Diodes and Circuit Applications

1- pn junction
When p-type and n-type semiconductors are brought in
contact a pn-junction is formed which is the basis of the
semiconductor diode, a widely used circuit element.
 The charge separation causes a contact potential to
exist at the junction. This potential is typically on the
order of few tenths a volt and depends on the
material (for Silicon about 0.6 to 0.7 V). The contact
potential is called the offset voltage Vγ.
 The existing of electric field across the junction
helps the minority carriers (holes in the n-type and
electron in the p-type) to drift across the depletion
region creating a small reverse saturation current Is
flows in the reverse direction when the diode is
reverse biased.
Is is independent of the junction voltage and is
determined by thermal carrier generation. At room
temperature, Is is in the order of nanoamperes (10-9 A)
for Silicon.
Another current caused by diffusion of majority
carriers (holes in the p-type and electrons in the n-
type) across the junction called diffusion current Id.
The diffusion current flows in the forward direction
and is largely dependent on junction voltage, thus, it
increases as the forward bias voltage increases.
Reverse-biased diode
The effect of the reverse bias is to
increase the contact potential. The
only current is the drift current

iD = −I 0 = I S

Forward-biased diode
The forward voltage acts in
opposition to the contact potential
therefore, the diffusion current is
aided by the applied voltage

I d = I 0e qv D / KT
The net forward current is,

i D = I d − I 0 = I 0 (e qv D / KT
− 1) diode equation

where,
vD is the voltage across the pn-junction, K=1.38 x 10-23
J/K is Boltizman’s constant, q is the charge of one
electron, and T is the temperature in kelvins.
Since I0 is very small, iD is approximated to,

iD = I 0 e qv D / KT

The diode is essentially conducts current in only one

direction that is when the junction is forward-biased
Diode i-v characteristics
 We can summarize the diode behaviour as follows:
 vD ≥ Vγ the diode is forward-biased (on), conducts
current, and acts as a short circuit.
 -VZ ≤ vD ≤ Vγ the diode is reverse-biased (off), acts as
an open circuit, and allows a very small reverse
current to flow I0 .
 vD ≤ -VZ the diode operates in the reverse breakdown
region, conducts a current in the reverse direction.

Note that the reverse breakdown region represents the

behaviour of the diode when a sufficiently high reverse
bias voltage is applied. Aided by the electric field,
sufficient energy is imparted to the charge carriers that
reverse current can flow. The process of conduction is
very like an avalanche breakdown in which a single
electron can ionize others.
2-Diode circuit models
2.1-Ideal diode model
• Ideal diode is a theoretical model for the practical
diode. The diode is modelled as a simple on/off device.
To determine the conduction state of an ideal diode:

1. assume a diode conduction state (on or off).

2. substitute ideal circuit model into the circuit
(short circuit if “on”, open circuit if “off”.
3. solve for diode voltage and current using linear
circuit analysis techniques.
4. if the solution is consistent with the assumption,
then the assumed state is correct. If not, the diode
conduction state is opposite to the assumed one.
Example
Determine whether the ideal diode in the circuit below is
conducting. Vs=12 V, VB=11 V, R1=5 Ω, R2= 10 Ω, R3=10 Ω

Solution
Assume initially the diode is off and replace it by an open
circuit
 R2 10
v1 = VS = =8 V
R1 + R 2 5 + 10
Apply KVL to the right-hand-side mesh:

v1 = v D + V B or v D = 8 − 11 = −3 V
The results indicates that the diode is reverse-biased
and confirm the initial assumption. Thus, the diode
is off
If the initial assumption is that the diode is on,
replace the diode with a short circuit
i

i1
Apply KCL: i = i1 + i2

V S − v1 v1 v1 − V B
= + note that v1=v2
R1 R2 R3

V S V B v1 v1 v1
+ = + +
R1 R3 R1 R 2 R3
12 11 1 1 1
+ = ( + + )v1
15 10 5 10 10
v1 = 8.75 V

Since v1=v2 <VB =11 V, we must conclude that current

flow in the reverse direction of the assumed one. This
observation is inconsistent with the initial
assumption. Thus, the diode is off.
Example (P9.7)
Determine whether the diode is conducting or not.
Assume that the diode is an ideal diode.

