FIRE

TYPES OF FIRE:

Fires are conveniently classified into the following categories to help in the selection of the
appropriate extinguishing agent.

TYPE DESCRIPTION

CLASS A Fire involving mainly organic solids.(wood, paper, plastic etc)

CLASS B Fire involving flammable liquids (such as petrol, paint, oil) and
liquefiable solids (such as fats, grease, wax excluding cooking oil/fats).

CLASS C Fire involving gases (such as butane, propane).

CLASS D Fire involving certain metals (such as sodium, magnesium, aluminium).

CLASS F Fire involving commercial deep oil/fats fryers.

THE FIRE TRIANGLE

1
EXTINGUISHING MEDIA AND MODE OF ACTION:
There are four main methods of extinguishing fires, which are explained as follows:

➤ cooling – reducing the ignition temperature by taking the heat out of the fire – using
water to limit or reduce the temperature.
➤ smothering – limiting the oxygen available by smothering and preventing the mixture
of oxygen and flammable vapour – by the use of foam or a fire blanket
➤ starving – limiting the fuel supply – by removing the source of fuel by switching off
electrical power, isolating the flow of flammable liquids or removing wood and textiles,
etc.
➤ chemical reaction – by interrupting the chain of combustion and combining the
hydrogen atoms with chlorine atoms in the hydrocarbon chain for example with Halon
extinguishers. (Halons have generally been withdrawn because of their detrimental effect
on the environment, as ozone depleting agents).

The main extinguishing agents are:

• Water

– The most effective extinguishing agent for Class A fires.

– It principally cools the material.
– Small jet restricts coverage.
– Spray types have a reduced throw.
– Not to be used on electrical equipment or flammable liquids.

• Foam

– Particularly good for Class B fires and some can also be used on Class A fires.
– It forms a layer on top of the burning liquid, preventing oxygen reaching it and the further
escape of vapour.

• Dry powders

– Effective on fire Classes A, B and C.

– Can also be used on live electrical equipment.
– Have a smothering effect on the fire and also chemically inhibit the combustion
mechanism.
– Risk of re-ignition because they offer little or no cooling.
– Very messy to use even on a small fire.
– Can disorientate and obscure vision.
– Powder may affect some people medically, e.g. asthma sufferers.

2
• Special powders

– Developed for use on Class D (metal) fires.

– May have to be shovelled onto fires as they maybe used on bulk storage.
– Operators need to be properly trained.

• Carbon dioxide (CO2)

– Very good for use on live electrical equipment (the gas can get right inside the
equipment).
– Also works on smaller Class B fires.
– Smothers by displacing the oxygen.
– Risk of re-ignition because little or no cooling.
– Oxygen is depleted in the immediate discharge vicinity so there is a danger of
asphyxiation if used in relatively confined spaces.
– May be ineffective if used externally because the gas dissipates quickly and re-ignition
can easily recur.
– Discharge of the gas can be very noisy and may alarm users.
– The discharge horn can get very cold.
– The gas may be ineffective if the user can’t get close enough to the fire.

• Wet chemical

– Uses an alkaline liquid solution which reacts with the hot fat/oil to produce a soapy layer
which traps vapours, excludes oxygen and provides some cooling.
– Used on Class F fires.

• Fire blankets

– Used on fat or solvent fires.

– Smother the flames and exclude oxygen.
– Risk of re-ignition because little or no cooling.
– Siting is critical as they need to be readily available.
– Operator training is important in the technique required to place the blanket safely onto
the fire.

• Class C (flammable gas) fires

– Extinguished by isolating the supply (e.g. closing the supply valve) so removing the fuel.
– Usually left to burn until the supply can be isolated.

3
SOURCES OF IGNITION

 Open flame (Matches, lighters etc.)

 Spontaneous ignition (Oily rags, damp waste, hay stacks etc.)
 Hot surfaces (iron, stove, furnace, light bulbs, pipes etc)
 Friction (rubber parts etc.)
 Electrical equipment (spark, overheating, switches, short circuits etc.)
 Chemical reaction (K, Na etc.)
 Sparks /9welding, lightening, grinding etc.)
 Burning process.

IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR FIRE

1. Flash point

The flash point of a volatile material is the lowest temperature at which vapours of the
material will ignite, when given an ignition source.

2. Fire point

The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of that fuel will
continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame.

3. Spontaneous ignition temperature

The lowest temperature at which a substance will ignite itself without the presence of a
spark or flame.

PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSMISSION AND FIRE SPREAD

Fire transmits heat in several ways, which need to be understood in order to prevent, plan
escape from, and fight fires. Heat can be transmitted by convection, conduction, radiation
and direct burning (Figure 13.3).

Convection

Hot air becomes less dense and rises drawing in cold new air to fuel the fire with more
oxygen. The heat is transmitted upwards at sufficient intensity to ignite combustible
materials in the path of the very hot products of combustion and flames. This is
particularly important inside buildings or other structures where the shape may
effectively form a chimney for the fire.

4
Conduction

This is the transmission of heat through a material with sufficient intensity to melt or
destroy the material and ignite combustible materials which come into contact or close to
a hot section. Metals like copper, steel and aluminium are very effective or good
conductors of heat. Other materials like concrete, brickwork and insulation materials are
very ineffective or poor conductors of heat.
Poor conductors or good insulators are used in fire protection arrangements. When a poor
conductor is also incombustible it is ideal for fire protection. Care is necessary to ensure
that there are no other hazards like a health problem with such materials. Asbestos is a
very poor conductor of heat and is incombustible. Unfortunately, it has, of course, very
severe health problems which now far outweigh its value as a fire protection material and
it is banned in the UK, although still found in many buildings where it was used
extensively for fire protection.

