Problem-Solving skills and strategies, on the other hand, are related with the necessary basic

thinking skills and upper-level thinking skills. In addition, it is also related with knowing which strategy is
useful, and if not, transition to another suitable strategy. In solving problem, it is necessary that student
has self-confidence and acts in accordance with Problem-Solving steps (Mabilangan, 2011).

It is known that the countries that are successful in Mathematics in international assessment
exams like PISA (Program for International Student Assessment) and TIMSS (Trends in International
Mathematics and Science Study) allocate more time for non-routine problems (Arslan and Yazgan, 2016).
In this context, it is observed that the following acquisition is included for 9th Grades in the Mathematics
Curriculum Draft for Secondary Education Institutions, which will be renewed soon in our country: Non-
routine problem types are included in the curricula and it is ensured that students use different Problem-
Solving strategies (Ministry of National Education, 2017).

Non-routine problems, which are usually not specific to any mathematical topic, have no fixed
procedure for solving, and require the use of one or more strategies to solve. Moreover, non-routine
problems are especially challenging for many students, since these kind of problems require an
integration of several cognitive processes such as accounting for all possibilities, visualizing relationships
(Lee et al., 2014).

In the Philippines, a study made by Dela Cruz and Lapinid (2014) has shown that 40% of their
respondents are below the satisfactory level in translating worded problems due to the following
difficulties: carelessness, lack of comprehension, interchanging values, and unfamiliar words. When it
comes to the math anxiety level of students, Beilock (as cited in Harms, 2012) found out that students
report worry and fear about doing mathematics as early as first grade and even the highest-achieving
students, who typically have the most working memory were also experiencing math anxiety.

Previously, researchers have distinguished word problems as three different types: routine, non-
routine, and application word problems ranging from conceptually simple to conceptually complex. First,
a routine word problem is a problem that can be solved straightforwardly by a routine application. In
contrast, a non-routine Introduction 15 word problem is constructed in such a way that it cannot be
solved by straightforward strategies; it requires students to develop an adequate understanding of the
situations described in the problem texts (Elia, Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, & Kovolou, 2009; Lee et al.,
2014). Lastly, an application word problem is similar to the non-routine word problem but one additional
requirement is the use of non-direct translation of the problem texts on the basis of real-world
knowledge and assumptions in the mathematical model (Verschaffel et al., 2000).
 Non-routine word problems appear to be more difficult than routine word problems because of
their unstraightforward solution (Boonen, Reed, Schoonenboom, & Jolles, 2016; Elia et al., 2009; Lee et
al., 2014). While the solution to routine word problems can be found through a straightforward
translation of the problem text into a mathematical model without the need for developing a proper
understanding of the word-problem context, the solution of non-routine word problems requires
students to develop an adequate understanding of the situations described in the word-problem texts
(situation model) before the mathematical model can be derived, thus making the solution process more
complex (Boonen et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2014; Pantziara et al., 2009). There is however, another type of
word problem that might presumably be even more complex to solve than non-routine word problems:
“non-routine word problems requiring the use of realistic consideration” or in short, “application word
problems” (for an overview, see Verschaffel et al., 2000, 2009, 2010).

In mathematics, heuristics is a general way of solving problems, and is particularly used to come
to a solution that is hoped to be close to the best possible solution of a mathematical problem (Abonyi &
Umeh, 2014). Sickafus (2004) refers to heuristics as non-algorithmic tools, techniques and tricks that are
general in nature and guide the search for a means of solving a problem.

The term heuristic was coined from a Greek word, which means ‘I find’. Here the student is put
in the place of a discoverer. The method involves finding out by the student, instead of merely explaining
everything to the students by the teacher. Heuristic method of teaching is aimed at removing the
shortcomings attributed to lecture method or other conventional methods used by the teachers. It is a
method by which students learn to reason for themselves. This method has been found very useful in
the teaching of mathematics (Břehovský, et al (2013) ). Staunch supporters of this method are of the
opinion that every student should be made a discoverer and inventor. The mathematics teacher’s job is
not to solve the problems for the students, but to enable the student to solve problems by themselves
after listening to teacher’s leading questions or hints that will give a clue to solving the problems in the
class.

The South African 2015 and 2016 national senior certificate examinations diagnostic reports (see
DoBE, 2015, 2016) highlight a concern on learner poor performance on NRMPs. The reports indicate that
learners copied with lower order questions that required application of routine procedures taught in the
classrooms. They failed to cope with non-routine problems that required independent or creative
thinking. The assumption was that learners were not adequately exposed to the NRMPs. They were not
provided with adequate and appropriate classroom exercises that require application of basic knowledge
to unfamiliar problem situations. Because of the focus on quantity and quality of mathematics
examination results by most teachers as they teach mathematics, and the possible challenge of teaching
and learning non-routine problems to both teachers and learners, this study examines high school
learners’ knowledge of problem solving (PS) strategies and their ability to effectively apply the strategies
to PS.
 A study in Turkey by Yazgan (2015) on the role of each Problem-Solving strategy on explaining
learners’ success in solving non-routine mathematical problems and in discriminating between
successful and non-successful 6th graders revealed that success in solving nono-routine mathematical
problems depends on knowledge of Problem-Solving strategies. Specifically, Yazgan (2015) discovered
that strategies explained 65% of the learners’ success in PS. Yazgan (2015) also discovered that the level
of strategy use possibly discriminated between high achievers and low achievers in non-routine
mathematical problems solving. For instance, high achievers could use ‘look for a pattern’ and ‘make a
drawing’ more successful in PS than the low achievers.

