CHEM 110 EXAM 1 STUDY GUIDE

CHAPTERS 1-4

CHAPTER 1

LAWS TO KNOW

Law of conservative of mass – energy is neither created nor destroyed, merely converted from one
form to another in a closed system

Law of definite proportions: a pure compound always contains definite/constant proportions of the
elements by mass

Physical Properties/Changes Chemical Properties/Changes

 Melting point  Precipitation (change in solubility)

 Malleability  Polarizability
 Oxidation
 Density
 Combustion
 Solubility
 Color
 Tensile strength
 Boiling point
 Triple point
 Ductility
 Viscosity
 Conductivity

CHAPTER 2

DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY OF MATTER

1. All matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms.

2. Atoms of the same element are similar in shape and mass, but differ from the atoms of other
elements.
3. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.
4. Atoms of different elements may combine with each other in fixed, simple, whole number
ratios to form compounds.
 5. Atoms of the same element can combine in more than one ratio to form two or more
compounds.
6. The atom is the smallest unit of matter that can take part in a chemical reaction.

J.J. THOMSON *

 Cathode ray experiment

 Determined that electrons have mass and are negatively charged (based on magnetism)

ROBERT MILLIKAN*

 Oil drop experiment

 Determined the magnitude of charge of electrons, and mass of subatomic particles
subsequently

ERNEST RUTHERFORD *

 Gold foil experiment

 Deflection of alpha helices determined several things:
o Most of the atom’s mass and all of its positive charge are contained in a small core
called the nucleus
o Most of the volume of the atom is empty space, throughout which tiny negatively
charged electrons are dispersed
o There are as many negatively charged electrons outside the nucleus as there are
positively charged particles (protons) within the nucleus, so the atom is electronically
neutral

JAMES CHADWICK

 When beryllium is bombarded with alpha particles, an unknown radiation is released that
ejects protons from the nuclei of various substances
 Radiation made up of particles approximately equal in mass to protons, but without electrical
charge – neutrons!

POLYATOMIC IONS

 Mercury (I) = Hg22+  Hydrogen carbonate (or bicarbonate)

 Ammonium = NH4+ = HCO3-
 Cyanide = CN-  Acetate = CH3COO-
 Carbonate = CO32-  Oxalate = C2O42-
 Hypochlorite = ClO-
  Chlorite = ClO2-  Peroxide = O22-
 Chlorate = ClO3-  Phosphate = PO43-
 Perchlorate = ClO4-  Monohydrogen phosphate = HPO42-
 Chromate = CrO42-  Dihydrogen phosphate = H2PO4-
 Dichromate = Cr2O72-  Sulfite = SO32-
 Permanganate = MnO4-  Sulfate = SO42-
 Nitrite = NO2-  Hydrogen sulfite (or bisulfite) = HSO3-
 Nitrate = NO3-  Hydrogen sulfate (or bisulfate) = HSO4-
 Hydroxide = OH-  Thiosulfate = S2O32-

Going from oxoanion to oxoacid:

-ate  -ic acid (Nitrate  Nitric acid, HNO3)

-ite  -ous acid (Nitrite  Nitrous acid, HNO2)

CHAPTER 3

Know stoichiometry.

CHAPTER 4

ELECTROLYTES

 Strong electrolytes: an electrolyte that exists in solution almost entirely as ions

o Strong acids
o Strong bases
o Salts
o Other soluble ionic compounds
 Weak electrolytes: an electrolyte that dissolves in water to give a relatively small percentage
of ions
o Weak acids
o Typically a molecular compound
 Nonelectrolytes:
o Distilled water
o Alcohols
o Sugars
o Most organic compounds

DRIVING FORCE OF REA CTIONS

  Formation of a solid, liquid, or gas
 Change of oxidation state

SOLUBILITY RULES

Ions Statement Exceptions

Li+, Na+, K+, NH4+ Group 1A and ammonium -

compounds are soluble.

CH3COO-, NO3- Acetates and nitrates are -

soluble.

Cl-, Br-, I- Most chlorides, bromides, and When paired with Ag+, Hg22+,
iodides are soluble. or Pb2+.

SO42- Most sulfates are soluble. When paired with Ag+, Hg22+,
Pb2+, Ca2+, Sr2+, or Ba2+.

CO32- Most carbonates are insoluble. When paired with Group 1A or

ammonium ions.

PO43- Most phosphates are insoluble. When paired with Group 1A or

ammonium ions.

S2- Most sulfides are insoluble. When paired with Group 1A or

ammonium ions.

OH- Most hydroxides are insoluble. When paired with Group 1A,
ammonium, Ca2+, Sr2+, or Ba2+
ions.

General solubility rules:

 Two forces: charge and size

 Charges of +1 or -1  soluble
o Exceptions: silver, mercury, lead, hydroxide
 Charges are greater than or equal to +2 or -2  insoluble
o Exceptions: when paired with +1 and some +2, SO42-

REACTIONS INVOLVING EVOLVED GAS

 CO32-  CO2(g)
 SO32-  SO2(g)
  S2-  H2S(g)

ARRHENIUS

Arrhenius acid: a substance that produces hydrogen ions, H+, when it dissolves in water.

Arrhenius base: a substance that produce hydroxide ions, OH-, when it dissolves in water.

BRONSTED-LOWRY

Bronsted-Lowry acid: the species that donates a proton to another species in a proton-transfer
reaction.

Bronsted-Lowry base: the species that accepts a proton from another species in a proton-transfer
reaction.

Example: HNO3 + H 2O  H3O+ + NO3-

Acid Base Conjugate Acid Conjugate Base

STRONG ACIDS

 HNO3
 H2SO4
 HClO4
 HCl
 HBr
 HI

STRONG BASES

 LiOH
 NaOH
 KOH
 Ca(OH)2
 Ba(OH)2
 Sr(OH)2
 CsOH
 RbOH

POLYPROTIC ACID
An acid that results in two or more acidic hydrogens per molecule, e.g. sulfuric acid, citric acid
(C6H8O7)

ACTIVITY SERIES

 Group 1A, 2A, Al, Fe, Zn, Pb, Sn (halogens) – likely to be oxidized
 Noble metals (Ag, Au, Hg, Cu) – not likely to be oxidized