Solution
Assume the diode is on, then the current is:
V B − Vi 10 − 12
i= = = −0.1333 A
5 + 10 15
KVL: − VB + (10 + 5)i + vD + Vi = 0
vD = 10 − 15x 0.1333 − 12 = −3.997V
The result contradict the assumption since vD is
negative and current sign means its direction is
opposite to the assumed one. Thus, the diode is off
2.2- Offset diode model
While the ideal model is useful in approximating
the large-scale characteristics of a physical diode, it
does not account for the presence of an offset voltage,
which is unavoidable component in semiconductor
diode.
The offset diode model consists of an ideal diode in
series with a battery of strength equal to the offset
voltage, Vγ .

Vγ
for vD < Vγ the diode acts as an open circuit (off) .
for vD ≥ Vγ the diode is on and acts as a battery of Vγ V

For Silicon diode:

vD ≥ 0.6 V 0.6-V battery
vD ≤ 0.6 V open circuit
Example
If VB=2 V, use the offset model to determine the value
of v1 for which the diode D1 first conduct.

Solution
Assume the diode is off and replace it with the offset
model
KVL: − v1 + v D1 + Vγ + V B = 0
v D1 = v1 − 0.6 − 2 = v1 − 2.6
then the condition for the
diode to conduct is v1-2.6≥0
or v1≥2.6 V
Example (P9.23)
Use the offset diode model to determine the output
voltage of each of the following circuits:
Solution
a) D1 and D3 are reverse-biased, D2 and D4 are
forward-biased.
Vout=-5+0.7= -4.3 V

b) D1 and D2 are reverse-biased, D3 is forward-biased

Vout=-10+0.7= -9.3 V
c) D1 and D2 are reverse-biased
Vout= -10 V
3- Diode operating point
Diode circuits analysis aims to determine the dc
operating point referred to as Quiescent-point (Q-point)
when the diode operates in the forward region. i.e., to
find the dc operating current, IQ, and the dc operating
voltage, VQ.
To graphically determine the operating point of a diode,
 Reduce the circuit to Thevenin or Norton equivalent
circuit with the diode as the load.
 Write the load-line equation.
 Solve graphically by finding the intersection of the
diode curve with the load-line curve. The intersection of
the two curves is the operating point.
Consider the Thevenin equivalent circuit of an
arbitrary linear resistive circuit connected to a diode
then:

vT = i D RT + v D load-line equation

iD = I 0 (e qv D / KT
− 1) diode equation
The diode equation gives rise to diode iD-vD
characteristics curve while the load-line equation
describes a line with slope -1/R and y intercept given by
VT/RT and x intercept given by VT.

1 1
iD = − vD + VT
RT RT
Example
Determine the operating point of the 1N914 diode in
the circuit shown below and compute the total power
output of the 12-V battery. R1 =50 Ω, R2 =10 Ω, R3 = R4
=20 Ω,

Solution
We first compute Thevenin equivalent circuit

RT= R1 || R2 + R3 + R4
RT =20+20+(10||50)=48.33 Ω
R2 10
VT = VS = x12 =2 V
R1 + R2 60
Using load line equation, y intercept is VT/RT=41 mA
and x intercept is VT = 2 V.
Curves intersection is
the Q-point, thus:
VQ=1 V
IQ=21 mA

The battery power is:

PB=12 x IB
IB is equal to the current through R1 which is equal to
the current through R2 and the diode current.

VR 2 = I Q ( R3 + R4 ) + VQ = 0.021x 40 + 1 = 1.84V
I R 2 = VR 2 / R2 = 1.84 / 10 = 0.184 A
PB = 12 x (0.021 + 0.184) = 2.46W
4- Rectifier circuits
Rectification is one of the important applications of the
diode. Rectification is the ability to convert the AC signal
to a DC signal..
4.1- Half-wave rectifier
Half-wave rectifier is a simple but inefficient rectifier. A
single diode is used to build this rectifier.
Consider an AC source voltage, vi, connected to a load
via a series ideal diode.

