13.

021 – Marine Hydrodynamics, Fall 2004

Lecture 9

c 2004 MIT - Department of Ocean Engineering, All rights reserved.

Copyright °

13.021 - Marine Hydrodynamics

Lecture 9

Vorticity Equation
Return to viscous incompressible flow.
*
³ ´
∂v * * p *
N-S equation: ∂t + v · ∇ v = −∇ ρ + gy + ν∇2 v
*
∂ω
¡* *
¢ *
∇ × () −→ ∂t
+ ∇ × v · ∇ v = ν∇2 ω since ∇ × ∇φ = 0 for any φ (conservative forces)

Now:

* * 1 ¡* *¢ * ¡ *
¢
( v · ∇) v = ∇ v · v − v × ∇ × v
2 µ ¶
v2 ¯*¯2 * *
− v × ω where v 2 ≡ ¯ v ¯ = v · v
* *
=∇
2
µ 2¶
¡* ¢* v ¡* *¢ ¡ * *¢
∇× v ·∇ v =∇×∇ −∇× v ×ω =∇× ω×v
2
¡* ¢ * ¡* ¢* *
¡ *
¢ *
¡ *
¢
= v ·∇ ω− ω·∇ v + ω ∇·v + v ∇·ω
| {z } | {z }
=0 = 0 since
incompressible ∇ · (∇ × ~v ) = 0
fluid

1
Therefore,

∂ ω ¡* ¢ * ¡* ¢*
*

+ v · ∇ ω = ω · ∇ v + ν∇2 ω
*

∂t
or
D ω ¡* ¢*
*
2*
= ω · ∇ v + ν∇
| {z ω}
Dt
diffusion
• Kelvin’s Theorem revisited.

*
Dω
¡* ¢* * *
If ν ≡ 0, then Dt
= ω · ∇ v, so if ω ≡ 0 everywhere at one time, ω ≡ 0 always.
*
• ν can be thought of as diffusivity of (momentum) and vorticity, i.e., ω once generated (on boundaries
only) will spread/diffuse in space if ν is present.

ω
ω
Dv Dω
= υ∇ 2v + ... = υ∇ 2ω + ...
Dt Dt

∂T
• Diffusion of vorticity is analogous to the heat equation: ∂t
= K∇2 T , where K is the heat diffusivity

¡√ ¢
Also since ν ∼ 1 or 2 mm2 /s, in 1 second, diffusion distance ∼ O νt ∼ O (mm), whereas
diffusion time ∼ O (L2 /ν). So for a diffusion distance of L = 1cm, the necessary diffusion time
needed is O(10)sec.

2
 * ∂ * * *
• For 2D, v = (u, v, 0) and ∂z
≡ 0. So, ω = ∇ × v is ⊥ to v (parallel to z-axis).
Then,
 
¡* ¢*  ∂ ∂ ∂ *
ω · ∇ v =  ωx + ωy + ωz  v ≡ 0,
|{z} ∂x |{z} ∂y ∂z
0 |{z} 0
0

so in 2D we have

*
Dω
= ν∇2 ω.
*

Dt
*
If ν = 0, DDtω = 0, i.e. in 2D, following a particle, the angular velocity is conserved. Reason: in
2D, the length of a vortex tube cannot change due to continuity.
• For 3D,

Dωi ∂vi ∂ 2 ωi
= ωj + ν
Dt ∂x ∂xj ∂xj
| {z j} | {z }
vortex turning and stretching dif f usion

e.g.

Dω2 ∂u2 ∂u2 ∂u2

= ω1 + ω2 + ω3 +diffusion
Dt ∂x1 ∂x2 ∂x3
| {z } | {z } | {z }
vortex turning vortex stretching vortex turning

1
∂u2
3
∂x1

3
Example: Pile on a River

Scouring

What really happens as length of the vortex tube L increases?

IFCF is no longer a valid assumption.

Why?
Ideal flow assumption implies that the inertia forces are much larger than the viscous effects
(Reynolds number).
UL
Re ∼ ν

Length increases ⇒ diameter becomes really small ⇒ Re is not that big after all.
Therefore IFCF is no longer valid.

