Social Psychology Gilovich

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1. 1) Social the scientific study of the feelings, thoughts and behaviors of individuals in different social contexts such as dyads,
Psychology groups and organizations
(chapter 1 intro
begins)
2. 2) Channel certain situational circumstances that appear unimportant on the surface but that can have great consequences for
Factors behavior, either facilitating or blocking it; or guiding behavior in a particular direction. Important to take into
account because individual differences weren't good predicting factors in many experiments
3. 3) Dispositions internal factors, such as beliefs, values, personality traits, or abilities that guide a person's behaviour.
4. 4) Construal interpretation and inference about the stimuli or situations we confront.
5. 5) Fundamental the failure to recognize the importance of situational influences on behaviour, together with the tendency to
Attribution overemphasize the importance of dispositions or traits on behaviour.
Error
6. 6) Gestalt based on the German word "Gestalt" meaning "form" or "figure". This approach stresses the fact that objects are
Psychology perceived not by means of some automatic registering device but by active, usually unconscious, interpretation of
what the object represents as a whole.
7. 7) Prisoner's a situation involving payoffs to two people in which trust and cooperation lead to higher joint payoffs than mistrust
dilemma and defection. The game gets its name from the dilemma that would confront two criminals who were involved in a
crime together and are being held and questioned separately. Each must decide whether to "cooperate" and stick
with a prearranged alibi or "defect" and confess to the crime in the hope of lenient treatment.
8. 8) Schemas: generalized knowledge about the physical and social world and how to behave in particular situations and with
different kinds of people.
9. a) Stereotypes: schemas that we have for people of various kinds that can be applied to judgments about people and decisions
about how to interact with them.
10. 9) Natural an evolutionary process that molds animals and plants such that traits that enhance the probability of survival and
Selection: reproduction are passed on to subsequent generations.
11. 10) Theory of the understanding that other people have beliefs and desires.
mind
12. 11) Parental the evolutionary principal that costs and benefits are associated with reproduction and the nurturing of offspring.
Investment Because these costs and benefits are different for males and females, one sex will normally value and invest more
in each child than will the other sex.
13. 12) Naturalistic the claim that the way things are is the way they should be.
Fallacy
14. 13) cultures in which people tend to think of themselves as distinct, social entities, tied to each other by voluntary
Independent bonds of affection and organizational memberships, but essentially separate from other people and having
(Individualistic) attributes that exist in the absence of any connection to others.
Cultures:
15. 14) cultures in which people tend to define themselves as part of a collective, inextricably tied to others in their group
Interdependent and having relatively little individual freedom or personal control over their lives but not necessarily wanting or
(Collectivistic) needing these things.
Cultures
16. Ratio Bias The tendency to estimate an event as more likely when its probability is presented as a ratio between large
numbers, and less likely when its probability is presented as a ratio between small numbers
17. The Milgram Experiment described as a "study of learning"
Experiment Participants instructed to shock another participant for any wrong answers
The other participant is a confederate who never receives any real shocks
Shock level increased for each wrong answer
Shock levels ranged from 15 volts (slight shock) to 450 volts (danger: severe shock)
During the experiment, the confederate begins to scream in pain and demand that the experiment end
Later, the confederate stops making any sounds, indicating he may be possibly injured or dead
The experimenter, wearing a white lab coat, instructs the participant to continue with the experiment
18. Milgram Study Despite potential harm to another person, 62.5 percent of participants completed the experiment
results Originally it was predicted that less than 1 percent of people would follow instructions until the end
Participants were of different ages and social classes
Same effects were found for women and men
Classic example of the power of the situation
Participants did not intend to harm another person, yet behaved in accord with the situation
19. culture and Despite many human universals, there is cultural variation in how universals are expressed. There are cultural
human behavior differences in self-definition
20. Independent Think of self as distinct social entity
(individualistic) Ties to others are voluntary
cultures View personal attributes as constant
21. Interdependent Think of self as part of a collective
(collectivistic) Interconnected to others, with little emphasis on individual freedom or choices
cultures
22. Where Individualism is more common in Western cultures
individualism is Europe, United States, Canada, and Australia
more prevalent Believe important attributes linked to the self
Value individual distinction
23. where Collectivism is more common in non-Western cultures
collectivism is East Asia (China, Japan, Korea), South Asia (India, Malaysia), Latin America, and Africa
more prevalent Believe important attributes linked to relationships with others and group membership
Self viewed as overlapping with close others
24. Experiment: Hypothesis: A major cause of offering to help another person is whether one is in a hurry
The power of Research method: participants were chosen who were expected to be helpful (seminary students). Primed to think
the situation about helping by being asked to prepare a talk on the good samaritan. Some participants were told they had to
and helping rush, other condition told they had plenty of time. Participants passed a victim in obvious need of help. Only 10%
in hurry helped, 60% not in a hurry helped.
Conclusion: the mundane fact of being in a hurry is such a powerful situational factor that is overrides people's
good intentions. (example of channel factor)
25. Construal and when called the game "wall street game", the majority played competitively, and when called "community game"
the prisoner's most played cooperatively. Didn't matter if had been identified as a competitive or cooperative person
dilemma
26. Automatic vs. People's construals of situations are often largely automatic and unconscious
Controlled
Processing
27. Automatic and based on emotional factors, faster
unconscious
processing
28. skill acquisition how we can carry out procedures without our awareness, automatic processing
29. mental how we can form beliefs without even being aware, freud, that's why social psychologists can't just ask people why
processing they did things need to observe them to uncover the real meaning
30. Conscious and controlled by careful thought, much slower
systematic
processing
31. mentioning words causes people to walk more slowly without them realizing it
about elderly
32. Hindsight Bias Tendency to be overconfident about one's ability to have predicted a given outcome after already knowing the
(chap 2 begins the outcome.
methods of social The feeling that "I knew it all the time."
psychology) Moreover, people overestimate what they themselves and others actually did know in foresight at particular
situation.
33. Hindsight Bias Participants were asked to estimate the probability of various possible outcome of on Nixon's trip to China
Experiment (1972).
2 to 6 weeks after the visit same subjects asked to recall the probabilities of the original predictions. Results
showed that participants remembered having given higher probabilities than they actually had to occurred
events.
34. empirical results The main tool in Social Psychology is empirical research
For instance, research on romantic attraction indicates successful couples are more typically more similar than
different (that is, birds of a feather do flock together)
The feeling that you "already knew" the results of a social psychology experiment research are unjustified
35. What social Social psychology can explain many behaviors that may seem surprising
psychology Social psychology can reveal many ways in which our perceptions are often inaccurate or mistaken (our blind
teaches us spots)
Social psychology shows that much of our behavior is influenced by factors of which we are often unaware
(e.g., the power of situation).
36. observational Involves observing participants in social situations.
research Attempts to systematically observe behaviors.
Behaviors may be recorded and categorized.
May involve additional measures like interviews and questionnaires
37. Brickman studies people who won the lottery, paraplegics, people who didnt experience extreme life events. The lottery winners
life satisfaction in in the short term had extreme happiness and paraplegics had extreme despair, but in long term there was no
three groups large difference between the groups in life satisfaction
38. correlational Research that examines the relationship between variables without assigning participants to different situations
research or conditions
The Experimenter measure the dependent variables (E.g., Level of Sport activity, degree of smoking).
Enable us to point out on specific relationships but we cannot make inferences about causes of behavior
39. correlation does Correlation determines that two things are related but not that one variable causes changes in the other,
not equal because of the lack of manipulation. Helpful in alerting us to various possibilities for causal hypotheses about
cuasation the nature of the world but they don't tell us about the direction of causality
40. external variables A correlation between two variables may actually be caused by a third variable
may explain For example -
correlations Need for achievement can predict both education and income but cannot predict IQ.
41. self-selection Researchers have no control over characteristics, choices, and behaviors of the participants
The participants, not the researchers, determine the levels of the variable being studied (Smokers vs. Non
smokers). Problem that arises when the participant, rather than the investigator, selects his/her level on each
variable, bringing with this value unknown other properties that make causal interpretation of a relationship
difficult. Problem in correlational research
42. experimental Research that involves assigning participants to different situations or conditions.
research Participants should be randomly assigned to different conditions
Experiments allow for causal inferences about how different conditions influence behavior
43. benefits of Conditions are controlled or manipulated by the researcher
experiments Behaviors are systematically measured
Comparisons of how different manipulations affect behavior allow researchers to determine causal influences of
behavior
44. experimental Independent variable=The variable that is manipulated by the researcher
methods The independent variable is hypothesized to cause changes in the dependent variables
Dependent variable=The variable that is measured
Often a change in behavior, feelings, or evaluation
Control condition=A condition identical to the experimental condition but absent from the independent variable
45. random Random assignment to condition ensures that individual differences are evenly distributed across conditions. Can infer
assignment that differences between experimental and control groups are due to the experimental manipulation and not to
differences between the types of people that were in each condition
46. basic Concerned with trying to gain knowledge in its own right. Aim is to gain greater understanding of a phenomenon
research
47. applied Concerned with using current understanding of a phenomenon in order to solve a real-world problem
research
48. participant to observe at close range.
observations Social psychologists observe social situations in a semi formal way /taking notes and interviewing participants) but
they typically design additional research to verify the impressions they get from participant observation.
49. archival refers to the method of research that looks for evidence tat is found in archives of various kinds.
research
50. surveys most common type of study in social psychology uses this method, either by interviewing or asking to fill out a
questionnaire.
•important to be RANDOM SAMPLE
• A haphazard sample (i.e getting people to be part of the survey by asking people as they are coming in/out from
the library) runs the risk of being biased in some way- including too many of one kind of person and too few of
another kind
•The number of people needed to get a reasonably accurate result on some question is essentially independent of the
size of the population in question
51. longitudinal a study conducted over a long period of time, which is periodically assessed regarding a particular behavior.
study
52. natural naturally occurring events or phenomena having somewhat different conditions that can be compared with almost as
experiments much rigor as in experiments where the investigator manipulates the condition
53. external There are weaknesses in experimental studies as well- sometimes experiments are a bit sterile and so removed from
validity in everyday life that it can be hard to know how to interpret them (poor in external validity).
experiments When the purpose of the research is to generalize the results of an experiment directly to the outside world external
validity is crucial.
When the purpose of the experiment is to clarify a general idea/theory external validity is unimportant.
54. external an experimental setup that closely resembles real-life situations so that results can safely be generalized to such
validity situations
•I.e Milgram experiment- most of us will probably never be put in a similar situation
•Poor external validity isn't always fatal, sometimes experimenters strip down situations to its bare essentials on
purpose as a way to make a theoretical point, that would be hard to make with real-world materials.
55. field one of the best ways to ensure external validity, an experiment set up in the real world (that resembles a laboratory
experiment experiment), usually with participants who aren't aware that they are participating in a study of any kind.
56. internal in experimental research, confidence that its the manipulation variable ONLY that could have produced the results.
validity •The experimental situation is held constant in all other respects, and participants in the various experimental
conditions don't differ on average in any respect before they come to the laboratory
•Requires that the experimental setup seem realistic and plausible to participants.
57. debriefing in preliminary versions of an experiment, asking participants straightforwardly if they understood the
instructions, found the setup to be reasonable, and so forth. In later versions, debriefings are used to educate
participants about questions being studied.
•Pilot studies (preliminary) often provide useful information about the experiment design
•Debriefing participants is also routine for the purpose of education.
-help ensure they pass the various criteria of internal validity
58. reliability the degree to which the particular way we measure a given variable is likely to yield consistent results.
•Typically measured by correlations between 0 and 1
Measurement validity- the correlation between some measure and some outcome that the measure is
supposed to predict
-help ensure they pass the various criteria of internal validity
59. statistical a measure of the probability that a given result could have occurred by chance
significance When we have an empirical result such as the finding that there is a correlation between 2 variables or the
finding that some independent variable affects a different variable in an experiment we can test the statistical
significance.
A finding has statistical significance if the probability of obtaining the finding by chance is less than some
quantity (usually 1 in 20 or .05)
60. Statistical •The size of the differences between groups in and experiment or the size of a relationship between variables
significance is in a correlational study
primarily due to •The number of cases the findings is based on
→ The bigger the difference or relationship and the larger the number of cases, the greater the statistical
significance
61. Institutional Review a university committee that examines research proposals and makes judgments about the ethical
Board (IRB)- ethical appropriateness of research.
concerns •Research conducted in universities HAS TO go through the IRB
•If some aspect of the procedure is deemed overly harmful, that procedure MUST be changed before the
study can be approved
62. informed consent participants willingness to participate in a procedure or research study after learning all relevant aspects
about the procedure/study.
•Practiced followed for most psychological research as well
63. deception research research in which the participants are misled about the purpose of the research or the meaning of something
that is done to them
•Impossible to get informed consent
•So exceptions are made for this kind of research and if there is a good reason to deceive participant it will
generally be allowed by IRB's
64. Experiment about Hypothesis: members of a culture of honor, u.s. southerners, will respond with more anger and aggression
honor differences in than northerners
the U.S. Research method: participants were asked to fill out a questionnaire and take it down a long narrow hallway
When the participant passed a student he would yell *******.
