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! 8%3%9(%3!g(3#.&-!%&.!0</9!%39!-3<g>!(3!
@.3.&%/+! g1.3! 0<2;%&.9! #<! 2%3>! %&.%-! <=! #1.!
@/<h.7! C1<-.! =<$39! (3! #1.! ;&%(&(.! ;&<B(30.-! <=!
6/h.&#%+! "%-k%#01.g%3+! %39! 5%3(#<h%! %&.! #1.!
0</9.-#! %39! /<3@.-#! <=! #1.! ;<;$/<$-! %&.%-! <=!
8%3%9%! "3IGILI>M! ,INOFGIJ! 3JOPINK! $QRSOTKM(!
9::9<'! ! 6-! -$01+! %3>! h$(/9(3@! .3B./<;.! (3-#%//.9!
(3! #1.-.! %&.%-! 2$-#! 1%B.! .)0.//.3#! 0<3#&</! <B.&!
1.%#!#&%3-2(--(<37!
! ,%22.9! .%&#1! @.3.&%//>! 1%-! %! /<g!
&.-(-#%30.! #<! 1.%#! #&%3-=.&+! g(#1! %! 9&>!
0<39$0#(B(#>!(3!#1.!&%3@.!<=![7e`*7[!YX2d!"#IJJ!
&'! $'(! $MMKMMOGU! NSK! KVVKRNM! FV! MFOJ! UQILOGU! FG! NSK!
PFOMNWQK!RFGNKGN2LKXKGLKGN!NSKQPIJ!RFGLWRNOTONY!
FV!MNIZOJOMKL!QIPPKL!KIQNS!PINKQOIJM(!9::;<'!C1(-!
B%/$.! (-! 9.;.39.3#! <3! #1.! -;.0(=(0! 9.3-(#>! %39!
2<(-#$&.!0<3#.3#!<=!%!&%22.9!.%&#1!2()#$&.7!I3!
@.3.&%/+!#1.!#1.&2%/!0<39$0#%30.!(30&.%-.-!g(#1!
9.3-(#>+! %-! 9<.-! 0<2;&.--(B.! -#&.3@#1! "#IJJ! &'!
$'(! $MMKMMOGU! NSK! PFOMNWQK2RFGNKGN2LKXKGLKN!
XIQIPKNKQM!FV!MNIZOJOMKL!KIQNS!PINKQOIJM!WMOGU!NSK!
RYRJOR2QKMXFGMK! ILPONNIGRK! PKNSFL(! 9::;<'! C1$-!
%! h%/%30.! 0%3! h.! -#&$0k! h.#g..3! #1.&2%/!
;.&=<&2%30.! %39! -#&$0#$&%/! -#&.3@#17! 6-!
2<(-#$&.! 0<3#.3#! (30&.%-.-+! -<! 9<.-! #1.&2%/!
0<39$0#(B(#>+! 1.%#! 0%;%0(#>+! %39! #1$-! #1.&2%/!
2%--7! '<&! .)%2;/.+! %! g%//! %#! T[m! g%#.&!
-%#$&%#(<3! 1%-! %! 0<39$0#(B(#>! <=! *7S! YX2d+! %!
S[m!(30&.%-.!<B.&!#1.!-%2.!g%//!g1.3!9&>!"#IJJ!
&'! $'(! $MMKMMOGU! NSK! PFOMNWQK2RFGNKGN2LKXKGLKN!
XIQIPKNKQM!FV!MNIZOJOMKL!KIQNS!PINKQOIJM!WMOGU!NSK!
RYRJOR2QKMXFGMK!ILPONNIGRK!PKNSFL(!9::;<'!!

!
<#'(==>(?@@A( ( =(
!"#$"%"&'()*(+#,,-.(/#0&1(23"%."45(6)47&038&")4("4(6)%.(6%",#&-7(
M. Hall, D. Allinson / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 2044–2051 9&3#0&(:";(
2045

positioning and thickness of insulation in earthen walls and its harmonic motion and the induced phase shift in the sinusoidal
effects on the dynamic thermal properties of admittance, decrement waveform is referred to as the decrement time lag, w (h). This
and surface factors and their associated time lags. In addition, the essentially described the anticipated delay in the occurrence of peak
! thermo-physical
C1.! properties
#1.&2%/! &.-(-#%30.!
of earth <=!known
materials are &%22.9!
to vary #<!4*n87!I3!#1.!g(3#.&+!9%(/>!#.2;.&%#$&.-!&%3@.!
temperatures (both maximum and minimum) between nodes.