4
3.3 Potential Flow - ideal (inviscid and incompressible) and irrotational flow
* *
If ω ≡ 0 at some time t, then ω ≡ 0 always for ideal flow under conservative body forces by Kelvin’s
theorem.
* * *
Given a vector field v for which ω = ∇ × v ≡ 0, then there exists a potential function (scalar) - the
velocity potential - denoted as φ, for which
*
v = ∇φ
* *
Note that ω = ∇ × v = ∇ × ∇φ ≡ 0 for any φ, so irrotational flow guaranteed automatically. At a point
~x and time t, the velocity vector ~v (~x, t) in cartesian coordinates in terms of the potential function φ(~x, t)
is given by
µ ¶
* *
¡ ¢ ¡* ¢ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ
v x, t = ∇φ x, t = , ,
∂x ∂y ∂z

φ(x)

u→ ←u

x
u=0

The velocity vector ~v is the gradient of the potential function φ, so it always points towards higher values
of the potential function.

5
Governing Equations:

Continuity:

∇ · v = 0 = ∇ · ∇φ ⇒ ∇2 φ = 0
*

Number of unknowns → φ

Number of equations → ∇2 φ = 0

Therefore the problem is closed. φ and p (pressure) are decoupled. φ can be solved independently first,
and after it is obtained, the pressure p is evaluated.
¡*¢
p = f v = f (∇φ) → Solve for φ, then find pressure.

3.4 Bernoulli equation for potential flow (steady or unsteady)

Euler eq:
* µ ¶ µ ¶
∂v v2 * * p
+∇ − v × ω = −∇ + gy
∂t 2 ρ
*
Substitute v = ∇φ into the Euler’s equation above, which gives:
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
∂φ 1 2 p
∇ +∇ |∇φ| = −∇ + gy
∂t 2 ρ
or
½ ¾
∂φ 1 2 p
∇ + |∇φ| + + gy = 0,
∂t 2 ρ
which implies that
∂φ 1 p
+ |∇φ|2 + + gy = f (t)
∂t 2 ρ
everywhere in the fluid for unsteady, potential flow. The equation above can be written as
· ¸
∂φ 1 2
p = −ρ + |∇φ| + gy + F (t)
∂t 2

6
which is the Bernoulli equation for unsteady or steady potential flow.

Summary: Bernoulli equation for ideal flow.

• Steady rotational or irrotational flow along streamline.
µ ¶
1 2
p = −ρ v + gy + C(ψ)
2
• Unsteady or steady irrotational flow everywhere in the fluid.
µ ¶
∂φ 1 2
p = −ρ + |∇φ| + gy + F (t)
∂t 2
* ∂
• For hydrostatics, v ≡ 0, ∂t = 0.

p = −ρgy + c ← hydrostatic pressure (Archimedes’ principle)

∂
• Steady and no gravity effect ( ∂t = 0, g ≡ 0)

ρv 2 ρ
p=− + c = − |∇φ|2 + c ← Venturi pressure (created by velocity)
2 2
• Inertial, acceleration effect

p ∼ −ρ ∂φ
∂t
+ ···
∂ *
∇p ∼ −ρ ∂t v + · · ·

∂p
p p+ δx
∂x
δx

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3.5 - Boundary Conditions
• KBC on an impervious boundary

* * ∂φ
v · n̂ =
|{z} u · n̂ no flux across boundary ⇒
|{z} = Un given
∂n
n̂·∇φ Un given

• DBC: specify pressure at the boundary, i.e.,

µ ¶
∂φ 1
−ρ + |∇φ|2 + gy = given
∂t 2

Note: On a free-surface p = patm .

3.6 - Stream function

* * *
• continuity: ∇ · v = 0; irrotationality: ∇ × v = ω = 0
* *
• velocity potential: v = ∇φ, then ∇ × v = ∇ × (∇φ) ≡ 0for any φ, i.e. irrotationality is satisfied
automatically. Required for continuity:

∇ · v = ∇2 φ = 0
*

*
• Stream function ψ defined by

*
*
v =∇×ψ
³ *
´ *
*
Then ∇ · v = ∇ · ∇ × ψ ≡ 0 for any ψ, i.e. satisfies continuity automatically.
Required for irrotationality:
³ *
´ ³ *
´ *
∇ × v = 0 ⇒ ∇ × ∇ × ψ = ∇ ∇ · ψ − ∇2 ψ = 0
*
(1)
| {z }
still 3 unknowns
*
*
v ←→ ψ

8
 *
• For 2D and axisymmetric flows, ψ is a scalar ψ (so stream functions are more useful for 2D and
axisymmetric flows).