Results: Southerners responded with more facial and bodily expressions of anger when insulted than
northerner's and their testosterone levels increased.
Conclusion: Southerners are more biologically prepared for aggression.
65. Chapter 3 The Social Self
66. three principles of 1.social situations have a very strong impact on behavior.
social psychology 2.if a situation is perceived as real, it is likely to have real consequences.
3.people wish to justify their actions and preserve or increase their sense of positive self worth.
67. the self concept The sum of our beliefs about ourselves.
68. sources of self -Introspection
knowledge -Self perception about behavior
-Influence of others
-Autobiographical memories
-culture
69. biological disposition in Five-factor model of personality
personality development Five traits that are basic building blocks of personality
Openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism
Traits are highly heritable and are linked to specific biological processes
70. family influence and sibling -Diversification-Siblings may take on different roles in the family to minimize conflicts
dynamic on personality -Birth order may influence personality traits-Older siblings are often more responsible and
development supportive of the status quo (e.g., Leaders), younger siblings are often more rebellious and open to
new experiences (e.g., creative artists).
71. heritable traits run in Big Five personality traits are highly heritable
families
72. Genetic heritability can be Identical twin are 100 percent genetically identical
determined from twin Monozygotic: from one zygote
studies Dizygotic: from two zygotes
Therefore, the influence of genetic factors on personality traits can be estimated by examining the
differences between identical and fraternal twins
73. Fraternal twins are 50 Dizygotic: from two zygotes
percent genetically Fraternal twins are as genetically similar as any other two siblings (50 percent genetically identical
identical on average), but share a more similar environment because they are born at same time
74. identical twins monozygotic twins resembles each other more in their extraversion and neuroticism than do
dizygotic twins, who only share half their genes
75. independent view of self Self seen as a distinct, autonomous entity, separate from others and defined by individual traits and
preferences
76. interdependent view of self Self seen as connected to others, defined by social duties and shared traits and preferences
77. gender and the self -Across cultures, men generally have more independent, and women have more interdependent,
views of self
-Women likely to refer to relationships when describing self
-Women more attuned to external social cues whereas as men more attuned to their internal
responses
78. why differences between -Differences may be due to socialization
cultures -Cultural stereotypes, parental feedback, educational treatment
-Evolution may contribute to gender differences
-Independent views of self may advantage males in acts like physical competition and hunting
-Interdependent views of self may advantage females in acts related to maintaining social bonds and
care giving
79. situationism and the self Aspects of the self may change depending on the situation
80. social context Sense of self may shift dramatically depending on whom we are interacting with
For instance, may feel different about the self when interacting with authority figures than when
interacting with subordinates
81. distinctiveness hypothesis We identify what make us unique in each particular context, and we highlight that in our self definition
For instance, age may seem more important to self-definition if you are surrounded by much older
people
-American children define themselves according to how they are unique and different from their
classmates
82. social comparison theory -The hypothesis that we evaluate ourselves through comparisons to others
-Downward social comparisons may boost self-esteem by making us feel better about the self
-Upward social comparisons may motivate self-improvement
83. In World War II African-American soldiers stationed in Southern In the south--Compared with local non-enlisted African-
United States exhibited higher morale than those stationed in Americans, whose situation was worse than that of the
Northern states. recruits.
In the North-->Compared with local non-enlisted African-
Americans, whose situation was better than that of the
recruits.
84. olympic gold medalists comparing themselves experiment H: people's emotional responses to events are influenced
about their thoughts of what would have been.
RM: videotaping olympic medalists and had people judge
how happy they looked
R: they found the bronze (3rd place winners) looked much
happier in comparison to the silver, second place winner
c:the silver is just thinking how they are not gold and the
bronze is just happy to have gotten an award.
85. Better-than-average effect Most Westerners tend to have a positive view of the self
Tend to rate the self as better than average on most traits
Weight abilities we excel at as more valuable
86. influence of others Knowledge about the self helps organize how we behave
in different situations and with different people
87. Social self-beliefs Beliefs about the roles and duties we assume in different
groups
88. Relational self-beliefs Beliefs about our identities in specific relationships
For instance, who you are as a son/daughter feels
different than who you are as a boyfriend/girlfriend
89. collective self-beliefs Beliefs about our identity as members of important social
categories
Examples could be identity based on citizenship, ethnicity,
gender, profession, and so on
90. self-reference effect The tendency to elaborate on and recall information that
is integrated into our self -knowledge
For instance, better memory for a list of adjectives if
considering whether the adjectives apply to the self
91. Self-image bias Tendency to judge other people's personalities according
to their similarity or dissimilarity to our own personality.
For instance, If you view yourself as intelligent you may
judge others strongly by how intelligent you perceive
them to be
92. self-discrepancy theory, higgins Behavior is motivated by cultural and personal moral
standards
Individuals want to resolve discrepancies of who they
are with who they want to be or ought to be
93. actual self the person we believe ourselves to be
94. self guides Ideal self: the person we wish we could be
Ought self: the person we feel should be
95. discrepancy between ideal and actual self self causes feelings of depression, disappointment, shame
and sadness.
96. discrepancy between actual and ought self causes feelings of anxiety.
97. promotion focus Focus on positive outcomes and moving toward
becoming our ideal self
98. prevention focus Focus on negative outcomes and attempt to avoid not living up to our ought self
99. self-esteem Overall positive or negative evaluation we have of ourselves
100. trait self-esteem Enduring level of regard we have for ourselves
Fairly stable across time
101. state self-esteem Dynamic and changeable feelings about the self felt at different moments in time
102. positive illusions - better than average effect
-Research suggests that most well-adjusted people may have slightly unrealistic
views about themselves -
103. overweighing positive views of the self a common positive illusion, Believe positive traits are more true of the self than
negative traits
Believe positive traits are unique but negative traits are common
Our memory is selective....
104. distortions in memory of grades compared people's grade letter A, B, C, D to their actual grade and found that the
lower letter grades had more distortions in their memory of grades and not accurate
recall
105. Exaggerated perceptions of control a common positive illusion, Believe we have more control over events than we do
(Langer, 1975)
-like when trying to roll small number roll dice in smaller range of motion, as if it
matters
106. self control and ego depletion Regulating behavior requires mental energy, but mental resources are limited
107. Ego depletion State where previous acts of self-control drains ability to control future behavior
For instance, participants who controlled behavior by eating healthy fruits instead of
delicious cookies gave up faster when they had to solve a puzzle later - Lemonade
experiment
108. unrealistic optimism a common positive illusion, Believe positive events are more likely to happen to
oneself than to other people
"It will not happened to me"
"I am not part of the normal distribution"
109. Overconfidence in our knowledge People believe that they know more than they actually know. In other words, "those
who know more don't know more about how much they know."
110. Positive illusions about the self are more Members of collectivistic cultures are less likely to report enhanced feelings of
common in individualistic cultures control, less likely to rate themselves as better than average, and less likely to be
unrealistically optimistic
111. Individualistic cultures place greater value Positive illusions promote feelings that the self is unique, independent, and good
on positive views of the self than
collectivistic cultures Importantly, not all illusions about the self are positive....same processes may lead
also to negative consequences --
112. Self perception of attitudes: inference from -Participants were asked to write down things the like about their relationship with
the difficulty of retrieval (experiment ) their partner.
-Some participants were asked to write down 2 things they like about the
relationship, and others were asked to write down 10 things they like about it.
-Two other experimental groups listed 2 things or 10 things they disliked about the
relationship with their partner.
-Pretest shows it is easy to produce 2 examples of things we like or dislike, but it
is difficult to produce 10 examples.
-Satisfaction of the relationship was assessed.
113. results of above experiment -Participants who are asked to write down 10 things list more but experience more
difficulty in retrieving items than participants who list two things.
-They infer "if it is so difficult for me to recall good/bad things then there probably
aren't that many good/bad things, therefore the relationship isn't that good/bad.
114. Self-evaluation People are motivated to maintain positive self-esteem
maintenance Positive self-evaluations maintained through reflection and strategic social comparisons
model
115. basking in Enhancing self-esteem by identifying or claiming affiliation with a successful group.
reflected glory Students were more likely to wear their university affiliated apparel after a victorious football weekend and
more likely to use the pronoun "we" after a successful athletic weekend than if their team had lost
116. Motivations for Prefer friends who don't outshine us in domains contingent to our self-worth
friendships Having friends who excel in other domains can boost self-esteem by allowing us to bask in their reflected
glory
117. Self-verification Verifying information
theory May maintain consistent view of the self by selectively paying attention to information consistent with self-view
May associate with people who provide preferred feedback about the self
Use identity cues to display our self-view to others
118. Impression Attempts to control how other people will view us
management For instance, by managing how you dress, behave in public, whom you associate with, what you reveal about
yourself to others
When interacting with others, we present a public face that we want others to believe
119. Self monitoring The theory refers to the process through which people regulate their own behavior in order to "look good" so
that they will be perceived by others in a favorable manner
120. High self- monitor their behavior to fit different situations, adjusts behavior to situation, attempt to control the beliefs
monitoring other people have of them (manage impression)
121. Low self- More cross-situationally consistent (behave according to their inner feelings, opinions or moods)
monitoring
122. Self Handicapping If we (a) are unsure of our success on a task we value and (b) feel we should do well, we may claim or create
a handicap to our own performance.
We do this in order to (a) build an advance excuse for possible future failure that might otherwise damage our
self-esteem and/or (b) be able to claim additional credit should we nevertheless succeed.
123. Forms of self- Unattainable goals
handicapping Not practicing/ studying
Taking drugs and alcohol
Stress, report of symptoms of physical illness
Lowering expectations
Damaging performance
Predicting failure
124. Multi-Dimensional In contrast to the view of the self as a fixed element of our personality (stable, changes slowly) - there are
Self different types of "selves", which can be influenced, and change from one situation to the other.
125. Chapter 4 Understanding others
126. attribution theory General term for theories about how people explain the causes of events they observe
Cause - Effect relationship
Often make immediate inferences about other people based on their physical appearance
Which in turn influences our behavior towards other people
127. Snap judgments Attributions are often made very quickly based on limited information
Snap judgments can
be accurate, but most accurately
predict what other people will think
most accurate when judging how attractive, likeable, trustworthy a person is
128. causal -Explanation for the cause of your or another person's behavior
attribution -Internal attribution-Behavior is explained by aspects of the person - personality, intentions (e.g., confused )
-External attribution-Behavior is explained by aspects of the situation - contextual factors, (e.g., traffic Jam)
-The type of attribution made will influence how you respond to the situation
-For instance, if your friend cancels plans to get together with you, thinking your friend must not be feeling well
feels better than thinking your friend doesn't like hanging out with you
129. Fundamental Tendency to believe that a behavior is due to a person's traits or disposition despite the situational causes present
attribution error The tendency to underestimate the role of external factors, and
(FAE) overweigh the contribution of internal factors in making attributions
For instance, inferences may be made about someone's true personality even when we are aware that their
behavior resulted from an assigned role
130. fundamental half of the participants read a pro-castro essay and the other an anti-castro essay, even though some people were
attribution error assigned a certain topic and others wrote about their actual beliefs, the people reading the essays rated the
study authors attitude based on the stance they took even when they were told that the stance was assigned, meaning
they had no choice about which one to write about
131. the perceiver a questioner and a responder were assigned questions and answers to read. One set of answer assigned was
induced selfish and the other one was altruistic. Even though, questioner knew that the answers were scripted they still
constraint judged the people who read altruistic answers as being more altruistic
paradigm
experiment
132. Perceived Often attribute things to what appears to be most obvious cause
salience Fundamental attribution errors may occur because people are often more salient than the surrounding context
(reason for
FAE)
133. Motivation to Motivated to believe that people get what they deserve in life
believe in a just Good things happen to good people, bad things to bad people
world, reason Fundamental attribution errors may be reassuring because we feel less vulnerable to external factors influencing
for FAE our life outcomes
134. Automatic and Dispositional attributions are often made automatically (system 1)
controlled
cognitive Situational attributions require more cognitive thought after weighing information about the context (system 2)
processing
135. What is the (A)In theory, we should simultaneously weigh both the person's behavior and the surrounding context to arrive at
process of an explanation of a behavior. (B) In actuality, we first automatically characterize the person in terms of the
infering behavior and then sometimes make an effortful adjustment for the context to arrive at an explanation of the
dispositions? behavior.