.%&#1! %/<3.!
considerably (-! 3<#!
with @&.%#!
varying .3<$@1! &.#%(3!
moisture-content and so 1.%#! (3! %!
the relative =&<2!`Vn8!#<!Sn8!g1(/.!(3!#1.!-$22.&!#1.>!&%3@.!
The admittance procedure is used to calculate these non-
0</9! 0/(2%#.! h$(/9(3@7! Lh#%(3(3@! %! 2.%@.&! ,`4[!
effects of this on the dynamic thermal performance has been
=&<2! *Nn8! #<! 4en8! ",INOFGIJ! /RKIGOR! IGL!
steady-state parameters values uses matrices to simplify the
investigated. temperature and energy cycles for a composite building fabric
g<$/9! &.f$(&.! %! K7S2! g%//! #1(0k3.--7! 8</9! $NPFMXSKQOR!$LPOGOMNQINOFG(!9::9<'!C1$-!(3!J.g!
element (e.g. a wall) that is subjected to sinusoidal temperature
0/(2%#.! 9.-(@3! #1$-!
2. The cyclic-response 9(0#%#.-!
admittance #1%#! &%22.9! .%&#1!
method 5.)(0<+!at %3!
variations $30<39(#(<3.9+!
the sol–air #1.&2%//>! 2%--(B.!
node [10,11], using:
! " ! "! "! " ! "! "
-1<$/9! h.! 0<$;/.9! g(#1! #1.&2%/! (3-$/%#(<3! #<! 1<2.!
ui ¼ 1 !Rsi m1 m2 n1 n(3#.&3%/!
g<$/9! 2%(3#%(3! 2
###
#.2;.&%#$&.-!
1 !R se ue (1)
The cyclic-response admittance method attempts to consider the
%##%(3!1(@1.&!#1.&2%/!&.-(-#%30.7!
effects of dynamic conditions on (i) fabric heat transfer, and (ii) fabric &%3@(3@!
qi 0 1
=&<2!m*n8!3 #<! 4*n8! >.%&!0 &<$39+!
m1 n3 n2 1 qe(@3<&(3@!

thermal sorption and storage, effectively by determining non- -</%&!u =@%(3-7!

where 8<2;%&.!and
Celsius temperature #1(-!
q =#<!
heat%3!
flux$30<39(#(<3.9!
in W/m2. The mx
>@A(91-0,#%(B#77(/**-8&(
steady-state multiplier factors for application to the steady-state coefficients each represent complex numbers (a + bi, where
1<2.! g(#1! 3<! #1.&2%/! 2%--+! g1(01! g<$/9! -..!
properties of the fabric. Normally, under simplified steady-state i2 = !1) using the variable p and can be calculated using the
!conditions,,%22.9! .%&#1c-!
the difference &./%#(B./>!
between indoor and /<g!outdoor
#1.&2%/! air (3#.&3%/!
following #.2;.&%#$&.-!
equations, where: &%3@(3@! =&<2! `Vn8! #<!
&.-(-#%30.!
temperatures ((-! Du) 0<$3#.&.9! h>! a(#-!
is taken to produce /%&@.!
thermal #1.&2%/!
gradient across 4en8+!(@3<&(3@!-</%&!@%(3-7!6//!1<2.-!1%B.!-<2.!
pd 2 r c
2%--7!C1.&2%/!2%--!%//<g-!%!2%#.&(%/!#<!%h-<&h!
the thickness of the wall, d, the profile of which is determined by the
#1.&2%/!
p¼
86; 400l 2%--+! -<! #1(-! 0<2;%&(-<3! (2)(-!
thermo-physical properties of the wall material and its correspond-
1.%#!9$&(3@!g%&2!;.&(<9-!%39!#1.3!&./.%-.!#1(-!
ing surface resistances (Rsi; Rso). Instead of the outside air 1>;<#1.#(0%/7!