* ∂
For 2D flow: v = (u, v, 0) and ∂z
≡ 0.
¯ ¯
¯ î ĵ k̂ ¯ µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
* ¯ ∂ ¯ ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
*
¯ ∂ ∂ ¯
v = ∇ × ψ = ¯ ∂x ∂y ∂z ¯ = ψz î + − ψz ĵ + ψy − ψx k̂
¯ ψ ψ ψ ¯ ∂y ∂x ∂x ∂y
x y z

∂ψ
Set ψx = ψy ≡ 0 and ψz = ψ, then u = ∂y
;v = − ∂ψ
∂x

So, for 2D:

* ∂ ∂ ∂
∇·ψ = ψx + ψy + ψz ≡ 0
∂x ∂y ∂z

Then, from the irrotationality (see (1)) ⇒ ∇2 ψ = 0 and ψ satisfies Laplace’s equation.
* ∂
• 2D polar coordinates: v = (vr , vθ ) and ∂z
≡ 0.

y
ê êr
r

¯ ¯ vr vθ v
¯ êr rêθ êz ¯ z }| { z }| { z µ }|z ¶{
* 1 ¯ ¯ 1 ∂ψ ∂ψ 1 ∂ ∂
v = ∇ × ψ = ¯¯ ∂r ∂ ¯
* ∂ ∂ z z
∂θ ∂z ¯
= êr − êθ + rψθ − ψr êz
r¯ ¯ r ∂θ ∂r r ∂r ∂θ
ψr ψθ ψz

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 1 ∂ψ
Again let ψr = ψθ ≡ 0 and ψz = ψ, then vr = r ∂θ
and vθ = − ∂ψ
∂r
.
*
• For 3D but axisymmetric flows, ψ also reduces to ψ (read JNN 4.6 for details).
• Physical Meaning of ψ.
∂ψ
In 2D: u = ∂y
and v = − ∂ψ
∂x
.

We define
Z ~
x Z ~
x
ψ(~x, t) = ψ(~x0 , t) + ~v · n̂dl = ψ(~x0 , t) + (udy − vdx)
~
x0 ~
x0
| {z }
total volume flux
from left to right
accross a curve C
between~x and ~x0

x
C’
t

xo C n̂

R
For ψ to be single-valued, must be path independent.
Z Z Z Z I ZZ
* *
= or − = 0 −→ v · n̂ dl = ∇
| {z· v} ds = 0
C C0 C C0 C−C 0 S continuity

Therefore, ψ is unique because of continuity.

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 * * *
Let x1 , x2 be two points on a given streamline ( v · n̂ = 0 on streamline)

streamline

*
Zx 2
¡* ¢ ¡* ¢ *
ψ x2 = ψ x1 + v · n̂
|{z} dl
| {z } | {z }
ψ2 ψ1 *
x1 =0
along
streamline

Therefore, ψ1 = ψ2 ,i.e., ψ is a constant along any streamline. For example, on an impervious

*
stationary body v · n̂ = 0, so ψ = constant on the body is the appropriate boundary condition. If
*
the body is moving v · n̂ = Un
Z
ψ = ψ0 + Un dl on the boddy
|{z}
given

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 ∂φ
ψ = constant ≡ =0
u=0 ∂n

ψ = given

ψo

∂ψ
Flux ∆ψ = −v∆x = u∆y. Therefore, u = ∂y
and v = − ∂ψ
∂x

u
streamline
-v
streamline (x + ∆x, y)
(x,y)

ψ + ∆ψ
ψ

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 Summary: Potential formulation vs. Stream-function formulation for ideal flows

potential stream-function
*
* *
definition v = ∇φ v =∇×ψ
*
continuity ∇ · v = 0 ∇2 φ = 0 automatically
³ ´ satisfied
³
´
* * *
*
irrotationality ∇ × v = 0 automatically satisfied ∇ × ∇ × ψ = ∇ ∇ · ψ − ∇2 ψ = 0

∂
In 2D : w = 0, ∂z =0
*
∇2 φ = 0 for continuity ψ ≡ ψz : ∇2 ψ = 0 for irrotationality

Cauchy-Riemann equations for (φ, ψ) = (real, imaginary) part of an analytic complex

function of z = x +iy

∂φ ∂ψ
u= ∂x
u= ∂y
Cartesian (x, y)
∂φ
v= ∂y v = − ∂ψ
∂x

vr = ∂φ
∂r
vr = 1 ∂ψ
r ∂θ
Polar (r,θ)
1 ∂φ
vθ = r ∂θ
vθ = − ∂ψ
∂r

For irrotational flow use φ

For incompressible flow use ψ
For both flows use φ or ψ

Given φ or ψ for 2D flow, use Cauchy-Riemann equations to find the other:

e.g. φ = xy ψ = ?
)
∂φ
∂x
= y = ∂ψ −→ ψ = 12 y 2 + f1 (x) 1
∂φ
∂y
ψ = (y 2 − x2 ) + const
∂y
= x = − ∂ψ
∂x
−→ ψ = − 12 x2 + f2 (y) 2

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