DKE292 Ch23 PDF

23
Pneumatic Conveying Test Facilities
1 INTRODUCTION
Since the use of test facilities for obtaining data for pneumatic conveying system
design is so important, consideration is given here to the requirements of such a
test facility. A detailed specification for all the major components required is
given, for a facility capable of testing materials over a wide range of conveying
conditions. The specification covers a range of pipeline bores from two to six
inches, and the use of such a test facility in determining test data is considered.
Consideration is also given to service facilities and material characterization
equipment requirements.
The starting point here is to assume that no such facility exists and that there
is little experience in working with such a system. In the fist instance, therefore, a
system is required that will be capable of achieving as much as possible with a
single system. With experience derived from operating the system the facilities
could be extended with additional and more specialist equipment.
1.1 Conveying Requirements

It is suggested that any system should be capable of both dilute and dense phase
conveying, at a reasonably high material flow rate, and over a reasonably long
conveying distance. The conveying system should have a wide range of controls,
Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

652 Chapter 23
and be suitable for test, development and research work, and conveying trial
demonstrations to potential clients.
1.2 Accommodation
Consideration must be given to the space required, and this includes areas for the
test rig and associated plant and equipment. A separate area for the compressor
would be recommended, because of the noise, and a separate room for any compu-
tational and electronic equipment, because of the potential for dust generation with
this type of test facility.
1.3 Preliminary Decisions

A number of initial decisions need to be made which will affect the scope of the
work that it will be possible to undertake, and the capital investment on the test
facility. In some cases a definite recommendation will be made, where it is felt
that the given parameter should be adopted for an initial facility. In other cases a
range of values will be given so that the cost implications can be considered.
1.3.1 System Type

If a single pneumatic conveying system is to be installed initially, it would be rec-
ommended that this should be a positive pressure conveying system. This is
probably the most useful and versatile of all conveying systems for test work. At a
later date a vacuum conveying system could be considered.
1.3.2 Material Capability

If there is no previous experience of pneumatic conveying it would be suggested
that testing should initially be limited to non explosive materials. At a later stage a
suppressant system could be fitted, or provision could be made for explosion vent-
ing or making the system into a closed loop and employing nitrogen. The convey-
ing system should be capable of handling most powders and granular materials.
2 CONVEYING PARAMETERS
The conveying plant needs to be built to a scale that will be seen by clients to be
sufficiently large to provide reliable scale up of test data, and to achieve the widest
possible range of conveying parameters.
2.1 Conveying Air Pressure

For dense phase conveying, and dilute phase conveying over a long distance, to a
certain extent, air must be available at a high pressure. It is recommended that the
compressor for providing the air should be capable of about 100 psig. This will
also be useful for clearing pipeline blockages.

Conveying Test Facilities 653
2.2 Conveying Air Velocity

The test facility must be capable of conveying materials in both dilute and dense
phase. For dilute phase conveying a minimum conveying air velocity of at least
3000 ft/min is often required. It is not envisaged, however, that air at a pressure of
100 psig would be used for such materials. For dense phase conveying it would be
expected that tests would be conducted with conveying line inlet air velocities
down to about 600 ft/min. With a low velocity, and hence lower air flow rate re-
quirement, it would be expected that tests could be carried out with high air supply
pressures with materials capable of being conveyed in dense phase.
A compromise clearly needs to be made here. The appropriate model relat-
ing these parameters was presented in Chapter 3 with Equation 1 and is:
,2 f~i
P]
V0 = 0-1925 ' ftVmin (1)
*1
where V0 = volumetric flow rate of free air - ft7min

Pi = conveying line inlet air pressure - lbf/in 2 abs
d = pipeline bore - in
C; = conveying line inlet air velocity - ft/min
and Tt = conveying line inlet air temperature -R
An alternative form of this model, in terms of conveying air velocity, was

presented in Chapter 5 with Equation 11 and is:
T V
C = 5-19 —5-2- ft/min - - - - - - - (2)
d~ p
It is recommended, therefore, that the conveying system should be capable

of achieving a maximum value of conveying line exit air velocity, C2, of about
9000 ft/min.
This means that for dense phase conveying, with the maximum possible air
supply pressure of 100 psig, it will be possible to undertake tests with conveying
line inlet air velocities up to a maximum of about 1150 ft/min. For dilute phase
conveying, requiring a minimum conveying air velocity of 3000 ft/min, it will be
possible to undertake tests with conveying line inlet air pressures up to a maxi-
mum value of about 30 psig. It is suggested that this is probably the best compro-
mise in terms of selecting a single compressor for such a test facility.
The problems here can best be illustrated by reference to Figure 4.10. Con-
veying characteristics for two different materials are presented, each conveyed
through the 165 ft long Figure 4.2 pipeline of two inch nominal bore. They are
reproduced here in Figure 23.1 for reference.

654 Chapter 23
Solids Loading
/ Ratio
60 60
300200 120 100 80
NO
50 _50
o
o
8
o GO
o
40 AREA
Solids Loading
Ratio
B 30 Conveying
oi Limit
>
o
E 20 Conveying Line
Pressure Drop
\-lbt7in 2 15
10 10
0
50 100 150 200 ( 50 100 150 200
Free Air Flow Rate - frVmin Free Air Flow Rate - fVYmin
(a) (b)
Figure 23.1 Conveying characteristics for (a) A fine grade of pulverized fuel ash and
(b) a fine granular grade of silica sand conveyed through the pipeline shown in figure 4.2.
Figure 23.1 a is for a fine grade of pulverized fuel ash and Figure 23.1 b is for
a fine granular grade of silica sand. These are typical of materials that might be
tested. For the cases illustrated it will be seen that within a pressure capability of
100 psig, conveying is limited by a combination of the volumetric flow rate of air
available and the conveying limit for the materials. The shape and slope of the
curves representing the conveying limits for the materials are both additionally
dictated by the compressibility of the conveying air.
With the limit for the pulverized fuel ash being a conveying line inlet air ve-
locity of about 600 ft/min, testing will be possible with air supply pressures up to
100 psig if required. For the silica sand, however, with a minimum conveying air
velocity of about 2600 ft/min, conveying is limited to a maximum air supply pres-
sure of about 35 psig within the limit of free air flow rate of 200 ft3/min.
2.3 Pipeline Bore

It would be recommended that the minimum diameter of conveying pipeline that
should be considered should be 2 inch. Anything less than this would not be given
credibility by the industry. It is unlikely, however, that a pipeline bore greater than

about 4 inch would be necessary for the vast majority of test work. In recent years,
however, many companies have installed test facilities with 6 inch bore pipelines
and so the data presented here has been extended to that diameter of pipeline for
reference.
Since pipeline bore has a very significant influence on the specification of
many of the components that comprise the conveying system, a range of pipeline
diameters are considered from 2 to 6 inch, so that cost implications can be taken
into account in the decision making process.
2.4 Free Air Flow Rate

In a positive pressure conveying system the velocity of the conveying air at the
end of a pipeline, in which the material is discharged at atmospheric pressure, is
approximately at free air conditions. The recommended value of this velocity has
been set at about 9000 ft/min and so the values of free air flow rate for the range of
pipeline bores to be considered will be as follows:
Pipeline Bore - inch 2 2'/2 3 4 6
Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin 200 300 450 800 1800
3 SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Some major pieces of equipment are required for a pneumatic conveying test facil-
ity, and the size, and hence the cost of these items, is very dependent upon the
pipeline bore selected.
3.1 Compressor Specification

Since the air supply pressure has been recommended, and the free air flow rates
have been evaluated, the compressor specifications for the range of pipelines bores
considered are as follows:
Air Supply Pressure -psig 100 100 100 100 100
Free Air Flow Rate - cfrn 200 300 450 800 1800
Approximate Power -hp 50 80 120 210 470

Required

656 Chapter 23
It must be emphasized that these power requirements are approximate val-

ues and are for guidance only. It would be recommended that the compressor
should supply oil free air. Since the conveyed material is to be re-circulated it
would also be recommended that the compressed air should be cooled for convey-
ing purposes. If it is proposed that hygroscopic materials, such as alumina and
soda ash are to be conveyed, consideration will need to be given to the provision
of an air drier, although this could be a later addition.
3.1.1 Compressor Type

Positive displacement blowers are not worth considering here because of the pres-
sure limitation on these machines. For any additional test facilities, however, such
a compressor would be ideal, particularly for dilute phase conveying with either a
low pressure rotary valve or a low pressure blow tank. A screw or reciprocating
compressor would be recommended for the duty.
3.1.2 Air Receiver

In the first instance an air receiver is not a necessity. With future development,
however, it would be useful to have an air receiver located between the compres-
sor and the conveying facility, particularly if further compressors and test facilities
are added.
3.2 Pipeline Feeding Device

In order to utilize high pressure conveying air, and to test materials capable of
dense phase conveying, as well as dilute phase test work, a blow tank would be
recommended for feeding materials into the pipeline. If it is envisaged that much
work will be undertaken with abrasive materials, such as fly ash, cement and alu-
mina, a blow tank would be ideal.
For test work a continuously operating pneumatic conveying system is not
necessary. Test work can conveniently be carried out on the basis of conveying a
batch of material. A single blow tank fed from a hopper above, therefore, will be
adequate and it will not be necessary to incorporate a lock hopper in the facility.
Consideration, however, must be given to batch size and material flow rate to en-
sure that a reasonable period of steady state conveying can be achieved during the
conveying of the single batch.
The choice now is between top and bottom discharge types of blow tank.
The best for dense phase conveying is top discharge, but can be unsuitable for
granular materials, for as they tend to be permeable it is often difficult to get them
to discharge. Bottom discharge can be used to convey most materials. The ideal
solution would be to have one of each. A typical solution to the problem is to have
a common tank to which alternative bottom sections can be attached, one for top
and another for bottom discharge. If only one blow tank is to be employed a bot-
tom discharge blow tank would be recommended.

