Tec de Monterrey (Campus Monterrey) / Electricity and Magnetism / Final Project / spring semester 2017 / Dr.

Odón Sánchez

Due on Thursday (March 23) at the beginning of the lecture

INSTRUCTIONS: This is a team work (two students per team), each team should turn in the written report on (March 23) at the beginning of the
lecture; the grade will be the same for each member of the team. I will recommend you to do this work as soon as possible, do not leave it for the last
moment, unless you like the adrenaline.

Introduction

We could said (in general) that inside any electronic device the most common component is the resistor, the second place is for the
capacitor; it is sort of impossible to think in modern society without these two components or elements.

● The resistors are commonly used in a circuit to control the currents flowing inside it. In Figure 1 it is shown a sketch of a classical
four bands carbon resistor; each band has a color and all the colors indicate the value of the resistance, the last color band (fifth) indicates the
tolerance (precision) of the resistance. Let’s look carefully at the particular case shown in Figure 1; according to the convention (resistor
color code) we can said: green=5, red=2, yellow=4 and the fourth color is called the multiplier, in this case orange=×1000, so the resistance
of the resistor is: 524000 Ω or 524 kΩ, silver means 10%, so more precisely we can said that the resistance of the resistor is 524 kΩ ± 10%.

green orange silver

red yellow
Figure 1

There are many types of commercial resistors: carbon resistors, film resistors, wire-wound resistors, etc.

Two commonly symbols used for representing a resistor are:

Variable resistors (the resistance can be changed in the device) are called potentiometers.

If you want to know more about commercial resistors please check: http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/resistor/res_1.html .

● The capacitors could be considered a component capable of storing electric energy; it can be said that the energy is
storage in the electric field located inside the capacitor. In general a capacitor is used to block direct currents (DC), this ability can
be used to remove unwanted spikes (short duration electrical peaks) that can damage a circuit. There are many types of commercial
capacitors: ceramic capacitors, electrolytic capacitors, etc. If you want to know more about commercial capacitors please check:
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/capacitor/cap_1.html .

Two commonly symbols used for representing a capacitor are:

Remember: Electric fields are produced by one or more electric charges. Magnetic fields (similar but no equal to electric fields)
are produced by one or more electric charges in motion (an electric current can do the job).

There are electric fields (called non coulombic electric fields) produced by magnetic fields changing in time.

● The inductor could be considered a component capable of storing magnetic energy; it can be said that the energy is
storage in the magnetic field located inside the inductor. An inductor “opposes the change” of electrical current, so they can be
used to reshape alternating currents (AC), i.e. currents changing in time. We have covered resistors and capacitors, in the future we
will cover inductors. If you want to know more about commercial inductors please check:

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/inductor/inductor.html .

Two commonly symbols used for representing an inductor are:

Physical Models

In science (and engineering) phenomena are usually analyzed in the following way: watch carefully a particular
phenomenon (a river flowing, an airplane flying, an electronic circuit, etcetera); then you simplify the problem, for example a car
in motion sometimes can be considered as a particle in motion, you may decide to consider non frictional forces, etc. Now, look
for the equations that describe the physical phenomenon, they are usually based in fundamental physical laws, such as Newton’s
third law, conservation of energy, etc. Finally you have to solve the equations (usually differential equations) to understand the
phenomenon you are analyzing and most important; to make predictions: for example, I was able to solve the problem and the
tension in the wire is 18 kN, but what will happen if I change the angle?

Two interesting points: (1) many time (to avoid mass suicide among students) differential equations are presented as
𝑑 𝑝⃗
algebraic equations, a classical example is Newton’s third law: ∑ 𝐹⃗ = 𝑚 𝑎⃗ , instead of; ∑ 𝐹⃗ = . (2) There is not such a thing as
𝑑𝑡
a perfect physical model for a given physical phenomenon; we should understand that physical models are just an approximation
to reality (whatever this last word means); a physical model widely used in elementary physics (and quite naive) is the planetary
model for the atoms (the nucleus is the sun and the electrons are the planets), a more accurate model is the one presented by the
quantum theory, but unfortunately it is complicated (mathematically speaking).

Problem 1. Charge of a capacitor in an RC circuit.

The basic circuit is formed by a battery (emf represented by “ε”), a resistor (R), a capacitor (C), a switch, an ammeter
(ideal, which means zero resistance) and a voltmeter (ideal, which means infinite resistance), please see Figure 2.

