision of T1 and
underlying Mesa/Mera sediments (120 m) gives a
minimum average incision rate of 0.67 cm year 1.
Incision achieved until the formation of T2 (75 m in
~1800 years) gives a minimum average rate of 0.46
cm year 1 (Fig. 12a). Incision of T2 is likely to have
been significantly delayed by the presence of the less
erodible lava flow. However, the presence of such a
relatively thick and strong bed must have enhanced
local headward erosion by lowering the relative local
base level. To avoid problems relating to the incision
of the lava flow, minimum average incision has been
calculated using the base of the lava flow as the
368 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380

a reference level. When doing so, incision of the

18
sediment underlying T2 gives a minimum average

s
rate of 2.22 cm year 1 whereas the incision from the

Ine
Kyr.
formation of T2 to the formation of T3 is of 1.36 cm

ta
a
Mer

n
year 1 (Fig. 12a). Minimum average incision rate

Sa
from the formation of T3 to present is 2.80 cm year 1
(Fig. 12a). Because abandon of the terraces is
necessarily younger than terrace formation and cannot
be determined with accuracy, actual incision rates
were probably still higher. In any event, this indicates
0.43

a marked increase in incision rate from late Pleisto-

6
0.4

cene to now (Fig. 12a).

About 20 km to the west of Santa Ines, near the
s village of Baños, the incised thickness of T2 deposits
no
2 Ba .7 is ~30 m and the average incision rate of ~1.7 cm
10 1 36
1 1. 1. year 1(Fig. 12a), which is less rapid than at Santa
2 . 8
100 150 Ines.
Incision, m In order to define the incision profile and the
b deformation of the terraces, a section was constructed
ult

along the Pastaza valley (Fig. 11) using 1/50,000

ng Ine t fa
sa ta rus
fo s

18 maps, air-photos and Savane software (nIRD), and

7 r fo old

ld
CoSan reth
st fault

controlled by field differential GPS measurements.

0.6 rado dor f

Kyr.
a
ra

The long profile of the Rio Pastaza was used as a

Mi Mira
Me
nga thru

reference level for calculating the relative elevation of

6

the terraces and of the preserved fold hinges (see Lavé

0.5
0.12 Cosa

and Avouac, 2000; Formento-Trigilio et al., 2002).

83
0.

The present-day Pastaza River profile is taken as

0.5

reference because the absence of knick points down-

2 profile of the Rio Pastaza in the backlimb of the Santa
1
100
Incision, fault offset, m
Fig. 12. Incision and fault offsets in the Pastaza valley. (a) Incisions
and incisions rates in the Mera, Santa Ines and upper Pastaza
terraces. Incisions rates are indicated on the curves in cm year 1.
These values represent dregionalT incision/uplift (see explanation in
text). (b) Incisions of the terrace T1 and incision rates from 18,000
years to now in the Mera and Santa Ines terraces (continuous line),
and in the hinge of the reconstructed Cosanga (Abitagua) and
Mirador folds (short-dashed line). Fault offsets and fault offset rates
are indicated for the Cosanga fault and the Mirador forethrust fault
(large-dashed line). Note that additional incision due to folding is
relatively small compared to dregionalT incision. Fault offset along
the Cosanga fault is also relatively small whereas the offset along
the Mirador forethrust fault is similar to dregionalT incision.
stream of the Agoyan falls strongly suggests that this
profile is close to the local equilibrium profile (in fact,
local steady state profile after Willett and Brandon,
2002). As expected, this shows a divergence of both
T1 and T2 terraces with respect to the present-day
Ines–Cosanga, Mirador and Bobonaza folds and a
150 convergence in the forelimbs of the Santa Ines–
Cosanga and Mirador anticlines. This also shows
vertical offsets of ~20–25 m along the major thrust
faults situated west of the Mirador fold and 120 m
along the Mirador forethrust fault.
In order to estimate fold-induced deformation of
the terraces and associated uplift/downfall, kink-like
folds were constructed by prolonging geometrically
the preserved diverging and converging terraces. Fold
hinges so constructed fall just along the axial surface
of the preserved dpreviousT folds, which indicates
ongoing folding. The difference in elevation between
river profile and fold profile (folded terraces) meas-
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
ures the incision along any vertical line cutting the
profiles and is thus greater in anticlinal hinges and
smaller in synclinal hinges. This gives maximum
values of ~0.83 cm year 1 for the Cosanga anticline
and ~0.56 cm year 1 for the Mirador anticline (Fig.
12b).
The position of the Mera surface in the hanging
wall of the Mirador thrust fault can be considered as
representing the local base level before the Pastaza
River was diverted southeastward. This allows sepa-
rating the incision resulting from fold growth from
dregionalT incision assumed to be constant in the
considered thrust sheet. The distinction between
dregionalT, and dlocalT, incision/fault offset is made
by graphically elevating the Pastaza long profile from
the height of the footwall of the Mirador thrust fault to
the height of its hanging wall. In the hinge of the
Santa Ines–Cosanga anticline, the projected profile of
T1 is 30 m above the projected river profile, which
gives a fold uplift rate of ~0.16 cm year 1. The same
calculation procedure gives a fold uplift rate of 0.25
cm year 1 for the Mirador anticline, the backthrust
fault offset not being comprised. Adding thrust fault
offset rate to fold uplift rate gives fault-and-thrust
uplift rate, that is, local tectonic uplift. Thrust fault
offset is of 23F1 m along the Cosanga thrust fault, in
front of the Cosanga fold and of 15F1 m along the
Mirador backthrust fault. This gives local uplift rates
of ~0.12 cm year 1 and ~0.08 cm year 1, respec-
tively. The offset of 120 m along the Mirador
forethrust fault gives an uplift rate of 0.66 cm year 1
(Fig. 12b). Adding these to fold uplift rate arrive to
values of 0.28 cm year 1 for the Cosanga thrust and
fold and ~1 cm year 1 for the Mirador fold and thrust.
Because of the diversion of the Rio Pastaza immedi-
ately west of the Mirador fold, fault offset along the
Mirador forethrust fault cannot be directly compared
with incision rates obtained using the long-profile of
the Pastaza. However, if the profile of the Pastaza
River is prolonged graphically assuming a constant
minimum slope down to the contact of the Mirador
frontal fault, it appears that this profile is approx-
imately at the same level as the Mera plateau on the
eastern side of this fault (Fig. 11). This indicates that
dregionalT incision is there practically identical to fault
uplift. Measuring the rates of fold uplift and fault slip
along the Mirador backthrust fault with respect to the
prolonged profile of the Pastaza gives an uplift rate of
369
0.33 cm year 1. It is of interest to note that in the
Pastaza valley, 3 km southeast of the section, the fault
offset along the Mirador backthrust fault vanishes.
Fault offsets along two southern branches of the
Mirador forethrust are only 18F1 and 21F1 m, which
gives fault uplift rates of ~0.1F0.01 to 0.12F0.01 cm
year 1. It was impossible there to measure the angle
between T1 and the river profile. These data
compared with those 3 km to the north are other
evidence that the faster growth of the axial culmina-
tion of the Mirador fault is related to a local greater
displacement rate along the Mirador forethrust fault.
This also suggests that the Mirador thrust–fold
continued to propagate after the Pastaza River was
diverted.
It was possible to measure the angle between the
terrace T2 and the river profile in the upper Pastaza
valley thanks to the thickness of sediment underlying
the dJuive Chico pre-historicT lava flow from the
village of Baños (30 m) to the village of San
Francisco (45 m). This reveals a small (0.078) but
significant divergence angle between T2 and the
present-day Pastaza profile.
8. Discussion
8.1. Tectonic controls of drainage
8.1.1. Diversion of the Rio Pastaza
Field and/or numerical models (Burbank et al.,
1996; Jackson et al., 1996; Tucker and Slingerland,
1996; Mueller and Talling, 1997; Humphreys and
Konrad, 2000; van der Beek et al., 2002) have
recently established how fold growth may create
fluvial diversions and reciprocally how fluvial diver-
sions may be used to define fold history. In the study
area, the diversions of the Pastaza River and of the
Rios Puyo and Anzu can be used in such an analysis
of the tectonic evolution (Figs. 2, 5, 13).
The upper Pastaza valley where crossing the
Eastern Cordillera is directed E–W, and appears to
be in continuity with the axis of the Pliocene–
Pleistocene fan it fed when debouching from this
range (Christophoul et al., 2002). Within the Eastern
Cordillera, the diversion of the Pastaza from the axis
of the fan by the Cosanga thrust is associated with an
unusually great thickness of preserved Pleistocene
370 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380