136. experiment that when asked why am I here studying psychology students focused on aspects of the major for their own choice,
demonstartes but on personality characteristics for their friend's choice
actor- observer
differences
137. experiment a person in class was given time to come up with general knowledge questions and then asks a random person in
about rating class. She is coming up with the questions and has time to think about them from her general knowledge doesn't
general mean she has more than the person answering the questions but class and the contestant end up rating the person
knowledge who asked the questions as having much more general knowledge
138. Actor-Observer Attributions may differ between the person engaging in a behavior and a person observing the behavior
Differences The actor is disposed to explain behavior as due to the situation
The observer is disposed to explain behavior as due to dispositional qualities of the actor
For instance, when explaining the choice of major for themselves and their friends, students focused on aspects of
the major for their own choice, but on personality characteristics for their friend's choice
139. Causes of Perceptual salience-As actors, the situation is salient; as observers, the person is salient
actor-observer May ignore the influence of dispositions when explaining our own behaviors
differences Lack of information about the intentions and past behaviors of the actor
140. Culture and Context Collectivistic cultures may be more attuned to contextual factors
Emotional context
When judging the facial expression of an individual, collectivists were more influenced by
facial expressions of other people in the scene
141. Rod and Frame Test Individualists perform better at making absolute judgments, but collectivists perform better
at making relative judgments
Relative judgments require paying attention to the length of a line in context with the frame
that surrounds it
142. The fundamental attribution error is Individualists more likely to attribute behaviors to dispositions
less prevalent in collectivistic Collectivists more likely to attribute behaviors to the situation
cultures Coaches in the United States were more likely to attribute wins to abilities of the players
whereas coaches in China were more likely refer to difficulties experienced by the other
team
143. Differences in attribution made even In one study, participants were shown an animation of a single fish swimming away from a
for non-human targets larger group of fish
when looking at the same picture American participants were more likely to attribute behavior to individual choices of the
judged it differently fish, and Chinese participants, to the actions of the group
144. Priming Culture For people who are connected to both independent and interdependent cultures, attribution
styles may change depending on the cultural context
Evidence from Hong Kong
Hong Kong is heavily influenced by both China and Western countries like the United
States and the United Kingdom
145. hong kong Residents of Hong Kong can switch between independent and interdependent attributions
styles
Made more dispositional attributions after being primed with images related to Western
culture
Made more situational attributions after being primed with images related to Chinese
culture
146. self-serving biases Tendency to attribute failures to external causes and success to internal causes
For instance, athletes may attribute losses to bad referees but victories to talent and hard
work
Self-serving biases can boost and maintain positive self-esteem
147. explanatory style A person's habitual way of explaining events
148. explanatory dimensions internal vs. external, Stable vs. instable, global vs. specific
149. Internal versus external Degree that cause is linked to the self or to the external situation
150. Stable versus instable Degree that the cause is seen as fixed or as something that is temporary
151. global vs. specific Degree that the cause is seen as affecting other domains in life or is restricted to affecting
one specific domain
152. Pessimistic attribution style Internal, stable, global attributions habitually made for negative events
"It's my fault," "I'm never going to be able to," "I am no good at anything."
Pessimistic attribution styles predict lower grades and poorer physical health later in life
153. does explanatory style early in life Later in life it does by the time reach 55 you are much less healthy and they found that it is
predict later physical health? a significant predictor, positive outlook means you are more likely to take care of yourself
154. gender differences in attribution Boys more likely to attribute failures to external causes
Girls more likely to attribute failure to internal causes
155. Differences may be due to -Study found that teachers gave negative feedback related to intellectual ability to girls
elementary school socialization and negative feedback related to nonintellectual aspects of behavior to boys
-Boys may be inadvertently taught that failures are due to lack of effort while girls may
learn that failures are due to ability
156. Covariation Behavioral attributions are made by weighing information about the potential causes of the behavior
principle -consensus, distinctiveness, consistency
157. Consensus What would most people do in the given situation
158. distinctiveness Whether an individual's behavior is unique to a given situation or whether that person would behave the same
way in a different situation
159. consistency Whether an individual acts the same way in similar situations
160. External For instance, a person yelling loudly during a football game
attributions Since most people would (high consensus)
likely if If the person doesn't yell in other situations (high distinctiveness)
consensus, The person yells throughout the game or during other football games (high consistency)
distinctiveness, Assume the person's behavior is a product of the situation—External attribution
and consistency
are high
161. Internal For instance, a person laughing at a funeral
attributions Since most people wouldn't (low consensus)
likely when If the person laughed in other honorable situations (low distinctiveness)
consensus and The person continued to laugh throughout the funeral or at other funerals (high consistency)
distinctiveness Assume there is something unusual about the person --internal attribution
are low but
consistency is
high
162. Discounting and Discounting: the existence of any additional reason that could account for
augmenting the effect reduces the likelihood of any given reason
principles Augmenting: the existence of reasons that could have prevented the
effect increase the likelihood of the cause that could produce it.
e.g.,
Salesperson: "it looks fantastic on you"--Cause A: looks good, Cause B: she gets percentage on sales
Discounting the likelihood of cause A
163. Counterfactual Thoughts of what might have been, could have been, or should have been "if only" something had been done
thinking differently
Causal attributions can be formed by comparing real outcomes to imagined alternatives
164. Emotional Emotional reactions to counterfactual thoughts increase depending on how easy it is to imagine the alternative
amplification May feel more personally responsible for failure depending on how easy it is to imagine the alternative
165. Counterfactual Although it seems counterintuitive, bronze medalists are often more satisfied with their accomplishment than
thinking at the silver medalists
Olympics Silver medalists may imagine a gold medal as the alternative
Bronze medalists may imagine receive no medal as the alternative
166. sensitivity to participants are shown a target stimulus and after a brief period of time they are asked to draw a vertical line in
context and an empty box. In the relative task the line must be drawn in the same proportion to the original box and in the
framed line task absolute task the line must be the same exact length as the original line even though the boxes are different
sizes. Japanese are better at relative task and americans are better at absolute task.
167. adjusting participants had to watch a viedo-tape of an anxious woman. Half told she was answering anxiety-inducing
automatic questions and the other half was told she was answering normal questions about what kind of books she likes.
characterizations Hypothesis-all participants would automatically assume she is an anxious person, but the innocuous anxiety-
experiment inducing condition would then deliberately adjust their initial characterization. However, another condition was
added that half the participants were kept busy by being told to memorize words. Gilbert predicted that the extra
demand on their attention would prevent them from deliberately changing their initial attribution.
168. Study- tutoring after an initial round of tutoring the student is assessed. If the student performs well then the tutors made an
student that has internal attribution for their improvement, but if they did poorly then they blame the student, external attribution,
difficulty with instead of themselves. But this may be rational if the teacher tried many different study tactics
material
169. Study interview, Participants witnessed a person either act extroverted or introverted in an interview, half told he was
discounting and interviewing to be a submariner (position better for extroverts) and the other told astronaut (more
augmentation introvert job). When they rated the people, they rated the out-of-role person more extremely than the
person who fit the role (an introvert for an introvert job they rated less as an introvert than an introvert
for an extrovert job). In role behavior they rated more mildly
170. Chapter 5 Social Judgment
171. social judgement Research on social judgments examines how people make decisions, interpret past events, understand
important to study current events, and make predictions for future events
The social judgments made will ultimately influence behaviors
-often are inaccurate and lead to biases
172. reality vs. perceived in the song the child's intuition is that more is better than less, so he replaces the dollar for two quarters
reality but in reality he made a mistake but he didnt know. The father knows he made this mistake
173. two models in decision normative and descriptive
making
174. normative model have a formal and organized theoretical framework that suggests the optimal (correct) answer for
specific problem.
175. Descriptive model describe how people actually solve specific problems and what intuitions guide their behavior.
176. firsthand information Information based on personal experience or observation
177. secondhand information Information that comes from other sources, like gossip, news accounts, books, magazines, the Internet,
and so on
178. Personal experiences -There can be biases, for instance, making judgments about what a country is like from having visited
may be unrepresentative only a few people and places
-People assume that even small sample is representative...
179. in a study they asked demonstration of Pluralistic Ignorance: (A) University students believe that drinking alcohol is more
students how popular among their peers than it really is. Because of this belief, they censor their own reservations
comfortable they are about drinking, thus furthering the illusion that alcohol is so popular. (B) Princeton University students'
drinking alcohol, their ratings of their own and other students' comfort with campus drinking habits at Princeton.
friends, and the average
student
180. pluralistic ignorance a situation where a majority of group members privately reject a norm, but assume (incorrectly) that
most others accept it..."the situation where 'no one believes, but everyone thinks that everyone believes.'".
181. examples of pluralistic -Difficult topics in class-No one asks questions because everyone else is pretending they understand
ignorance -Popularity of drinking in colleges and universities-Students believe drinking is more popular than it is
-Reluctance to communicate with new social groups
Contact between two groups may be avoided because each group fears being rejected by the other
182. memory biases Memory is not a passive recorder
Memories are actively constructed-they can change over time, and are influenced by outside forces
Memory is biased by inference and expectation
183. flashbulb memories Very vivid memories of important events show frequent errors
-your amygdala is activated because it was an emotional experience
184. flase memory convinced students that pluto licked their ears when they visited disney land even though he never did
experience
185. primacy effects When information presented first in a list has disproportionate influence on subsequent judgments
186. recency effects When information presented last in a list has disproportionate influence on subsequent judgments
187. asch experiment on he asked participants to rate a person's character. In one condition he listed the more negative traits first
primacy effect and in the second condition he listed the more positve characteristics first. They were the same list but
the people in the second condition rated the person more favorably
188. reasons for order Cognitive limitations
effects (framing Easier to pay attention to first and last items
effects) Items presented first influence construal of later items
May not remember items inconsistent with initial expectations
In surveys about life satisfaction and romantic life satisfaction, stronger correlations if questions about
romantic life are asked first (framing effect)
189. positive and Negative information draws more attention than positive information
negative framing Information framed in negative ways will elicit stronger responses
In decision making, a loss is more aversive than a missed opportunity=Loss aversion
190. house money when get money from casino, you don't feel like it is your money so you are more likely to risk it
effect
191. break-even effect people at the last part of gambling are more likely to try to pay back their losses and break even so they take
more risks
192. confirmation bias The tendency to test an idea by searching for evidence that would support it
Can lead to false beliefs because people may fail to attend to disconfirming information
193. knowledge vs. your knowledge remains stable over time but your confidence level increases?
confidence level
(going to ask on
final)
194. dual modes of system 1-(automatic controlled processing)Rapid responses based on associations that come automatically to
information mind
processing Intuitive information processing can be done in parallel
Many things can be intuitively processed at the same time
Rational- System 2
Slower responses based on controlled, rule-based reasoning
Rational information processing must be done serially
Based on cognitive operations that must analyzed one at a time
195. assessing People need to make decisions constantly, such as risk perception, financial investments, insurance and etc...
probabilities People employ several rules of thumb to assess probabilities -- Heuristics
These heuristics are fast and frugal, helping us to achieve "good enough" accuracy using limited resources.
However, under certain conditions these heuristics lead to significant biases in a consistent fashion.
196. representativeness a heuristic, reasoning the more object X is similar to Y, the more likely we think X belongs to Y group
heuristic -The problem is that similarity is not always in line with the probability rules.
197. availability heuristic, The easier it is to consider instances of class Y, the more frequent we think it is
like if jumps into our mind right away
198. Base-rate Information about the relative frequency of events
information E.g., Base-rate neglect occurs when judging a likely choice of profession from individual personality traits
-we make errors when we don't attend to these
199. example of participants were asked to rate academic disciplines either in terms of likelihood that Tom W. chose that
demonstrating graduate field, the perceived similarity between the description of Tom W. and the prototypical student in that
heuristics field, or the number of graduate students enrolled in each field. The ratings of likelihood and how similar Tom
is to that field were almost identical. Failed to take into account base-rate info, like how popular is that major
200. insensitivity to -According to the "law of large numbers" the size of a sample should greatly affect the likelihood of obtaining
sample size the same results in the population.
People, however, ignore sample size
-People believe that even small samples are highly representative of the populations from which they are
drawn .
201. misconception of People expect random sequences to be "representatively random" even locally
chance E.g., they consider a coin-toss run of HTHTTH to be more likely than HHHTTT or HHHHTH
even though the odds are the same, it stays 50/50 everytime
202. the gambler's fallacy After a run of reds in a roulette, black will make the overall run more representative (chance as
a self-correcting process??)
203. example of availability heurisitc: Classes whose instances are more easily retrievable will seem larger
ease of retrievability For example, which is more prevalent: words that start with r or words with r as the 3rd letter?

