Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dr. Anderson
SOC 254
11/12/18
The Intersection of Social Constructs: How Race Impacts the Dominant Gender Ideology
Social constructions, or ideas and concepts created by people and widely accepted by
people, provide the very foundation for human interactions. Some constructs were built with the
intent to be binary, such as gender. Others are vital for our society to function, like government.
There are social constructs that we as humans are not all that great at, take monogamy, for
example. There are even constructs that serve as a means of classification and have the ability to
negatively impact a person’s health, socio-economic status, education, and essentially every facet
of their well-being, such as race. Through the singular analysis of these concepts a better
understanding of how constructs such as gender, race, or government impact the lives of
everyday individuals. Constructs, however, are not singular in nature, they are interconnected
and influence each other in a cyclical manner, begging for further examination to determine the
In the United States, social constructions like the ones listed above are deeply ingrained
in society. The concepts of gender and race, however, have a strong history of
interconnectedness and impact every single person within the country. The combination of the
dominant gender ideology in the United States and the country’s vast racist history has given
way to a variety of race-specific gender stereotypes. Davis and Greenstein believe “there is some
evidence for racial and ethnic differences in gender ideology,” but that they stem more so from
“the intersection of sex and social class” as opposed to gender and race. The following
argumentative essay aims to show the inextricable linkage between race and gender, examining
major historical events; socio-economic issues; and the dominant gender ideology that plagues
U.S. society. By investigating major political constructions like slavery, Jim Crow laws, the U.S.
education system, and socio-economic status patterns, these stereotypes can be unearthed and the
In order to examine the interplay between race and the dominant gender ideology, a basic
understanding of what gender is, and the stereotypes associated with the construct, is essential.
Gender, according to Phillips, is defined as “the roles and expectations attributed to men and
women in a given society.” The dominant gender ideology provides the justification for norms
society has learned to associate with the different genders, making gender a social construct, not
biological.
On the other hand, there is ideology. Simply put, ideology is synonymous with a
stereotype. However, the dominant gender ideology in the United States is much more
multifaceted than a single stereotype. Davis and Greenstein define gender ideology as being a
paid work and family responsibilities that is based on the notion of separate spheres.” In this
case, gender ideology is the belief that work and familial responsibilities differ between genders;
gender ideology is not the stereotype on its own, but the support, embodiment, and reinforcement
of that stereotype.
Now that the concept of gender ideology has been established, it is important to conduct a
historical analysis to understand how the dominant gender ideology came about and how a
history plagued with racism created a racial division of gender stereotypes. Various cultural
values dating back to the very conception of the United States helped establish, develop, and
maintain the dominant gender ideology. One structure that had a particularly large impact on
these roles were the multiple arrangements of the U.S. economy. When goods were made at
home – in a pre-market, farm economy – women experienced much more equality. Though men
and women completed different jobs, women still had laborious tasks like food and clothing
preparation and food preservation to ensure the family’s basic survival. In contrast, there came
the post-farm, market economy which meant that fewer goods were made at home and more
products were bought in the marketplace. This economic shift occurred around the American
Revolution and created a shift in women’s work as well. Women went from laborious tasks to a
Keeping in mind the interplay of race, the above analysis only considers the economic
role of white women in the United States. Even before America broke free of British bondage
with the winning of the Revolutionary War, systemic racism plagued the 13 colonies. During the
late 18th century, the foundation of racism in America was established with the construction of
this “novel understanding” of freedom (Sesay Jr., 2016). According to Sesay, the novel
understanding of freedom was that the status of a person was determined by the situation – race –
into which they were born. This, according to Sesay, meant that “the status into which a person
was born ultimately underlay and circumscribed their capacity to shape their environment and
their future.” Simply put, race became the determinant factor of one’s ability to impact the world
and achieve their full potential. This way of understanding led to the creation of institutional
constructions throughout the entirety of U.S. history. Societal and political inventions such as
slavery, Indian boarding schools, and Jim Crow Laws did not only have substantial impacts on
people of color, they also helped establish different gender stereotypes across the various races
In continuing this historical analysis, the conception of the various racial gender identities
becomes much more clear. Desmond and Emirbayer explain how impactful the constructions
above are on racial gender identities. For example, the establishment of slavery ultimately gave
way to the stereotype of the “black matriarch.” Ironically enough, once slaves were emancipated,
women of color lost a kind of gender equality that they experienced through the system of
slavery. Women who once “worked alongside black men, picking cotton, harvesting rice, and
swinging axes,” were now pushed into the home and held there under another form of
oppression, the patriarchy (Desmond & Emirbayer, 2016). Now viewed and treated as unequal to
their black, male counterparts, black women were forced into the home and the role of the “black
Another example comes further down the U.S. timeline, dealing with the enactment of
Jim Crow laws and how they helped establish a stereotype that still impacts black men today.