Fig. 13. Schematic evolution of the successive diversions of the Pastaza River as results of fold growth. (a) The antecedent Pastaza river
traverses the Eastern Cordillera, the Cosanga (Abitagua) thrust sheet and the Mirador thrust-related fold trough water gaps. The crest line of the
Cosanga and Mirador anticlines show a marked culmination although the folds are relatively poorly amplified. The Rio Anzu, the Pastaza River
and another stream to the south flow west–east, perpendicular to the thrust–folds. The Pastaza River traverses the incipient Mirador fold through
a water gap. The Rio Anzu is diverted northeastward by the growing Mirador fold. (b) The Eastern Cordillera ceased to grow. The rapid growth
and lateral propagation of the Cosanga (Abitagua) thrust-related fold cause the Pastaza to be diverted and captured by a secondary stream
flowing through a less elevated part of the fold. Disconnected from the upstream reach, the downstream reach of the Pastaza River becomes the
Rio Puyo, which is now sourced in the wind gap representing the uplifted former watergap. The upper reach of the southern stream is captured
by a tributary of the Pastaza River (centre-left). Ongoing growth and lateral propagation of the Mirador fold integrate the previously diverted
reach of the Rio Anzu, thus creating a SW–NE trending watergap (centre). (c) Ongoing growth and lateral propagation of the northern Cosanga
and Mirador thrust-related folds result in the creation of a southeastward diversion slope greater than the former river slope, causing the mighty
Pastaza to be diverted southeastward. In the same time, the depression created between the Cosanga and Mirador folds forces the previously E–
W-flowing rivers to flow north–south, parallel to the folds. This results in the formation of the Rio Alpayacu and in the capture by the Rio Anzu
of the northernmost stream. The former Rio Puyo watergap is transformed into a wind gap. New east–west flowing streams issued from the wind
gaps become tributaries of the Rio Alpayacu. (d) Backtilting of the Mera plateau being maximum east of the Mirador fold causes the Rios Anzu
and Puyo to be diverted on either side of the watershed divide created this way. Backtilting also forces the Pastaza River to flow in the
depression created in front of the Subandean thrust. Newly formed small streams flow east–west, partly occupying the former valleys of the Rios
Anzu, Puyo and Pastaza. ST: Subandean thrust; PR: Pastaza River; R.A.: Rio Anzu; R.P.: Rio Puyo.
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
(Mera) sediments in the Santa Ines depression
upstream of the Cosanga anticline (Fig. 8). In the
wind gap representing the former water gap through
the Cosanga anticline (Figs. 2 and 5), the same
Pleistocene sediments appear as a condensed series
overlying the Abitagua granite which constitutes the
core of this anticline (Bès de Berc, 2003). This
strongly suggests that both diversion and deposition
are related to the propagation of the Cosanga thrust
(Fig. 13b) but that the diversion was older than the
Mera erosion. This also indicates that the propagation
of the Cosanga thrust occurred during the Pleistocene.
The Rio Puyo flowing west–east in the prolonga-
tion of the upper Pastaza valley (Figs. 3–5) is likely to
represent the former downstream continuation of the
Pastaza valley (Fig. 13a) in the early Holocene. The
wind gap situated in prolongation of the upper Pastaza
west of the present-day source of the Rio Puyo in the
eastern flank of the Mirador fold (Fig. 5) is thus likely
to represent the uplifted former water gap through
which the Pastaza previously traversed the Cosanga
thrust sheet. Careful observation of air photos reveals
that the Rio Puyo was sourced in the Cosanga wind
gap after the Pastaza was diverted, and was only
recently disconnected from this source, when the
upper reach was captured by the Rio Alpayacu (Fig.
13c). The range-parallel Rio Alpayacu flowing in the
front-syncline of the Cosanga thrust–fold is likely to
have formed as a longitudinal stream resulting from
thrust propagation, which indicates that the Cosanga
thrust was still active during the early Holocene. The
antecedence with respect to the Mirador fold of the
Rio Puyo and also of the nearby Rio Anzu to the
north, is obvious because the Mera strata and the Mera
surface are deformed, although less than the basement
strata, by the fold (Figs. 2, 3a, 10a), and no younger
depositional events can have been responsible for an
eventual surimposition. The diversion of the modern
Pastaza in the rear of the Mirador fold and the
presence of a wind gap in the fold, in prolongation of
the upper Pastaza valley, is well apparent in the DEM
(Figs. 2, 5, 11a). This indicates that the growth of the
Mirador anticline postdated the propagation of the
Cosanga thrust (Fig. 13b,c). As proposed by Burbank
et al. (1996) in the Wheeler ridge (CA, USA) fault-
propagation fold, uplift near the axial culmination of
the anticline will raise up the local base level faster
than sideways, which results in a diversion and an
371
eventual capture by a stream that traversed the
anticline in a part of this anticline less rapidly elevated
by fold growth. One might wonder, however, why the
mighty Rio Pastaza did not incise the thrust sheet
whereas smaller rivers did. According to Humphreys
and Konrad (2000), stream power and related capa-
bility of incising is not the determining factor in the
control of river incision or diversion. For these
authors, the decrease in, or inversion of, slope caused
by the deposition associated to tectonic uplift and
sediment flux are the most influential variables. If so,
the high sedimentation rate of the Mesa/Mera for-
mation caused by the high sediment flux of the
Pastaza resulting from the intense erosion in the
catchment area (see Tucker and Slingerland, 1996;
Whipple and Trayler, 1996; Allen and Hovius, 1998),
and the uplift of the Abitagua granitic thrust sheet,
have resulted in a rapid decrease in, and then
inversion of, slope of the river bed behind the thrust
(Figs. 2, 11, 13a,b). In fact, strata tilting in the
backlimb of the fold is likely to have greatly enhanced
slope inversion (see e.g. Jackson et al., 1996 or van
der Beek et al., 2002), which is well apparent in the
long profile of Fig. 11. It seems also obvious that the
diversion of the Pastaza by the Mirador fold is due to
an inversion of slope and ongoing development of a
steeper diversion slope to the southeast because of the
rapid uplift of the axial culmination (Figs. 2, 11, 13c).
This is shown, in particular, by the southwestward
avulsions of the Pastaza south of the southern end of
the Mirador anticline (Fig. 2). As a support of
Burbank et al.’s (1996) and Humphreys and Konrad’s
(2000) models, the Rio Puyo situated in a less raised
part of the fold hinge has continued to incise through
the Mirador anticline after it was disconnected from
the upstream reach of the Pastaza although being
much less powerful than the Pastaza which has been
diverted (Fig. 13c).
The V-shaped water gap of the Rio Anzu within the
Mirador fold can be interpreted a result of a northward
diversion of this river by the growing northern edge of
the Mirador fold followed by the capture of a north–
south-flowing stream during ongoing fold growth
(Fig. 13a,b,c).
The Rio Anzu and the former Rio Puyo being
diverted northward on the northern side of the
apparently E–W flexure of the central Mera plateau,