And so, 8<2;%&(3@! #1.! #g<+! #1.! #1.&2%//>!
%h-<&h.9!
temperature 1.%#! <B.&! 0<</.&!
the admittance model uses;.&(<9-! #1%#! =<//<g7!
the hypothetical sol–air 2%--(B.!
m1 ¼ coshð p þ i pÞ J.g! 5.)(0%3! 1<2.! -%B.-! 1.%#(3@! (3)
temperature, ueo (8C) as a single point variable to establish this
Y1.3! %;;/(.9! #<! %! h$(/9(3@! .3B./<;.+! #1.&2%/!
thermal gradient. This represents the rate of heat flow into the .3.&@>! (3! #1.! g(3#.&! %39! &.2<B.-! #1.! 3..9! =<&!
2%--!
external -(2;/>!
wall surface2(#(@%#.-!
by convection(3#.&3%/! #.2;.&%#$&.!
from the surrounding air plus m0<</(3@!
2 ¼
d sinhð p þ i pÞ
(3! #1.! -$22.&! #<! 2%(3#%(3! %3! (3#.&3%/! (4)
lð p þ i pÞ
=/$0#$%#(<3-+!%-!-1<g3!(3!'(@$&.!*7!A-.!><$&!F:'!
shortwave solar radiation and radiative exchange to the surround-
#.2;.&%#$&.!%&<$39!4[n87!
ings (e.g. other buildings, ground and sky). Analogous to sol–air
h&<g-.&c-!i<<2!=.%#$&.a!#1.!=(@$&.-!(3!#1(-!;%;.&!
temperature (external), the environmental temperature, uei, is a single m! 3 ¼ lð p þ G.&.!
i pÞ sinhð p(#!
þ i pÞ(-! (2;<&#%3#! #<! 3<#.! (5) #1.!
d
%&.!
point<=! 1(@1! f$%/(#>7!
hypothetical temperatureLB.&%//+! #1(-! the
that represents (30&.%-.-!
rate of heat #1.!
flow 9(==.&.30.! h.#g..3! %! #1.&2%//>! 2%--(B.!
Eq. (1) can now be consolidated to give complex coefficients for
.==.0#(B.! g(3#.&! 9.-(@3! #.2;.&%#$&.! %39!
into the internal wall surface by (a) convection from the room and (b)
.3B./<;.!
each %39! %! h$(/9(3@!
of the component matrices such g(#1!
that: (3#.&3%/! #1.&2%/!
radiation from surrounding objects, e.g. people, lights, heaters, etc.
9.0&.%-.-! #1.! the.==.0#(B.!
In order to consider -$22.&!
heat transfer through 9.-(@3!
the building fabric !2%--+!
" ! -$01! %-! "! 0<30&.#.!
" =/<<&-! <&! &%22.9! .%&#1!
ui ¼ M M ue
#.2;.&%#$&.+!g1(01!&.9$0.-!#1.!.3.&@>!&.f$(&.9!
under dynamic conditions, the fluctuation between maximum and ;%&#(#(<3-7!
qi
1 2
M 3 M 4 I3#.&3%/!
qe #1.&2%/! 2%--! 0%3! %/-<! (6)
minimum sol–air temperature about the mean is represented by the
#<! 0<39(#(<3! #1.! (3#.&3%/! h$(/9(3@! -;%0.7! I3! %!
amplitude of a notional sinusoidal waveform across a period, T 2(#(@%#.!
The thermal (3#.&3%/!
decrement #.2;.&%#$&.! =/$0#$%#(<3-+!
factor, f is calculated h$#!
using the
2<9.&%#.!
(normally 24 h) 0/(2%#.!
whilst meang1.&.! #1.! 9%>`%B.&%@.!
environmental temperature is <3/>!#1&<$@1!#1.!-#<&%@.!<=!-</%&!@%(3-!.3#.&(3@!
relationship:
#.2;.&%#$&.!(-!0<2=<&#%h/.+!1.%#(3@!2%>!3<#!h.!
assumed constant as represented by Fig. 1. The peak–peak
#1&<$@1!g(39<g-7!6!#1.&2%//>!2%--(B.!.3B./<;.!