Salience affects retrievability

E.g., watching a car accident increases subjective assessment of traffic accidents
204. Biased estimates of contributions Easier to think of examples of what we did to contribute- they found it is not only with positive
to joint projects (problem with things but negative things also, like you will be more likely to say that you instigate arguments
availability) more than your husband
205. Biased risk assessments May overestimate frequency of dramatic events
(availability bias) Risks of dying from catastrophic events are overestimated
206. fluency (availability problem) The feeling of ease associated with processing information
Some stimuli are easier to process than others
For instance, unfamiliar or irregular words are harder to process than simple and familiar words
207. planning fallacy Tendency to be unrealistically optimistic about the time needed to complete a task
208. Errors with the Failing to take broader or outside perspective on the judgment
representativeness heuristic Planning fallacy results from failing to take outside perspective
result from "inside" thinking Focus is on steps needed to complete the project at hand and may fail to consider how long
similar projects have taken in the past
209. Illusory correlation -The belief that two variables are correlated when in fact they are not
-Joint operation of the representativeness and availability heuristics
-Representative examples are better remembered and come to mind more easily
-Easier to remember "hits" than "misses"
-Overestimate frequency of representative examples
210. examples of illusory correlations Use of projective tests to make psychological diagnoses
Expectation that paranoids would draw people with unusually large (or small) eyes in the
Draw-a-Person Test
Study found that perceived connections between clinical diagnoses and the Draw-a-Person
Test may be illusory
211. summary heuristics All heuristics are quite effective, usually, but lead to predictable, systematic errors and biases
Understanding biases may-
Teach us about the underlying cognitive mechanism
Help us to find debiasing technique
212. bottom-up Data-driven information processing: judgments are made by taking in information piece by
piece
213. top-down Information processing guided by prior knowledge: information is filtered and interpreted by
expectations
214. knowledge structures Coherent clusters of information organized and stored together mentally
215. Schema A knowledge structure consisting of any organized body of stored information
216. schemas guide attention -Attention is selective
-May pay attention only to things we expect to see
Gorilla costume study
Give more attention to familiar schemas
Cause-->Effect
Schemas influence memory -- may influence how information is encoded into memory and how
it's retrieved from memory
217. priming Schemas that were recently activated or partly activated can influence judgments
For instance, playing an ultimatum game in a room with cues of the business world led to more competitive
behavior
Schemas can influence judgments even when the schema activation occurs outside our conscious awareness -
subliminal priming
218. biases in info a) Sharpening: emphasizing important or more interesting elements in telling a story to someone else.
presented b) Leveling: eliminating or deemphasizing seemingly less important details when telling a story to someone else.
secondhand -led people who hear a story secondhand to make even more extreme judgements
219. subliminal below the threshold of awareness
220. recovered can't say if they are real or not, just because there is evidence for one repressed memory doesn't give proof for
memories others
221. study testing asked students to fill out questionnaire about their attitude toward busing to achieve racial integration. Then two
people's weeks later participated in a discussion group either all opposed or for busing. There was a confederate in each
accuracy of group to change people's opinion with good arguments. He did then they filled out a questionnaire again and not
memory only did their attitudes change but when asked to recall their original attitudes they distorted them to fit their new
attitude
222. self-help aren't proven to be effective yet people who go claim to be satisfied. They distorted their memories to think they
groups were worse off before they went than they actually were so they thought they improved because they had the
expectation they would
223. Chapter 6 Attitudes, behavior, and rationalization
224. spitzer's govenor of NY who had a relationship with a prostitute and when he resigned he apologized saying he went against
scandal with his value, he was being harsher towards others in his judgements to reduce his dissonance
prostitute
225. predicting attitudes are poor predictors of behavior
behavior from
attitudes
226. lapiere study at a time when there was tension between america and china, when he traveled to hotels with a Chinese couple the
hotels were very hospitable. But later when he wrote a letter asking if they would be willing to be hospitable to a
chinese couple 90% said they werent welcome because they were chinese but they already had them...there is no
good correlation between attitude and behavior
227. 1. Attitudes Social norms, other conflicting attitudes, and situational factors may also influence behavior
may conflict I like the environment but I like big cars ....
with other
influences on
behavior
228. 2. dual Attitudes toward X may be inconsistent
process Emotional and cognitive aspects may conflict
-like this guy who used to be an actor in israel and ran for treasurer in israel-people probably had mixed feelings
towards him because he isn't really qualified when people thought about it but he is attractive and a good speaker
229. 3. Attitudes Research shows attitudes based on firsthand experience better predict behavior
may be based Firsthand experience may contradict secondhand information
on -you only learn the good things
secondhand
information
230. 4. General Attitudes better predict behaviors when specific attitudes toward a specific behavior are measured
attitudes may The more specific the attitude, the stronger the correlation.
not match -because when you think more specifically take more things into account
specific
targets
231. study asking people about How do you feel about birth control?
birth control How do you feel about birth control pills?
How do you feel about using birth control pills?
How do you feel about using birth control pills during the next 2 years?
-they asked these questions and the more detailed the questions got the closer it was to predicting
their actual behavior
232. 5. Some behaviors may be -Automatic, intuitive information processing may guide behavior in ways that escape conscious
automatic awareness
-Behavior may be unconsciously influenced by aspects of the situation of which we are not aware
-Study found that priming the concept of "elderly" made participants walk more slowly
233. priming activation of creativity compared to logo of apple and windows, people primed with apple were more creative
234. asked couples will you be one condition they asked what is your intuition and the other condition they asked what are your
together in nine months from reasons. the intuitions could predict better
now?
235. what can we do? 1. Be aware of: factors that conflict with our attitudes (social norms, situational factors),
inconsistent attitudes ("I appreciate him but hate his arrogance")
2. base our attitudes on firsthand experience, when possible
3. if we have a specific desired behavior - let's change our general attitudes to specific ones (e.g.
not "I'll go to the dentist", but "I'll go to the dentist this week, I'll get the phone, check the rout to
the clinic)
236. behaviors are better because attitudes may change in order to be consistent with behaviors, behaviors are more
predictors of attitudes concrete because they can't be changed
237. story of hatem very intelligent, good-looking arab-israeli said he couldnt find an apartment to rent in tel-aviv
because of his race even though he is in the place that is supposed to be the most left wing liberal
in Israel-->attitudes not matching behavior
238. Water allocation task Task was to locate water an arab neighbor in three conditions Outgroup Cooperation, Individual
level, and Group level
In the individual condition political orientation did not predict behavior. There were no differences
between left and right wing
In group condition political orientation strongly predicted choices, in groups the left acted like the
left and vice versa
239. cognitive dissonance theory Theory that inconsistencies between thoughts, feelings, and behavior create an unpleasant mental
state (cognitive dissonance) that motivates mental efforts to resolve them
240. how dissonance happens -Inconsistency between two cognitions produces dissonance (e.g., between an attitude and a
behavior)
-Dissonance is uncomfortable, creates a drive to reduce the tension
-Least important or most easily changed element will change (usually attitude)
-UNLESS--there is some external justification for the inconsistent cognition (the counter-attitudinal
behavior)
241. 1. I want to lose weight 2. I "I don't need to lose weight this badly"-Change attitude
have just eaten an entire box "How many chocolates did I eat? The box was half-empty"-Change perception of behavior
of chocolates "Chocolate is highly nutritious"-Add attitudes consistent with behavior
"What do I care about being a little fat, life's too short"-Detract from the importance of behavior
"I had no choice, my host would have been insulted if I hadn't eaten all the chocolates"-Detract
from controllability
242. behaviors are permanent Because behaviors cannot be taken back, cognitive dissonance often causes changes in thoughts
and/or feelings to rationalize behaviors
243. decisions and dissonance, if Decision dissonance typically is resolved by emphasizing the positives and minimizing the
already made a decision negatives of the selected choice
Also resolved by, emphasizing the negatives of the unselected choices and minimizing the
positives
244. For instance, if you will justify your decision. If live in tel-aviv you will say how great is it to go to museums to minimize how
choosing between frustrating traffic is, and if you chose to live in a small village you will say how great it is to not deal with traffic
living in a big city (Minimize: not being able to go to fancy restaurants and museums)
(Tel-Aviv) or small
village (Vitkin):
245. effort justification Attempts to reduce dissonance produced by the effort or cost spent to obtain something unpleasant or
disappointing
Greater effort expended leads to more dissonance and more attempts to rationalize behavior
ex-Club initiations
Study found that women who had to undergo the most severe initiation to join a discussion group reported the
most liking for the group even though the discussion was actually uninteresting
246. Induced Subtly getting people to act in ways inconsistent with their attitudes
compliance (also Often leads to a change in attitude in order to resolve dissonance
called forced
compliance)
247. dollar bill study of -Participants first completed a long and boring task
dissonance -Then participants were either paid $1 or $20 to lie to another person and say the task was really fun
-Then participants were asked how much fun they really thought the task was
-Participants paid $20 thought the task was boring, but participants paid only $1 said the task was actually
enjoyable
248. why does induced -Lying to someone for $1 caused more dissonance than lying to someone for $20; $1 is not a lot of money to
compliance work? reward acting against one's beliefs
-So attitude changes to match behavior and resolve cognitive dissonance
"I didn't really lie [for only $1], that task wasn't so bad after all."
249. forbidden toy -Children are given a set of toys and asked to rate each one. Then told that they could play with any of the
study toys, except for one. Told that playing with the forbidden toy would make an adult "annoyed" (mild threat) or
"very very angry" (severe threat). All children resisted playing with the forbidden toy. Later, children were asked
to rate the toys again. Many children given a mild threat found the toy less desirable than before, but children
given a severe threat found the toy more desirable Why?
-Mild threats of punishment are a weak reason for resisting something that is desired, so attitude changes to
rationalize behavior
-"That toy isn't so great after all". Severe threats are a good reason to resist a behavior, but may result in the
behavior seeming even more appealing
250. free choice Choosing to engage in a behavior that is inconsistent with beliefs will cause dissonance
promotes Forced behavior does not cause dissonance since the reason for the behavior is clear ("I didn't have a choice")
dissonance No need to rationalize behaviors we didn't choose
251. Insufficient -Dissonance may occur when the reason for a behavior is weak or unclear
(external) -Payment of $1 may be insufficient justification to lie
justification -Annoying an adult may be insufficient punishment to resist playing with a favorite toy
252. reduce dissonance With sufficient justification (that is, more money, larger threat), the behavior doesn't need to be rationalized
253. negative Freely chosen inconsistent behaviors may not cause dissonance if there was no negative consequence of the
consequences behavior
Driving too fast will not cause dissonance if everything went okay....
If nothing happened as a result, there is nothing to rationalize
254. Foreseeability -Dissonance may not occur if the negative consequence was not something that could be foreseen
-You accidently give someone food they are allergic to
you had no knowledge of the allergy
Will you then rationalize your behavior?
255. Cognitive dissonance may be universal across For individualists, cognitive dissonance may result from threats to how
cultures, but may be aroused by different people see themselves
situations For collectivists, cognitive dissonance may occur from threats to how people
believe they are seen by others
256. culture and dissonance study Euro-Canadians (individualists) experienced more dissonance when making a
choice for themselves than for a friend
Asian-Canadians (collectivists) experienced more dissonance when making a
choice for a friend than for themselves
257. self-perception theory Theory that people infer their attitudes from observing their behavior
If the prior attitude is weak or ambiguous, people may use their behavior to
understand their attitude
258. Self-perception theory suggests a different Cognitive dissonance theory argues that people change attitudes to fit their
interpretation of the cognitive dissonance behavior because inconsistencies are mentally unpleasant
research Self-perception theory argues that an unpleasant mental state is not needed
as explanation for the results of the cognitive dissonance studies (would
know if dissonance is experienced if more arousal)
259. Self-perception argues that people didn't change instead they inferred their attitudes from their behavior in the situation
their attitudes "I told them that the task was fun, so it must have been fun 'cause there wasn't
any other reason to say it was."
260. Cognitive dissonance may occur when behavior Inconsistency is threatening to self-concept so dissonance is aroused
doesn't fit a preexisting attitude and the attitude is
important to the self-concept
261. Self-perception may occur when attitudes are No strong prior attitude → no sense of inconsistency → no dissonance
weak or ambiguous Many attitudes are relatively weak and changeable
262. System justification theory Theory that people are motivated to see the existing political and social
status quo as desirable, fair, and legitimate
263. System justification is another example of -People are motivated to believe the world is a fair place
rationalization -Belief in a just world is psychologically reassuring
-"If I do good things, the world will be good to me."
-Dissonance aroused by belief that bad things can happen to good people
-Especially since most of us believe we're good people
264. System justification reduces dissonance Promote the virtues of the status quo
"If I could go to school and get a job, then homeless people could do the
same thing."
Positive or compensatory
stereotypes
"Sure women make less money
for the same job, but they are
liked better at work."
265. Terror management theory (TMT) Theory that the knowledge of mortality produces an anxiety that leads
people to search for symbolic immortality
Predicts that attitudes will change when mortality is made salient
266. Ways to achieve symbolic immortality View self as connected to broader culture, worldview, and social institutions
Stronger identification with family, country, religion, and so on
"I may die but America will be here long after I'm gone."
Boost self-esteem
View self as a good valued member of the culture
"I'm a good American, and a piece of me will live on."