3.2.1 Blow Tank Size

The batch size of material to be conveyed has to be large enough to ensure a rea-
sonable period of steady state conveying during the conveying cycle. It would be
suggested that the blow tank capacity be sized on the basis of a minimum of two
minutes of conveying for the highest material flow rate to be expected. This will
be in the shortest pipeline to be tested. Blow tank sizes for the range of pipeline
bores being considered here are approximately as follows:
Maximum Material
Flow Rate - ton/h 30 45 70 120 270
Batch Size - ton 1 11/2 21/2 4 9
Blow Tank Volume - ft3 50 75 120 200 450
3.3 Supply/Reception Hopper

For test work it is necessary to re-circulate the conveyed material, and so it is most
convenient to discharge the material from the end of the conveying pipeline back
into the supply hopper. Thus the supply hopper that feeds material into the blow
tank doubles as the reception hopper.
Normally the entire batch of material in the supply hopper will be dis-
charged into the blow tank to be returned to the supply/reception hopper. Since the
material at the end of the pipeline will be in a highly aerated state, the size of the
supply/reception hopper typically needs to be about 20% greater than that of the
blow tank, as follows:
Supply/Reception
Hopper Volume - ft3 60 90 150 250 550
A conical or pyramid type section will be required on the bottom of the sup-
ply hopper, depending on whether a square or circular design is adopted. In either
case as steep a wall slope as possible would be recommended in order to minimize
flow problems in the filling process for the blow tank. If head room does not al-
low, consideration must be given to the use of discharge aids, such as those based
on air, vibration, etc.

658 Chapter 23
3.3.1 Support Structure

The supply hopper will need to be mounted above the blow tank and a support
structure will be required for this purpose. It would be useful to incorporate a plat-
form for access to the filtration plant in this structure, as well as the provision of
access from the ground.
3.4 Filtration Unit

The supply/reception hopper will need to be fitted with a filtration unit, probably
mounted on top of the reception hopper. A standard reverse air jet type of bag fil-
ter would be recommended for the duty. The size will be dictated by the free air
flow rate to a large extent:
Pipeline Bore - inch 2 2!/2 3 4 6
Free Air Flow Rate - rf/min 200 300 450 800 1800
The filter should be sized on the basis of handling cement or very fine fly
ash, at these air flow rates.
3.5 Plant Layout

A typical layout of blow tank, supply/reception hopper and filtration unit is shown
in Figure 23.2. With the filter mounted on top of the hopper, the conveyed mate-
rial will remain within the conveying system. In this arrangement the filter unit
does add to the overall height of the conveying plant. If this is too high, the air
could be ducted from the hopper to a filter unit positioned alongside, possibly on
the ground. This arrangement, however, will mean that much of the fine dust from
the material will not be returned automatically to the bulk of the material. This,
however, may be an advantage and so the alternatives must be considered.
3.5.1 Material Re-circulation

With a need to re-circulate the material, for the convenience of carrying out many
tests, once the material is loaded into the conveying system, a decision will need to
be made on whether to keep the fine material within the system or to extract this
material. If the material being conveyed is friable, to the extent that a change in
particle size distribution might result in a gradual change in the conveying charac-
teristics for the material, as illustrated with soda ash in Figures 11.18 and 19, it
would always be recommended that fresh material should be used for every test.
A vent line between the blow tank and the hopper should also be provided.
This will need to be opened when loading the blow tank with material. It can also
be used to de-pressurize the blow tank at any time, should this be necessary.

Filter
Return to
Hopper
Figure 23.2 Sketch of typical conveying plant test facility.

660 Chapter 23
3.6 Conveying Pipeline

A convenient routing for the pipeline needs to be established, preferably with a
single loop, incorporating four bends, having a conveying distance of about 300 ft.
The provision for additional loops also needs to be considered so that the convey-
ing distance can be extended, possibly in units of 300 ft. The ratio of 4 bends in
300 ft of pipeline should provide a typical pipeline balance. A larger bore line
could be added in future so that the performance of stepped pipelines can be
investigated.
The pipeline should be reasonably accessible so that changes in bend types
and routing can be conveniently made. The possibility of having one or two sight
glasses in the pipeline, for flow visualization purposes, should be considered. This
would be of particular value when demonstrating the operation of the test facility
to clients, and is always of value as a research facility since much can be learnt
from observation of the flow.
3.6.1 Orientation
For convenience it would be suggested that the pipeline loops be located entirely
in the horizontal plane. No attempt need be made at this early stage to incorporate
any vertical lift into the pipeline, other than that necessary to accommodate
changes in elevation between the blow tank discharge and entry to the reception
hopper.
4 SERVICE FACILITIES
A number of service facilities will be required for the test facility, mainly centered
on the handling and storage of the materials to be conveyed. The size of some of
these units will depend upon the batch size to be handled, and hence the pipeline
bore selected.
4.1 Material Loading

A convenient means of loading a batch of material into the supply hopper will be
required. A small low pressure blow tank would be ideal for this purpose, which
need not be large, since the load could be charged in small batches. Alternatively a
mechanical or aero-mechanical conveyor could be used for the purpose. The filtra-
tion unit on the hopper should be sufficient for the purpose. If a dedicated line is
employed for material loading an isolating valve will be required.
4.2 Material Off-Loading

When test work with a particular batch of material is completed, the batch of ma-
terial will need to be off-loaded from the test rig. The conveying system itself can
conveniently be used for this purpose, possibly via a short section of the convey-

ing pipeline, into an off-loading hopper. The off-loading hopper will need to be of
a similar size to that of the reception hopper and to be fitted with a filtration unit.
A reduced quantity of conveying air could probably be used for this purpose so
that the filtration unit would not have to be as large as that mounted on the recep-
tion hopper.
4.3 Storage Hoppers

If materials are to be stored for possible re-use a number of such storage hoppers
will be required for the purpose. It would be an advantage to have these hoppers
elevated so that the contents could be discharged back into the supply hopper, by
means of the loading facility, when required. Alternatively the material could be
loaded back into sacks for subsequent disposal after use. A valve would also be
needed at the outlet for these purposes.
If provision needs to be made for the storage of a number of materials, the
storage hoppers could be inter-linked. By this means they could be loaded from a
common pipeline via diverter valves, and they could all be vented through a single
filter unit.
5 INSTRUMENTATION
A number of measuring instruments will be required in order to take measure-

ments of pressures, temperatures and flow rates.
5.1 Air Pressure

A minimum of two pressure measurements need to be recorded. These are of the
pressure in the blow tank and of the air pressure at inlet to the conveying pipeline.
These can be Bourdon type pressure gauges, with values recorded manually with
respect to time during each test. Alternatively pressure transducers can be em-
ployed that give a digital display. If on-line computer analysis is to be employed,
suitable pressure transducers should be used. The monitoring of pressure along the
length of the pipeline would not be recommended as an initial instrumentation
requirement, but it is suggested that it should be given high priority for future de-
velopment, particularly if research work is to be undertaken.
In common with most plants that involve the flow of fluids, the measure-
ment of pressure in pneumatic conveying systems is equally important to the effi-
cient operation of any such plant. Gas-solids flows are not as amenable to mathe-
matical analysis, as single-phase flows, and as a result the monitoring of pressure
is a common requirement. Technical difficulties in measuring pressure in pneu-
matic conveying system pipelines, however, tend to be much greater when com-
pared with similar problems in single-phase flow [1].
Even the interpretation of the pressure readings obtained from gas-solid flow
systems requires specialized analytical techniques, as discussed in relation to the