and the Pastaza River together with the present-day
372 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
Rio Puyo being diverted southward on the southern
side of this flexure (Figs. 4, 5, 13d) is additional
evidence of the recent (b18,000 years BP) tectonic
control of the drainage by the backlimb of the frontal
Bobonaza thrust-related fold. The watershed divide
between the Napo-Aguarico and Pastaza-Marañon
drainage basins being constituted by the apparent
prolongation of this structure into the upper Ama-
zonian basin indicates that tectonic control was felt at
a great distance from the driving tectonic structure.
8.1.2. Evolution of the drainage system
The control of newly formed drains by large-scale
landslides and backward expansion of landslide scars
observed here is similar to the phase of rapid
catchment expansion by landslide escarpment retreat
inferred in the Finisterre Mountains (Papua New
Guinea) to be characteristic of pre-steady state top-
ography (Hovius et al., 1998). Another line of
evidence of the immaturity of the tectonic-erosional
system is provided by the overall evolution of the
drainage.
As pointed out above, the drainage system evolves
from west to east from highly immature in the
proximal part of the fan to mature in the distal
Amazonian part (Fig. 4). Immaturity of the drainage
in active mountain belts characterizes growing tec-
tonic structures as exemplified in the foothills of
Central Taiwan where climatic and topographic
characteristics are grossly similar to those encountered
here (Delcaillau et al., 1998; Delcaillau, 2001). The
marked contrast in maturity between the upper and
lower part of the fan (Fig. 4) demonstrates that the
proximal part was, and is still growing while the distal
part was and is in a steady (or perhaps subsiding)
state. Since the local base level in the distal part
cannot have fallen and more probably rose (Roddaz et
al., 2005), this indicates an overall uplift of the upper
fan, the Subandean Zone and the Eastern Cordillera
during the achievement of the present-day drainage
network.
Another significant characteristic of the Mera
plateau is that the newly formed rivers as well as
the antecedent ones are all incising the Mesa/Mera
Fm. and underlying sediment, and no overbank
sedimentation has been observed. This cannot be a
result of an autocyclic process of fan construction in
which entrenchment along a given stream must occur
concurrently with aggradation and overbank sedimen-
tation along another (Schumm et al., 1987). In
contrast, aggradation is systematic in the Holocene
terraces of the Amazonian lowlands (Räsänen et al.,
1992; Weng et al., 2002) with average deposition rates
of 0.4 to 1.1 mm year 1 in the early and middle
Holocene, and ~ 4.7 mm year 1 in the late Holocene
near the Rio Napo in the Yasuni National Park, NE
Ecuador (Weng et al., 2002). This and the preserved
remnants of the Mera surface east of the landslide line
indicate that the tectonically uplifted/tilted upper
Pliocene–Pleistocene Pastaza fan is not in sedimentary
steady state and that the depositional area migrated
eastward during the Holocene beyond the hinge line
separating the tectonically induced immature area and
the undisturbed Amazonian lowland.
The general immaturity of the newly formed
drainage whether controlled by landslides or by the
growth of the Mirador and Bobonaza axial culmina-
tions (Figs. 4 and 13d) confirms the tectonic control of
the drainage. It should be pointed out that because of
the very wet climate of this area, maturation of the
drainage system will be much more rapid than in drier
regions. The age of the deformed and/or slided Mera
Plateau indicates that this immature drainage is
younger than 18,000 years BP. Because these newly
formed streams drain the eastern slopes of the
Ecuadorian Cordillera and provide a non-negligible
part of the water feeding the Amazonian sediment-rich
dwhite-water riversT, it should be stated that, under
such wet tropical conditions, the time during which a
drainage network providing a non-negligible part of
the water to the largest river in the world develops
may be as short as 18,000 years. This appears to be
much shorter than commonly admitted, even though
the most favourable conditions are here met.
8.2. Tectonic incision vs. climate-induced incision
Incision of growing relief by antecedent rivers is
increasingly used by tectonic geomorphologists as a
proxy to measure the vertical component of mountain
growth, provided that the base level did not change or
the original long-profile could be reconstructed
(Molnar et al., 1994; Lavé and Avouac, 2000;
Formento-Trigilio et al., 2002). Erosion, however, is
dependant not only on climatic factors such as late-
glacial discharges or changes in the regime of
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
precipitations (e.g. Bull, 1991; Tucker and Slinger-
land, 1996; Reheis et al., 1996; Leeder et al., 1998;
Formento-Trigilio et al., 2002; Schilden et al., 2002),
but also on local tectonic factors such as backlimb
subsidence or forelimb erosion (e.g. Suppe et al.,
1992; Burbank et al., 1996; Ford et al., 1997). In areas
where active tectonics are inferred, tectonic uplift and
its control on sedimentation and basin formation have
been often emphasized without considering terrace
formation (e.g. Burbank et al., 1996; Mueller and
Talling, 1997; Mueller and Suppe, 1997; Delcaillau et
al., 1998; Delcaillau, 2001; Wesnousky et al., 1999;
Lavé and Avouac, 2000; Van der Woerd et al., 2001).
Where both tectonic activity and terrace formation
have been considered, the authors have frequently
envisioned tectonic uplift as a long term continuous
event and terrace abandonment as a result of discrete
climatic events (e.g. Hsieh and Knuepfer, 2001;
Formento-Trigilio et al., 2002; Brocard et al., 2003).
It is obvious that terraces are able to form and to be
incised on the sole control of climatic factors, in
particular in post-steady state mountains (e.g. Bull,
1991; Schilden et al., 2002). Development of aggrada-
tional terraces even in tectonically active areas can
simply result from long-profile changes due to
changes in stream power (Whipple and Tucker,
1999) in sediment load, bed roughness or other
variables independent of tectonics that cause down-
cutting to follow aggradation (see Burbank and
Anderson, 2001, p. 22). Formation of strath or
degradational terraces such as those studied in the
present paper has been variously interpreted. Some
authors have considered that terrace widening could
result from an increase in excess stream power
available for lateral bank erosion under constant
incision rates (Merrits et al., 1994) whereas for others,
an increase in sediment discharge favour lateral
instead of vertical incision (Formento-Trigilio et al.,
2002). Abandon of terraces has been associated with
tectonic or isostasic uplift of the mountain range (e.g.
Hsieh and Knuepfer, 2001; Formento-Trigilio et al.,
2002; Brocard et al., 2003) possibly including
postglacial isostasic rebound (Brocard et al., 2003).
Bevelling of stepped degradational or strath terraces
have been suggested to result from episodic uplift, in
which periods of quiescence lead to strath cutting, and
from climatic changes in which increased water fluxes
cause lateral planation, or, alternatively, in which
373
increased water discharge causes enhanced incision
leading the former bed of the river as an abandoned