Vm

{
vi (t )
positive
negative
diode is on
diode is off
( forward biased )
( reverse biased )
v L ( t ) = vi ( t )
vL ( t ) =0 V
Thus, the appearance of the load voltage will be as
shown below:

Note that one-half of the AC energy is not recovered

that why the half-wave rectifier is inefficient.
When the diode is conducting, the unknown iD and vL
can be found as follows:

vi
iD = when vi ≥ 0
RL
And
v L = iD RL

The rectified wave-form has a nonzero DC (average)

voltage, where as the average input waveform voltage is
zero. The average value of the load voltage is obtained
by integrating the load voltage over one period and
dividing by the period.
T /2 T
1 Vm
vload , DC = [
T ∫V
0
m sin ωt dt + ∫ 0 dt ] =
T /2
π
Example
Compute and plot the rectified load voltage vR in the
circuit shown below using the offset diode model.

Solution
Assume the diode is off. Apply
KVL to the circuit (a):
vD = vS – 0.6 (i = 0)
Then, to be consistent with the
assumption that the diode is off:
vS < 0.6 V (vD <0 diode off condition)
Since i=0 then,
vR =0 V (diode off)
If vS ≥ 0.6 V , the diode conducts and
the current i is obtained by applying
KVL to circuit (b),
v S − 0.6
i=
R
and
v R = iR = v S − 0.6
We summarize the result as follows:
0 for v S < 0.6 V
vR = 
v S − 0.6 for v S ≥ 0.6 V

Observe that the load voltage is shifted down by

amount equal to the offset voltage, vγ
4.2- Full-wave rectifier
Full-wave rectifier offers a substantial improvement in
efficiency over the half-wave rectifier.
The first section of full-wave rectifier circuit includes an
AC source and a center-tapped transformer with 1:2N
turns ratio. The transformer is used to obtain the
desired voltage amplitude prior to rectification and to
isolate the rectifier circuit from the AC source since
there is no direct electrical connection between input
and output of the transformer.
During the positive half cycle, the top diode is forward-
biased (on) and the bottom diode is reverse-biased (off).
Thus,
Nv S
i L = i1 = vS ≥ 0
RL

The offset voltage is neglected here since in most cases

the AC source is 110 V rms, 60 Hz.
During the negative half cycle, the top diode is off and
the bottom diode is on. Then,

− Nv S
i L = i2 = vS < 0
RL
Note that the direction of iL is the same in both cycles
because of the manner of diodes connections.
The load voltage appearance is as shown below:

The full-wave rectifier results in twofold improvement in

efficiency over the half-wave rectifier.
4.3- The bridge rectifier
Bridge rectifiers employ four diode commonly available
as a single integrated circuit.
Uncertified source voltage Ideal diodes Offset diodes

Note that the effect of the offset voltage is to shift the

waveform down by twice the diode offset voltage.
5- Ripple voltage
Although rectifiers circuits give a non-zero average
voltage, their output still an oscillating waveforms.
Instead of a smooth, constant voltage, the rectifier
generates a sequence of sinusoidal pulses at a frequency
double that of the original AC signal frequency in case of
full-wave rectifier and equal that of AC signal frequency
in case of half-wave rectifier.
Fluctuations about the mean voltage of the rectified
output is referred to as output ripple or ripple voltage.
The ripple voltage is undesirable component in the
rectified load voltage.
A simple and effective means to eliminate most of the
ripple is to use a capacitor filter that works as a low-
pass filter which preserves the DC component of the
rectified voltage while filtering out components at
frequency at or above twice the AC signal frequency.
The smoothing (filtering) operation can be explained as
follows:
 During the conduction period, the capacitor will
charge to the peak value of the rectified signal, Vm . The
load voltage vL(t) = vC(t).
 During the off period, the load current is supplied by
the capacitor which starts to discharge through the
load RL
 As the capacitor discharge, vL(t) decreases until the
capacitor voltage has fallen to the value of the now
rising next half-cycle of rectified voltage, then another
conduction and capacitor charging cycle starts.
 If the time constant, CRL, is large in comparison to the
period of the AC waveform, then a reasonable accurate
approximation can be made by assuming that the
capacitor voltage falls linearly.
vL
VLmax= Vr
VLmin 2

t1 t2
The peak-to-peak ripple , Vr, voltage can be calculated
by considering the capacitor discharge equation as
follows:

