Vitamins are classified according to their solubility: water-soluble or lipid-soluble.

Water-soluble vitamins include

vitamin C and the B vitamins. They are sensitive to heat and easily destroyed by cooking. Lipid- soluble vitamins are
vitamins A, D, E, and K. They are more resistant to heat and are not easily destroyed by cooking.

Vitamin Sources Importance

B1 (thiamine) Meats, eggs, cereals, beans, peas, leafy green

vegetables Required for cellular respiration and the synthesis of ribose
Meats, cereals, leafy green vegetables;
B2 (riboflavin) Required for cellular respiration
formed by colon bacteria
B3 (niacin) Meats, liver, beans, peas, peanuts Required for cellular respiration and synthesis of proteins, nucleic
acids, and fats
B5 (pantothenic Meats, fish, cereals, beans, peas, fruits, Required for cellular respiration, conversion of amino acids and
acid) vegetables, milk; formed by colon bacteria lipids into glucose, synthesis of cholesterol and steroid hormones

B6 (pyridoxine) Meats, poultry, fish, cereals, beans, peas,

peanuts; formed by colon bacteria Required for protein synthesis and formation of antibodies
B7 (biotin) Liver, eggs, beans, peas, peanuts; formed by
colon bacteria Required for cellular respiration and synthesis of fatty acids
B9 (folic acid) Liver, cereals, leafy green vegetables; formed
by colon bacteria Required for synthesis of DNA, RNA, and normal blood cells
B12 Required for synthesis of nucleic acids, formation of red blood
Meats, poultry, fish, milk, eggs, cheese
(cyanocobalamin) cells, and cellular respiration of amino acids
Citrus fruits, cabbage, tomatoes, leafy green Required for synthesis of steroid hormones, absorption of iron, and
C (ascorbic acid)
vegetables formation of connective tissues
Required for healthy skin and mucous membranes; for
A Eggs, milk, butter, liver; green, yellow, and development of visual pigments in rods and cones; for healthy
orange vegetables and fruits bones and teeth
D Formed by skin when exposed to ultraviolet Required for healthy bones and teeth; promotes absorption of
light; fish liver oils, milk, eggs calcium and phosphorus
Prevents oxidation of fatty acids and vitamin A; helps keep plasma
E Cereals, vegetable oils, fruits, and vegetables
membranes intact
Synthesized by colon bacteria; leafy green Required for formation of prothrombin, an enzyme involved in the
K
vegetables, cabbage, pork, liver, soybean oil formation of blood clots
Minerals are inorganic substances that plants absorb from the soil. They are present in both plant foods and animal
foods because animals obtain them by eating plants. Humans need adequate amounts of the seven major minerals
noted in table 15.6 but require only trace amounts of other minerals that occur in the body. About 4% of the body
weight consists of minerals. Calcium and phosphorus, the most abundant minerals, account for about 75% of the total
minerals in the body.

In the body, minerals may be incorporated into organic compounds, deposited as mineral salts (as in bone), or occur as
ions in body fluids.

Mineral Sources Importance

Calcium (Ca) Forms bones and teeth; required for blood clotting, conduction of nerve
Milk, milk products, leafy green vegetables impulses, and muscle contraction
Meats, cereals, nuts. milk, milk products, Forms bones and teeth; component of proteins, nucleic acids. ATP. and
Phosphorus (P)
legumes phosphate buffers

Potassium (K) Meats, nuts, potatoes, bananas, cereals Required for conduction of nerve impulses and muscle contractions

Component of vitamins biotin and thiamine, the hormone insulin, and

Sulfur (S) Meats, milk. eggs, legumes
some amino acids

Sodium (Na) Table salt cured meats, cheese Helps maintain osmotic pressure of body fluids; required for nerve
impulse transmission
Chlorine (Cl) Table salt cured meats, cheese Helps maintain osmotic pressure of body fluids; required for formation
of HCI in gastric juice
Magnesium Milk, milk products, cereals, legumes, nuts, Required for normal nerve and muscle functions; involved in ATP-
(Mg) leafy green vegetables ADP conversions
Subdivisions
Africa (left, on horizon) and Europe (right), as seen from Gibraltar
The International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) divides the Mediterranean into a number of smaller waterbodies, each
with their own designation (from west to east):[1]

 the Strait of Gibraltar;

 the Alboran Sea, between Spain and Morocco;
 the Balearic Sea, between mainland Spain and its Balearic Islands;
 the Ligurian Sea between Corsica and Liguria (Italy);
 the Tyrrhenian Sea enclosed by Sardinia, Italian peninsula and Sicily;
 the Ionian Sea between Italy, Albania and Greece;
 the Adriatic Sea between Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro and Albania;
 the Aegean Sea between Greece and Turkey.
Old and New Names of Cities, States and Countries:

Old Name of City/State/Country New Name of Congo Zaire

City/State/Country
Constantinople Istanbul
Abyssinia Ethiopia
Dacca Dhaka
Angora Ankara
Dahomey Benin
Aurangabad Sambhaji Nagar
Dutch East Indies Indonesia
Banaras Varanasi
Dutch Guyana Surinam
Bangalore Bengaluru
Ellice Islands Tuvalu
Baroda Vadodra
Formosa Taiwan
Basutoland Lesothe
Gauhati Guwahati
Batavia Jakarta
Gold Coast Ghana
Bechunaland Botswana
Holland The Netherlands
Bombay Mumbai
Ivory Coast Cote D'Ivoire
British Guiana Guyana
Jubbulpore Jabalpur
Burma Myanmar
Jullundhar Jalandhar
Calcutta Kolkata
Kampuchea Cambodia
Calicut Kozhikode
Leopoldville Kinshasa
Cape Canaveral Cape Kennedy
Madras Chennai
Cawnpore Kanpur
Malaya Malaysia
Central Province Madhya Pradesh
Manchukuo Manchuria
Ceylon Sri Lanka
Mesopotamia Iraq
ChristinaOslo
Nippon Japan
Cochin Kochi
Northern Rhodesia Zambia
Nyasaland Malawi Salisbury Harare

Orissa Odisha Sandwich Island Hawaiian Islands

Palghat Palakkad Siam Thailand

Panjim Panaji Simla Shimla

Persia Iran South West Africa Namibia

Peking Beijing Southern Rhodesia Zimbabwe

Petrogad Leningrad Spanish Guinea Equatorial Guinea

Pondicherry Puducherry The New Hebrides Vanuatu

Poona Pune Uttaranchal Uttarakhand

Quilon Kollam Zanzibar Tanzania

RangoonYangon List of Foreign Ministers of Pakistan

Saigon Ho Chi Minh City

No. Name of Foreign Minister Left Office

25 Sartaj Aziz (Adviser) 28 July 2017
26 Khawaja Muhammad Asif 26 April 2018
27 Khurram Dastgir Khan 5 June 2018
Hussain Haroon (Caretaker) Present

 Badin  Jacobabad
Banbhore Thatta  Kashmore
 Sujawal Larkana Larkana
 Qambar Shahdadkot
 Dadu
 Shikarpur
 Hyderabad
 Jamshoro  Mirpur Khas
Hyderabad
 Matiari Mirpur Khas Tharparkar
 Tando Allahyar  Umerkot
 Tando Muhammad Khan
 Ghotki
 Karachi Central Sukkur Khairpur
 Karachi East  Sukkur
 Karachi South
Karachi  Shaheed Benazir Abad
 Karachi West Shaheed
 Naushahro Feroze
 Korangi Benazir Abad
 Sanghar
 Malir
Disputed Sir Creek (Rann of Kachchh)