Instituted in 1914 in every southern state and most northern cities, Jim Crow laws increased
racial tension and distaste between blacks and whites in the United States (“Jim Crow Era -
Timeline - Jim Crow Museum - Ferris State University,” n.d.). By enacting racially charged
legislation, the government granted whites the ability to further oppress and discriminate blacks.
Lynch mobs were established to “control and confine nonwhites and African Americans in
particular,” according to Desmond and Emirbayer. Lynch mobs played an important role in
creating the black male stereotypes of “brute,” “criminal,” and “thug.” Members of these mobs –
white men – would apply their own definition of rape to black men, citing rape when an African
American refused to take their hat off in front of a white woman or appeared to be too “uppity.”
The lynch mob thrived on this misconstrued and fabricated fear that black men were “violent
lecherous predators.” This fear only escalated during reconstruction and is still perpetuated in
today’s society; to this day the perception of the “black male rapist” is still thriving among white
Throughout the course of U.S. history, racist institutional practices took a variety of
different shapes depending on the racial group the policy was targeting. Unlike the dehumanizing
and animalistic practices of slavery and Jim Crow laws, U.S. lawmakers took a different
ensure the assimilation of these people, education became the primary tool through which whites
could ensure Native Americans became “civilized.” American Indian children were forced from
their homes, families, and cultures, and sent to boarding schools run by Christian missionaries
and the federal government. Through this practice, Native American children were “thoroughly
indoctrinated into whiteness,” meaning their primary culture was stripped and replaced with the
Anglo-American way of life – white gender stereotypes and all (Desmond & Emirbayer, 2016).
The unfortunate reality is that a vast majority of American Indians and their culture were wiped
at the hands of whites during the early part of the United States’ youth. Regardless, the small
number of Native Americans that did survive and continued living were essentially forced to
assimilate to the dominant gender ideology established by whites in order to ensure their
livelihood.
Now that the conception of these various racial gender stereotypes has been discussed,
the next step in examining this topic is determining how big of an influence race has on gender
ideology. One way in which this influence can be measured is by analyzing gender identity
patterns in children. According to Corby, Hodges, and Perry, gender identity is made up of five
components, but one component, in particular, can be used to determine a child’s likelihood to
conform to the gender stereotypes associated with their races. This component is familial and
social pressure for gender conformity from parents, peers, or even the media (Corby, Hodges, &
Perry, 2007). The likelihood of a white, black, or Hispanic child to conform to the gender
stereotypes is important to recognize because it suggests that there might be stricter, less lenient
stereotypes which children are expected to adhere to depending on their race. Corby, Perry, and
Hodges conducted a study on whether there were racial differences in how much children
adjusted their gender identity toward the dominant ideology. They ultimately found that black
and Hispanic children “reported more pressure for gender conformity than white children did.