662 Chapter 23
measurement of pressure drop across bends with Figure 8.14. Since theoretical
design methods are severely limited by the complex behavior of gas-solid flows,
the design of pneumatic conveying systems relies heavily on experimental meth-
ods. This applies to both dilute and dense phase modes of conveying.
5.1.1 Pressure Tappings

The reliable measurement of pressure along pneumatic conveying system pipe-
lines requires pressure tappings, and any connecting lines to a pressure measure-
ment device, to remain unblocked by the conveyed material. Pressure tappings
invariably block at the start of a conveying cycle, or as a result of pressure pulsa-
tions that may occur during conveying. An increase in pressure will cause some of
the fines in the material being conveyed to surge into the connecting lines, where
the material may be deposited, and a gradual build-up is likely to result in a block-
age.
The shortening of connecting lines will help to reduce the problem of mate-
rial ingress. Another solution is to pass these lines vertically upward wherever
possible, so that particulate material will drain out of the lines, but this is not al-
ways possible. In most cases filters are inserted near the tapping point. A typical
example is illustrated in Figure 23.3 [1].
Filter pads will become covered and impregnated with conveyed material,
and so it is usually necessary to provide a reverse flow of high pressure air in order
to purge all such pads clean periodically. It is also common practice to have more
than one pressure tapping at each location along a pipeline. Three typical ar-
rangements are illustrated in Figure 23.4 [2J.
Filter
Pad
Figure 23.3 Typical pressure tapping point on a pneumatic conveying system pipeline.

(a) (c)
Figure 23.4 Typical arrangements of static pressure tappings in pneumatic conveying

system pipelines, (a) All four inter-connected, (b) three inter-connected, and (e) separate.
The normal procedure is to link all three or four pressure tappings together,
as shown in Figures 23.4a and b. The advantage of this arrangement is that if one
of the tappings becomes blocked, a valid pressure reading will still be obtained.
Only for very specific research purposes would the individual tappings each be
provided with a dedicated pressure measuring device, as shown in Figure 23.4c.
5.7.2 Bend Pressure Drop Measurement

The difficulties of pressure measurement in pneumatic conveying system pipelines
are highlighted most effectively with the problem of measuring the pressure drop
across a bend in a pipeline, as illustrated with Figure 8 . 1 1 . It is not just a matter of
recording the pressure at inlet to and outlet from the bend and subtracting the two
readings. It is necessary to record the pressure at regular intervals along the sec-
tions of pipeline both before and after the bend.
Part of the problem lies in the complexity of the flow in the region of a
bend. The conveyed particles approaching a bend, if fully accelerated, will have a
velocity that is about 80% of that of the conveying air. This velocity, of course,
depends upon the particle size, shape and density, and the pipeline orientation. At
outlet from a bend the velocity of the particles will be reduced and so they will
have to be re-accelerated back to their terminal velocity in the straight length of
pipeline following the bend.
5.7.3 Particle Deflection Influences

Reliable pressure measurement at any given point requires the flow to be both
steady and wholly axial. If this is not the case a dynamic element of pressure will
exist, in addition to the static element, and inconsistent or false readings may re-
sult. The dynamic element may add to or subtract from the static value depending

664 Chapter 23
upon the geometry of the flow. This is a situation that can occur at outlet from a
bend in a pipeline. In a long radius bend centrifugal force will tend to take the par-
ticles to the outer wall. In a short radius bend the particles may bounce through the
bend. Following the bend the particles will gradually establish a steady flow re-
gime some distance downstream.
In a horizontal pipeline, large or heavy particles will have a tendency to
'skip' through the pipeline when conveyed in dilute phase. This is because the
gravitational force on the particles is relatively high compared with the drag force.
Poorly welded pipe joints and misaligned flanges can cause particles to stream and
deflect from the discontinuity in flow. This streaming of particles can be particu-
larly pronounced in worn bends. Mason and Smith [3] carried out tests with a Per-
spex bend in order that the change in flow pattern and wear over a period of time
could be visually observed. Alumina particles were conveyed and the flow was
from vertical to horizontal. The results of one of their tests was shown earlier in
Figure 20.25.
Pronounced streaming of particles was observed from a number of wear
sites that had formed, including the straight section of pipeline following the bend.
Mason and Smith |2], monitoring pressures around 90° bends, and using the array
of pressure tappings illustrated in Figure 23 Ac, recorded pressures at outlet from a
bend. Their work has shown that the upper tapping can record a pressure that is
greater than that at entry to the bend, from which it might be deduced that the
pressure drop around the bend is negative.
The flowing suspension impacts on the wall surface at an angle of about 20°
and the dynamic pressure contribution gives an apparent gain in 'static' pressure.
A deflecting flow away from the surface can induce a suction effect, however,
leading to an apparent excessive pressure loss. Such turbulence in pneumatic con-
veying system pipelines is unavoidable, particularly after a change in direction, but
its effects can be identified if pressure measurements are taken at regular intervals
along a pipeline.
In straight pipeline without any fittings a reasonably regular pressure gradi-
ent should exist and so if an isolated reading gives an inconsistent value it can
generally be disregarded. It could also indicate that the pressure tappings at this
point are blocked. Inconsistencies in pressure readings should not be dismissed,
however, without examining all possible causes for, as mentioned earlier, gas-
solid flows are very complex and measurement of pressure drop requires great
care.
5.1.4 Straight Pipeline Pressure Gradient

Although the energy loss due to bends in a pneumatic conveying system pipeline
can be very significant, particularly if there are a large number of bends, the pres-
sure drop in the straight pipeline generally dominates in most pipelines. The
method of determining the pressure drop, or pressure gradient, in straight pipeline
is much as shown in Figure 8.14.

Because of all the problems enumerated above it is generally recommended

that a long section of pipeline should be instrumented with at least six sets of pres-
sure tappings. By this means reasonable data can be obtained even if one or two of
the tapping points block. From Figure 8.14 it will be seen that the first of the series
of pressure tappings should be located well down-stream of a bend in the pipeline,
or any other fitting that is likely to cause an initial disturbance to the flow in the
straight section of pipeline.
With pressure tappings along a straight length of pipeline, data in the form
of pressure gradients can be obtained, in isolation from the total pipeline. In Chap-
ter 8 pressure gradient data was presented for a number of materials for flow in
pipelines both vertically up and vertically down. The pipeline used to generate this
data was shown in Figure 8.2 and the routing included long sections of vertical
pipeline specifically for this purpose.
5.2 Conveying Air Temperature

The temperature of the air at inlet to the pipeline also needs to be recorded for
reference. On a conveying plant the material could well be at a high temperature
and so the influence that this might have on the temperature of the suspension has
to be established. With a test facility it is unlikely that tests would be conducted
with material at an elevated temperature.
5.3 Air Flow Rate and Control

The air flow rate needs to be set and controlled at a reasonably precise given value
for each test undertaken. The most convenient way of doing this with high pres-
sure air is to use a set of convergent-divergent nozzles. Two sets will be required
for a blow tank, one for the conveying air and another for the blow tank air supply.
The modeling and use of such nozzles was considered in detail in Chapter 6 at
section 3.1.
A 2:1 progression in volumetric flow rate capacity is suggested for the noz-
zles, starting at about 4 cfm, so as to give a very wide and uniform range of flow
rates over which the air flow rate can be varied. It is suggested that for a 2 inch
bore pipeline two sets of 6 nozzles would be required. Two sets of 7 nozzles
would be needed for the 21/2 and 3 inch bore lines and two sets of 8 nozzles for the
4 inch bore pipeline.
5.4 Conveyed Material Flow Rate

The most convenient method of measuring the mass flow rate of the conveyed
material is to use load cells. These can be used on the blow tank to measure loss in
weight, or on the receiving hopper to record gain in weight. The mounting of the
receiver on three load cells is generally the best configuration. The read out of the
three load cells is usually summed and then the values can either be displayed on
an instrument for manual recording with respect to time; be recorded on a chart for

666 Chapter 23
subsequent analysis; or be fed into a data logger or computer for possible on-line
analysis, depending upon the level of sophistication required.
The rating of the load cells will depend upon the size of batch to be con-
veyed and the weight of the reception hopper, both of which will depend upon the
choice of pipeline bore. For the 2 and 2'/2 inch bore pipelines it is suggested that
three 1 ton load cells would be required, and for the 3 and 4 inch bore pipelines
three 2 ton load cells would be needed.
5.4.1 Load Cells

The most commonly used device for the measurement of material flow rate is the
load cell. A typical arrangement for a positive pressure pneumatic conveying sys-
tem is illustrated in Figure 23.5 [4], The situation with regard to a vacuum convey-
ing system would be essentially the same.
Whether the load cells are used in conjunction with the supply hopper or the
reception hopper is mostly a matter of convenience. If the supply hopper is chosen
a loss in mass will be recorded and with the reception hopper there will be a gain
in mass. In terms of steady state readings there should be little or no difference
between the two.
Although Figure 23.5 is shown with both supply and reception hoppers
mounted on load cells, only in special cases would it be necessary to mount both
hoppers on load cells. Such cases would include non-steady state conveying and
the need to monitor material deposition in the conveying pipeline.
Filtration
Unit
Figure 23.5 Sketch of typical positive pressure conveying system with hoppers
mounted on load cells.