1
amplitude, Aeo of the hypothetical sine wave generated at the fc ¼ ! ; f ¼ j f cj (7)
&.f$(&.9!
sol–air node .B.3! #1<$@1!
is suppressed 3(@1##(2.!
by the #.2;.&%#$&.-!
wall fabric resistance, which is 2(#(@%#.-!UM2 (3#.&3%/! #.2;.&%#$&.! =/$0#$%#(<3-!
%&.! 0<</7!
quantified by theG>;<#1.#(0%//>+! (=! #1.!
steady-state thermo-physical 9%>#(2.!
properties of the #1&<$@1!
The thermal #1.! 0%;#$&.!
decrement %39!
factor -#<&%@.!
time <=! 1.%#!using:
lag, f is calculated =&<2!
#.2;.&%#$&.! g%-! %/g%>-! K[n8! %39! 3(@1##(2.!
wall material(s). The heat flux is considered to pass between the sol–
#1.! 12%2h(.3#!
#
Imð f%(&+!
cÞ
$
.B.3! (3! #1.! %h-.30.! <=! -</%&!
air node and the environmental node via the building fabric as f ¼ arctan (8)
#.2;.&%#$&.! g%-!network
illustrated by the nodal %/g%>-! *[n8+!
diagram %!2.1<2.!
in Fig. The ratiog(#1!
of the @%(3-7!p C1.!Reð%99(#(<3!
f cÞ
<=! -</%&! &%9(%#(<3! <3! %!
.3<$@1! #1.&2%/!
heat flux between nodes,2%--! g<$/9!
per degree -#%>!
of input %#! %! 0<3-#%3#!
temperature deviation #1.&2%//>! 2%--(B.! .3B./<;.! -(2;/>! (30&.%-.-!
about the mean, to the steady-state thermal transmittance is called
4[n8!(39<<&-!%#!%//!#(2.-'!I3!#1(-!-%2.!0/(2%#.+!%!
the decrement factor, f. The decrement factor is a dimensionless #1.!%B.&%@.!(39<<&!#.2;.&%#$&.+!%3>!#(2.!<=!#1.!
1<2.! g(#1<$#!
multiplying #1.&2%/!
factor that is used to2%--!
quantifyg<$/9! 3..9!of#<!
the suppression h.!
cyclic >.%&7!!
1.%#.9!
temperature%#!variation
3(@1#! caused
%39! 0<</.9! 9$&(3@!fabric
by the steady-state #1.!properties,
9%>! #<! ! J<#.!#1%#!#1.&2%/!2%--!(-!<3/>!.==.0#(B.!
i.e. Aeo ! Aei. The temperature variation is described by simple
1</9!%!0<3-#%3#!4[n8!(39<<&!#.2;.&%#$&.7!! %#! 3<&2%/(i(3@! (39<<&! #.2;.&%#$&.-! g1.3! (#! (-!
.);<-.9! #<! h<#1! %3! <$#9<<&! .3.&@>! -<$&0.! %39!
#1.! (39<<&! .3B(&<32.3#7! Y(#1! #1(-! (3! 2(39+!
g(39<g!9.-(@3!-(i.!1%-!%3!<;;<-(#.!.==.0#!<3!#1.!
#g<! ->-#.2-a! (30&.%-(3@! g(39<g! -(i.! g(//!
(30&.%-.! %3>! (3#.&3%/! #1.&2%/! 2%--c-! .);<-$&.!
#<!-</%&!&%9(%#(<3!g1(/.!(#!9.0&.%-.-!#1.!.);<-.9!
%&.%! <=! .3B./<;.! #1.&2%/! 2%--7! ! I3! @.3.&%/+!
(30&.%-.9! g(39<g! -(i.! /.%9-! #<! /%&@.&!
0<39$0#(B.! 1.%#! #&%3-=.&! h$#! %/-<! /%&@.! -</%&!
! @%(3-7!C1$-+!%!b;%--(B.!-</%&c!1<2.!9.-(@3!2(@1#!
'@ABCD% 0E% F@GBHI%
Fig. 1. A diagrammatic DJKIHLHM@NL%
representation NO% procedure
of the admittance MPDCQHI% QHGG%
adapted from =<0$-!<3!$-(3@!(3#.&3%/!#1.&2%/!2%--!#<!0%;#$&.!