Vr = VL max − VL min = Vm − Vm e − t / RLC = Vm (1 − e − t / RLC )

CRL = time constant, the capacitor needs to discharge
through the load
Vm= the peak value of the rectified output
Note that:
Vr
V L max = V m = V dc +
2
Vr
V L min = V dc − = V m e − t / RL C
2
Note: t in the above equations is substituted by t2 the
time at which vL(t) reaches its minimum value
Example
A half-wave rectifier is used to provide a DC supply to a
50-Ω load. If the AC source voltage is 20 V (rms), find
the peak and average current in the load. Assume an
ideal diode.
Solution
v peak 2vrms 2 x 20
i peak = = = = 0.567 A
RL RL 50

1  v peak 
T T /2 T
1
Average current= i DC = ∫ i (t ) dt =  ∫ sin(ωt ) dt + ∫ 0 dt 
T 0 T  0 RL T /2 
v peak 2 x 20
= = = 0.18 A
πRL πx50
Example
In the full-wave power supply shown, the diodes are
1N4001 with a rated peak inverse voltage (also called
peak inverse voltage) of 25 V. If n (turn ratio)=0.05883,
C=80 μF, RL=1 kΩ, Vline=170cos(377t) V.
a- determine the actual peak reverse voltage across each
diode
b- explain why these diodes are or are not suitable for
the specifications given.
Solution
a) The peak voltage of Vs1 is:

VSm = nVim = 0.05883 x 170 = 10 V

at ωt=0: D1 is on , D2 is off
KVL to L1: − vS 1 (t ) + vD1−on + vL (t ) = 0
-10+0.7+Vm=0 , Vm=9.3 V=peak value of vL (t)
KVL to L2:
vS 2 (t ) + vD 2− reverse + vL (t ) = 0
10+ vD2-reverse +9.3=0 , vD2-reverse =-10-9.3=-19.3 V
The same analysis can be conducted for D1-reverse.voltage
but at ωt=π at which D1 off and D2 on
b) Since the rated peak reverse voltage (25 V) > calculated
actual peak reverse voltage by adequate margin, the
diodes are suitable for the given specifications.
Example
In the bridge-rectifier circuit shown, if IL=85 mA, VL=5.3
V, Vr=0.6 V, ω=377 rad/s, and vline=156cos(ωt).
Determine the value of:
a- the peak value of Vs
b- the capacitor C
Solution
a-

KVL: − v S (t ) + v D1 + v D 3 + v L (t ) = 0
at t=0, − VSm + vD1−on + vD 3−on + Vm = 0
VSm=peak value of VS
VSm+0.7+0.7+Vm=0 , VSm = 0.7 + 0.7 + 5.6 = 7 V
Note: VSm 7
n= = = 0.04487
Vim 156

b- at t=t2, VSm cos(ωt 2 ) + vD 2 + vD 4 + vL (t ) = 0

− vD 2 − vD 4 − VL min
ωt 2 = cos −1 ( ) = 2.725 rad
VSm
t2=2.725/377=7.23 ms
 − t 2 / RLC
Vr = Vm (1 − e )
RL=VL/IL=5.3/0.085=62.353 Ω

0.6
= 1 − e −0.00723 / 62.353C
5.6
− 0.00723 / 62.353C 0.6
e = 1− = 0.893
5.6
62.353
C=− ln(0.893) = 1023 µF
0.00723
6- Voltage regulation
DC power supplies contains voltage regulators, that is,
devices that can hold a DC load voltage relatively constant
in spite of possible fluctuations in the DC supply.

The most common device employed in the voltage

regulation is the Zener diode
For voltage regulation, Zener diode must operate at the
Zener breakdown region to hold the load voltage nearly
constant at Zener voltage, VZ.
 Circuit symbol

When the reverse voltage is lower than –VZ , the diode

behaves as a voltage source providing a voltage
reference that is nearly constant provided that the
unregulated supply voltage remains above VZ
The slope is not infinite at the Zener breakdown
region. The finite slope causes the Zener voltage to
change slightly. For the purpose of analysis, VZ is
assumed constant
Consider the circuit below where the unregulated DC
source VS is to be regulated to the value of VZ. An ideal
Zener diode is assumed here. Note that the diode must
connected upside down to obtain a positive regulated
voltage.
To analyze the regulator operation the following
observation are considered:
1) The load voltage must equal VZ, as long as the Zener
diode is in the reverse breakdown region