5.4.1.1 Flexibility
For load cells to provide repeatable and reliable recordings it is essential that the
hopper should be allowed to 'float' as feely as possible on the load cells. No an-
choring or restraining of the hopper should be employed that will apply any com-
ponent of vertical force. Connecting pipelines often present a problem in this re-
spect but this can be overcome quite reasonably by means of a flexible connection
in the pipeline, close to the hopper, with the pipe/hose connection furthest from the
hopper being supported.
The pipeline feeding device and air supply/exhaust lines may also prove dif-
ficult to accommodate, and for these reasons load cells are generally used on re-
ception hoppers for positive pressure conveying systems and on supply hoppers
for vacuum conveying systems. Provided that they do not interfere with the verti-
cal component of force, any filtration plant, feeders and offloading facilities asso-
ciated with the hopper can be taken into account with the tare weight of the hopper
itself. This weight, together with the maximum expected load of material in the
hopper, will be used in determining the size of load cells to be employed for the
duty.
5.4.2 Analysis of Data

The output from the load cells is either fed into a data logger or computer, or is
recorded on a chart. Either way the signal is integrated with respect to time to give
the material flow rate. A typical trace, with respect to time, for the conveying of a
500 Ib batch of material is given in Figure 23.6.
25
u Air 500
3
cti
M
Pressure
20 400
300
15
200
10 o
100
<u
"3 5
20 40 60 80 100
Time - seconds
Figure 23.6 Typical load cell and air pressure traces for conveying cycle with respect
to time.

668 Chapter 23
It is also useful to record the conveying line inlet air pressure in addition, for
this helps in identifying the nature of the steady state portion of the conveying
cycle, and the start-up and tail-out sections of the cycle [4],
A high pressure, top discharge, blow tank feeder was used to generate the
data in Figure 23.6. The material was cement and it was conveyed through the
Figure 4.2 pipeline of 2 inch bore and 165 feet long. With a 500 Ib batch of ce-
ment to convey, a reasonable period of steady state conveying was achieved for
the flow rate achieved. Pneumatic conveying is a relatively high speed process,
even for dense phase conveying, and so the residence time of the material in the
pipeline is generally short. For the cement the conveying line inlet air velocity was
approximately 1100 ft/min, with a conveying line inlet air pressure of about 23
psig, and so it would only take about five seconds for the air to traverse the length
of the 165 ft long pipeline [5].
It should be noted that the blow tank did not have a discharge valve and so
both the start-up and tail-out transients are extended in time. Such a valve is prone
to wear by abrasive materials and is not always necessary, but without the valve
the conveying efficiency is significantly reduced, as can be seen. The lack of such
a valve may also cause pipeline blockage in the case of low velocity dense phase
flow, as will be illustrated later. The material flow rate is determined from the load
cell trace, as illustrated on Figure 23.6.
6 TEST PROCEDURE
The design of pneumatic conveying systems is mostly based on empirical means.

Existing data for a material will be scaled from the pipeline from which the con-
veying data was derived, to the new pipeline that has to be designed. This process
is carried out by using a series of scaling parameters, that will take account of the
differences between the two pipelines in terms of pipeline bore, horizontal and
vertical conveying distances, number and geometry of pipeline bends, and pipeline
material. These procedures were considered in some detail in Chapter 15.
6.1 Performance Mapping

Ideally a performance map is required for the material in order to fully determine
its conveying capability. This will identify whether it is possible to convey the
material in dense phase, and at low velocity, or if the material will only convey in
dilute phase, and hence at high velocity, in a given conveying system. Tests need
to be carried out over a wide range of air flow rates and conveying line pressure
drops, and for each combination the material mass flow rate needs to be recorded.
Since the relationship between these parameters is unknown, it is necessary to
carry out a relatively large number of tests in order to identify both the minimum
conveying limit and the relationship between the conveying parameters.

Typical data obtained with granulated sugar conveyed through the 165 foot
long Figure 4.2 pipeline of two inch bore is presented in Figure 23.7. This is a
graph of material flow rate plotted against air flow rate, derived as illustrated in
Figure 23.6, and the data superimposed is of conveying line inlet air pressure. The
pressure data has been rounded to }A Ibf/in 2 and the decimal point represents the
location of the data point on the graph [4].
There is always a certain amount of 'scatter' in the data obtained from
pneumatic conveying systems, the degree of scatter depending upon the type of
material being conveyed, but it is generally possible to identify the family of
curves from the data plotted, as illustrated on Figure 23.7, if sufficient tests have
been carried out.
6.1.1 Dilute Phase Conveying

A typical trace for the dilute phase conveying of granulated sugar is given in Fig-
ure 23.8 [6J. It will be seen that the load cell trace is very smooth, showing that the
material was conveyed very uniformly. The pressure trace, however, fluctuates
markedly, but within an acceptably narrow band in this case. For dilute phase con-
veying the residence time of the material within the pipeline is very short, as dis-
cussed above, and so it is particularly important that the material is fed into the
pipeline at a reasonably uniform rate. A small pressure difference needs to be al-
lowed between the pressure rating of the blower or compressor providing the air,
and the maximum value of conveying line inlet air pressure expected. This is re-
quired in order to prevent the possibility of pipeline blockage, due to a momentary
surge in feed rate, but the safety margin obviously does not want to be too great.
15
o
o Conveying Line Inlet
Air Pressure Data
- Ibf/in" gauge
10
15
10
± 15
20 140 160 180 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ft'/min
Figure 23.7 Conveying data generated for granulated sugar.

670 Chapter 23
300
."3 on
200
CO ,
.£ u c
o
U
100
0 100 150 200

Time - seconds
Figure 23.8 Typical trace for dilute phase conveying.
The slow start-up transient is due to the fact that a blow tank without a dis-
charge valve was used for feeding the material into the pipeline, as discussed in
relation to Figure 23.6. The fact that the pressure trace does not return to zero at
the end of the conveying cycle is due to the fact that the pressure sensor is re-
cording the air only pressure drop for the pipeline at this time. There is also a
small element of pressure drop due to the purging of residual material from the
conveying line at the end of the conveying cycle.
6.1.2 Conveying Characteristics

In Figure 23.7 the experimental data for the conveying of the granulated sugar was
presented. This data can be improved in a number of ways, purely by mathemati-
cal means. Lines of constant solids loading ratio, which give an indication of the
solids concentration in the air, can be added quite conveniently as these will be
straight lines through the origin. Solids loading ratio is the dimensionless ratio of
the flow rate of the material transported to the flow rate of the air used, and these
both relate to the axes used.
Knowing the air flow rate and the conveying line inlet air pressure it is a
straightforward task to evaluate the conveying line inlet air velocity, as considered
in Chapter 5, and this, of course, is a major parameter in system design. The result-
ing conveying characteristics for the granulated sugar in the given test pipeline are
presented in Figure 23.9 [4].
It will be noted that the lines of constant conveying line inlet air velocity
have a marked positive slope. This is due entirely to the compressibility of the
conveying air.

Solids Loading
o
o
o
Ratio
NO GO
Conveying Line Inlet
Air Velocity - ft/min
AREA Minimum
Conveying
_o Limit
±10 Conveying Line
Inlet Air Pressure
- lbf/in 2 gauge
40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
Figure 23.9 Conveying characteristics for granulated sugar.
For a given free air flow rate supplied, the conveying line inlet air velocity
will gradually reduce as the material flow rate increases, since an increase in mate-
rial flow rate will result in an increase in pressure required.
The minimum conveying conditions for the material, as identified in the test
program, are also represented. It will be seen that the minimum conveying air ve-
locity for the material was about 3200 ft/min and so the granulated sugar could
only be conveyed in dilute phase in the conveying system. The maximum value of
solids loading ratio achieved was only about 15, despite the fact that conveying air
at 25 lbf/in" gauge was employed. This fact reinforces the point that high pressure
conveying is not synonymous with dense phase conveying: it is the properties of
the bulk material that dictate this capability.
6.2 Dense Phase Conveying

Materials that have either very good air retention properties, or very good perme-
ability, are generally capable of being conveyed in dense phase, and hence at low
velocity, in conventional pneumatic conveying systems [7]. To illustrate the simi-
larities and differences between dilute and dense phase conveying two further ma-
terials are included, and conveying characteristics and typical conveying cycle
traces are included for each.
It should be noted that both of the additional materials were conveyed with
the same test facility and through the same pipeline as used for the granulated
sugar. In addition, the maximum values of both air flow rate and conveying line
inlet air pressure employed in the test work were the same for all three materials.