strath (Burbank and Anderson, 2001, p. 24). In
practise, the case studies in which the mechanisms
of formation of terraces or local aggradational fills
have been ascribed to climatic forcing invoke
catastrophic precipitations during otherwise subtle
climatic changes (Hsieh and Knuepfer, 2001), with-
drawn of glacial dams (e.g. Brocard et al., 2003) or
landslide damming together with an influx of sedi-
ment exceeding the transport capacity to reduce the
river gradient responsible for aggradation (Pratt et al.,
2002). However, tectonically induced decrease in
slope whether caused by earthquakes (e.g. the Mis-
sissippi River where crossed by the New Madrid
seismic zone, Russ, 1982; Schumm et al., 2000) or
folding (e.g. Wheeler Ridge, Burbank et al., 1996)
will also decrease stream power and the capacity of
transporting sediment, and thus lateral incision.
Excess of sediment might alternatively be caused by
earthquake-induced landslides or downstream tectonic
uplift (Pratt et al., 2002; Burbank and Anderson,
2001). Again, downfaulting may cause a local base
level drop in the same manner as a rupture of glacial
or rockfall dams.
Considering tectonic uplift as a continuous long
term event, that is aseismic folding/thrusting, is also to
be discussed in areas where there are evidences of
active, earthquake-generating, faulting. In these areas,
the tectonic events are in fact as discrete as the
climatic events. The recurrence time of major earth-
quakes or of major seismic periods can be similar to,
or greater than, that of the major El Niño periods
which control the occurrence of catastrophic precip-
itations (e.g. Keefer, 1984).
In the following, we will first discuss the origin of
the Mera surface and then the possible climatic or
tectonic causes of the formation of the terraces T2 to
T6.
Although connected to the higher upper Pastaza
terrace, the Mera surface must be considered inde-
pendently of the fluvial terraces T2 to T6. As shown
above, this erosion surface aged of 14C24–23 to 18 ka
BP formed during a period of increased aridity
marked by the deposition of the LGM terminal
moraines (14C dated between b25 and N15 ka, Heine,
2000). This is consistent with the absence of vegeta-
tional cover and the cessation of fluvial activity at the
374 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
time of formation of the surface (see Leeder et al.,
1998). The Mera surface can be considered as the
upstream part of a climatically induced erosional
surface penetrating mountain gorges (termed dglacisT
in the French/Mediterranean literature).
The origin of the fluvial terraces T2 to T6 must be
examined more thoroughly. No terraces formed during
the severe droughts of the period 8700 to 5800 cal
years BP (Weng et al., 2002) and the younger terraces,
T2 to T6 formed during the following wet period. The
formation of the terraces T2 dated at ~1800 years BP
and T3 dated at~1100 years BP occurred while
climatic conditions were relatively wet, and those of
T4, T5 and T6 when these climatic conditions were
relatively dry like today (Weng et al., 2002).
All these terraces are degradational terraces. They
are younger than the last glacial advance and at no
time the study area was at a sufficiently close distance
to the glaciers for incision to be caused by rupture of
glacial dams. Log dams as observed in the terrace
deposits are largely insufficient to dam a high power
river such as the Pastaza. Therefore, catastrophic
precipitations are the only climatic event to be
considered. Andean regions are particularly sensitive
to El Niño events but quite differently according to the
latitude and the situation in the range. As indicated
above, the terraces T4, T5 and T6 formed under
climatic conditions similar as today and T2 and T3
under still wetter conditions. According to Rodbell et
al. (1999), the El Niño events were weaker than today
when all these terraces formed, thus reducing the
chance of heavy rainfalls to be at the origin of terrace
abandonment. In fact, as indicated earlier, climate in
the eastern slopes of Ecuadorian Andes and upper
Amazonian basin is characterized by long rainy
periods and no actual dry season. Even during the
last century and the 17th century that are characterized
by very strong El Niño events (Cobb et al., 2003;
Keefer et al., 2003), the landslides associated with
these El Niño events in Ecuador were essentially steep
sloping hillslope-toe landslides occurring on the
western slopes of the Western Cordillera, an area that
is normally much less humid than the Eastern
Cordillera (Demoraes and D’Ercole, 2001). In con-
trast, in the Eastern Cordillera and Amazon basin
continuously submitted to the humid Atlantic easterly
winds, the major landslides were independent of El
Niño events. The La Josefina landslide, which is the
greatest landslide known in Ecuador (135 km south of
Puyo, 15 km west of the southern prolongation of the
Mera plateau), killing 50 people and causing 147
millions US dollars damage, occurred in 1993, i.e.
between the 1982–1983 and 1997–1998 very severe
El Niño events (Demoraes and D’Ercole, 2001).
Likewise, still more destructive numerous landslides
occurred in the Reventador–Baeza area, killing ~1000
peoples and destroying petrol and gas pipelines in the
southern slopes of the northern Eastern Cordillera,
were a result of the March 5, 1987 M~7 earthquake
(Hall, 1991). In both cases, the large amount of
sediment delivered by these landslides were incised
and almost entirely removed a few days after, without
forming any terrace (e.g. Hall, 1991). No traces of the
landslides related to the severe and frequent 17th-
century events are registered in the catalogue of major
historical disasters in eastern Ecuador (Demoraes and
D’Ercole, 2001). Therefore, and still more than today
because of the absence of significant El Niño events at
this time, the wetter climates of the pre-historical
period (Weng et al., 2002) are unlikely to have been
the cause of large-scale landslides capable of suffi-
ciently damming the Pastaza River to create even
transient aggradational, or degradational terraces. In
any event, whatever time and climate, landslide dams
could not have formed in the Mera plateau where
hillslopes are lacking.
Therefore, tectonics appears here as the most likely
factor of terrace development. As shown earlier, there
is strong evidence of tectonic deformation of the
terraces in the Pastaza valley. Formation and abandon-
ment of these terraces might be ascribed to either
downstream earthquake-induced landslides damming
the valley, or upstream earthquake-induced landslides
causing excess sediment to be transported by the river.
In both cases, the landslides should have been much
larger that the historical or recent ones which did not
leave any terrace. No traces of such landslides and no
traces of aggradational terraces being observed, land-
slide-induced terrace formation cannot be retained. A
more direct influence of tectonics is thus to be
researched.
The tectonic observations reported earlier indicate
that the local base level from which the present-day
near-equilibrium profile of the Pastaza River in the
Mera area was constructed is constituted by the Mera
surface in the footwall of the Mirador thrust fault.
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
Eastern Ecuador is presently, and was during the
historical period, an active seismic area. Frequent
shallow (depth V20 km) earthquakes with high