VL VZ
iL = = (ideal diode, rZ=0 Ω, VL=VZ)
RL RL

1) Any current in excess of that required to keep the

load at the constant voltage VZ is “dumped” to ground
through the diode.

iL = iS − iZ
2) The source current is given by
v S − VZ
iS = (ideal diode, VL=VZ)
RS
If practical Zener diode model is used then,

VL= VZ + rZiZ

vS − VL
iS =
RS
vS − VZ − iZ rZ
=
RS

Zener diode is usually rated in terms of its

maximum allowable power dissipation.

PZ = i Z V Z ( ideal model, rZ=0 Ω)

If rZ is considered then: PZ = iZ VZ + i r
2
Z Z
 In practice, the range of load resistance RL is
constrained to:

R L min ≤ R L ≤ R L max

RLmax is typically limited by the power dissipation of

the Zener diode and RLmin is limited by the maximum
supply current
Note that when the load disconnected suddenly or
when RL becomes greater than RLmax , larger currents will
be dumped by the diode and power dissipated may
exceed the diode rating
Also when RL becomes smaller than RLmin the
unregulated supply may not be able to provide the
current required to sustain the load voltage.
To avoid the above worst cases RL value must stay
within the specified constrains
 To ensure the Zener diode remains in the voltage-
regulation region, a proper value of the current
limiting resistor R must be used.
The minimum value of R is calculated at iZmax that
caused by: maximum source voltage, minimum load
current, and minimum Zener voltage.
v S − V L v S − V L v S − V Z − i Z rZ
R= = =
iS iL + iZ iL + iZ
v S max − V Z min − i Z max rZ
R min =
i L min + i Z max
The maximum value of R is calculated at iZmin
caused by minimum source voltage, maximum load
current, and maximum Zener voltage
v S min − V Z max − i Z min rZ
R max =
i L max + i Z min
Example
If vs=24 V, VZ=12 V, RS=50 Ω, RL=250 Ω, determine the
minimum acceptable power rating of the Zener diode.
Assume an ideal Zener diode.

Solution v S − V Z 24 − 12
iS = = = 0.24 A
RS 50

VZ 12
iL = = = 0.048 A
R L 250
and the Zener current ,
i Z = i S − i L = 0.192 A

Corresponds to a nominal power dissipation

PZ = iZVZ =0.192 x 12=2.304 W

However, if the load accidently removed, all the load
current is diverted to flow through the diode. Thus, the
worst-case Zener current is

i Z max = i S = 0.24 A
and PZ max = iZ maxVZ = 2.88 W

Safe design would exceed the value of PZmax computed

above. 3-W Zener diode is suitable in this case.
Example
Determine the minimum and maximum value of the
series resistor may have in a regulator circuit whose
output voltage is to be 25 V. The input voltage varies
from 35 to 40 V, the load current is 75 mA and the
Zener diode used has a maximum current rating of 250
mA. Assume iZmin=0 A.

iZ
Solution
v S max − V Z min − i Z max rZ
R min =
i L min + i Z max
but rZ=0 (ideal diode) then:
vS max − VZ 40 − 25
RS min = = = 46.15 Ω
iL min + iZ max 75 + 250
 vS min − VZ max − iZ min rZ
Rmax =
iL max + iZ min

30 − 25
RS max = = 133.3 Ω
75 + 0

Example
We desire to hold the load voltage constant at 14 V. Find
the range of the load resistance for which regulation can
be obtained if the Zener diode is rate at 14-V, 5 W. Use
ideal model.
Solution
The minimum load resistance is calculated by
assuming all the source current goes to the load.
Vs − VL Vs − VZ 50 − 14
iS = = = = 1.2 A = iL max
Rs Rs 10 + 20
VL VZ 14
RL min = = = = 11.7Ω
iL max is 1.2
The maximum current through the Zener diode that
does not exceed the diode power rating is,
PZ 5
iZ max = = = 0.357 A
VZ 14
Then, iL min = iS − iZ max = 1.2 − 0.357 = 0.843 A
So the maximum load resistance is,
VL 14
RL max = = = 16.6Ω
iL min 0.843
Example
Determine the minimum and maximum values of the
series resistor R if the following regulation
specifications are required.
VZ=12 ± 10% , rZ=9 Ω
iZmin=3.25 mA , iZmax=80 mA
VS=25 ± 1.5 V , IL=31.5 ± 21.5 mA
Solution
7- Diode clipper (Limiter)
Diode clipper employed to protect the load against
excessive voltage, i.e., to keep