672 Chapter 23
Solids Loading
Conveying Ratio
Limit Inlet Air Velocity
- ft/min
30
o
o
o
20
•g 10
40 80 120 160 200

Free Air Flow Rate - frVmin
Figure 23.10 Conveying characteristics for ordinary portland cement.
6.2.7 Sliding Bed Flow

Conveying characteristics for cement, are presented in Figure 23.10. A compari-
son of these two sets of data reveal striking differences between the capability of
the two materials with respect to pneumatic conveying. Whereas the minimum
conveying limit for the sugar occurred at a conveying line inlet air velocity of
about 3200 ft/min, the cement could be conveyed at velocities down to approxi-
mately 600 ft/min. The solids loading ratio at which the cement could be conveyed
was also significantly higher. This has meant that the 'no go area' for the convey-
ing of the cement is significantly reduced in comparison with that for the granu-
lated sugar [4].
For a given conveying line inlet air pressure material flow rates achieved
with the cement are significantly greater than those for the sugar. Not only is the
material flow rate much higher but the air flow rate required for dense phase con-
veying is significantly lower. The combined effect of these two factors is that for a
given material flow rate, specific energy requirements can differ by more than ten
to one between dense phase and dilute phase conveying (see Chapter 7).
It will be seen from Figure 23.10 that cement clearly has dense phase con-
veying capability. This is due to the material's capability for air retention, and as a
consequence the cement is conveyed in a sliding bed mode of dense phase flow.

When observed through a sight-glass in a horizontal section of pipeline it will be

seen that the material flows along the bottom of the pipeline rather like a liquid.
This mode of flow, however, requires a high pressure gradient and to convey at a
solids loading ratio of about 100 typically requires a pressure gradient of about 10
lbf/in 2 per 100 feet of pipeline for horizontal conveying. For long distance trans-
port or low pressure conveying, therefore, dilute phase conveying may be the only
option.
It will also be seen from Figure 23.10 that the minimum conveying limit for
cement is very different from that of the granulated sugar. This is due to a com-
bined effect of the minimum value of conveying air velocity decreasing with in-
crease in solids loading ratio, the solids loading capability increasing with increase
in pressure, and the increase in air density with increase in pressure. The potential
influence of solids loading ratio on the minimum value of conveying air velocity
for cement was presented earlier with Figure 4.7.
6.2.1.1 Conveying Trace
A typical trace for dense phase sliding bed flow is given in Figure 23.11 [6]. Once
again it will be seen that during the steady state period the load cell trace is very
smooth, showing that the material was conveyed very uniformly. The conveying
line inlet air velocity in this case was about 900 ft/min and the solids loading ratio
about 53. On the plot of minimum conveying air velocity in Figure 4.6 it will be
seen that this particular data point is just above the operating curve for cement.
The pulsations in the pressure trace were of a similar order as those for the dilute
phase case above (see Figure 23.8).
48
.ZI 300
<ij
<«-i
OJ>
p
O 03 in
M
"
£
-J 200
on o
16 CJ
100
50 100 150
Time - seconds
Figure 23.11 Typical trace for dense phase sliding bed flow conveying.

674 Chapter 23
It will be noticed, however, that the pipeline almost blocked after about 25
seconds into the conveying run. No further material was delivered to the receiving
hopper for about 30 seconds. During this time the air supply pressure gradually
increased to about 40 Ibf/in gauge and conveying recommenced. At the point of
blockage the conveying line inlet air velocity was about 1800 ft/min and the solids
loading ratio about 10. On the plot of minimum conveying air velocity in Figure
4.6 it will be seen that this point is below the operating curve for cement. This
corresponds to an air flow rate of about 55 ft 3 /min on Figure 23.10 and it will be
seen that with a slow start up to the conveying cycle, without a discharge valve,
the "no go area" had to be crossed.
In the test facility, air at a high pressure was available and so recovery of the
conveying situation was possible. On a plant, air is generally available at a specific
pressure and the operating point for a conveying system will be set at a value just
below this. It is important, therefore, that this type of information is available at
the design stage of a plant.
6.2.2 Plug Flow

Conveying characteristics for polyethylene pellets, are presented in Figure 23.12.
This performance map is very different from those of both the granulated sugar
and the cement conveyed through the same pipeline. Conveying is possible with
very low air flow rates, and hence very low values of conveying air velocity, and
so the material is capable of being conveyed in dense phase, despite the fact that
the solids loading ratio values are not very high.
Solids Loading
Ratio
30 N0 G0
Conveying Line
o Inlet Air Pressure
o
o AREA - Ibf/in 2 gauge
!20
Minimum
Conveying Limit
Conveying Line
10 Inlet Air Velocity
10
- ft/min -
0
0 40 80 120 160 200
Free Air Flow Rate - ftVmin
Figure 23.12 Conveying characteristics for polyethylene pellets.

As a consequence of the constant pressure lines having a positive slope in

the dense phase region the operating envelope here is very limited. Conveying also
tends to be unstable when operating in the area close to the minimum conveying
limit.
The point at which the constant pressure lines change slope tends to define
the division between dense and dilute phase conveying on this performance map,
and occurs at a conveying line inlet air velocity of about 3000 ft/mm. For the
polyethylene pellets tested there was no abrupt transition between dilute and dense
phase flow, as will be seen from the continuity in the data presented. With some
materials that have good permeability, however, there is often a band of conveying
line inlet air velocity values across which the flow tends to be unstable.
Conveying with inlet air velocities down to 600 ft/min and below is possi-
ble, but may not be considered economical, due to the low material flow rates
achieved. If the material to be conveyed is very friable, however, this region of
conveying may well be a design option. Solids loading ratio values are low due the
fact that the material is very permeable.
Good permeability is a specific requirement in order to achieve this mode of
flow in a conventional conveying system. When observed through a sight-glass, in
either a horizontal or vertical section of pipeline, it will be seen that the material
flows through the pipeline in a series of plugs, each of which fills the pipeline, and
are separated by short air gaps.
6.2.2.1 Dense Phase Conveying Trace
A typical trace for dense phase plug flow conveying is given in Figure 23.13 [6].
Both the load cell and pressure traces are very different from those for both the
granulated sugar and the cement.
300
200
o
U
100
100 200 300 400

Time - seconds
Figure 23.13 Typical trace for dense phase plug flow conveying.

676 Chapter 23
The load cell trace, however, with its characteristic 'staircase' profile is
typical for this type of material. It will also be noted that the resolution obtained
from the load cell trace is such that the discharge of individual plugs of material
from the pipeline into the reception hopper can be clearly identified.
Because of the discharge of discrete plugs, the fluctuation in air pressure is
much greater than that for either the sugar or cement, and will be particularly
marked in a short pipeline. In the case shown the conveying line inlet air velocity
was about 1000 ft/min and the solids loading ratio was 18, which is a combination
typical of plug flow.
7 MATERIAL CHARACTERIZATION
Since the conveying characteristics of different materials, and even different

grades of the same material, can vary very significantly, it is essential that small
representative samples of all materials that are tested in the pneumatic conveying
test facility are obtained and stored for reference. By recording property values of
materials tested it will be possible to gradually build up a data bank of materials,
such that it will ultimately be possible to relate conveying performance to a set of
material characteristics.
The retention of samples and the recording of property values is particularly
important for systems manufacturing companies. If at the time of commissioning
a plant, it is not possible to achieve the stipulated material flow rate, a check on the
material being conveyed might be appropriate. It is not unknown for a systems
user company to change the source of material to be conveyed, particularly if there
are price implications, and the grade of the new material may be very different
from that for which the plant was designed.
7.1 Riffling Device

It is essential that a truly representative sample of the materials to be conveyed is
obtained when recording material property values and so some form of riffling
device will be required. Several tons of material may be supplied for testing in the
pneumatic conveying facility, but only a couple of ounces might be required for
sieving to determine particle size distribution, and even less for laser diffraction
particle sizers. A riffling device will allow accurate sub-division of a sample that
may weight several pounds when collected.
Samples will be required from the 'as supplied' material and possibly from
the material during and after conveying, in order to check on material degradation.
It would generally be recommended that sampling should be from a moving
stream of the material, rather than a static pile. The sample, however, should be
taken from the full cross section of the flow in order to avoid any segregation
within the flow stream itself. It would also be suggested that the techniques
adopted should be employed for all samples taken.