267. Tests of TMT use mortality salience manipulations Possibly by having people write about death, read information about death,
or look at images associated with death
Often compared to a pain salience condition
Think of your death versus think of feeling pain at the dentist
268. Effects of mortality salience More commitment to ingroups and more hostility to outgroups
Increased hostility to people who criticize one's country
More punitive to people who challenge prevailing laws
269. During the 2004, election mortality salience Possibly because Bush was already president and was seen as defending the
made people more favorable toward Bush and country from outside threats
less favorable towards Kerry
270. Chapter 7 Emotions
271. characterizing emotion Emotions differ from moods or emotional disorders
Emotions are brief
Lasting for only seconds or minutes
Moods can last for days, and emotional disorders can last weeks, months, or
years
272. emotions are specific Emotions are responses to specific events
For instance, being afraid of a bear or being angry at an insult- we have
"intentional object"
The cause of moods or emotional disorder may be unclear
"Did you wake up on the wrong side of bed today?
Why you are so depressed?
273. emotions motivate behavior to achieve goals Goals related to survival and social functioning
For instance:
fear motivates escape from threats
anger motivates correcting an injustice
guilt motivates making amends for wrongdoings
274. Emotions have psychological effects that For instance, strong urges to run, hide, or fight
drive behavior
275. Emotions have physiological effects that help For instance, "fight or flight" responses that increase heart rate, respiration, and
the body achieve those goals blood flow to muscles
276. evolutionary approaches Emotions are biologically based behavioral adaptations meant to promote
survival and reproduction
Physiological responses to emotions (e.g., facial expressions, heart rate) should be
cross-culturally universal
Darwin's hypotheses
All human have the same facial muscles
and express emotions similarly across culturesHuman facial expressions resemble
displays of other primates. ...
277. Cultural approaches Emotions are influenced by views of self, social values, and social roles, which
vary from culture to culture
Emotions should be expressed in different ways in different cultures
278. Both evolutionary and cultural approaches are Emotional responses may be innate and universal, but cultures may have different
correct emotional accents and display rules
279. human facial expressions are not learned People who are blind from birth would show the same facial expressions as
sighted people, despite having never seen a facial expression
Blind and sighted athletes show similar facial expressions of pride after winning a
competition
280. Facial expressions are recognized cross- Cultures never exposed to the West or Western media (for example, the Fore of
culturally Papua New Guinea) can accurately identify expressions of happiness, surprise,
sadness, anger, disgust, and fear shown by Westerners
U.S. college students accurately identify facial expressions shown by the Fore
281. Cultures do show variation
in expression of emotions
282. Oxytocin and trust
283. Oxytocin may encourage
trust between strangers
284. the trust game
285. predictions of the economic
man in trust game
286. trust game played in two
conditions
287. emotional mimicry
288. Moods have more influence
on complex judgments than
simple judgments
289. Mood and life satisfaction
study
290. processing style
perspective
Emotion accents
Culturally specific ways that emotions are expressed
ex-Universality and Cultural Variation in Emotional Expression: People in the United States and India
agree in their judgments of a prototypical embarrassment display (A), but only people in India
recognize the ritualized tongue bite as a display of embarrassment
Oxytocin is a hormone and neurotransmitter involved in care giving and monogamous mating in non-
human animals
Oxytocin is also released during human childbirth, breastfeeding, and orgasm
During a trust game, a participant is given an amount of money and then asked to share that money
with a stranger. The amount of money given to the stranger is then tripled. The stranger then chooses
how much money to give back to the participant.
Subjects are paired. Each subject in each pair is given $10. Second movers are told to keep their $10
First movers can either:
Keep their $10; or
Give some or all of it to the second mover. Any amount given is multiplied by 3 by the experimenter
Second movers can either:
Keep all of any amount received; or return part or all of it to the first mover. All of the above is
common information given to all subjects.The game is played only once
-Since second movers care only about their own material gain, they will keep any tripled amount
sent by first movers
-Since first movers care only about their own material gain, and know that second movers have the
same kind of preferences, first movers send nothing
-Zero returned and sent is the subgame perfect equilibrium of this game, given the economic man
assumption about preferences
-The predicted outcome is inefficient: Each subject pair is predicted to get $10 in payoff ... just the
endowment ... when it could have gotten as much as $20
Half of the participants play after inhaling Oxytocin
Half of the participants play after inhaling fresh air
people were more than twice as likely to give away maximal amounts to a stranger in the trust game
after inhaling oxytocin
Many studies have found that people often unconsciously imitate others
Especially likely to mimic the emotions of close others
Laugh when others laugh, blush when others blush
Over the course of a year, the emotional responses of college roommates became more similar
Roommates who were closer friends mimicked each other more than those who were less close
friends
For instance, making a general judgment of people (are they likeable, or trustworthy?) than a simple
judgment (what color are their eyes?)
Study asking people to give ratings of their life satisfaction found that higher ratings were given on
sunny days than on rainy days
Difficult to analyze information from an entire lifetime, so current mood may influence judgment
However, when people were asked about the weather first, there was no effect of weather on
judgments
Realizing that current mood is influencing judgments, people can make corrections
Positive and negative emotions lead to different types of information processing
Positive moods lead to more top-down thinking
More reliance on schemas and heuristics
Negative moods lead to more bottom-up thinking
More systematic and analytical thinking
Especially for emotions linked to sadness
291. Why do positive Mood maintenance, reduced cognitive effort, and feelings-as-information: difficult decisions require cognitive
moods lead to work and cognitive work may hamper a good mood, so happy people may take shortcuts in order to perpetuate
more top-down their good mood. Feeling-as-information: people in good moods may feel good and trust their immediate,
processing? spontaneous judgment. "I feel good so the answer feels correct."
292. Sad moods may Sad moods lead to more bottom-up thinking, so there is less reliance on stereotypes and schemas
lead to less
stereotyping
than other
moods
293. Two-factor Theory that emotions are made of two components
theory of An unexplained physiological arousal
emotion A cognitive explanation of the arousal
294. Primary Initial, quick appraisal made of an event or circumstance
appraisal stage Primary appraisals lead to an initial pleasant or unpleasant feeling
295. Secondary Later appraisal, which concerns why we feel the way we do and how we would like to respond
appraisal stage Secondary appraisals lead to specific emotions like fear, anger, pride, guilt, and so on
296. Schachter and Participants told that the study was testing effects of a drug on vision
Singer's (1962) In reality, the drug was adrenaline
classic study Participants were given an injection of adrenaline and were either informed or uninformed about the effects
Some told injection would make them aroused (symptoms like racing heart)
Some not told about the effects of the injection
Participants then interact with a confederate who is acting either very happy and euphoric or very angry and
irritable
The confederate provides an explanation for arousal
"Oh he's happy, maybe I'm happy too"; "He's mad, and so am I."
297. Predictions for Uninformed participants would report emotions similar to those displayed by the confederate
schachter and Informed participants would not be influenced by the confederate because they already had a cognitive
singer explanation
"My heart is racing, but I know that's just drug they gave me."
298. Results Uninformed participants did report higher levels of happiness when interacting with the happy confederate than
schachter and informed participants
singer Interpreted as evidence that cognitive explanations of physiological arousal are important components of
emotion
299. Misattribution of When the source of an arousal is incorrectly attributed to the wrong cause
arousal The adrenaline causes the arousal, but uninformed participants assume their feelings are due to something else in
the situation
300. Peak and end Assessments of emotional experiences are most influenced by the peak moment of emotion and the ending
Rule emotion
(Kahneman) For instance, judging how funny a movie is, is most influenced by the funniest moment and the way the movie
ends
301. Experienced vs. "Our mind does not make movies; it takes snapshots"
Remembered Rather than guess the total amount of suffering, people recall the worst instant, and the last instant.
Utility If you increase the amount of suffering, but arrange for the last minutes to be less intense, people report the
longer period as less painful
302. Affective Predicting how we will feel during or after a particular event in the future
forecasting For instance, how happy or unhappy we'd be after a romantic breakup
Affective forecasting is often incorrect
People often assume that they will like or dislike a future event more than they actually do when it occurs Impact
Bias
303. Immune neglect Tendency to underestimate our resilience during negative life
events
Painful, difficult experiences often are less upsetting then we
expect them to be
For instance, people often expect relationship breakups to be
more traumatic and depressing than they actually are
304. Focalism Tendency to focus on only one aspect of an experience or event
when trying to predict future emotions
May neglect thinking about how we will feel after the initial event
or the importance of other events in determining our feelings
For instance, a happy wedding day doesn't guarantee a satisfying
marriage. However, when young people imagine their life
together....
305. Daniel Gilbert and his colleagues asked whether people are people predicted that a romantic breakup would make them less
accurate in their judgments of how happy they will be happy than was actually the case
following a romantic breakup. The results were consistent
with their claims about biased affective forecasting.
306. Chapter 8 social influence
307. social influence Refers to the large number of ways that people impact one
another, including changes in attitudes, beliefs, feelings, or
behaviors resulting from the real or imagined presence of other
people
308. conformity changing one's behavior in response to real or imagined pressure
from others (e.g., fasion trends)
309. compliance responding favorably to an explicit or implicit request by another
person (i.e., favor)
310. obedience social influence in which the less powerful person in an unequal
power relationship submits to the demands of the more powerful
person (e.g., following the order of police)
311. chameleon effect the nonconscious mimicry of the expressions, mannerisms,
movements, and other behaviors of those with whom one is
interacting
312. unconscious mimcry Average number of times per minute participants performed an
action (face rubbing, foot shaking) while in the presence of
someone performing that action or not. the more the other person
shook their foot the more likely the person was to join
313. automatic mimicry -Preparation for social interaction
-Mimicry is stronger for people with a drive to affiliate with others
-People like individuals that mimic them better than those that
don't
-People who are mimicked engage in more prosocial behavior
afterward
-Mimicry may build social rapport and lead to pleasant social
interactions
314. The Autokinetic Effect Participants seated in an otherwise completely dark room were asked to state aloud their estimates
Sherif, of the distance a tiny dot of light moved.
Individuals who made judgments alone came to fix their estimates within a specific range, which
varied from one to ten inches.
When people made their judgments with other people, however, their personal estimates
converged with those of other group members until a consensus was reached.
315. The Autokinetic Effect The men eventually accepted a socially shared estimate in place of their own idiosyncratic
Sherif, results standard.
Moreover, in subsequent individual sessions subjects still relied on the group's standard, suggesting
that they had internalized the norm.
Sherif, by capitalizing on the natural ambiguity of the autokinetic situation, succeeded in creating a
social norm in an experimental setting.
-so if one person said 5 and the other 1 their answer would be an average of the others
316. informational conformity The evaluations of others are perceived as information about reality
Conformity is the result of a belief in the informative value of other people.
Informational social influence more likely when
Situation is ambiguous or difficult
We feel low in knowledge or competence about the topic
-in reality the light did not move but because the situation is ambiguous, people respond as if
other people have more info
317. normative conformity, ash, In the basic Asch paradigm, the participants (6 confederates and one real participant) were all
study seated in a classroom.
They were asked a variety of questions about the lines such as to state the length of A, to compare
the length of A to an everyday object, which line was longer than the other, which lines were the
same length, etc.
The group was told to state their answers to each question out loud.
The confederates always provided their answers before the study participant, and always gave the
same answer as each other. They answered a few questions correctly but eventually began
providing incorrect responses.
318. normative study results Average conformity rate: 37%
Percentage of participants who had at least one conformist response in half of the relevant cases:
50%
Percentage of participants who were not conformist in any of the relevant cases: 25%
319. Why did you give in to -Normative influence (the most common type of influence): "I knew I was giving the wrong answer,
pressure? Types of but I did not want to be different."
explanations provided by -Questioning one's personal judgment: "I thought that maybe I'm wrong, I did not sleep well, my
participants eyesight has gotten worse recently, sometimes I don't see things ."
-Perceptual suggestion: "I was convinced that this was the right answer. Line C really seemed to be
the most similar to the test line."
320. Factors Affecting Conformity a. Group Size
Pressures b. Group Unanimity
c. Expertise and Status
d. Culture
e. Gender
f. Difficulty of the Task
321. Types of Conformity in Informative conformity (Sheriff's experiment( - People believed the conformist answers were
experiment correct.
- The result: a "deep" influence, which is also found in non-public speaking situations, and is
generalized to other contexts.
Normative (Motivational) Conformity (most of Asch's participants) - People did not believe that
the conformist answers they gave were correct. - The result: a "superficial" influence, that
disappears in non-public situations and is not generalized to other contexts.
322. Asch's experiment Reality is clear-cut
Normative Conformity Most of the participants are confederates (6), and there is only one real participant
The result: a "superficial" influence
323. Sherif's experiment Reality is ambiguous
Informative All the participants are real
Conformity The result: a "deep" influence
324. Minority influence Moscovici thought that minority influence operated in a different way to majority influence. Minority
influence causes the majority to reassess their opinion, and that it actually changed underlying beliefs.
This was in contrast to normative influence, which generally had little lasting effect. The results of the
experiment seemed to back up his opinion.
325. Minority Influence: -"Deep" influence on attitudes: minority group members, as opposed to majority influence, persuade the
Consequences participant and do not produce compliance out of fear of sanctions.