Fig. 2. A nodal network diagram for the cyclic-response admittance method using
MCHLGQ@GG@NL%
Asan [19]. DOODRM,% !HCAD% DJMDCLHI% MDQKDCHMBCD% -</%&! @%(3-! #1&<$@1! /%&@.+! -$3`=%0(3@! g(39<g-+!
fluctuating input/output components adapted from Rees et al. [12].
OIBRMBHM@NLG% NL% MPD% C@APM% HCD% QNSDCHMDS% MN% IDGGDC%
@LMDCLHI%OIBRMBHM@NL%NL%MPD%IDOM%G@SD%!"#$%%!&'!(')!(**+**,-.! -(i.9!-$01!#1%#!#1.-.!@%(3-!<$#g.(@1!<&!h%/%30.!
/0+! 12,*/34+562-/+-/57+8+-7+/! 8$4$1+/+4*! 29! */$:,%,*+7! #1.! /<--! (3! .3B./<;.! .==(0(.30>7! 6! &%22.9! .%&#1!
+$4/0! 1$/+4,$%*! 3*,-.! /0+! 6;6%,654+*82-*+! $71,//$-6+! 1<2.!9.-(@3!2(@1#!=<0$-!/.--!<3!-</%&!@%(3-!%39!
1+/027)!<==>?'! 2<&.! <3! -$&=%0.! .);<-$&.7! :.0(9(3@! g1(01!
! C1(-!.);/%(3-!#1.!;&</(=(0!$-.!<=!&%22.9! 9.-(@3! -#>/.! (-! 2<&.! .==.0#(B.! (-! 9(==(0$/#! %39!
.%&#1! h$(/9(3@-! (3! -<$#1g.-#.&3! A3(#.9! "#%#.-! /(k./>! 0/(2%#.! 9.;.39.3#+! #1<$@1! #1.! %3-g.&!
/(k.! J.g! 5.)(0<+! g1.&.! #1.! %B.&%@.! 0<$/9! h.! =<$39! #1&<$@1! -(#$%#(<3`-;.0(=(0!
#.2;.&%#$&.! <B.&! #1.! >.%&! (-! *4n8+! %39! #1.! h$(/9(3@!-(2$/%#(<37!!
2<3#1/>! %B.&%@.! #.2;.&%#$&.! &%3@.-! =&<2! *n8!

!
<#'(==>(?@@A( ( ?(
 !"#$"%"&'()*(+#,,-.(/#0&1(23"%."45(6)47&038&")4("4(6)%.(6%",#&-7( 9&3#0&(:";(

! I3! -$22%&>+! %! &%22.9! .%&#1! .3B./<;.! `*Kn8!#<!*Tn8!g1(/.!9%(/>!#.2;.&%#$&.!.)#&.2.-!

0%3! -#<&.! 1.%#! =&<2! #g<! (39.;.39.3#! -<$&0.-D!
#1.! %2h(.3#! %(&! %39! -</%&! &%9(%#(<37! "(30.! #1.!
%2h(.3#! %(&X#1.&2%/! 2%--! (3#.&%0#(<3! <3/>!
2(#(@%#.-! (3#.&3%/! #.2;.&%#$&.! =/$0#$%#(<3-+! (#!
-..2-! $3/(k./>! #1%#! #1(-! .==.0#! 0<$/9! /.%9! #<!
(39<<&! <B.&1.%#(3@7! I3#.&3%/! #.2;.&%#$&.-!
-1<$/9! <3/>! h.0<2.! $30<2=<&#%h/>! g%&2! (=! #1.!
9%(/>! %B.&%@.! #.2;.&%#$&.! (-! (#-./=+!
$30<2=<&#%h/>! g%&27! 8<3B.&-./>+! -</%&! @%(3-!
0<$/9!/.%9!#<!(3#.&3%/!<B.&1.%#(3@!(=!#1.!%B.&%@.!
9%(/>! #.2;.&%#$&.! (-! %/&.%9>! 0<2=<&#%h/.7! I3!
1.%#(3@! 9<2(3%#.9! 0/(2%#.-! -</%&! @%(3-! g<$/9!