C ∆VC
ε

A
switch
Figure 2

Assume the capacitor has no charge (initially), then we close the switch at time t = 0, we observe, as time passes by, that
the capacitor is being charged by the battery. This charge process can be modeled by conservation of energy or Kirchhoff second
law:

𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑄 𝑄
𝜀−𝐼𝑅− =0 (1a) , (remember 𝐼 = ), then: 𝜀−𝑅 − =0 (1b)
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶

The solution of differential equation (1b) leads us to the equations:

𝑄 = 𝜀𝐶[1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ] (2)

𝜀
𝐼 = ( )𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 (3)
𝑅

∆𝑉𝐶 = 𝜀[1 − 𝑒 −𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ] (4)

• Equation (2) show us how the charge in the capacitor increases with time, a sketch of this equation is shown in the next plot:

Observe that for a very long time

Q the charge in the capacitor
approaches its maximum value:
𝜀𝐶 Qmax = εC. In practice a very
long time can means (for
example) half a second.
t
 • Equation (3) show us how the current in the circuit decreases with time, this (of course) is due to the increase of charge in the
capacitor.

• Equation (4) show us how the electric potential across the capacitor (∆𝑉𝐶 ) increases with time, this (of course) is due to the
increase of charge in the capacitor.

Important: (a) You should be able to make sketches of equation (3) and (4). (b) Notice in equation (2) that when time is equal to
𝑡
RC then; 𝑄 = 𝜀𝐶 [1 − 𝑒 − 𝑅𝐶 ] = 𝜀𝐶[1 − 𝑒 −1 ] ≈ 0.63 𝜀𝐶, this means that when time t = RC the capacitor has been charged to
63% of its maximum capacity. RC has units of seconds, this quantity is represented by the Greek letter ( 𝜏) and is known as “the
time constant of the RC circuit” (𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶).

Computer Simulations

Use the ‘PhET’ Circuit Construction Kit (AC+DC) from the University of Colorado at Boulder to construct the RC
circuit shown in Figure 2, link:

https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/category/physics/electricity-magnets-and-circuits

The ‘PhET’s’ have been created from an elite group of people: scientists, teachers, mathematicians and engineers; the
creator of the idea is Carl Wieman (Noble Price in Physics 2001). Wieman received the Oersted Medal (given from the American
Association of Physics Teachers) in 2007, the medal was given to him for his contribution (using the PhET’s) to the teaching of
Physics. I am mentioning just two of the prices that Wieman and his group had received.

When using the PhET to construct the circuit of Figure 2 use the stopwatch provided by the Kit (place it near the circuit).

I performed an experiment that was about 20 seconds long (so I took data about every second) using the following values (use
your own values for your experiment): C = 0.2 F, ε = 50 volts, R = 28.24 Ω, and I used the ideal case, i.e. zero resistance for the
switch, the wires, the battery (ε), the ammeter, etc. Use the ‘play’ and ‘stop’ buttons to control the experiment (control the time).

Once you are ready (you have your circuit on the screen) push the stop button. Discharge the capacitor, reset the stopwatch
(and push the start button on the stopwatch), close the switch; push the ‘play’ button and watch how the capacitor is being charged
by the battery (∆𝑉𝐶 increases). Observe that after about 20 seconds the capacitor is almost totally charged (the voltmeter is near 50
volts). Learn to control this experiment before you perform your own experiment. Notice that if you change the values of the
electronic components instead of having an experiment that last about 20 seconds it may last more or less than this value. You are
going to be asked to take data: about 20 values (more or less evenly spaced along you experiment).

Use your own values for the electronic components and run your experiment, use the ‘play’ and ‘stop’ buttons to take
about 20 readings (remember, approximately evenly spaced) and use them to construct Table 1, an example is shown next (notice
that the Table is not complete. It is just an example, not the real thing), the values for ‘t’ were taken from the stopwatch, the values
for ‘∆𝑉𝐶 ’ were taken from the voltmeter, the values for ‘I’ were taken from the ammeter:

C=0.2 F R=28.24 Ω ε=50 V ideal devices

t (seconds) ΔVC (volts) I (amperes)

in capacitor in circuit

0.27 2.334 1.69

1.14 9.138 1.45
••• ••• •••
18.09 47.967 0.07
19.05 48.285 0.06

Notice that the first row of Table 1 is quite important, if you do not put the values of the parameters for your
experiment I can’t check your work. When you construct your own Table 1 do not forget the units.
Analysis