Radiation

Often in a fire the direct transmission of heat through the emission of heat waves from a
surface can be so intense that adjacent materials are heated sufficiently to ignite.
A metal surface glowing red-hot would be typical of a Severe radiation hazard in a fire.

5
MAIN HAZARDS CAUSED BY FIRE
There are five main hazards produced by fire that should be considered when assessing
the level of risk:
➤ oxygen depletion
➤ flames and heat
➤ smoke
➤ gaseous combustion products
➤ structural failure of buildings.

CONTROL MEASURES

Control measures should be applied in the following order of priority:

➤ reduce the amount of dangerous substances to a minimum
➤ avoid or minimize releases
➤ control releases at source
➤ prevent the formation of an explosive atmosphere
➤ use a method such as ventilation to collect, contain and remove any releases to a safe
place
➤ avoid ignition sources
➤ avoid adverse conditions (e.g. exceeding the limits of temperature or other control
settings) that could lead to danger
➤ keep incompatible substances apart.

PORTABLE FIRE-FIGHTING EQUIPMENT:

Portable fire extinguishers are made up of the following main parts:

• Container (some form of cylinder).

• Extinguishing medium, e.g. water.
• Discharge/operating valve.
• Hose (or horn) for directing the discharge.
• Some form of pressurization system to propel the extinguishing medium out of the
cylinder:
– Stored pressure (i.e. kept under constant pressure).
– Pressurizing cartridge (which, when punctured, releases a gas which pressurizes the
cylinder).

6
FIRE ALARM AND FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS:
Automatic fire detection equipment usually initiates some form of alarm system since the
purpose of detection is to alert occupants to the presence of a fire; the simple “domestic”
smoke detector which has an integrated alarm is a good example.

Types of Automatic Fire Detection

Automatic detection systems detect a fire even if the building is unoccupied or the
occupants are asleep. Such systems are therefore especially suitable for areas of a building
infrequently visited, such as storage areas, and residential properties.

Operation of the detector is based on sensitivity to one or more of the following:

• Heat (i.e. temperature or rate of temperature rise).

• Smoke or other combustion products.

• Radiation emitted by the fire (i.e. electromagnetic radiation such as infra-red, visible and
ultraviolet).

Types of equipment available include:

• Heat Detectors

The two main types of automatic heat sensors are:

– Fusion - where particular alloys melt and either break or make a circuit and sound an
alarm; the alloys have to be replaced each time the detector operates.

– Expansion - where a contained metal, air or liquid sensor expands to create a circuit and
sound the alarm. These sensors usually reset themselves after operation when the
conditions have cooled.

Heat detectors may be designed to operate:

– At a pre-selected temperature (fixed-temperature type).

– On a rapid rise in temperature (rate-of-rise type). With both types thermal lag (the time
it takes for the detector to respond to the fire’s heating effect) needs to be considered when
choosing the operating temperature.

7
• Carbon Monoxide Detectors

Slow, smoldering fires emit detectable levels of carbon monoxide well before they emit
smoke; the gas can be detected by an electrochemical cell.

• Smoke Detectors

There are two types of automatic smoke/fumes detector:

– Ionisation devices - ionise the air in a chamber generating a small current which is
reduced when smoke particles enter the device triggering the alarm.

– Optical devices - work in one of two main ways:

– Smoke scatters light from a light source held within a chamber so that it falls
onto a photoelectric cell and triggers the alarm.

– Smoke obscures a light beam reducing its intensity at a photo-electric cell and
triggers the alarm.

• Laser Detectors

These are similar in principle to the optical types (see above) except that they use scattering
or obscuration of laser beams.

• Radiation Detectors

Flames from a fire emit ultra-violet (UV) and infra-red (IR) radiation which can be detected
by appropriate sensors.

These sensors are capable of very rapid detection, but their effectiveness depends on the
detector having a clear “view” of all parts of the protected area.

• Photo-Thermal Detectors

These detect both temperature variations as well as smoke density and are far less prone to
false alarms than smoke detectors.

CATEGORIES OF ALARM AND DETECTION SYSTEMS:

Alarm and detection systems are divided into categories which relate to the objective of
the system.

8
• Category L (Life Protection)

This category covers automatic fire detection systems with the objective of protecting
people from loss of life or injury.

Systems are subdivided into:

– L1: installed throughout the building.

– L2: installed only in defined parts of the building.

– L3: installed only for the protection of escape routes.

– L4: installed only on common parts of the escape routes, e.g. circulation areas such as
stairs and corridors.

– L5: installed to satisfy a particular fire safety objective (not already covered in L1 to L4
such as might arise from a fire risk assessment).

• Category M (Manual Alarm Systems)

This category relates to manual systems, which are reliant on people in buildings
discovering the fire and using manual “break glass” call points and sounders. Such systems
are often combined with categories P and/or L to meet insurance requirements.

• Category P (Property Protection)

These are automatic fire detection systems with the objective of limiting potential fire
damage to a building and its contents.

Systems are subdivided into:

– P1: installed throughout the building.

– P2: installed only in defined parts of the building.

Review Questions:

1. Name and define the types of fire.

2. What are the modes and media for the extinguishing of fire?
3. Name different types of fire detection alarms.
4. What are the categories of fire alarm and detection system?