-The growing influence of the minority attitude:
-Minority position becomes more popular
-Social pressure against minority's attitudes decreases
326. Conditions that -Minority members have high status and legitimacy in the group. They do not differ from group members
Increase the on other dimensions.
Effectiveness of -Minority members are united (there are no "traitors" or "defectors").
Minority Influence -Minority members express their deviant position consistently, clearly and simply, in such a way that they
can not be ignored or seen us having an unimportant position.
327. The Effect of One As part of a group we are exposed to others' dishonest behavior.
Bad Apple on the Simple examples include academic dishonesty, athletes using illegal drugs...
Barrel
328. Project A - H1 (The "Cost-Benefit" Prediction)-For a constant reward, reducing the likelihood of being caught cheating
Hypotheses may increase the magnitude of individuals' dishonesty.
H2 (The "Saliency of Ethicality" Prediction)-Drawing people's attention to moral standards could reduce
dishonest behavior
H3 (The "Social Norm" Prediction) Social norms can increase the level of dishonesty in some situations but
decrease it in other situations. (Descriptive Norms vs. Injunctive Norms)
329. Study 1 - Matrix Task Participants - 141 Carnegie Mellon University Students. The matrix task in four conditions:
method Control-Shredder
Shredder + Ingroup confederate
Shredder + Outgroup confederate-they got more questions right when someone in the in-group cheated
and they cheated less when someone in the outgroup cheated because they didnt want to be like him (the
outgroup cheating level was as low as the contorl group)
-fudge factor in cheating, that only cheat until the point that you can still feel like a good person, so only
cheat a little bit-outgroup cheating reduced level of cheating but didn't eliminate it
330. conformity-cultural There is more conformity in collectivistic cultures than in individualistic cultures
aspect Empirically, this effect has been demonstrated in perception experiments (e.g. Asch), and also in
experiments examining conformity in attitudes
In collectivistic cultures conformity has a more positive connotation than in individualistic cultures.
331. Factors that did not Gender
influence obedience Age (children, youth, adults)
level in Milgram's Country (similar findings were found in different countries)
experiment (1974)
332. Factors shown to influence
obedience level in Milgram's
experiment (1974)
333. Forces Influencing
Obedience-"Tuning in" the
victim
334. Tuning out" the authority-
influences obedience
335. Means of influence
336. The reciprocation rule:
337. Door-in-the-face marketing
technique
338. That's-not-all-marketing
technique
-Perceived authority of the experimenter
Another participant (actually a confederate) taking the role of the experimenter - 20% obedience
The experiment takes place in an abandoned office building instead of Yale University - 48%
obedience
-Physical proximity of the experimenter
When the experimenter is not present in the room, and gives directions over the phone - 21%
obedience.
-Proximity of the participant to the victim. If the victim is in the same room with the participant
("the teacher") 40% obedience. If the participant ("the teacher") is asked to touch the victim to
administer the electric shock - 30% obedience
-Peer pressure-When two out of three consecutive participants (actually, confederates) refuse to
shock the victim - 10% obedience.
-stepwise progression. In each step there is a decrease of only 15 volts.
-Personality traits of the participant. Variables such as authoritarianism are related to greater
obedience.
Variations of the Milgram experiment that varied the proximity of the learner.
-No visual or audio feedback, audio feedback, same room (visual and audio feedback), and touch
proximity
-As the learner became more present (increased feedback and proximity), the rate of obedience
(shocks delivered) decreased
Variations on the social power of the experimenter
Experimenter gives orders over telephone, experimenter has lower status, experimenter is
contradicted by another experimenter
As the social power of the experimenter decreased, rates of obedience decreased
1. Reciprocity: we want to repay, in kind, what another person has provided us
2. Consistency: desire to be (and to appear) consistent with what we have already done
3. Social proof: to determine what is correct find out what other people think is correct --
Conformity
4. Authority: deep-seated sense of duty to authority - Obedience
5. Likeability: we say yes to someone we like
6. Scarcity: limitation enhances desirability
If X does us a favor, we should do him /her one in return
In fact, we are obliged to the future repayment of favors, gifts, invitations and the like.
Leakey & Lewin (1978): "We are human because our ancestors learned to share their food, and their
skill in an honored network of obligation"
Make a large request that is refused, followed by smaller request
Psychologist Bob Cialdini, when asked to buy a $5 lottery ticket, refuses. Then he is asked to buy
a $1 candy bar and agrees (even though he doesn't like chocolate that much)
Why it works: reciprocal concession; "You compromised with me, so I'll compromise with you."
Adding something additional to the offer
Examples: many "as seen on TV" ads that include special bonuses
Why it works: we feel like we are getting more than expected; the added bonus increases pressure
to reciprocate
Overweighting of free (Ariely et al. , 2010)
339. Foot-in-the-door Make a small request that is accepted, followed by a large request
technique Safe driving study
Homeowners are asked to place large sign in front yard about safe driving (only 17 percent agreed)
Another group is first asked to put a small sign in the window, then two weeks later asked to place the large
sign in their front yard (76 percent agreed)
Charities often first ask for very small donations, then later ask for bigger donations
-Why it works: need for consistent self-perception; agreeing to the first request makes it easier to agree with
a second request
340. Step-by-step Can arrive at extreme situations in step-by-step process: a "slippery slope"
situation In Milgram study, each increment is only 15 volts, so each one seems like a small step, but step-by-step it
gets to an extreme point
341. Low balling cancelling the discount after you already have commitment to specific option
Technique
342. Sunk Cost Effect commitment for specific option only because we already invested time, money or effort in this option
343. Obedience to other 22 hospital nurses were asked over the phone by an unknown person identified as a doctor to give to one
authority of the patients in the ward a high dose of an unusual type of medication.
figures (nurses and 21 out of 22 nurses obeyed (Holfing et al., 1966)
doctors)
344. Inducing liking, by: physical attractiveness
compliments
Condition and association with positive things (beauty, what's hip, food)
success
Smile
345. Scarcity Opportunities seem more valuable to us when their availability is limited
The use of this principle for profit can be seen in such high-pressure sales techniques as only a "limited
number" now available and a "deadline" set for an offer. The scarcity principle holds true for two reasons:
Things difficult to attain are typically more valuable. And the availability of an item or experience can serve
as a shortcut clue or cue to its quality.
When something becomes less accessible, the freedom to have it may be lost.
346. Chapter 9 Persuasion
347. three-factor affect, behavior, cognition
approaches to
attitudes
348. affect When someone smokes I feel disgusted.
349. behavior When someone smells of cigarettes I seek to avoid him in whatever way.
350. cognition I know that cigarettes raise the risk for lung cancer by forty times and damage the skin.
351. Attitude as a one- Attitude: the magnitude of appraisal (positive or negative) toward the object of the attitude.
factor concept Attitude: a positive, negative or mixed response to an individual (or a group), an object or an idea.
-can be positive, ambivalent (have dual attitudes), indifference, or negative
352. measuring attitudes Often attitudes can be measured with questionnaires
Participants can rate how they feel along a scale
A Likert scale assesses attitudes by giving anchors and a range of possible answers
Example: How often do you watch television?
1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = sometimes, 4 = frequently, 5 = always. Questionnaires are limited by what
participants are willing and able to reveal about their attitudes
-Examining how participants respond to different stimuli. Reaction times are faster to more accessible
attitudes. Faster reactions equals a smaller response latency. Attitudes that are more central to a person's
self-concept will be more strongly linked to other attitudes the person has. (IAT TEST)
353. The Knowledge participants watched the same presidential debate of Carter and Regan. Partisans believe their own
Function of candidates prevail in debates, by far as in not even close, very clear winner, and undecided voters was
Attitudes: study closer to being equal
354. Can subliminal messages influence We do perceive subliminal cues.
behavior? But the cues will not persuade to take action unless one is already motivated to do so.
-people who were already thirsty and then subliminally primed were the most affected
355. Two-process models of persuasion Heuristic-systematic model
Elaboration likelihood model
Both models argue essentially the same thing: persuasion can work by changing what we
know and believe or by changing how we feel
356. Elaboration likelihood model assumes individuals vary in the degree they are likely to engage in elaboration of
persuasive messages.
357. central route to persuasion Persuasion is influenced by strength and quality of arguments.
Message receivers should be: Attentive, Cognitively active, andCritical
When these conditions are met, messages characterized by strong high-quality arguments
have an advantage.
358. peripheral route to persuasion Persuasion is influenced by clues that don't necessarily indicate high-quality arguments.
People are persuaded on the basis of superficial, peripheral cues.
Message is evaluated through the use of simple-minded heuristics.
359. The Yale School Approach to Persuasive messages have three components
Persuasion The who, or the source of the message
The what, or the content of the message
The whom, or the target of the message
360. attractiveness-source influence Attractive spokespeople are more persuasive, even for topics completely unrelated to
attractiveness
Effects of attractiveness are through the peripheral route: attractive people are rated more
favorably, and those favorable feelings become associated with the message
361. Two factors influence a source's -The physical attractiveness of the source
likability: -The similarity between the source and the audience
362. Credibility (source characterisitc) People who are seen as knowledgeable and trustworthy are more persuasive
However, non-credible sources can change attitudes through the sleeper effect
Although a message may not be believed originally, over time the message may be
remembered without remembering that it came from an untrustworthy source
363. The sleeper effect, study on high The message, by itself, must be strong enough to produce a large change in attitudes.
and low credibility The discounting cue (e.g., low credibility) must be so strong as to inhibit immediate attitude
change that would otherwise be produced by the message.
The discounting cue must become dissociated from the message by the time the delayed
change is assessed.
364. Are longer messages better? If central, the longer the message, the more valid it must be.
If central, message should not be too long.
365. How discrepant should the message The most change is produced at moderate amounts of discrepancy.
be to have the greatest impact? An "upside-down "Ω" relationship between discrepancy and persuasion.
366. Vivid information and identifiable -Vivid information can be more persuasive than statistical facts
victim effect -Identifiable victim effect
-Tendency to be more influence by information about one specific individual than by
information about large amounts of people
-The revelation that actor Michael J. Fox has Parkinson's disease raised charitable donations
more than public statistics about the millions of people affected by the disease
367. fear-based persuasion contain vivid information and can be very persuasive
But fear-based messages are most effective when combined with instructions on how to
avoid negative outcomes
368. smoking and fear study -inducing fear about something by showing vivid images reduced smoking substantially more than
simply providing instructions about quitting. The most effective though was inducing fear and giving
instructions.
369. positive mood affect We are more open to persuasion when in a good mood.
How to create a good mood?
Food, beverages, comfortable armchairs, pleasant memories, experience of success, breathtaking
views, pleasant music, humor...
370. pleasant emotions arouse Pleasant emotions distract and impede our ability to think critically.
the peripheral processing When we are in a good mood we feel that "all is well": "cognitive laziness" increases.
system When we are happy we try to avoid spoiling the mood with critical thinking.
371. audience factors Very few people are consistently easy or difficult to persuade.
People differ in extent to which they become involved and take the central route.
Need for Cognition: How much does one enjoy effortful cognitive activities?
372. Effects of Need for they are going to be persuaded by strong arguments
Cognition:
373. Chapter 10 Attraction
374. physical proximity One of the biggest predictors of whether people become friends or romantic partners is actual
physical proximity. The people we interact with face-to-face are the people with whom we usually
form relationships
375. manhatten project Effects of proximity can be seen in friendships forming between people of different races and
backgrounds
-majority of friendships formed with people of different races or ages were among people who lived
on the same floor
376. In MIT apartments study A sociometric survey conducted in a student housing development found two-thirds of the friends
that people listed lived in the same building as themselves
-residents near stairwells formed twice as many friendships with upstairs neighbors as those living in
the middle apartments
-people who lived next door to each other were four times more likely to become friends than
people living opposite ends of hallway
377. availability and proximity Encountering other people allows for and encourages the formation of new relationships
Of course, encountering others also makes it possible to dislike those people
378. anticipating interactions Knowing that we will interact with someone in the future makes us like that person more
379. The mere exposure effect Greater exposure to a stimulus leads to greater liking of that stimulus, including other people
Greater liking due to mere exposure was found for foreign words, foreign symbols, and yearbook
photos
380. Why Mere Exposure Causes Fluency - Availability Heuristic
Liking Easier to process information about familiar stimuli ---->Pleasant feelings associated with more fluent
processing
381. mere exposure experiment results: people preferred true images of other people but preferred mirror pictures of themselves,
because that is what they are most used to
382. classical conditioning Repeated exposure to a stimulus without any negative consequence makes the stimulus more
pleasant
Signals that the stimuli is safe and non-threatening
383. similarity Friends and romantic partners tend to be similar in beliefs and other characteristics (attractiveness,
intelligence, socioeconomic status, and so on)
A study of romantic couples found that couples were more similar on 66 of 88 different traits than
people paired at random.