magnitudes and intensities have been observed
recently and in the historical record in or near the
studied area (see Harvard Catalog, 1999; U.S. Geo-
logical Survey, 2003; Instituto Geophysico de la
Escuela Politécnica National, Quito, 1999 for general
information and Hall, 1991; Yepes et al., 1996; Baby
et al., 2002 for particular studies). The location of
these events show that they were related with the
activity of major fault structures (Yepes et al., 1996;
Bès de Berc, 2003). Therefore, it is likely that the
displacement along the thrust faults such as the
Mirador fault was not aseismic and occurred, as in
the case of most seismic faults, during periods of
relatively high seismic activity alternating with
periods of relative seismic quiescence. In this case,
the terraces are likely to have been bevelled during
periods of relative tectonic quiescence when the
capacity of the river to incise vertically was reduced
as a result of either profile adjustment, or transport of
the sediment previously accumulated in the river
catchment during tectonic activity by landsliding, or
both. Renewed fault activity during the following
seismic period will result in local base level fall and
subsequent downcutting and abandon of the previ-
ously bevelled surfaces. Slope may have also been
reduced in the near-hanging wall of the thrust fault by
earthquake-induced local uplift (reverse drag), which
may enhance subsequent lateral incision of terraces.
The spectacular asymmetrical arrangement of the
terraces of the Rio Alpayacu (Fig. 6c) situated parallel
to, and in the forelimb of, the Cosanga anticline (Figs.
2, 11, 13c) appears to be related to the eastward
migration of the river during tectonic sloping. If the
interpretation above is correct, bevelling of terraces
rather than simple avulsion should be a result of
alternating phases of tectonic activity and quiescence.
The rapid readjustment of the dequilibriumT profile
in the conglomeratic substrate of the studied terraces
is corroborated by the relative continuity of the
terraces T1 and T2, and the small increase in their
average elevation above the present-day river. On the
whole, this indicates that a very short time after the
major faulting events (less than ~16,000 years after
the abandon of T1 and less than 1800 years after the
abandon of T2 downstream of the Agoyan falls) was
375
needed for the profile to be restored on a distance of
more than 20 km for vertical base level drops of 120
and 30 m, respectively. This is believed to be a result
of the very wet climatic conditions and in a lesser
extent of the relatively high slope of the upper
Pastaza.
8.3. Regional incision vs. local thrust-induced uplift
Incision measurements taking the present-day
Pastaza River long profile as a reference are used as
a proxy for uplift rates because the absence of knick
points downstream of the Agoyan falls strongly
suggests that this profile is close to the local
equilibrium profile between the Abitagua granite
and the Mirador frontal fault (local steady state,
Willett and Brandon, 2002). When added, the values
we attribute to dregionalT incision and to fold and
thrust-induced uplift rates are of the same order of
magnitude as the uplift rates along the Main Frontal
Thrust of the Himalaya (Wesnousky et al., 1999; Lavé
and Avouac, 2000) and the incision rates found in
Taiwan (Hsieh and Knuepfer, 2001).
However, except in the latter case, dregionalT
incision rates from 18,000 years BP to now are
significantly higher (0.5 at Mera to 0.67 in the Santa
Ines depression) than local tectonic uplift rates (0.28
cm year 1 in the Santa Ines–Cosanga anticline; 0.33
cm year 1 in the western Mirador anticline) (Fig.
12b). This precludes local thrust-induced uplift as the
controlling factor of high incision rate. As pointed out
earlier, the restoration of the steady state part of the
Pastaza River long profile initiated at the contact of
the Mirador thrust fault where the uplift rate (~1 cm
year 1) is by itself similar to those in the Himalaya.
Therefore, regional uplift as defined above is likely to
be related to a long term global uplift of the
Interandean Depression, Eastern Cordillera and Sub-
andean Zone, in continuity with that inferred from the
study of the late Oligocene to Pleistocene deposits
(Delfaud et al., 1999; Spikings et al., 2000; Hunger-
bühler et al., 2002; Christophoul et al., 2002). The
values of local tectonic uplift being similar for all the
thrust sheets within the Subandean Zone and Eastern
Cordillera and lesser than regional uplift (Fig. 11b)
indicate that these dlocalT thrusts propagated before
being uplifted as a whole along the Mirador thrust
fault. It should be stressed that the dregionalT uplift
376 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
inferred along the Pastaza valley is defined with
respect to a local steady state (after Willett and
Brandon, 2002) and represents only a minimum
uplift. This does not account for the uplift of this
reference profile together with the whole Mera plateau
with respect to the Amazonian basin. The offsets of
N500 m of the Mera surface along the frontal thrust
fault indicate a minimum average uplift rate of 2.8 cm
year 1, and thus a minimum average uplift rate of
~1.8 cm year 1 of the locally steady part of the
Pastaza valley referred to for incision measurements.
The southward diversion of the non-steady down-
stream part of the Pastaza River and the northward
diversion of the Rio Anzu can be thus interpreted as
results of a late uplift stage of the Mera plateau,
postdating uplift along the Mirador fault. This also
provides evidence of pre-steady state uplift (after
a
River long-profile
Local uplift
b gives rise to a poorly dissected plateau, the Mera
River long-profile
Local uplift
Regional uplift
c
Fig. 14. Schematic interpretation of the local and regional thrust-
induced uplifts and their consequences on the river long-profile. (a)
Undeformed state. (b) Faulting and related folding along local thrust
faults. This faults are those deforming the terraces T1 and T2 of the
Pastaza River shown in Fig. 10. The rapid readjustment of the
equilibrium profile arrives to a local steady state and allows the
measured incision to be taken as representing the local relative
uplift. (c) Regional thrust–fault slip essentially localized along a
regional scale low-angle ramp emerging in front of the system. The
regional structures are transported as a whole. Headward erosion has
not been sufficient for the equilibrium profile to be restored after the
thrust-induced base level drop. For convenience, the smaller scale
thrust–faults are assumed to be cut by the regional-scale fault.
Burbank and Anderson, 2001, p. 219) of the poorly
dissected Mera plateau. From a tectonic viewpoint,
this also demonstrates that regional uplift has been a
result of thrusting along a regional-scale low-angle
ramp underlying at least the Subandean and Eastern
Cordilleran thrust sheets, and emerging in front of the
Subandean Zone (Fig. 14). Although no such a
regional-scale low angle ramp has yet been identified
with certainty, it should be pointed out that, if present,
tectonic shortening comparable to those in the
Peruvian/Bolivian and Colombian Andes is needed
for the Ecuadorian Andes to arrive at comparable
elevations.
9. Conclusion
The principal geomorphic/tectonic features charac-
terizing the recent and present-day growth of the