7.2 Particle Size

It is important that the mean particle size and particle size distribution are re-
corded. A set of sieves, together with a mechanical shaker and an electronic
weighing device is essential, but it must be recognized that sieving does have a
limit with respect of fine particles, particularly with dry sieving, for which it is
about 45 micron (325 Mesh). Laser devices are ideal for fine particles, but are
rather expensive, and so it would be suggested that samples be sent to a specialist
laboratory for analysis whenever required.
7.3 Particle Shape

This is not an essential property, but if a microscope is available it would be useful
to make a note of the particle shape for reference purposes. Differences in convey-
ing capability between fly ash and cement having a similar particle size can be
related to differences in particle shape to a certain extent.
7.4 Particle Density

Particle density is clearly a useful reference parameter for any material. The air
comparison pycnometer is a convenient instrument for its measurement. For many
materials, values will be found in appropriate reference books.
7.5 Permeability
A permeameter would be a useful facility. Not only can it be used to record mini-
mum fluidizing velocity, fluidized bulk density, and permeability, it can also be
used to observe fluidization behavior in general, and hence the potential value of
fluidization in terms of its employment as a flow discharge aid in hoppers, silos
and chutes. A permeameter can also be used to determine the degree of air reten-
tion for a material.
7.5.1 The Permeameter

This consists of a vessel of uniform section area, which is usually circular, having a
porous membrane at the base. An air supply, which is capable of being varied over
a very wide range of flow rates, is needed. A means of measuring the pressure drop
across the bulk particulate material is also required. A sketch of such a device is
given in Figure 23.14.
7.5.2 Superficial Air Velocity

Although the volumetric flow rate of air is measured and controlled, it is the
superficial air velocity that is the important parameter. This is the volumetric flow
rate of the air divided by the cross sectional area of the fluidizing vessel when
empty. A program of tests with a material entails the determination of the variation
of the pressure drop, across a bed of a given depth, with superficial air velocity.

678 Chapter 23
Cross Sectional
Area - A
Porou
Membrane
Plenum
Air Su
Chamber PP'y - ''
Figure 23.14 Sketch of atypical permeameter.
A typical relationship between pressure gradient and air velocity for flow
through a bed of material is shown in Figure 23.15.
Fixed Bed Fully Fluidized Bed
N
ID
a. '
el Slope =1/C
**
where C = Permeability Factor
Minimum Fluidizing
Velocity - U m f
Superficial Air Velocity - U
Figure 23.15 Typical relationship between pressure gradient and air velocity for flow
through a bed of material.

7.5.3 Permeability Factor

When air percolates through a bulk particulate material, a pressure drop results in
the direction of flow. The relationship between superficial air velocity, or air flow
rate, and the pressure drop, for the fixed bed region, as shown in Figure 23.15, is
called the permeability.
Referring to Figure 23.15:
Ap
u = (3)
L
where U = superficial air velocity through bed
V
A
V = volumetric air flow rate
A = cross sectional area of bed
L = bed height
Ap = pressure drop across bed
and C = permeability factor
The permeability factor, C, can be measured by means of a permeameter, as

shown in Figure 23.14, which, in turn, enables the graph shown in Figure 23.15 to
be drawn, from which the permeability factor can be determined.
7.5.4 Pressure Drop

The pressure drop across the bed can be readily calculated. From fluid mechanics
we have the following hydrostatic relationship:
Ap = P § L Ibf/in 2 - - - - - - - - - (4)
144 gc
where Ap pressure drop across bed - Ibf/in 2

P bulk density of fluidized material - lb/ft'
g gravitational acceleration - ft/s2
L bed height - ft
and gc gravitational constant - ft Ib/lbf s2
7.5.5 The Fluidization Process

The permeameter, if provided with a glass or Perspex container, can be used to
illustrate the influence of superficial air velocity on fluidization behavior. At low
flow rates the air will merely filter through the interstitial voids without disturbing
the packing arrangement of the bed.

680 Chapter 23
If the air flow rate, and hence the superficial air velocity, is gradually
increased, the pressure drop across the bed will increase, as shown in Figure 23.15.
For a given bed the pressure drop across it depends only upon the flow rate of the
air, and in most cases the relationship is approximately proportional, as drawn on
Figure 23.15, although a hysteresis effect is often observed if the plot is drawn with
the air flow rate both increased and decreased. This phase is termed a 'fixed' or
'packed' bed.
7.5.5.1 Minimum Fluidizing Velocity
If the air flow rate is increased further, a stage is reached when the pressure drop
approaches the magnitude of the downward gravity force per unit of cross-sectional
area of the bed of particles. If the bed is not restrained on its upper surface there
will be a slight expansion of the bed, accompanied by a re-arrangement of the
particles as each one tends to 'float' separately in the upward flow of air.
This re-arrangement brings the particles towards a state corresponding to the
loosest possible packing in the bed, which is now on the point of becoming
'fluidized'. The minimum fluidizing velocity, U m f, is defined as the point at which
the bed of particles becomes fully supported from this loosest packing arrangement.
The minimum fluidizing velocity, U m f, can be deduced from the plot shown in
Figure 23.15.
7.5.5.2 The Porous Membrane
In all processes involving the fluidization of a bed of solid particles some form of
porous membrane or distribution device is needed to introduce the fluidizing air to
the bed. Although it would be possible to use a pipe grid at the base of the bed, for
gas fluidization, the more widely used method is to construct the vessel with some
form of gas plenum chamber at the bottom. This is separated from the main
container or column for the bed by a porous or perforated plate, as illustrated in
Figure 23.14. The design of this distributor plate, particularly with regard to the
material from which it is constructed, and the pressure drop across it, can vary over
a wide range.
For example, some applications are suited to the use of metal plates
perforated with a small number of relatively large holes, across which the pressure
drop would be very small. At the other end of the scale, however, will be found
porous distributors such as ceramics, sintered metals and plastics, and woven cotton
and polyester materials, for which the pressure drop will be very much higher.
7.5.5.2.1 Minimum Membrane Resistance
Considerable interest surrounds the influence of the pressure drop across the porous
membrane, or more specifically, the ratio of this pressure drop to that across the
fluidized bed, on the quality of fluidization. The stability of the fluid bed system is
an important criterion and it is generally expressed in terms of the ratio of the
distributor resistance to the bed resistance. Although there appears to be some
disagreement as to how the optimum pressure drop should be determined, the

general consensus suggests that the pressure drop through the distributor should be
at least 15% of that across the particle bed.
The stability of the fluidized bed may also be influenced by the size and
density of the particles in it. Although very little experimental data is available,
Figure 23.16 gives an indication of the way in which the minimum required
distributor pressure drop would vary with these properties. Figure 23.16 is based on
an equation by Siegel [8]. and is drawn for spherical particles fluidized with air at a
condition close to normal ambient.
7.6 Air Retention

Some bulk solids, when fluidized or agitated in some way, have a tendency to
retain air for a period, as mentioned in relation to Group A materials in Geldart's
classification mentioned earlier (Figure 18.10). A measure of the air retention
capability of a material can also be obtained by use of the permeameter.
7.6.1 De-aeration Constant

The air retention capability of a material is assessed in terms of the time it takes a
fluidized bed of material to return to a specified bulk density, or level in the
permeameter, after quickly shutting off the air supply. The starting, or reference,
point for such a determination, is that the fluidizing should be at the point that
provides a maximum volume increase of the material without severe bubbling at
the material surface.
24
2 CQ
3 <n
20
3 <
350
e. %
O u-i
I ° 12
Particle Density - Ib/ft 3
100 200 300 400 500

Mean Particle Size - u.m
Figure 23.16 Minimum pressure drop required across distributor for a bed of spherical
particles.

682 Chapter 23
For convenience a scale should be provided on the permeameter. With some

bulk solids the level of the material falls very rapidly, particularly in the early
stages, and so this is not a constant that can conveniently be recorded manually at
the time it is carried out.
7.6.1.1 Analysis
One method of obtaining the necessary data is to use high speed photography.
Another method is to use a video tape recording of the fall. Sutton and Richmond
[9, 10] analyzed this transient fall by extending Pick's Law of Diffusion to the
situation. They obtained:
dp" — I"
, ., AK>
1 t:\
dr L
where p = material bulk density - lb/ft 3
T = time - min
k" = de-aeration constant - ft/min
A/? = pressure drop across bed - lbf/in 2
and L = bed height - ft
Integration of this expression between suitable experimentally derived limits

will yield the de-aeration constant. High values of this constant indicate a high
settling rate and, therefore, poor air retention capability.
A further method of monitoring rapid transients is to use an electronic
differential pressure transducer. If this is connected across the pressure tappings on
the column of material on the permeameter, it will provide a suitable trace of the
pressure decay following the shut off of the air, for evaluation of the constant.
The value of the de-aeration constant obtained will give some indication of
the capability of a material for dense phase pneumatic conveying, without the need
for air addition along the length of the pipeline. It will also give an indication of the
effect that aeration might have on the material, for aiding its discharge from
hoppers.
7. 6. 2 Vibrated De-aeration Constant

If the bed of material in the de-aerated condition is vibrated, the height will fall in a
similar manner to that described above, in which the fluidized bed height falls when
the air supply is cut off. A comparison of the two de-aeration plots of bed height
versus time is illustrated in Figure 23. 1 7 [7].
It is possible, therefore, that this vibration test could generally be of more
value than the permeameter method. For materials that exhibit poor air retention
characteristics, and hence de -aerate rapidly, the rate of change can be slow enough
to observe visually. On the other hand, for some very air retentive powders, the
settling time can run into hours and even days, and vibration can speed up the
process considerably.