On no characteristic were romantic couples more dissimilar than random pairs
384. Effects of Interestingly, partners in interracial and interethnic couples were found to be more similar in personality traits than
similarity may couples of the same race or ethnicity
be stronger for Studies find that we report greater liking of even fictitious people if we peceive them as more similar to ourselves
demographic
characteristics
than personality
traits
385. The belief that Not much evidence for the idea of complementarity, that people seek out partners with different characteristics to
"opposites balance out their own
attract" is not Even in cases where partners may seem like opposites in some domains (introvert and extravert), they are likely
largely to have many more overall similarities than differences
supported by
the research
386. halo effect People who are more physically attractive are often assumed to have other positive traits
Assumed to be more successful, likable, intelligent, happier, and so on
Some evidence that more attractive people are actually happier, more confident, and more satisfied with their
lives, but attractiveness is not linked to traits like intelligence
387. Halo effects We expect attractive people to have desirable traits, so we may behave more positively toward them, and as a
may be due to result they may respond favorably, confirming our original positive expectation
self-fulfilling
prophecies
388. early effects of Attractive infants receive more attention from mothers than less attractive babies even before leaving the hospital
attractiveness Misbehavior by attractive children seen as less problematic than same behavior from less attractive children
Attractive faces are preferred at an early age: children as young as 3 months prefer attractive adult and child
faces over less attractive faces
389. Faces that are Composite faces produced by morphing many faces together are usually seen as more attractive than any
more average individual face
(less abnormal) By averaging faces together, the composite face is generally more symmetric and free of any blemishes or other
are seen as abnormalities
more attractive
390. Near times of During periods of low conception risk, women rate men with slightly feminized faces as more attractive
ovulation, Or --
women show Prefer men who appear more confident and assertive
increased New Study -- Higher tips to club dancers during time of ovulation!
preference for -only if women are not on hormonal birth control, do the effects of her menstruation apply
masculine facial
characteristics
391. women and Women's Judgments of Male Attractiveness across the Menstrual Cycle: The photos depict faces that have been
cycle effects altered to be 50 percent more feminized (left) from the original photo and 50 percent more masculinized (right).
study Women were asked to select the one face they thought was most attractive from a set of five such faces that
varied from 50 percent masculinized to 50 percent feminized. The graph shows that the women tended to select
somewhat feminized faces overall, but the mean degree of feminization of the selected face was less for women
who were at a stage in their cycle when pregnancy was especially likely.
392. chapter 12 stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination
393. men and found men drivers are actually more reckless drivers than women, women get into a lot of small accidents men
women drivers get into more dangerous ones, have higher risk of dying in car accidents
394. stereotypes Beliefs that associates a group of
people with certain traits
-like cognition, its beliefs
395. prejudice Negative feelings towards
persons based on their
membership in certain groups
-like affect, it is how we feel about them
396. discrimination Any behavior directed against persons because of their membership in a particular
group
397. old fashioned racism Beliefs about minorities that are clearly dogmatic and readily admitted
Open expression of dogmatic views is now rare in the United States -PC, but...
398. modern (symbolic) racism Beliefs about minorities that appear positive, but racism is revealed in subtle, indirect
ways
399. lost email study they sent out an email as if they were a friend saying they tried to contact them but
they cant come to the wedding and the different conditions were different names yoav,
yengeti, and muhamad
400. benevolent prejudice Not all stereotypes are necessarily negative
Some stereotypes include favorable assessments of abilities
Some groups may be stereotyped as smarter, nicer, or more athletic than others
Race and gender stereotypes often contain a mix of both positive and negative
sentiments
401. Trouble with positive stereotypes -Can be used to justify holding other negative stereotypes. For instance, may believe
that women are kinder and more nurturing but that they are less capable than men.
Holding a positive stereotype can be seen to justify or balance out negative
stereotypes
-May decrease the value of members that don't fit the positive stereotype
402. economic perspective-the robbers cave -Two groups of boys were invited to participate in a summer camp experience. In
experiment reality, the summer camp experience was part of a study on intergroup relationships
-During the first week the two groups of boys were isolated from one another. Each
group gave itself a name (the "Eagles" and the "Rattlers")
-When the groups were unaware of each other, group activities were directed at
building unity and cohesion
403. During the second week The two groups were brought together in a competitive tournament.
robbers cave experiment The winning group would get a medal and a prize; the losing group would get
nothing
During the period of the tournament, the groups became hostile toward one another
Yelling insults
Raiding each other's camps
Threats of violence and challenges to fights
404. In the third week of the Robber's Cave However, hostilities did not decrease between the two groups
experiment, the two groups were brought Non-competitive social contact alone was not sufficient to reduce hostile feelings
together to interact in non-competitive toward an outgroup
ways
405. Reducing conflict through superordinate Hostile feelings between the groups were reduced after researchers allowed the
goals groups to work cooperatively
A bus carrying supplies "broke down," forcing the two groups to work together to get
the truck started
When two groups feel mutually interdependent, hostility between groups subsides
406. evaluating economic perspective Economic perspectives suggest that prejudice can be reduced when groups see
themselves as needing to work together to achieve a collective goal
Prejudice will be reduced when working cooperatively can benefit both groups
May explain why racial integration may be more successful in the military than in other
domains
Military success requires cooperative action, but success in work and educational
domains often requires more competition
407. Social identity People derive part of their self-concept from membership in groups
theory Aspects of self-esteem are dependent on how people evaluate their ingroup relative to outgroups
(motivational People are motivated to view their ingroup more favorably than the outgroup...
perspectvie)
408. minimal group demonstration of social identities
paradigm Group categories are defined along very arbitrary or superficial dimensions
For instance, making groups based on whether people prefer one abstract image over another, or whether
they overestimate or underestimate dots on a page
409. experiments using individuals show preferences for the ingroup even when group distinctions are meaningless
minimal group If given a chance to distribute rewards across two groups, they prefer to give more to ingroup
paradigm More interested in getting a relative advantage over the outgroup than in maximizing absolute gain for the
ingroup
For example, prefer ingroup to get $7 and outgroup to get $3 than for both groups to get $10
410. basking in Tendency to take pride in the accomplishment of those we feel associated with in some way
reflected glory Example: local sports teams, success of friends or family member
(more)
411. Derogating Self-esteem can be bolstered by negative evaluation of outgroups
outgroups to boost After receiving negative feedback about self, participants are more likely to endorse negative stereotypes;
self-esteem derogation of outgroup predicts boosts in self-esteem
412. rating of job Self-Esteem: Average ratings of a job candidate's personality and the increase in raters' self-esteem, depending
candidate study on whether or not the candidate was Jewish and whether the rater had earlier received positive or negative
feedback. Participants who received negative feedback derogated the jewish candidate and then it boosted
their self-esteem level
413. motivational People process information in terms of categories, including social information and information about the self.
perspective As a result, often see social groups in term of "us" versus "them". Motivated to be biased and more favorable
evaluation toward one's ingroup
-Hostile or aggressive motivations may be directed at social groups seen as lower in power
-Expressing advantage and dominance over a lower power group can boost feelings of self-esteem
414. cognitive Stereotypes as mental shortcuts
perspective Stereotypes are schemas
Schemas influence attention, perception, and memory
Stereotypes help us process social information efficiently
Less effort is required when you know what to expect
415. More likely to use Study found that people used more stereotypes during times of day when they were low in energy
stereotypes when
we are mentally
drained
416. Outgroup Members of outgroup viewed as more similar to each other
homogeneity Impaired ability to view outgroup members as distinct individuals.
effect "They're all the same."
-stereotypes may be efficient but they are not accurate
-reducing perceived outgroup-homogenity effect decreases discrimination and prejudice towards outgroup
417. shooter bias Participants were presented images of black and white people who were either armed with a gun or not. As in
experiment a video game, participants were instructed to "shoot" the armed targets and not shoot the unarmed targets
Both white and black participants were more likely to accidentally shoot the unarmed black targets than
unarmed white targets
418. Self-fulfilling Stereotypes may give us expectations about certain groups that lead us to treat those groups in ways that
prophecy encourage them to confirm our original expectation
(Pygmalion Effect ) For instance, expectations that certain types of students lack capabilities may lead teachers to avoid engaging
those students.
419. Illusory False beliefs about groups may be maintained because we more easily remember the pairing of two distinct events
correlations Encountering minority group members and observing negative behavior are both less frequent events than observing
as a biased majority group members and positive behaviors, so it may be easier to remember examples of minorities doing
construal negative things
420. Activation Stereotypes may influence behaviors and judgments in ways that are outside conscious awareness
of a Influence of automatically activated stereotypes can be corrected for if people are motivated and aware of potential
stereotype biases
may be Controlled processes
automatic
and
involuntary
421. economic suggest that stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination stem from real competition on limited resources.
perspective -can reduce stereotyping when groups see the need to work together for collective goal
422. prejudice as Participants were primed with "Black" vs neutral words
a bad habit Read about "Donald" - described in an ambiguous way
experiment Regardless of level of prejudice, those primed with the Black stereotype rated Donald as more hostile than those
primed with the neutral words
The stereotypic cognitive structure was put into action (outside of awareness)
Research examined how implicit and explicit racial attitudes of Whites related to behaviors and impressions in
interracial interactions.
423. Explicit and Explicit - more controlled behaviors (what you say in a conversation)
implicit Implicit - more automatic (body language)
attitudes
predict
different
types of
behaviors
424. Explicit and White participants were first asked to fill out an explicit measure of attitudes towards Blacks. Participants were also
implicit asked to complete a measure of implicit attitudes (priming task). they were either primed with white face or black face
attitudes in and then they tested the time it took to say a negative word compared to the white condition. Participants were then
action asked to interact with a Black confederate. Independent raters rated the interaction on two dimensions: Non verbal
experiment friendliness (eye contact, smiles, distance). Verbal friendliness (audio alone). explicit racism was shown in their verbal
and implicit expressions was correlated with nonverbal behavior. The Black confederate was asked to rate whether the
participant was prejudiced
Participant's level of Implicit prejudice correlated with the confederates' ratings of bias. (Not the explicit measures).
The target of prejudice picks up on non verbal cues, and therefore on implicit attitudes
425. the implicit Measures the association between two or more concepts in a person's mind.
associations Key measure: how fast people are in linking certain people to certain attributes?
test Faster = stronger cognitive association
Sexism = Reaction time for men/career & women/family - Reaction time for men/family & women/career
0 = no (low) sexism
Less than zero = sexism (faster to associate men/career & women/family than men/family & women/career)
426. criticism of . For example, a person may be faster in associating blacks with bad because they know how blacks were portrayed
IAT by American society. This cultural knowledge may come to mind when seeing the pairs together. Thus this is reflecting
a cultural association rather then a personal one
427. attitude toward racism task two other people were in the same room, one black and one white. Then the black person leaves the
room while accidentally bumping into the White person's knee. The White person says one of 3 things
"Clumsy N' word"
"I hate it when Black people do that"
Nothing
Who would you choose as a partner for the task?
-when no comment was made most people forecasted the white partner, and the slight racist
comment less than the extremely racist comment
-what people forecasted what they would do was different, they forecasted they would be in more
distress than they were
-in reality chose white partner no matter what
People's predictions regarding emotional distress and behavior in response to racism differ drastically
from actual actions. Even those who embrace equal right beliefs, may continue to harbor
nonconscious negative feelings toward blacks - that can come into play spontaneously
428. thought suppression when say not to think about something its harder not to
429. stereotype threat Fear of being treated and judged according to a negative stereotype about one's group. Occurs when
an individual is in a performance situation and is aware that there is a negative stereotype about their
group that suggests they will not perform well. Occurs regardless of whether the individual believes
the stereotype. Occurs regardless of the accuracy of the stereotype
430. Participants:117 male and Measure: GRE-verbal
female African-American Conditions
and European-American Stereotype-threatening (diagnostic) condition (did the worst in this condition)
Stanford Univ. students. Non-stereotype threatening conditions
Non-diagnostic only
Non-diagnostic-challenge (when said it wasnt a diagnostic test)
431. Chapter 13 Helping, hurting, cooperating
432. altrusim Desire to help another person with no benefit to oneself, even at cost to oneself
433. empathy Ability to put oneself in another person's shoes, to experience the same feelings and emotions
Experienced distress (anxiety, sorrow)
Empathic concern (sympathy, compassion)
434. negative state relief Helping results from trying to relieve own distress
hypothesis
435. Empathy-altruism Helping results from real concern for another person
hypothesis Empathy for another person can involve experienced distress (feeling similarly unpleasant) and
empathic concern (sympathy for the person)
436. Study of empathy and Participants view a video of a confederate receiving electric shocks. The confederate indicates fear of
helping shocks due to a childhood trauma and is clearly distressed. Participants also feel distressed while
watching
Participants are given the option to switch places with the confederate
In the easy escape condition, participants no longer have to watch the confederate getting shocked.