Eastern Cordillera and Subandean Zone of northeast-
ern Ecuador that constitute the modern wedge-top,
and of the Holocene Pastaza megafan that represents
the modern wedge-top–foredeep transition and con-
tinental foredeep, are the following:
1. Uplift along the wedge front thrust fault of the
proximal part of a former Pliocene–Pleistocene
megafan previously affected by erosional planation
plateau, incised by two major antecedent rivers
issued from behind the wedge front, the Pastaza
and Napo Rivers, and few tributaries.
2. The successive diversions of the Pastaza River as a
result of the propagation of thrust-related folds
indicate that the propagation of the wedge pro-
ceeded by accretion of forward younging thrust
sheets. Rapid uplift of axial anticlinal culminations
appears to have been more efficient for diverting
the river than was high stream power for incising
the growing folds. Decrease and inversion of river
slope due to backlimb tilt can be considered as the
determining factor for creating a sufficient diver-
sion slope.
3. Thrust-related large-scale landslides and down-
stream dipping remnants of the planation surface
in front of the plateau controlled the formation of
new dwhite-waterT rivers. Rapid landslide retreat
provides high sedimentary charge to these newly
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
formed rivers and allows the construction of the
modern Pastaza fan downstream of the present-day
wedge front and of the former fan apex.
4. The drainage system shows an abrupt change from
immature to mature, with a well-defined hinge line.
This hinge line represents the probable outer limit
of landslide control of drainage. However, the
watershed divide between the large-scale Napo-
Aguarico and Pastaza-Marañon drainage basins
owing its origin to the axial anticlinal culminations
of the Mera plateau indicate that tectonic control
may be felt at a great distance from the driving
tectonic structure.
5. Although the planation surface is likely to have
been a result of a cool and arid climate during the
end of the Last Glacial Maximum, the individu-
alization of the Holocene degradational terraces
appears to be independent of climatic changes.
These terraces are likely to results from alternat-
ing periods of tectonic (seismic) activity and
quiescence.
6. Average incision rates in the plateau were very
high and increased from 18,000 14C years BP to
now (0.4 to 2.8 cm year 1). A comparison with
fold-and-thrust fault uplift rates enables us distin-
guishing between relatively moderate fold and
thrust-related dlocalT incision and much higher
dregionalT incision/uplift. Fault offset rate along
the major Mirador thrust fault in the central Mera
plateau is similar to regional incision rate upstream
of this fault. This and the absence of knick points,
other than lithological, in the long profile of the
Pastaza River indicates that incision in the upper
reach of this river was a result of rapid uplift (up to
1 cm year 1) along the Mirador fault followed by a
rapid restoration of the local equilibrium profile of
this upper reach. dLocalT incision resulted from
previous displacements along smaller thrust faults
to the west.
7. Uplift of the whole plateau along the wedge front
thrust fault was still more rapid with a minimum
average uplift rate of 2.8 cm year 1 , and occurred
later on as shown by the diversion of the Pastaza
River, Rio Puyo and Rio Anzu east of the Mirador
thrust. The diverted reach of the Pastaza River
having not attained its equilibrium profile is
consistent with a pre-steady topographic state of
the poorly dissected Mera plateau.
377
8. Regional uplift is likely to be related to the
presence of a regional-scale low angle thrust ramp
underlying the Subandean Zone, the Eastern
Cordillera and, at least in part, the Interandean
Depression, and emerging locally in front of the
Subandean Zone. Such a regional-scale thrusting
may indicate a tectonic shortening of the Ecua-
dorian Andes comparable to that in the Peruvian/
Bolivian and Colombian Andes on both sides,
which is corroborated by similar elevation and
relief. The foremost thrusts and related large-scale
landslides characterize here the transition between
a narrow though highly deformed wedge and an
eastward migrating and widening shallow conti-
nental foredeep represented by the modern Pastaza
megafan.
Acknowlegdments
This study was funded by IRD and IFEA and
received financial support from 99 PNSE 59 grant
bTectonique, érosion et sédimentation du Mio-Plio-
cène à l’actuelQ and INSU grant bErosion des AndesQ.
We thank Jacques Evin, Centre de Datations et
d’Analyses Isotopiques, Laboratoire de Radiocarbone,
Université Claude Bernard, Lyon, for 14C dating. We
are grateful to Petroproducción (filial PetroEcuador)
and the Ejercito Naciónal de Ecuador for providing
various documents and logistic support. During the
completion of this work, we have benefited from
stimulating discussions with Gérard Hérail, Marco
Rivadeneira, José Darrozes, Martin Roddaz and
Stéphane Brussset. Benoit Deffontaines and Peter
van der Beek are acknowledged for their constructive
comments.
References
Allen, P.A., Hovius, N., 1998. Sediment supply from landslide-
dominated catchments: implications for basin-margin fans.
Basin Res. 10, 19 – 35.
Aspden, J., Litherland, M., 1992. The geology and Mesozoic history
of the Cordillera real, Ecuador. Tectonophysics 205, 187 – 204.
Baby, P., Rivadeneira, M., Christophoul, F., Barragan, R., 1992.
Style and timing of deformation in the Oriente Basin of Ecuador.
4th. International Symposium on Andean Geodynamics
(ISAG’99), Univ. Göttingen (Germany), Extended Abstracts
Volume, 68–72.
378 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
Baby, P., Legrand, D., Bes de Berc, S., Bondoux, F., Rivadeneira,
M., 2002. The 1999–2000 seismic experiment of the swarm of
Macas (Ecuador) in relation with a subandean unexpected
wrench fault system. Andean Geodynamics. 5th International
Symposium on Andean Tectonics, Toulouse, Extended
Abstracts, pp. 65 – 68.
Baldock, J.W., 1982. Geologia del Ecuador. Boletin de Explicación
del Mapa Geológico del Ecuador al 1:1 000 000, 66, Dirección
General de Geologia y Mineria Quito, Ecuador.
Barragan, R., Geist, D., Hall, M., Larson, P., Kurz, M., 1998.
Subduction controls on the compositions of lavas from the
Ecuadorian Andes. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 154, 153 – 166.
Behling, H., Hooghiemstra, H., 1998. Late quaternary palaeoecol-
ogy and palaeoclimatology from pollen records of the savannas
of the Llanos Orientales in Colombia. Palaeogeogr. Palae-
oclimatol. Palaeoecol. 139, 251 – 265.
Behling, H., Hooghiemstra, H., 1999. Environmental history of
the Colombian savannas of the Llanos Orientales since the
last glacial maximum from lake records El Pinal and Carimagua.
J. Paleolimnol. 21, 461 – 476.
Bès de Berc, 2003. Tectonique de chevauchement, surrection et
incision fluviatile (exemple de la zone subandine equatorienne,
haut bassin amazonien). PhD thesis, University of Toulouse.
181 pp.
Bourdon, E., Eissen, J.-P., Monzier, M., Robin, C., Cotton, J.,
Martin, H., Hall, M.L., 1998. Slab melt metasomatism beneath
the North Andean volcanic zone? Insight from Antisana volcano
rocks (Ecuador). V. M. Goldschmidt conference; extended
abstracts, Min. Mag., vol. 62A, pp. 209 – 210. Part 1.
Bourdon, E., Eissen, J.-P., Cotten, J., Monzier, M., Robin, C., Hall,
M.L., 1999. Les Laves calco-alcalines et a caractere adakitique