Fluidized Condition
£P
'S
I Compacted Condition
ffl
Settlement under the Settlement under the

Influence of Gravity Influence of Vibration
Time - T
Figure 23.17 Comparison of de-aeration curves.
It is also very much easier to apply to cohesive and other materials that are
difficult to aerate. Vibration is applied in the vertical plane, but only a narrow band
of frequencies have a settling effect on materials. If the frequency is too low it has
little effect, and if it is too high dilation will occur instead of compaction. Also, the
higher the frequency, the lower the penetration of vibration.
7.6.2.1 Analysis
An idealized graph showing the change in bed height with respect to time was
shown above in Figure 23.17. This compares settlement under the influence of
gravity and vibration. It can be seen that the relationship in each case is similar and,
therefore, it is not unreasonable to apply the analysis proposed by Sutton and
Richmond for the settlement of powders under the influence of gravity to the
settlement of powders under the influence of vibration. The application of the
analysis of Sutton and Richmond to this case yields:
JP
^~ -
~ k"
K
v (6)
I
where k"v = vibrated de-aeration constant - ft/min

and Ap = py-, - p - lb/ft 3
This expression can be put into a form where it can be integrated and the
following boundary conditions applied:

684 Chapter 23
at r = 0, L = L,
T = oo, L = L,x
The result is:
In = k" (7)
where £/ = initial bed height - ft

and LOO = final bed height - ft
This equation can be written in the form of a straight line graph, the slope of
which is the vibrated de-aeration constant.
Thus H = k" v r (8)
where
H = L In (9)
A detailed test procedure is given in Reference 7. These tests are relatively

easy to undertake and take little time to carry out. A small sample of the material is
all that is required and the equipment needed to carry out the tests manually is
relatively simple and inexpensive.
7.7 Permeameter Design

A permeameter, is an invaluable device both for determining the minimum
fluidizing velocity of a bulk particulate material, and for observing the fluidization
behavior of different materials. It can also be used to measure the permeability of
powdered and granular materials, as well as the air retention characteristics of such
materials. It also provides an easy means of determining the resistance of porous
membrane materials.

Air Mover
Membrane
Plenum Chamber
Air Flow Measurement

and Control
Figure 23.18 Typical layout of permeameter and components.
The authors are not aware of any company that manufactures and markets
permeameters. Most companies and research organizations that find that they have
a need for a permeameter, generally make their own. In order to provide some
general advice and guidance on the design and construction of a permeameter,
notes are appended here.
For reference purposes a sketch of a permeameter is given in Figure 23.18.
This shows the associated components in relation to the permeameter. The main
items that are required are considered in the notes that follow. A range of sizes are
also considered.
7. 7 / Material Column
The heart of the device is the vertical column, or permeameter, in which the bulk
particulate material is fluidized. The behavior of the material in the permeameter
requires to be observed, and in particular the height of the free surface. For this
reason the column needs to be made of a clear material such as glass or Perspex.
Perspex is the material most commonly used. The column is open to the
atmosphere and so the pressure within the device is very low. A sketch is given in
Figure 23.19.
7.7.1.1 Dimensions
The column can be square, circular, or of any other section, but it is usually
circular and of constant diameter. The primary dimension of the device is the
inside diameter, d, of the cylinder used to contain the particulate material.
Diameters of 2, 4 and 6 in will be considered.

686 Chapter 23
Cylinder
Material Bed
2ft
in
Pressure - 8 in
Tappings
Valve
\
Membrane Plenum
Chamber
Figure 23.19 Sketch of material column.
Two inch is typically the smallest diameter used, and is probably the most
common, as only small quantities of material are required for testing purposes.
With larger diameters, however, the wall effects are minimized and membrane
influences on fluidization are easier to detect. Diameters not less than 4 in are
generally recommended whenever possible. Larger diameters also help to increase
the accuracy of air flow measurement, and hence the determination of superficial
gas velocity. This is particularly a problem with very fine powders since fluidizing
velocities can be very low.
Regardless of diameter, the column of material under test needs to be about
one foot high. The height of the Perspex cylinder needs to be about double this at
two feet. The cylinder should be much higher than the bed of material in order to
allow for expansion of the bed when fluidized, and possible violent agitation when
fluidized at high velocity. Also, some materials will rise en masse above the
membrane when fluidized, and a reasonable column height will allow time to
switch off the air, or stir the material, before it discharges itself over the top.
7.7.1.2 Pressure Tappings
It is suggested that pressure tappings should be provided on the cylinder about 8 in
apart, with the lower one about 2 in above the base. Depending upon the type of
pressure measuring device employed it may be necessary to add a gauze to filter
dust from the device. It may also be necessary to cap the tappings, if the pressure
measuring device is removed, such as when fluidizing in order to observe flow
behavior.

Material Column
Pressure
Tappings Membrane
Clamps
Hinges
-9t
Th
Gasket or
Air Seal Depth
Supply Dia
T
Gap
Figure 23.20 Sketch of plenum chamber.
7.7.2 Plenum Chamber

A plenum chamber is required for supporting the membrane and material column,
and distributing the air to the bed of material. The plenum chamber can be square
or circular and needs to be vertical. A sketch of a typical plenum chamber is given
in Figure 23.20.
7.7.2.1 Hinged Unit
The plenum chamber can be hinged or entirely welded. In Figure 23.20 it is shown
hinged. A hinged unit is very convenient in allowing the contents of the material
column to be emptied simply by inverting the cylinder. A disadvantage is that the
hinged top must be provided with an air-tight seal, since the air flow rate is
measured upstream of the plenum chamber and needs to be determined accurately.
Although an entirely welded unit eliminates air leakage, some means has to be
found for removing the material from the permeameter. A vacuum cleaner is
typically used for this purpose.
7.7.2.2 Pressure Tapping
A pressure tapping on the plenum chamber will allow the pressure drop across
different membrane types and materials to be measured directly. This, of course, is
carried out with no material in the permeameter. If the pressure measuring device is
removed, the pressure tapping must be capped to prevent air leakage.
7.7.2.3 Dimensions
Approximate sizes for the plenum chamber, for the range of permeameter diameters
considered, are as follows:

688 Chapter 23
Permeameter Chamber Width Gap Depth Air Supply

Diameter or Diameter Pipe Diameter
d D
in in in in in
2 8 0-2 3 3
/4
4 10 0-4 4 1%
6 12 0-6 5 2
A short stub of pipe, of the same diameter as the permeameter, needs to be

fixed beneath the membrane, as shown in Figures 23.19 and 20. The spacing
above the base (gap) will help provide a uniform flow of air across the membrane
for fluidizing the material in the permeameter. The other dimensions are also in
proportion to the permeameter diameter, and hence air flow rate.
7.7.3 Membrane
A range of membrane materials and types may need to be tested and so ease of
changing and testing needs to be incorporated into the design. A suggestion for a
fixing arrangement is given in Figure 23.21. Screwing to the top surface of the
plenum chamber with studs is probably the most convenient, and will accom-
modate a wide range of membrane thicknesses. Washers or gaskets will have to
be provided on each side to prevent air leakage.
Material
Column
Sealing
Washers / Gaskets
Membrane
Top Surface of
Plenum Chamber
Y
Figure 23.21 Sketch of fixing arrangement for membrane.

