Professional Documents
Culture Documents
net/publication/49610850
CITATIONS READS
3 195
1 author:
Kenneth Okiongbo
Niger Delta University
21 PUBLICATIONS 146 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
Hydrocarbon production-induced reservoir compaction and land surface subsidence in the onshore Niger Delta, Nigeria. View project
All content following this page was uploaded by Kenneth Okiongbo on 31 May 2014.
K.S. Okiongbo
Departm ent of Geolog y and Ph ysics, Niger Delta University, W ilberforce Island, B ayelsa State
Abstract: This study presents a data set comprising estimated permeabilities of 22 natural mudstones which
also have been characterised in terms of their pore size distribution, porosity, grain density and Total Organic
Carbon (TOC) content. Pore size distribution and grain density were determined using mercury porosimetry
and pycn ome ter method. T OC was determ ined b y direct combustion of the organ ic carbon in LECO RL S-100
Carbon Sulphur analyser. Permeabilities were estimated based on the measured pore throat size distribution plus
assumed pore alignment and pore shape using the model of Yang and Aplin. TOC and grain density ranges from
3.44- 9.98% and 2 .61-2.70 g/cm3, respectively. Porosity decreases from ~24-3% between the depth range of
1515-4781 m. The pore size distribution data show that the m ean p ore rad ius decreases from ~36-2 nm within
the same dep th rang e, the sh ift to smaller mean pore radii is driven primarily by the collapse of pores larger than
10nm with increase in consolidation. These values represent some of the smallest pore sizes known for rocks
and in part provide a qualitative explanation for the low shale permeabilities. Estimated vertical permeabilities
range from 9.5×10 G23 to 8.6×10G21 m 2. In general, permea bility dec reases logarithmically w ith poro sity.
Key w ords: Grain density, permeability, porosity, pore-size distribution, shales, total organic carbon
46
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(1): 46-52, 2011
and includes all basins within the area both in the UK and prereq uisite for the accurate determination of very low
Norwegian sectors of the North Sea (Fig. 1). Its permeabilities. Standard techniques were employe d to
geological evolu tion has been extensively discu ssed in evalu ate grain density (the sm all pycnometer method at
various papers (Nielsen et al., 1986; Thorne and 20ºC) and Total Organic Carbon (TOC) by direct
W atts, 1989). The North Sea is a P aleozoic to Holocene combustion of the organic carbon in LECO RLS-100
multistage rift basin within the north western European Carbon Sulphur analyser. Approximately 5-10 g
cratonic block. It is superimposed on the Caledonian fragm ents were cut from the 22 mudstone core samples.
Orogenic trend. The tecton ic framew ork of the northe rn Samples were dried first at room temperature and then for
North Sea consists of a north-trending Viking Graben, 24 h at 105ºC. There was no visible alteration of sam ple
which intersects in the South, the South easterly- integrity resulting from the cutting or dryin g procedu re.
orientated Central Graben and the westerly Witch Ground Pore-size distribution of the mudstone specimens was
Graben. determined by mercury intrusion porosimetry, following
The lithologies are composed of sands and shales in the procedure described by Issler and Katsub e, (1994). In
the Triassic - Jurassic section of the basin an d locally principle, the mercury porosimeter can genera te pressures
organic matter (e .g., Kim merid ge C lay) is pre sent. In the high enough to force mercury into all accessible pores and
Cretaceous, the lithologies are dom inantly carbonates and measure the volume of mercury taken up by them
shales. They are mainly shales, silts and sands in the (Rootare, 1970). Assum ing cy lindrical pore shapes, the
Tertiary with an interruption in the Paleocene when W ashburn equation (Rootare, 1970) relates the amount of
pressure, p, required to force m ercury into pores w ith
Volcanism occurred. This corresponds to the widespread
pore-size diameter, d, greater than or equal to:
deposits of volcanic tuffs all over the graben
(Hanc ock, 199 0).
d = -4 (cos 2 / p (2)
MATERIALS AND METHODS where, ( is the surface tension of mercury, and 2 is the
contact angle. Va lues of 2 = 141º and ( = 0.48 N /m we re
Twenty-two core samples were selected from 16 used in this study. The measurements were made using a
wells from the northern parts of the North Sea and the Micrometrics Autopore II 9220 mercury porosimeter with
Norwegian Margin. The main sampling criterion was an available pressure range of 0.021-269 MPa and an
sample quality, since high quality core materials is a equivalent pore-size range of 3-36444 nm.
47
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(1): 46-52, 2011
The mercury injection pressu re was incre men tally Vertical permeability:
increased from 0.021 to 269 MPa in 56 pressure steps,
and the volume of mercury intruded for each step K v = 10 G19.21 J v1.118 r G1.074 (5)
measured. Knowing both the applied pressure and the
incremental volume of mercury intruded into the sam ple Horizontal permeability:
allows pore-size distributions throughout the sample to be
calculated from Eq. (2). The total porosity was calculated K h = (ctan("))2.236 K v (6)
from the dry bu lk density and the measured grain density.