du volcan Antisana (Equateur); hypothese petrogenetique. C. R.
Acad. Sci. Paris, (II) 328, 443 – 449.
Bourdon, E., Eissen, J.-P., Monzier, M., Robin, C., Martin, H.,
Cotton, J., Hall, M.-L., 2002. Adakite-like lavas from
Antisana Volcano (Ecuador); evidence from slab melt meta-
somatism beneath the Andean northern volcanic zone. J. Petrol.
43, 199 – 217.
Brocard, G.Y., van der Beek, P.A., Bourlès, D.L., Siame, L.L.,
Munier, J.-L., 2003. Long-term fluvial incision rates and
postglacial river relaxation time in the French Western Alps
from 10Be dating of alluvial terraces with assessment of
inheritance, soil development and wind ablation effects. Earth
Planet. Sci. Lett. 209, 197 – 214.
Bull, W.B., 1991. Geomorphic Responses to Climate Change.
Oxford Univ. Press, Oxford, UK.
Burbank, D.W., Anderson, R.S., 2001. Tectonic Geomorphology.
Blackwell Science.
Burbank, D.W., Meigs, A., Brozovic, N., 1996. Interactions of
growing folds and coeval depositional systems. Basin Res. 8,
199 – 223.
Bush, M.B., Colinvaux, P.A., Wiemann, M.C., Piperno, D.R., Liu,
K.B., 1990. Late Pleistocene temperature depression and
vegetation change in Ecuadorian Amazonia. Quat. Res. 34,
330 – 345.
Christophoul, F., Baby, P., Davila, C., 2001. Stratigraphic responses
to a major tectonic event in a foreland basin: the Ecuadorian
Oriente Basin from Eocene to Oligocene. Tectonophysics 345,
281 – 298.
Christophoul, F., Baby, P., Soula, J.-C., Rosero, M., Burgos, J.,
2002. Les ensembles fluviatiles néogènes du basin subandin
d’Equateur. C. R. Geosci. 334, 1029 – 1037.
Clapperton, C.M., Hall, M., Mothes, P., Hole, M.J., Still, J.W.,
Helmens, K.F., Kuhry, P., Gemmel, A.M.D., 1997. A younger
dryas icecap in the Ecuadorian Andes. Quat. Res. 47, 13 – 28.
Cobb, K.M., Charles, C.D., Cheng, H., Edwards, R.L., 2003. El
Niño/Southern Oscillation and tropical Pacific climate during
the last millenium. Nature 424, 271 – 276.
Colinvaux, P.A., Bush, M.B., Steinitz-Kannan, M., Miller, M.C.,
1997. Glacial and postglacial pollen records from the Ecuado-
rian Andes and Amazon. Quat. Res. 48, 69 – 78.
Cooper, M.A., Addison, F.T., Alvarez, R., Coral, M., Graham, R.H.,
Hayward, A.B., Howe, S., Martinez, J., Naar, J., Penas, R.,
Pulham, A.J., Taborda, A., 1995. Basin development and tectonic
history of the Llanos basin, Eastern Cordillera and Middle
Magdalena Valley, Colombia. AAPG Bull. 79, 1421 – 1443.
De Celles, P.G., Giles, K.A., 1996. Foreland basin systems. Basin
Res. 8, 105 – 123.
Deffontaines, B., Chorowicz, J., 1991. Principles of drainage basin
analysis from multisource data: application to the structural
analysis of the Zaire basin. Tectonophysics 194, 237 – 263.
Delcaillau, B., 2001. Geomorphic response to growing fault-related
folds: example from the foothills of central Taiwan. Geodin.
Acta 14, 265 – 287.
Delcaillau, B., Deffontaines, B., Angelier, J., Déramond, J., Floissac,
L., Souquet, P., Chu, H.T., 1998. Morphotectonic evidence from
lateral propagation of an active frontal fold: the Pakuashan
anticline, foothills of Taiwan. Geomorphology 24, 263 – 290.
Delfaud, J., Sabrier, R., Lavenu, A., Marocco, R., 1999. Recon-
stitution des étapes de la surrection des Andes d’Equateur à
partir de l’interprétation des minéraux argileux contenus dans
les bassins intramontagneux (Miocène à Actuel). Bull. Soc.
Géol. Fr. 170 (1), 13 – 24.
Demoraes, F., D’Ercole, R., 2001. Cartografı́a de riesgos y
capacidades en el Ecuador. Diagnóstico previo a planes de
intervención de las ONG’s. -Internal report. COOPI-IRD-
OXFAM, Quito (Ecuador)-Université de Savoie (France) Internet
Site. 65 pp.
Ford, M., Williams, E.A., Artoni, A., Verges, J., Hardy, S., 1997.
Progressive evolution of a fault-related fold pair from
growth strata geometries, Sant Llorenç de Morunys, SE Pyrenees.
J. Struct. Geol. 19, 413 – 441.
Formento-Trigilio, M.L., Burbank, D.W., Nicol, A., Schulmeister,
J., Rieser, U., 2002. River response to an active fold-and-thrust
belt in a convergent margin setting, North Island, New Zealand.
Geomorphology 49, 125 – 152.
Frost, I., 1988. A Holocene sedimentary record from Añangucocha
in the Ecuadorian Amazon. Ecology 69, 66 – 73.
Gil Rodriguez, W., Baby, P., Ballard, J.-F., 2001. Structure et
contrôle paléogéographique de la zone subandine péruvienne.
C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 333, 741 – 748.
Hall, M.L., 1977. El volcanismo en el Ecuador. Publicación del
Instituto Panamericano de Geografı́a e Historı́a, Sección
Nacional del Ecuador, Quito. 120 pp.
 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
Hall, M.L. (coordinator), 1991. The March 5, 1987 Ecuador
Earthquakes—Mass Wasting and Socioeconomic Effects. The
National Academic Press, Washington, DC.
Hall, M.L., Beate, B., 1991. El volcanismo Plio-Cuaternario en los
Andes del Ecuador. Estud. Geogr. 4, 5 – 38.
Hall, M.L., Robin, C., Beate, B., Mothes, P., Monzier, M., 1999.
Tungurahua volcano, Ecuador: structure, eruptive history and
hazards. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 91, 1 – 21.
Hansen, B.C.S., Rodbell, D.T., Seltzer, G.O., León, B., Young,
K.R., Abbott, M., 2003. Late-glacial and Holocene vegeta-
tional history from two sites in the western Cordillera of
southwestern Ecuador. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol.
194, 79 – 108.
Harvard Catalog, 1999. Harvard Seismology, CMT Catalog
Search (updated 1999). http://www.seismology.harvard.edu/
CMTsearch.html.
Hastenrath, S., 1981. The glaciation of the Ecuadorian Andes.
Balkema, Rotterdam.
Hastenrath, S., Kutzbach, J., 1985. Late Pleistocene climate and
water budget of the South American Altiplano. Quat. Res. 24,
249 – 256.
Heine, K., 1994. The Mera site revisited: Ice-age Amazon in the
light of new evidence. Quat. Int. 21, 113 – 119.
Heine, K., 1995. Bedded slope deposits with respect to the late
quaternary glacial sequence in the high Andes of Ecuador and
Bolivia. In: Slaymaker, O. (Ed.), Steepland Geomorphology.
Wiley, New York, pp. 257 – 278.
Heine, K., 2000. Tropical South America during the last glacial
maximum: evidence from glacial, periglacial and fluvial records.
Quat. Int. 72, 7 – 21.
Heine, K., Heine, J.T., 1996. Late glacial climatic fluctuations in
Ecuador. Glacier retreat during the Younger Dryas time. Arct.
Alp. Res. 28, 496 – 501.
Horton, B.K., 1999. Erosional control on the geometry and
kinematics of thrust belt development in the central Andes.
Tectonics 18, 1292 – 1304.
Horton, B.K., DeCelles, P.G., 2000. Modern and ancient fluvial
megafans in the foreland basin system of the Central Andes,
southern Bolivia: implication for drainage network evolution of
fold–thrust belts. Basin Res. 13, 43 – 63.
Hovius, N., Stark, C.P., Tutton, M.A., Abbott, L.D., 1998. Land-
slide-driven drainage network evolution in a pre-steady-state
mountain belt: Finisterre Mountains, Papua New Guinea.
Geology 26, 1071 – 1074.
Hsieh, M.L., Knuepfer, P.L.K., 2001. Middle-late Holocene river
terraces in the Erhjen River basin, southwestern Taiwan—
implications of river response to climate change and active
tectonic uplift. Geomorphology 38, 337 – 372.
Humphreys, N.F., Konrad, S.K., 2000. River incision or diversion n
in response to bedrock uplift. Geology 28, 43 – 46.
Hungerbühler, D., Steinman, M., Winkler, W., Seward, D., Egüez,
A., Peterson, D.E., Helg, U., Hammer, C., 2002. Neogene
stratigraphy and Andean geodynamics of southern Ecuador.
Earth-Sci. Rev. 57, 75 – 124.