Brunning, Schraw and Ronning (1999) view NRMPs as ill-defined problems with several
acceptable solutions that can be obtained using several unique strategies. Elia, van den Heuvel-
Panhuizen and Kolovou (2013, p607) consider NRMPs ‘more complicated and difficult than routine
problems’ and similarly, according to Mogari and Lupahla (2013, p95), they are ‘more cognitively
challenging and demanding than routine problems’. NRMPs are tasks based on real life circumstances or
models thereof that cannot be solved using familiar methods by replicating known procedures (see
Muis, 2004; Arslan & Altun, 2007; Mogari & Lupahla, 2013). To this end, in the view of Arslan and Altun,
NRMP reflects the relationship between mathematics and reality. This study hopes to establish whether
a link exists between the capacity to solve NRMPs and the amount of mathematics learned when moving
up the grades.

Non-routine problem solving depends considerably on higher-order thinking and reasoning and,
according to Carson (2007) and Lester (2013), it requires learners to have capacity to synthesise and
coordinate their knowledge and skills and apply them to novel problem situations.

Lester (2013) contends that for learners to succeed in problem solving, they need adequate and
relevant previous experiences in learning how to solve problems, a strong mathematical knowledge
base, knowledge of various mathematical models or representations, and have the ability to model or
represent mathematical situations and construct or draw patterns of inferences.

DIFIFCULTIES IN MATHEMATICAL PROBLEMS

A word problem is a problem designed to help students apply mathematics concepts to real life
situations. According to Lai (2015), problem solving is a cognitive process directed to achieve a goal
when no obvious solution method is available to the problem solver. Some children find it difficult to
solve word problems presented in a paragraph. It is easier for them if the problem is presented in
numbers or a certain equation; therefore, they need to develop a full understanding of the problem
before they attempt to solve it (Swanson, Orosco, & Lussier, 2014)
 Powell (2011), purports regardless of the problem type, students need to learn a strategy for
working through the problem. Some children cannot interpret word problems if they do not visualize the
key elements in a diagram or a bar graph. The ability to visualize the problem can lead to successful
problem solving (Dela Cruz & Lapinid, 2014).

The role of any educator in the classroom is to educate the children and prioritize the important
things for them to learn. It can start by building self-confidence in every child. Teaching word problems is
not an easy task. The most cited classroom practice was working the problem independently (Pearce,
Bruun, Skinner, & Lopez-Mohler, 2013).

A cognitive strategy instruction consists of teaching cognitive and metacognitive strategies that
can guide students to understand and be self-aware of the requirements. A cognitive strategy helps
students’ focus on the problem structure and increase their ability to understand the problem
(Pfannenstiel, Bryant, Bryant, & Porterfield, 2015). This strategy is a vital component for students in the
younger grades to solve effectively word problems (Pfannenstiel, Bryant, Bryant, & Porterfield, 2015).

Dixon, et al., (2014), affirms learners will develop deep conceptual understanding of word
problems when their teachers provide them with rich, and meaningful learning activities. For example, if
students are asked to write their own word problem, it eludes to their interests and they will be more
engaged in valuable and meaningful mathematical thinking. For instance, invite students to write a word
problem to a relatable event in their lives, such as a trip, a football game, etc. Students that are able to
create their own mathematical word problems will be positively influenced and this will reflect, not only
on their understanding, but also on their problem solving skills and disposition towards mathematics
(Dixon, et al., 2014).

One of the indicators telling a teacher whether a pupil understands the subject matter is the
pupil’s ability to come up with new, original solving procedures when solving a new problem. But this is
something a teacher cannot teach directly. He/she can expect this approach from their pupils, he/she
can ask for it, support them in it but he/she cannot teach it (Sarrazy and Novotná, 2013). This is one of
the key concepts of didactics of mathematics, the didactical contract and paradoxes connected to it
(Brousseau, 1997).
 Non-routine problems, which are usually not specific to any mathematical

topic, have no fixed procedure for solving, and require the use of one or more

strategies to solve. Additionally, non-routine problems are especially challenging

for many students, since these kinds of problems require an integration of

several cognitive processes such as accounting for all possibilities, visualizing

relationships (Lee et al., 2014).

Lee et al., (2014) found that non-routine word problems appear to be more

difficult than routine word problems because of their unstraightforward

solution. While the solution to routine word problems can be found through a

straightforward translation of the problem text into a mathematical model

without the need for developing a proper understanding of the word-problem

context, the solution of non-routine word problems requires students to develop

an adequate understanding of the situations described in the word-problem texts

(situation model) before the mathematical model can be derived, thus making

the solution process more complex, non-routine problems require that

individuals use their skills and knowledge in unusual ways.

The mathematical classrooms students’ creativities and abilities are

fostered through a variety of teaching methods and learning strategies. The role

of teachers as the facilitators in a mathematical classroom is to instill students’

confidence in presenting their mathematical solutions. The students’

mathematical problem solving abilities increase after the use of heuristic

approaches. They were reported to engage profoundly in their learning and such

active learning environment improved students’ interest in solving mathematical

problems as well as enabled them to respond creatively (Chaves, 2007).