In hard escape condition, they have to watch her get shocked if they don't take her place
Although all participants report feeling expereinced distress (it's upsetting to watch her suffer), only
participants reporting empathic concern were willing to help by trading places in the easy escape
condition
437. Story of Kitty Genovese In 1964, Kitty Genovese was murdered in front of her NYC apartment building
As she was being attacked, she screamed for help and several of her neighbors witnessed the crime
(38 people)
However, no one intervened to help her or even called the police
Why did people fail to help in such an obvious emergency?
438. bystander intervention Likelihood that others will
intervene to help in a
situation of need
439. Diffusion of responsibility Failure to act because they assume others will act instead
When participants believed that someone was having a seizure, 85 percent helped
if they were the only other person present; only 65 percent helped if another
person was present; and if multiple people were present, only 31 percent helped
440. pluralistic ignorance Failure to act because if no one else seems alarmed, we may assume no action is
required
Pluralistic ignorance results from informational social influence
In ambiguous situations, we look to others to decide how we should act
When left in a room that began to fill with smoke, 75 percent of participants left to
alert an authority, but if other people were present, only 38 percent left to tell
someone
441. unambiguous need People with an obvious need of help are more likely to receive it
442. similarity to us More likely to provide help to people who seem more similar to ourselves
443. gender and help Women are more likely to receive help from others
Especially true for women dressed in ways that are more feminine and attractive
People may assume women may need more help than men
Male helpers may be more willing to help an attractive woman
444. environment and helping More likely to receive help in a rural area than an urban area
like correct payment, help injured, lost child, tell name, give donation
445. Prisoner's dilemma, cooperation and conflict Situation where outcome between two individuals depends upon each individuals'
independent choice to cooperate or not
Classic story of two prisoners who have to choose between sticking to their story
or betraying their partner, without knowing what their partner will do
If they both cooperate, both win. If they both defect, both lose. But if one defects
when the other cooperates, one wins big and the other loses big
446. The most important determinant of whether more competitive are more likely to assume that others are competitive
people will cooperate are their construal People become more competitive after being primed with words related to hostility
about the people they're interacting with Greater competition when the prisoner's dilemma was played in business context
(for example, Wall Street) than when played as a "community game"
447. the ultimatum game Situation where one participant is given a sum of money (or other resource) to
allocate between him- or herself and another person.
Can choose to allocate the resource in any way
Can keep it all for him- or herself or divide it evenly
-the respondent decides to accept then he gets $2 and the proposer gets $8 or he
can reject and they both get $0
-tests cooperative and altruistic behavior
448. The dictator game ...
449. economic cooperation Economics majors were least likely to share resources in an ultimatum game
compared to other academic majors
Economics teaches that people should act in terms of rational self-interest
Professional economists were less likely to contribute to public charities than
members of other professions
450. cooperation around the world People who live in cultures requiring high amounts of interdependence for survival
(for example, food sharing), allocated resources more fairly during an ultimatum
game than people from other cultures
451. tit-for-tat strategy Start by cooperating, and from that point on do whatever the other person did last
If the other person cooperates, then the cycle of cooperation continues and both
benefit
If the other person defects, then you continue to defect until the other person
begins cooperating
This simple strategy is optimal because it encourages the benefits of cooperation,
but doesn't allow for exploitation
452. Cooperation strategy Five principles -
Cooperative
Not Envious
Not exploitable
Forgiving
Clear to read
453. aggression Any behavior aimed at causing either physical or psychological pain
Physical or verbal behavior
intended to hurt someone
454. hostile aggression behavior intended to harm another, either physically or psychologically, and motivated by feelings of
anger and hostility
455. instrumental aggression behavior intended to harm another in the service of motives other than pure hostility (for example, to
attract attention, acquire wealth, and to advance political and ideological causes, winning sport
competition...)
456. Higher temperatures are More violent crimes occur in summer months
related to higher rates of More acts of violence occur in cities that have higher average temperature
aggression One study found that baseball pitchers are more likely to hit batters with the ball as the weather gets
hotter-One big confound with the studies of temperature and aggression is that there is more social
interaction in general on warmer days.
-Feelings of discomfort caused by the heat may be misattributed to other people
Another example of misattribution of arousal
457. media violence Evidence that media violence can increase aggressive behaviors
Effect of childhood media consumption
Longitudinal study found that boys with high preference for violent TV at age 8 were more likely
to engage in criminal behavior
by age 30
Regardless of how aggressive the
boys actually were when they were 8
458. copycat violence Acts of violence imitated from media portrayals
Experimental studies show that aggressive acts are more likely to be imitated when people identify
with the operator of the violent act
459. social learning theory "Bobo" doll study
Bandura ½ kids watched adult beat up doll
½ kids not exposed to the behavior
Kids allowed to play with doll
Results??
460. correlation aggression examined correlation between amount of time playing violent video games and aggressive delinquent
behavior
r = .46!! (quite high)
Playing violent video games resulted in
Increased aggression
Decreased helping
Increased aggressive thoughts
Increased anger
Increased arousal
Same effects for males and females, children and adults
461. short-term effects of Primes aggressive cognitions
video games Increases arousal
Increases anger
462. long-term effects of Teaches people how to aggress
video games People develop aggressive schemas
They become desensitized to violence
463. presence of The presence of a weapon may increase aggression through priming effects
weapon -In a study on aggression, participants were more likely to deliver more electrical shocks to a confederate
when a weapon was present in the room
More shocks with a gun present in the room than with a badminton racket in the room
464. gener differences Large gender differences in violent crime rates
in aggression Males much more likely to be involved in violent and criminal behavior
Male also more likely to be the victims of violence
Possibly due to differences in hormone levels, social learning, or evolved tendencies
-depends if direct or indirect aggression though
465. Chapter 14 Groups
466. social facilitation -The very first social psychology experiment
-Triplett (1898) observed that cyclists recorded faster times when competing against others than when racing
alone
-Designed an experiment to test whether the presence of others facilitates human performance
-Assigned groups of children to reel in fishing lines alone and beside another child and found faster times
when the child was co-acting with another person.
Concludes that the presence of others facilitates performance
Coined the term "Social Facilitation."
-However, subsequent studies showed that often the presence of others can impair performance????
467. Zajonc's theory The presence of others increases arousal, and arousal increases an individual's dominant responses
A dominant response is the response that one is most likely to make
For an easy or well-practiced task, the dominant response is often correct
For a difficult or novel task, the dominant response is ofThus, the presence of others can facilitate
performance of easy tasks, but may impair performance of difficult tasks
ten incorrect
468. tests of the theory Examined the effects of social facilitation using cockroaches running mazes in the presence or absence of
other roaches
In the presence of spectator roaches, the test roaches ran faster through a simple maze but slower through a
complex maze
-on easy task had a better performance (faster) with an audience, but on hard task was better with no
audience
469. presence of others on simple, well-learned tasks it leads to the more dominant response which is correct, but on difficult tasks
arouses us the dominant response is incorrect
470. evaluation arousal may come from fear about being evaluated by others
apprehension Study found participants made more dominant responses in front of an audience that could evaluate their
performance than when in front of an audience that could not see them or when they performed alone
471. distraction-conflict The mere presence of others may increase arousal because attention becomes divided between the task and
the audience
Study examined how fast people changed their shoes when they were alone (unaware of being observed)
compared to when other people were present.
Even though participants had no sense of being evaluated while changing their shoes, they did so faster in
the presence of another person even if that person wasn't watching them
472. Evaluation Average number of dominant responses made by participants who were responding alone, next to a
Apprehension and blindfolded audience (who therefore couldn't monitor or evaluate their performance), or next to an attentive
Social Facilitation: audience (who could evaluate their performance)
-only evaluation audience affects the dominant response rate, but blindfolded audience was comparable to
task performed alone
473. social loafing Tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task, especially when individual contributions can't be
measured
For instance, in a game of tug-of-war, the more people pulling means that each person will pull with less
force than if they were pulling alone
474. avoiding social Social loafing can be avoided by making individual contributions identifiable and by emphasizing that each
loafing person's unique contribution is crucial for overall success
(Free riding Experiemnts, Diffusion of Responsibility)When working in groups
Divide up the work, so contributions are unique and identifiable
Emphasize the importance of the work or of the group itself
475. performance Overall, these results suggest that communication between dyad members increases the level of cheating,
and matrix task especially when this communication allows members to become familiar with one another and share their
common interests (as in our friendly-talking condition, where cheating was the highest). In addition, these findings
favor the local social utility prediction over the diffusion of responsibility prediction. As our results show,
dishonesty increases when group members become more important to one another as a result of having the
chance to talk and learn more about each other. This contradicts the prediction of diffusion of responsibility,
whereby the level of cheating will decrease when communication is allowed and anonymity is decreased. Thus,
these findings suggest that local social utility may be the dominant source of influence for individuals' unethical
behavior within dyads and small groups.
476. deindividuation Decrease in self-awareness resulting in decreased self-regulation and greater conformity to the group norms
Deindividuation results from feelings of anonymity, lack of accountability, and the energizing effects of being lost
in a crowd
De-individuation often results in more impulsive, emotional, irrational, and antisocial behaviors
Historic examples of de-individuation include lynch mobs, riots, and military atrocities
477. suicide-baiting When crowds of people begin encouraging someone threatening to commit suicide to commit suicideSuicide
baiting was twice as likely to occur with a large crowd present
Suicide baiting is four times as likely to occur at night
478. warriors Warriors that hide identity before going to battle (for example, with masks, or face paint) are more likely to kill,
torture, and mutilate captive prisoners
479. halloween experimenters place bowls of candy
experiment Children arrived alone or in groups and were told to take one piece of candy.
After the adult left, 57 percent of children in groups stole extra candy but only 21 percent of children who were
alone did so
480. Greater If the adult asked for the children's names, only 21 percent of children in groups stole extra candy, and only 8
anonymity percent of the children who were alone did so
lead to greater
antisocial
behavior
481. self-awareness When people focus attention on themselves (individuation), they become concerned with self-evaluation and
theory behave in ways more consistent with their values and beliefs
For instance, in a study that had timed how fast participants could solve a problem, many participants cheated a
bit by taking extra time.
However, with a mirror in the room less than 10 percent cheated
482. spotlight We often believe that other people are paying more attention to us than they really are
effect
483. escaping self- Many self-destructive behaviors may be attempts to escape self-awareness
awareness For instance, drinking alcohol decreases self-awareness.
We are even less likely to use pronouns like "I" or "me" when we are drunk
484. groupthink Groups that are highly cohesive can produce poor group decisions because maintaining group harmony may be
emphasized over making an accurate judgment
Historic examples of groupthink
Lack of precaution at Pearl Harbor despite warnings of an imminent attack
George W. Bush administration's invasion of Iraq to find weapons of mass destruction, despite evidence suggesting
no weapons were present
Decision to launch the Space Shuttle Challenger despite warnings of engineers
The Israeli IDF spent 18 years in Lebanon
485. sources of groupthink Highly cohesive group
Strong leader
Insulated from outside opinions
No procedures for evaluating alternative
External stress or threat
486. symptoms of groupthink Feel invulnerable
Illusion of unanimity
Belief in inherent morality of group
Stereotype outgroups
Pressure on dissenters
Self-censorship
Do not consider alternatives
Unrealistic optimism/ underappreciate risks
No backup plan
487. preventing groupthink Group leader should refrain from making opinion known at first; group leader discusses important
decisions with each member individually. Assign a "devil's advocate"
Bring in outside opinions
Develop an alternate plan
488. group polarization Group decisions tend to be more extreme than decisions rendered by individuals
Why do groups make more extreme decisions?
Persuasive arguments
Exposure to additional arguments in favor of one's preexisting opinion strengthens opinion, confidence
If others express similar opinions, we may take a more extreme position to differentiate ourselves
489. Why do groups make Valuing risk
more extreme decisions? The dominant opinion is strengthened in Groups.
In many group decision-making scenarios, group decisions tend to be riskier
490. chapter 15 applied psychology
491. Psychological Stress the sense that your challenges and demands surpass your current capacities, resources, and energies.
492. rumination the tendency to think about some stressful event over and over again.
493. self-distancing the ability to focus on one's feelings from the perspective of a detached observer.
494. behavioral economics a discipline that uses insights from psychology to create realistic and accurate models of economic
behaviour.
495. loss aversion the tendency for a loss of a given magnitude to have more psychological impact than an equivalent
gain.
496. risk aversion the reluctance to pursue an uncertain option with an average payoff that equals or exceeds the payoff
attainable by another, certain option.
497. risk seeking the opposite of risk aversion; the tendency to forgo a certain outcome in favour of a risky option with
an equal or more negative average payoff.
498. sunk cost effect a reluctance to "waste" money that leads people to continue with an endeavor, whether it serves their
future interests or not, because they've already invested money, effort, or time in it.
499. menetal accounting the tendency to treat money differently depending on how it was acquired and to what mental
category it is attached.
500. Incrementalist Theory of the belief that intelligence is something you get by dint of working.
Intelligence
501. Entity Theory of the belief that intelligence is something you're born with and can't change.
Intelligence
502. Entertainment-Education media presentations that are meant to both entertain and persuade people to act in their own (or in
society's) best interests.