− Vmax ≤ vL (t ) ≤ Vmax
Assume ideal diodes:

D1 on

Condition for D1 to conduct:

vL(t)=Vmax
 Condition for D1 to be off :

D2 analysis can be conducted by analogy with the

preceding D1 analysis. The results is the load voltage
clipped from both side as shown below, assume Vmax = 5 V
8- The diode clamp
Diode clamper is used to clamp the signal waveform
to a fixed DC value.

vout (t ) = vs (t ) − VC = vs (t ) − V peak
VC= capacitor voltage=Vpeak
Clamp positive peaks to 0 V, i.e.,
Shifted down to 0 level
necessary condition: RC >> T

vout (t ) = vs (t ) − V peak + VDC

VC= Peak -VDC
Clamp positive peaks to Vpeak-VDC V

Necessary condition: VDC <Peak

 clamping to 0 V (shifting down)
The clamping also works with the diode in the
reverse direction. The capacitor will charge to –Vpeak
and
vout (t ) = vs (t ) + V peak
In this case the negative peaks shifted up to 0 V. A
battery VDC also can be connected in series with the
diode to shift the waveform up by a voltage different
from Vpeak V. v (t ) = v (t ) + V −V
out s peak DC
Example
Design a biased diode clamp to shift the DC level of
the signal vs (t)=5cosωt up by 3 V. Use ideal diode
model.
Solution
vout (t ) = vs (t ) − V peak + VDC (shifting up)

To have a DC level of 3 V, the capacitor must be

charged by 3 V or: V peak − VDC = 3 V . Since Vpeak =5 V
then VDC should equal to 2 V
9- Peak Detector

+ D
vi(t) +
C vo(t)
- -

vi (t)
Vm

0
t

-Vm

vo(t)
Vm

0
t
 Peak detector circuit is similar to clamper circuit
except that the diode and the capacitor swapped their
places. The output, vo(t) , is taken across the capacitor
When vi(t) increases initially from 0 V to Vm (its peak
value), the diode is forward biased and immediately
charges the capacitor up to the peak value of the input
voltage, Vm , thereafter, the diode remains reverse
biased as the capacitor will keep its voltage constant at
Vm
Peak detector circuits are used in peak-reading
voltmeters and in smoothing pulsating waveforms
10- Photo diodes
Photo diodes are fabricated with a surface material
that is transparent to light. When the light reaches
the depletion region it generate electron-hole pairs by
a process called photoionization. As a consequence,
the reverse current depends on the light intensity.
 the i-v curve is shifted to lower values according to the
value of photoionization current IP.
L1 curve represents normal forward-biased diode
operation. Q-point in the positive i and positive v. Power
is positive and diode dissipates power.
L2 curve represents photodiode operates as solar cell.
Q-point in the negative i and positive v. Power is negative
and diode generate power.
L3 curve represents photodiode operates as light sensor.
The diode is reverse-biased and the current determined
by the incident light intensity.
11- Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
Diode operating in this mode emits light when forward-
biased. LEDs exhibit a forward voltage (offset) of 1 to 2 V.
In principle, by forwarding the diode and causing a
significant level of recombination, some of the energy
released is converted to light energy.
 Gallium arsenide (GaAS) is one of the more popular
substrates for creating LEDs. LED operating current
can range from 20 to 100 mA.

Example
Determine: a) the LED power consumption. b) the
resistance RS. c) the power required by the voltage
source. VS =5 V; ILED =40 mA
VLED=1.7 V
Solution
a) PLED = VLED x ILED =1.7x0.04=68 mW
b) VS= ILED RS + VLED
RS =82.5 Ω
c) PS= VSx ILED =200 mW