Instituto Geophysico de la Escuela Politécnica National, Quito,
1999. Escuela Politécnica Nacional de Quito (Ecuador). http://
www.epn.edu.ec/Departamentos/15geofisica.html.
379
Jackson, J., Norris, R., Youngson, J., 1996. The structural evolution
of active fault and fold systems in central Otago, New Zealand:
evidence revealed by drainage patterns. J. Struct. Geol. 18,
217 – 234.
Keefer, D.K., 1984. Landslides caused by earthquakes. Geol. Soc.
Amer. Bull. 95, 406 – 421.
Keefer, D.K., Moseley, M.E., deFrance, S., 2003. A 38000-year
record of floods and debris flows in the Ilo region of southern
Peru and its relation to El Niño events and great earthquakes.
Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol. 194, 41 – 77.
Lavé, J., Avouac, J.P., 2000. Active folding of fluvial terraces across
the Siwaliks Hills, Himalaya of central Nepal. J. Geophys. Res.
105 (B3), 5570 – 5735.
Ledru, M.-P., Bertaux, J., Sifeddine, A., Suguio, K., 1998. Absence
of last glacial maximum records in lowland tropical forests.
Quat. Res. 49, 233 – 237.
Leeder, M.R., Harris, T., Kirby, M.J., 1998. Sediment supply and
climate change: implications for basin stratigraphy. Basin Res.
10, 7 – 18.
Liu, K., Colinvaux, P.A., 1985. Forest changes in the Amazon Basin
during the last glacial maximum. Nature 318, 556 – 557.
Merrits, D.J., Vincent, K.R., Wohl, E.E., 1994. Longriver profiles,
tectonism, and eustasy: a guide to interpreting fluvial terraces. J.
Geophys. Res. 99, 14031 – 14050.
Miall, A.D., 1996. The geology of fluvial deposits: sedimen-
tary facies, basin analysis and petroleum geology. Springer.
582 pp.
Molnar, P., Brown, E.T., Burchfiel, B.C., Deng, Q., Feng, X., Li, J.,
Raisbeck, G.M., Shi, J., Wu, Z., Yiou, H., 1994. Quaternary
climate change and the formation of river terraces across
growing anticlines on the north flank of the Tien Shan. Chin.
J. Geol. 102, 583 – 602.
Monzier, M., Robin, C., Samaniego, P., Hall, M.L., Cotton, J.,
Mothes, P., Arnaud, N., 1999. Sangay Volcano, Ecuador;
structural development, present activity and petrology. J.
Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 90, 49 – 79.
Mueller, K., Suppe, J., 1997. Growth of Wheeler Ridge anticline,
geomorphic for fault-bend folding behaviour during earth-
quakes. J. Struct. Geol. 19, 383 – 396.
Mueller, K., Talling, P., 1997. Geomorphic evidence for tear fault
accommodating lateral propagation of an active fault-bend fold,
Wheeler Ridge, California. J. Struct. Geol. 19, 397 – 411.
Pratt, B., Burbank, D.W., Heimsath, A., Ojha, T., 2002. Impulsive
alluviation during early Holocene strengthened monsoons,
central Nepal Himalaya. Geology 30, 911 – 914.
Pratt, W.T., Duque, P., Ponce, M., 2005. An autochthonous
geological model for the eastern Andes of Ecuador. Tectono-
physics 399, 251 – 278 (this issue).
Räsänen, M., Neller, R., Salo, J., Jungner, H., 1992. Recent and
ancient fluvial deposition systems in the Amazonian foreland
basin, Peru. Geol. Mag. 129, 293 – 306.
Reheis, M.C., Slate, J.L., Throckmorton, C.K., McGeehin, J.P.,
Sarna-Wojcicki, A.M., Dengler, L., 1996. Late quaternary
sedimentation on the Leidy Creek fan, Nevada–California: geo-
morphic responses to climate change. Basin Res. 12, 279 – 299.
Rodbell, D.T., Seltzer, G.O., Anderson, D.M., Abbott, M.B.,
Enfield, D.B., Newman, J.H., 1999. A high resolution
380 S. Bès de Berc et al. / Tectonophysics 399 (2005) 351–380
~15,000 record of El-Niño driven alluviation in southwestern
Ecuador. Science 283, 516 – 519.
Roddaz, M., Baby, P., Brusset, S., Hermoza, W., Darrozes, J.M.,
2005. Forebulge dynamics and environmental control in western
Amazonia: the case study of the arch of Iquitos (Peru).
Tectonophysics 399, 87 – 108 (this issue).
Rosero, M.R., 1999. Analı́sis tectono-sedimentaria y interpretación
geodı́namica de las secuencias Oligocenas y Neogenas de la
Cuenca Oriente Ecuadoriana. Thesis, Universidad Central del
Ecuador, Quito. 103 pp.
Russ, D.R., 1982. Style and significance of surface deformation in
the vicinity of New Madrid, MO. Prof. Pap. - Geol. Surv. (U. S.)
1236-H, 95 – 114.
Schilden, T., Dethier, D.P., Bierman, P., Caffee, M., 2002. 26Al and
10
Be dating of Late Pleistocene and Holocene fill terraces: a
record of fluvial deposition and incision, Colorado front range.
Earth Surf. Process. Landf. 27, 773 – 787.
Schumm, S.A., Mosley, M.P., Weaver, W.E., 1987. Experimental
Fluvial Geomorphology. John Wiley and Sons, New York.
413 pp.
Schumm, S.A., Dumont, J.F., Holbrook, J.M., 2000. Active
Tectonics and Alluvial Rivers. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
Seltzer, G.O., Rodbell, P.A., Baker, S.C., Fritz, P.M., Tapia, H.D.,
Rowe, R.B., Dunbar, R.B., 2002. Early warming of Tro-
pical South America at the last glacial transition. Science 296,
1685 – 1686.
Spikings, R., Seward, D., Winkler, W., Ruiz, G., 2000. Low-
temperature thermochronology of the northern Cordillera Real,
Ecuador: tectonic insights from zircon and apatite fission track
analysis. Tectonics 19, 648 – 649.
Strälher, A.N., 1952. Hypsometric (area–altitude) analysis of
erosional topography. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. 63, 1117 – 1142.
Suppe, J., Chou, G.T., Hook, S.C., 1992. Rates of faulting and
folding determined from growth strata. In: McClay, K.R. (Ed.),
Thrust Tectonics. Chapman & Hall, London, pp. 105 – 121.
Taboada, A., Rivera, L.A., Fuenzalida, A., Cisternas, A., Philip, H.,
Bijwaard, H., Olaya, J., Rivera, C., 2000. Geodynamics of the
northern Andes: subductions and intracontinental deformation
(Colombia). Tectonics 19, 787 – 813.
Thomas, M.F., 2000. Late quaternary environmental changes and
the alluvial record in humid tropical environments. Quat. Int. 72,
23 – 36.
Tschopp, H.J., 1953. Oil explorations in the Oriente of Ecuador.
AAPG Bull. 37, 2303 – 2347.
Tucker, G.E., Slingerland, R., 1996. Predicting sediment flux from
fold and thrust belts. Basin Res. 8, 329 – 349.
U.S. Geological Survey, 2003. Earthquake Hazards Program,
Information about Past and Historical Earthquakes. http://
neic.usgs.gov/neis/epic/epic.html.
van der Beek, P., Champel, B., Mugnier, J.-L., 2002. Control of
detachment dip on drainage development in regions of active
fault-propagation folding. Geology 30, 471 – 474.
Van der Woerd, J., Xu, X., Li, H., Tapponnier, P., Meyer, B.,
Ryerson, F.J., Meriaux, A.S., Xu, Z., 2001. Rapid active
thrusting along the northwestern range front of the Tanghe
Nan Shan (western Ganshu China). J. Geophys. Res. 106,
30475 – 30504.
Weng, C., Bush, M.B., Athens, J.S., 2002. Holocene climate change
and hydrach succession in lowland Amazonian Ecuador. Rev.
Palaeobot. Palynol. 120, 73 – 90.
Wesnousky, S.G., Kumar, S., Mohindra, R., Thakur, V.C., 1999.
Uplift and convergence along the Himalayan Frontal Thrust of
India. Tectonics 18, 967 – 976.
Whipple, K.X., Trayler, C.R., 1996. Tectonic control of fan size: the
importance of spatially variable subsidence rates. Basin Res. 8,
351 – 366.
Willett, S.D., Brandon, M.T., 2002. On steady state in mountain
belts. Geology 30, 175 – 178.
Whipple, K.X., Tucker, G.E., 1999. Dynamics of the stream power
river incision model: implications for height limits of mountain
ranges, landscape response timescales, and research needs. J.
Geophys. Res. 104, 17661 – 17674.
Yepes, H., Chatelain, J.-L., Guillier, B., Alvarado, A., Egred, J.,
Ruiz, M., Segovia, M., 1996. The Mw 6.8 Macas earthquake in
the Subandean Zone of Ecuador, October 3, 1995. Seismol. Res.
Lett. 67, 27 – 32.