The dry bulk density was calculated from dry weight and
where,
bulk volum e given by the mercury intrusion . Since
sam plin g a n d u n l o a d in g m a y i n d u c e s o m e
microfracturing, the total porosity was corrected using J v = 9/8 N (sin( "))2 (J 13 / (1 + J1 + J 12) 2) (7)
pore size distribution data. The app roach , illustrated in
Fig. 2, is to determine the point at which the pore size J 1 = 2.371 – 1.62clay 2 + 153.8 N4 (8)
frequency curve, when plotted as a function of increasing
pore radius beco mes a m inimum . It is assumed that pores " = 45º – 10.24º (e 100 - e) F1 > 100kPa
above that “cutoff” radius are sam pling artefacts and are " = 45º F1 > 100kPa (9)
remo ved from the data set.
The mean pore throat radius was calcu lated for all e 100 = 0.3024 + 1.687clay + 1.951clay 2 (10)
pores smaller than the cut off radius. It was calculated
increm entally from the relative pore size distribution K v and K h are absolute vertical and horizontal
using the eq uation (Ya ng and Aplin, 200 7).
permeabilities (m 2), is the mean pore throat radius
(nm), N is porosity, e is void ratio = N / (1-N), e 100, is void
ratio at 0.1 M Pa effe ctive stress, J 1 is the ratio of the
(3)
largest radius of a pore to its throat radius, assumed to be
the same for all pores for a given sam ple, " is the average
pore alignment angle relative to bedding direction
where, r i is the pore throat radius at data p oint i(nm), N%,
(degree), clay is the fractional clay content, and F1 is
i is the fractional relative porosity at pore throat radius r i
effective stress. Inp uts for the Yang and A plin
and is defined as:
perm eability model are thus porosity, pore size
N%,j = Ncum, j / N c (4) distribution and clay content. From these in puts, J 1 and "
are calculated from clay content and porosity using Eq.
where, Ncum,i is the fractional cu mula tive porosity at data (8), (9) and (10), respectively, and from the pore size
points i and Nc is the corrected porosity. In the calculation distribution using Eq. (3).
48
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(1): 46-52, 2011
(a) (c)
(b) (d)
49
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(1): 46-52, 2011
(d) (f)
(e) (g)
Fig. 3: Measured pore-size distributions
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION samples. Since mudstones contain pores with radii smaller
than 3.0 nm and/or have pores which are not conn ected to
The data set is presented in Table 1, with pore throat the flow system, the pore size distributions do not start at
size distribution data shown in Fig. 3. Pore throat sizes zero porosity but a porosity which represents difference
and porosity range from ~3.0-1000 nm and ~3.0-24% between the total porosity and that measured by mercury
respectively. Figure 3 shows that the mudstones are intrusion.
characterised by unimodal pore size distributions with Close examination of Fig. 3 reveals two pore size
modes decreasing from ~ 15 nm at 1515 m to ~6-8 nm as distribution patterns. One typified by Fig. 3a and has
depth increases to 4781 m. G enera lly, the sample suite is scarcely any pore throats above 100 nm (no significant
characterised by larger porosities and pore sizes at penetration at radii >100 nm) and mean pore radii are not
more than 14.0 nm. The other, Fig. 3d has much broader
shallow depth but decreases from ~15 nm at about 24%
pore size distribution pattern with pores up to 10 3 nm in
(1515 m) to ~1.2-5.0 nm at porosities <10% suggesting
radius maintained to depth levels in excess of 2500 m.
that with increasing effective stress, po rosity is lost by the
Samples 1-5, 8 and 13-22 fall in the first category (group
collapse of relatively larger pores, resulting in a decrease
A), numbers 6, 7, and 9-12 in the second category (group
in the mean pore throat size (Yang and Ap lin, 1998). B). Sam ples in group B have higher porosity, broad pore
Figure 4 shows that mean pore radius is almost constant size and mean pore radius which is almost two orders of
at values <5.0 nm suggesting a state of maximum magnitude greater than that of samples in group A.
compaction as the porosity approach a critical value of Permeabilities calculated using Eq. (4) are plotted
<10%. This reaffirms the fact that most of the porosity against depth in Fig. 5 and against porosity in Fig. 6.
loss occurs through the collapse of pores larger than 10 Calculated perm eabilities range between 9.5×10G23 - 8.6
nm (Yang and Aplin, 1998). A lower limit of ~3.0 nm ×10 G21 m 2 (8.6-0.095 nD). This range is within that
pore radius was determined at a pressure of 269MPa in all reported by Neuzil (1994) for permeabilities determined
50
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(1): 46-52, 2011
Fig. 4: Mean pore radius as a function of porosity Fig. 6. Porosity -permeability relationship
CONCLUSION
51
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 3(1): 46-52, 2011
52