=$&#1.&! 1./;! 9.0&.%-.! 1.%#(3@! .3.&@>!
&.f$(&.2.3#-!<B.&!#1.!-%B(3@-!=&<2!#1.!%2h(.3#!
%(&!#1.&2%/!2%--!(3#.&%0#(<37!"</%&!@%(3-!0%3!h.!
0<3#&<//.9!#1&<$@1!-</%&!-1%9(3@!<=!#1.!&%22.9!
.%&#1!.3B./<;.7!
! ,.-.%&01!-1<g-!#1%#!2%)(2$2!#1.&2%/!
2%--!.==.0#!<00$&-!g1.3!%!&%22.9!.%&#1!g%//!(-!
4[[22!#1(0k!"#IJJ!&'!$'(!$MMKMMOGU!NSK!PFOMNWQK2
RFGNKGN2LKXKGLKN! XIQIPKNKQM! FV! MNIZOJOMKL! KIQNS!
PINKQOIJM! WMOGU! NSK! RYRJOR2QKMXFGMK! ILPONNIGRK!
PKNSFL(! 9::;<'! Y%//-! g(#1! @&.%#.&! #1(0k3.--!
;&<B(9.! 3<! (2;&<B.2.3#! (3! #1.&2%/! 2%--!
;.&=<&2%30.+! 9$.! #<! #1.! 4N1&! #(2.! /(2(#! =<&!
#.2;.&%#$&.! =/$0#$%#(<3-! #<! ;.3.#&%#.! 2<&.!
#1.&2%/!2%--7!
>@C(6)%.(6%",#&-(D(91-0,#%(B#77(
! C1.! 8%3%9(%3! F&%(&(.! 0/(2%#.! (-! 2$01!
0</9.&! #1%3! #1.! J.g! 5.)(0<! .)%2;/.+! g(#1! %3!
%B.&%@.! >.%&/>! #.2;.&%#$&.! %&<$39! 47Tn87! C1.!
M. Hall, D. Allinson / Energy and Buildings 40 (2008) 2044–2051
9%(/>!%B.&%@.!%2h(.3#!#.2;.&%#$&.!&%3@.-!=&<2!
&%3@.! h.#g..3! `*en8! %39! `en8! (3! _%3$%&>! %39!
*[n8! #<! 44n8! (3! _$/>+! %B.&%@.9! <B.&! #1.! 2<3#1!
]8%3%9%o-! J%#(<3%/! 8/(2%#.! 6&01(B.-+! 4[[4^'! I3!
,.@(3%+! #1.! #.2;.&%#$&.! -#%>-! %h<B.! [n8! <3/>!
*TS! 9%>-! ;.&! >.%&! ]8%3%9%o-! J%#(<3%/! 8/(2%#.!
6&01(B.-+!4[[4^'!'&<2!#1(-!9%#%+!%!&%22.9!.%&#1!
.3B./<;.!g<$/9!<3/>!1./;!&.9$0.!1.%#(3@!.3.&@>!
/<%9-+! %-! -$22.&! 0<</(3@! (-! @.3.&%//>! 3<#!
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2047

'@ABCD% 6E% /NQKNG@MD% *HQQDS% +HCMPT5NIUGMUCDLD% VHII% HGGDQWI@DG% XMNK% @QHADGY,% $PD% WNMMNQ% @QHADG% SDK@RM% INVDC%
Fig. 5. A diagram to illustrate the effects of insulation positioning in SRE walls on amplitude suppression.
HQKI@MBSD% RURI@R% @LSNNC% MDQKDCHMBCD% CDGKNLGD% MPCNBAP% DHRP% VHII% HG% SC@ZDL% WU% H% G@LBGN@SHI% DJMDC@NC% MDQKDCHMBCD%
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of this layer6;6%,654+*82-*+!$71,//$-6+!1+/027)!<==>?'!
significantly affects the non-steady-state thermal whilst the reduced thermal transmittance prevents excess winter
properties when cyclic outdoor temperature variations are
! heat loss. Interestingly, for temperate climates, a cavity insulated
considered. Fig. 5 shows six wall configurations using a generic composite SRE wall provides a slightly better thermal admittance
300 mm SRE <#'(==>(?@@A(
wall and 100 mm total thickness of extruded ( (due to d being closer to optimum) than a solid wall B( and greater
polystyrene as the insulating medium. Table 1 shows the relative suppression of heat flux variation over an externally insulated wall.