Using the data from the Table that you got please construct Plot 1 (I vs t). You should fit an exponential curve to the
current data, write the equation that results from this fitting (experimental result) and write the equation predicted by the theory
(see equation 3), so that you can compare both equations (experiment and theory). Excel is a nice tool to do this work. An example
of Plot 1 (I vs t ) is shown next, notice that the dotted line represents the experimental current in the RC circuit:

Plot 1: I vs t
1.8
1.6
𝑰𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝟐𝟗𝒆−𝟎.𝟏𝟕𝟕 𝒕 ; 𝑹𝟐 = 0.9998
1.4
1.2
1 𝑰𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒐𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟕𝒆−𝟎.𝟏𝟖 𝒕
I (A)
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
t (s)

Notice that equation (3) is the physical model for the decrease in current with time for the charge process of an RC circuit, we call
this equation theoretical. On the other hand the equation given from the exponential fitting curve is the experimental model of the
particular experiment that you run, that is why we call it experimental.

Observation: generally in Physics the models do not fit as nice with reality as the example showed here; electric circuits are sort of
an exception. If you perform mechanical experiments do not be surprised to get, for example, a theoretical result for the velocity
of 41 m/s and a measured experimental velocity of 28 m/s.

Problem 2. The RL circuit.

The basic circuit is formed by a battery (ε), a resistor (R), an inductor (L), a switch, an ammeter (ideal, which means zero
resistance) and a voltmeter (ideal, which means infinite resistance), please see Figure 3.

L ∆VL
ε

A
switch
Figure 3

If you close the switch at time t = 0, the behavior of the circuit can be modeled by Kirchhoff second law:

𝑑𝐼
𝜀−𝐼𝑅−𝐿 =0 (5)
𝑑𝑡

The solution of differential equation (5) leads us to the equations:

 𝜀
𝐼 = [1 − 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑅/𝐿 ] (6)
𝑅

∆𝑉𝐿 = 𝜀 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑅/𝐿 (7)

• Equation (7) show us how the voltage across the inductor decreases with time.

Use the ‘PhET’ Circuit Construction Kit (AC+DC) from the University of Colorado at Boulder to construct the RL
circuit shown at Figure 3:

I performed an experiment that was about 20 seconds long (so I took data about every second) using the following values (use
your own values): L = 50 H, ε = 9 volts, R = 20 Ω, and I used the ideal case, i.e. zero resistance for the switch, the wires, the battery
(ε), the ammeter, etc.

Use your own values for the electronic components and run your experiment, use the ‘play’ and ‘stop’ buttons to take
about 20 readings (remember, approximately evenly spaced) and use them to construct Table 2, an example is shown next (notice
that the Table is not complete. It is just an example, not the real thing), the values for ‘t’ were taken from the stopwatch, the values
for ‘∆𝑉𝐿 ’ were taken from the voltmeter, the values for ‘I’ were taken from the ammeter:

L=50 H R=20 Ω ε=9 V ideal devices

t (seconds) ΔVL (volts) I (amperes)

at inductor in circuit

1.17 5.636 0.17

2.34 3.53 0.27
••• ••• •••
19.38 0.004 0.45
20.07 0.003 0.45

Notice that the first row of Table 2 is quite important, if you do not put the values of the parameters for your
experiment I can’t check your work. When you construct your own Table 2 do not forget the units.

Using the data from the Table that you got please construct Plot 2 (∆𝑽𝑳 vs t ). You should fit an exponential curve to
the current data, write the equation that results from this fitting (experimental result) and write the equation predicted by the theory
(see equation 7), so that you can compare both equations (experiment and theory). Excel is a nice tool to do this work. An example
of Plot 2 (∆𝑽𝑳 vs t ) is shown next, notice that the dotted line represents the experimental voltage across the inductor:

5
Plot 2: ΔVL vs t
∆𝑉𝐿 = 8.9056𝑒 −0.398𝑡 ; 𝑅 2 = 1
ΔVL (volts)

4 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙

2
∆𝑉𝐿 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 9𝑒 −0.4𝑡

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
t (s)
Written report.

You should turn in to the course instructor a written report (one per team; two members each one) at the beginning of
the lecture on Thursday, March 23. The report should include: A cover with the names of the team members and theirs IDs (both
members will get the same grade), a sheet with Table 1 (25 points), a sheet w/ Plot 1 (25 points), a sheet w/ Table 2 (25 points) and
a sheet w/ Plot 2 (25 points). Make it sure each plot has a nice grid (I need it for grading your work). Do not forget to write the
values that you used for your experiment at each Table (if not I am NOT going to be able to score your work). Please feel free to
drop by my office (office hours) if you have doubts about this work; remember, 10% of your final score.