This relates to differences in gender stereotypes because it suggests that there are strict
disparities between male and female gender roles, particularly among people of color. The
conductors of this study admitted there were multiple forces at play and many reasons as to why
minority children tended to feel more pressure to conform. However, it was suggested that black
and Hispanic children might feel this pressure because the influence of concepts like the
patriarchy or subservience might be greater within certain racial groups, suggesting racially
The race-based gender stereotypes detailed above suggest a correlation between U.S.
history and its effect on the dominant gender ideology. What those examples fail to do, however,
is show how strong the correlation is. To truly understand the magnitude of these various gender
employment, for example. According to Kane, “gendered patterns of labor force experience vary
tremendously by class, but overall differences are evident by race/ethnicity as well.” Exemplified
by different employment experiences among females, Kane found three very distinct patterns for
white, African American, and Hispanic women respectively. White women historically have
“lower levels of labor force participation” and are typically more economically dependent;
African American women tend to be more independent financially, but have a harder time
finding full-time employment and “are much more likely to support families alone;” and
Hispanic women tend to be the most financially dependent on men and experience higher rates
These differences in employment patterns have pushed scholars towards the expectation
that people of color typically have “more traditional gender-related attitudes than do whites.”
This includes attitudes like male dominance among Hispanics or African Americans being less
concerned about gender inequality (Kane, 2000). Kane states that with the analysis of role-
related attitudes, “it becomes clear that there are consistent variations in… gender-related
attitudes.” This suggests that one’s race has great potential to influence their probability of
In a similar fashion, Kane found support for race-based gender stereotypes by exploring
racial patterns within family experiences. Patterns similar to those discovered in work experience
appeared in a familial context as well. Regardless of race, Kane found a “long tradition of male
dominance” within white, Hispanic, and African American families alike. The differences
between these races, however, arise from the severity of this tradition. Within African American
families, Kane suggests gender roles tend to take a more egalitarian form as a result of the lasting
legacy of slavery. This relates back to the idea that African Americans we treated equally as
slaves, regardless of their gender. In Hispanic households, this concept of machoism among
Hispanic men contributes to the reassertion of masculine power in a family setting. Some experts
have argued that the family is the site of gendered inequalities, enforcing and reinforcing these
roles of women and young girls. While the family has the capability to reinforce these roles,
Kane also mentions that the familial context can also be “a site of resistance to racial and ethnic
As previously stated, the variance in racial job experiences and familial patterns have
pushed some scholars towards the notion that “people of color hold more traditional gender-
related attitudes than do whites” (Kane, 2000). Simply put, there are differences in how certain
races view, internalize and adopt gender roles and gender-related attitudes. Unfortunately,
according to Kane, these variations – for the most part – take a speculative form. This is due to
the fact that racial variance within gender-related attitudes has yet to receive extensive attention
and study in academic research. Despite this lack of research, connections can still be made
between gender roles, differing racial attitudes towards the dominant gender ideology, and our
country’s oppressive history towards women as a whole. Whether examining social constructions
like gender, government, monogamy, or race, it is important to recall the various racist
institutional practices that have plagued the United States to see how they interact with all facets
of society. Though little research has been done surrounding gender roles and their variance
between races, the few studies highlighted in this essay shows a strong likelihood of race-based
gender roles being present in our society as seen through racial stereotypes and the likelihood of
Corby, B. C., Hodges, E. V. E., & Perry, D. G. (2007). Gender Identity and Adjustment in Black,
https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org.ezproxy.loras.edu/10.1037/0012-1649.43.1.261
Davis, S. N., & Greenstein, T. N. (2009). Gender Ideology: Components, Predictors, and
Desmond, M., & Emirbayer, M. (2016). Race in America. W. W. Norton & Company.
Jim Crow Era - Timeline - Jim Crow Museum - Ferris State University. (n.d.). Retrieved November
Kane, E. W. (2000). Racial and Ethnic Variations in Gender-Relation Attitudes. Annual Review of
O’Malley, M. (2004). Exploring U.S. History | women and equality. Retrieved October 29, 2018,
from http://chnm.gmu.edu/exploring/19thcentury/womenandequality/index.php
Phillips, S. P. (2005). Defining and measuring gender: A social determinant of health whose time has
Sesay Jr., C. (2016, December 7). The American Revolution, Race, and the Failed Beginning of a
revolution-race-and-the-failed-beginning-of-a-nation/