effects of insulation positioning on the thermal transmittance and These initial findings and observations should be used to better
the non-steady-state parameters for SRE wall configurations, along inform the design of new earth buildings and refurbishment
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A. Guettala et al. / Construction and Building
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119–127 123
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Table 3
Test results
Bricks characteristics Different walls treatment
Cement (%) lime (%) Cement (%) + Cement (%) +
Lime (%) Resin (%)
5 8 8 12 5+3 8+4 5 + 50 8 + 50
Compressive strength in dry state, MPa 15.4 18.4 15.9 17.8 17.5 21.5 17.2 19.5
Compressive strength in wet state, MPa 9 12.7 10.1 11.7 12.3 15.6 11.5 14
Water strength coefficient 0.58 0.69 0.64 0.66 0.63 0.7 0.67 0.72
Capillary absorption, % 2.35 2.2 3.7 2.9 2.3 2 2.3 2.1
Total absorption, % 8.27 7.35 9.8 9.02 8.1 7.9 5.9 5.3
Weight loss (wet–dry), % 1.4 1.25 2.3 2.1 1.2 1.0 0.9 0.9
Weight loss (freezing and thawing), % 2.35 2.23 3.7 2.9 2.3 2.0 2.3 1.8
Hole depth, mm – After spray test 1.0 0.5 2.2 1.0 1.0 0.5 0.25 0.2
Hole depth,a mm – Real life exposure – – 1.0 0.5 – – – –
a
Values obtained using a comparator.
'@ABCD%8E%/NQKHCHM@ZD%KDCONCQHLRD%NO%GNQD%RNQQNL%CHQQDS%DHCMP%GMHW@I@[@LA%HADLMG%"@3+//$%$)!<==A?!
!
Cement treatment (dry state)
Almost all bricks can absorb water by capillarity [28].
<#'(==>(?@@A( Cement treatment (wet state) ( The total amount of water absorbed is a useful measureE(
Lime treatment (dry state)
Lime treatment (wet state) of bulk quality. Generally, the less water a block ab-
Cement and lime (dry state) sorbs and retains, the better is its performance likely
Cement and lime (wet sate)
to be [29]. There was a general decrease in water absorp-
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 ization are those with low plasticity index (PI) and the
product (PI · M) in the vicinity of 500–800, where MThe cement used is manufactured locally under the
is the percentage of the mortar. In this case, commercial label C.P.J 45 and has been tested in respect
PI · M = 644. to the AFNOR regulations [21] in order to determine its
!"#$"%"&'()*(+#,,-.(/#0&1(23"%."45(6)47&038&")4("4(6)%.(6%",#&-7( 9&3#0&(:";(
real class. The tests carried out on mortar cubes have
shown that the strength at 28 days is 46 MPa.

2.4. Resin
P@A(H)"%7()*(&1-(6#4#."#4(?0#"0"-7(
Table 1
Soil Characteristics
The resin used for this work has a commercial name
Constituents/ Values Constituents/ Values ! C1.&.! (-! %! @&.%#! %h$39%30.! <=! -<(/! (3!
of !MEDALATEX", supplied by Granitex; private Alge-
properties properties
#1.! 8%3%9(%3!
rian company bR&.%9h%-k.#c!
making additives. MEDALATEX ;&<B(30.-!
is an <=!
Textural composition, Mineralogical
% by weight constituents 6/h.&#%+!
aqueous "%-k%#01.g%3+!
dispersion %39! It"s
of resin of white color. 5%3(#<h%7!
compat- I3!
Kaolin 45 9.#.&2(3(3@!
ible with #1.!as B(%h(/(#>!
most of cement well as lime.<=!
In &%22.9!
general, the .%&#1!
latex content varies between 10% and 20% in respect to
Sand
Silt
64
18
Illites
Interstratifiers
40
15
0<3-#&$0#(<3! (3! #1(-! &.@(<3+! (#! (-! $-.=$/! #<!
the cement mass. The latex addition gives a good adher-
Clay 18 Quartz 05 %3%/>i.!
ence to -;.0(=(0!
the support. It gives-<(/! ;&<;.&#(.-7!
also the C1.!the
impermeability, %$#1<&!