It is unlikely that any membrane material under test will need support in the
permeameter against either the air pressure beneath or the weight of material above.
If it should be necessary, however, support can be provided on either side by means
of wire mesh.
7.7.4 A ir Supply
A small air mover is required to supply the air for fluidizing. Measurement and
control of the air flow are essential requirements.
7.7.4.1 Rating
The rating of the air mover is in terms of delivery pressure and volumetric flow
rate.
7.7.4.1.1 Pressure
The pressure required for the air mover is mainly that necessary to fluidize the bed
of material. A small allowance will have to be made for the porous membrane and
the resistance of the air flow measuring device, together with all the connecting
pipe-work.
The model for the fluidized bed was presented earlier in Equation 23.4:
Ap = £^±- lbf/in2
144 gc
taking p = 60 Ib/ft as a typical value (eg alumina)

g = 32-2 ft/s2
L = } ft
and gc = 32-2 ft Ib/lbf s2
gives
Ap = 0-4 lbf/in 2
To enable the permeameter to be used with materials having a much higher

bulk density, such as barite and metal powders, it would be advisable that the air
mover have a pressure capability somewhat higher, at about 1-2 lbf/in (33 in wg).
This will allow tests to be undertaken with materials having more than double the
density of alumina, and also accommodate the pipe-work and flow measuring
device losses.
Since the bed height remains constant, with increase in permeameter
diameter, the pressure required will also remain constant with the diameter of the
permeameter.
7.7.4.1.2 Flow Rate
The volumetric flow rate of air to be delivered, V , is given by air velocity times
flow area, which in this case is:

690 Chapter 23
,2
V = U mf x — ft3/min - - - - - - (10)
576
where U m f = minimum fluidizing velocity - ft/min

(see Figure 23.15)
and d = diameter of permeameter - in
From Figure 18.16 it will be seen that U m r can vary over an exceptionally
wide range, depending mainly upon the mean particle size of the bulk solid. For 20
micron sized particles having a particle density of 60 lb/ft3, for example, it is about
0-04 ft/min, and for 500 micron sized particles having a particle density of 300
lb/ft3 it is about 60 ft/min.
It is necessary for fluidization tests to be undertaken with air velocities much
higher than the value of the minimum fluidization value and so it is recommended
that a permeameter should be designed to provide a maximum fluidizing air
velocity of 100 ft/min. For the range of permeameter diameters being considered,
the air flow rates required are as follows:
Permeameter Diameter - d Air Flow Rate
in ft3/min
2 2
4 8
6 19
7.7'.4.2 Air Mover

From this pressure drop and flow rate rating it will be seen that a small fan or
blower would be suitable. A power rating well below 1 hp would be required.
7.7.4.3 Measurement
As discussed in relation to Figure 18.16, a very wide range of fluidizing velocities
have to be catered for. With large particulate materials 100 ft/min will be required
and the maximum air flow rate available will have to be used. With fine powders,
however, the maximum fluidizing velocity required may be well below 1 ft/min. In
this case less than 1% of the air flow rate will be required as a maximum, and it will
be necessary to accurately measure air flow rates to 1% accuracy below this value.
It will be appreciated from this data, just why sealing of the membrane and plenum
chamber are so important. A very small air leak can represent a very large error in
the value of the fluidizing velocity for a fine powdered material.

For a permeameter to be capable of testing a wide range of powdered and

granular materials, therefore, the measurement of air flow rate is critical, and the
measuring device is a major feature of the permeameter. There is a need for the air
flow rate to be reduced by a factor of at least 10,000:1. This is not likely to be
achieved with a single flow meter, but will require staging and isolating valves.
A three stage device, based on rotameters, is shown in the sketch in Figure
23.18. With a 10:1 turn down ratio on each rotameter, or flow measuring device,
stage one could cater for fluidizing velocities from 0 to 1 ft/min, the second from 0
to 10 ft/min and the third from 0 to 100 ft/min. By this means reasonable control
and accuracy could be obtained in the testing of any material. Rotameters are ideal
for this purpose as they provide a direct visual display, do not take up too much
space, and can be easily plumbed into the system.
In terms of the three sizes of permeameter being considered, approximate
volumetric flow rates required, in ftVmin, for a three stage measuring device are as
follows:
Permeameter Fluidizing Air Velocity Range

Diameter
d ft/min
in 0 - 1 0 - 10 0 - 100
2 0-02 0-2 2-0

4 0-08 0-9 8-4
6 0-19 1-9 19-0
The diameter of the air supply piping into the plenum chamber, for the
different permeameter diameters, was given earlier in the table in section 7.7.2.3.
These same diameters can apply to the pipe-work throughout the entire air supply
and flow measuring system.
7.7.4.4 Control
It is unlikely that either a fan or a blower would be capable of achieving such a
wide turn down ratio. To overcome this problem it is suggested that a tee piece with
valves should be fitted between the air mover and the flow measuring device, as
shown on Figure 23.18, so that air not required can be discharged to atmosphere. It
is only loss of air downstream of the flow measuring device that must be prevented.
The valve on the air supply line, at entry to the plenum chamber, is not used
for flow control. It is either fully open or fully closed. It does, however, need to be
capable of rapid closure. This facility is required when the permeameter is used to
measure the de-aeration constant for a bulk material, and in any emergency
situation, such as the bed of material rising en masse in the permeameter.

692 Chapter 23
Fluidizing
Air Flow Column
Measuring
Device
Membrane
Discharge to
Atmosphere
Plenum
Chamber
Figure 23.22 Possible working layout for permeameter.
7.7.5 Layout
It should be possible to mount the entire device on a small table. The air mover can
be placed on a shelf below, the flow measuring device can be mounted on a board
behind, and the permeameter itself at the edge of the table, if it has a hinged top. A
sketch of such a layout is given in Figure 23.22.
REFERENCES
D. Mills. Measuring pressure on pneumatic-conveying systems. Chemical Engineer-

ing. Vol 108, No 10, pp 84-89. Sept 2001.
J.S. Mason and B.V. Smith. Pressure drop and flow behavior for the pneumatic trans-
port of fine particles around 90° bends. Proc Pneumotransport 2. BHRA Conf Paper
A2, 16 pp. Guildford, England. Sept 1973.
J.S. Mason and B.V. Smith. The erosion of bends by pneumatically conveyed suspen-
sions of abrasive particles. Powder Technol, Vol 6, pp 323-335. 1972.
4. D. Mills. Material flow rates in pneumatic conveying. Chemical Engineering. Vol
109. No 4. pp 74-78. April 2002.
D. Mills. Optimizing pneumatic conveying. Chemical Engineering. Vol 107. No 13.
pp 74-80. December 2000.
6. J.S. Mason and D. Mills. 20 years of pneumatic conveying with the Powder and Bulk
Solids Conference. Proc 20th Powder and Bulk Solids Conf. pp 3-40. Chicago. May
1995.

7. M.G. Jones and D. Mills. Product classification for pneumatic conveying. Powder
Handling and Processing. Vol 2. No 2. pp 117-122. June 1990.
8. R. Siegel. Effect of distributor plate-to-bed resistance ratio on the onset of fluidized
bed channeling. AlChE Jnl. Vol 22. No 3. pp 590-592. 1976.
9. A.M. Sutton and R.A. Richmond. Improving the storage conditions of fine powders
by aeration. Trans Inst Chem Engrs. Vol 51. 1973.
10. A.M. Sulton and R.A. Richmond. How to improve powder storage and discharge in
hoppers by aeration. Process Engng. Sept 1973.

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23

Pneumatic Conveying Test Facilities

1.1 Conveying Requirements

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

1.3 Preliminary Decisions

1.3.1 System Type

1.3.2 Material Capability

2.1 Conveying Air Pressure

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.2 Conveying Air Velocity

where V0 = volumetric flow rate of free air - ft7min

An alternative form of this model, in terms of conveying air velocity, was

It is recommended, therefore, that the conveying system should be capable

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.3 Pipeline Bore

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

2.4 Free Air Flow Rate

Pipeline Bore - inch 2 2'/2 3 4 6

3.1 Compressor Specification

Pipeline Bore - inch 2 2'/2 3 4 6

Air Supply Pressure -psig 100 100 100 100 100

Approximate Power -hp 50 80 120 210 470

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

It must be emphasized that these power requirements are approximate val-

3.1.1 Compressor Type

3.1.2 Air Receiver

3.2 Pipeline Feeding Device

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

3.2.1 Blow Tank Size

Pipeline Bore - inch 2 2'/2 3 4 6

Batch Size - ton 1 11/2 21/2 4 9

Blow Tank Volume - ft3 50 75 120 200 450

3.3 Supply/Reception Hopper

Pipeline Bore - inch 2 2'/2 3 4 6

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

3.3.1 Support Structure

3.4 Filtration Unit

Pipeline Bore - inch 2 2!/2 3 4 6

3.5 Plant Layout

3.5.1 Material Re-circulation

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 23.2 Sketch of typical conveying plant test facility.

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

3.6 Conveying Pipeline

4.1 Material Loading

4.2 Material Off-Loading

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

4.3 Storage Hoppers

A number of measuring instruments will be required in order to take measure-

5.1 Air Pressure

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

5.1.1 Pressure Tappings

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Figure 23.4 Typical arrangements of static pressure tappings in pneumatic conveying

5.7.2 Bend Pressure Drop Measurement

5.7.3 Particle Deflection Influences

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

5.1.4 Straight Pipeline Pressure Gradient

Copyright  2004 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Because of all the problems enumerated above it is generally recommended

5.2 Conveying Air Temperature

5.3 Air Flow Rate and Control

5.4 Conveyed Material Flow Rate