Calcite 10
1%9!(3(#(%/!0<30.&3!#1%#!#1.!#<;-<(/!;&.-.3#!(3!
durability and the improvement in protection of the
Atterberg limits Physico-chemical #1.! F&%(&(.-!
reinforcement, g<$/9! h.!
thus resistance #<<! 9..;!
to chemical %39! 1(@1! (3!
attacks.
characteristics <&@%3(0! 0<3#.3#! #<! %//<g! .%->! %00.--! #<!
Liquid limit, % 31
Plastic limit, % 17 pH 7.1 -$(#%h/.! -(/#-+! -%39-+! %39! 0/%>-! =<&! &%22.9!
3. Experimental work
Shrinkage limit 10 Methylene blue 0.2 .%&#1! 0<3-#&$0#(<37! ,.-.%&01! -1<g-! #1%#! #1(-!
Plasticity index, PI 14 Organic matter, % 0.15
Water content, % 9.5 Optimum (Wc), % 11.75 For (-!#1.!0%-.!=<&!-<2.!1(@1/>!<&@%3(0!%&.%-!(3!#1.!
this part of the present work, two different tests
Activity coefficient 0.77 Max. dry density (c), 1877 were 3<&#1.&3!%&.%-!<=!#1.!;&<B(30.-+!h$#!(3!@.3.&%/!
programmed: laboratory and real life exposure
kg/m3 tests. #1.!0.3#&%/!M!-<$#1.&3+!1(@1/>!;<;$/%#.9!%&.%-!
All the bricks samples used throughout this work
Product (PI · M) 644 ! were fabricated under the same conditions using a
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ARTICLE
9::=<7! "#&.3@#1! #.-#-! <=! -(#.! -%2;/.-! 2$-#! h.! IN PRESS
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M.R. Hall / Building and Environment 42 (2007) 139–145 141

4. Test run 1: low-velocity rainfall simulation

The test methodologies and apparatus described in the

! pumped from a reservoir into a separate header tank that
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Fig. 4. Particle-size distribution chart showing the grading parameters for
S@GMC@WBM@NL%RPHCM,%#MHLSHCS%ACHSD%LBQWDCG%788^%;08^%
SRE mix designs.
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following section are based on the specifications provided
in BS 4315-2: 1970 Methods of test for resistance to air and
water penetration—permeable walling constructions (water
penetration) [10]. Test run 1 employed a sparge pipe
delivery system with a low-velocity constant head supply of
water. The 15 mm diameter copper sparge pipes (1 per wall)
each had an array of eight holes at 0.7 mm diameter in
order to deliver the rainfall ‘trickle’. Each sparge pipe had a
skirting attachment connecting the flow of water with the
wall in such a way that the run-off was distributed more
evenly across the face of the test wall. The water supply was
was positioned on the roof of the chamber. This ensured a
greater degree of accuracy in maintaining consistent water
flow rates. Between the supply of water from the header
tank and each of the four sparge pipes there was an in-line
gate valve to enable the water supply to be shut off from
within the chamber. Also fitted in-line was a 6.7 mm needle
valve to regulate flow through a range between 0.2 and
2.0 L/min. The overall configuration of this rainfall
delivery system is illustrated in Fig. 6. The rate of water !
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delivery =E% #N@I%
specified MUKDG%
in BS 9% S@GMC@WBM@NL%
4315-2:1970 is 0.5 L/m2NO%
min-IWDCMH%
[10].
"(%:+4/$B*! C+*2346+! D-E+-/24;! 5!
Since the surface area of the rammed earth F2,%! G,*/4,:3/,2-! &$8!
test walls is )!
0.45<==<?,%
m2 the required rate of water delivery equates to
0.225 L/min per wall.
! with
The process of calibration includes covering the wall face
a removable plastic sheet such that the total amount
( of water delivery can be measured before being applied to ==(
the porous wall face. Due to the small pressure required to
achieve this very low flow rate the delivery pattern of the
rainfall was observed to trickle down the wall in discreet
channels. The outlet for each decanting pipe was posi-
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