Classical Music - Wikipedia

3/3/2019 Classical music - Wikipedia
Classical music
Classical music is art music produced or rooted in the traditions
of Western culture, including both liturgical (religious) and secular
music. While a more precise term is also used to refer to the period
from 1750 to 1820 (the Classical period), this article is about the
broad span of time from before the 6th century AD to the present
day, which includes the Classical period and various other
periods.[1] The central norms of this tradition became codified
between 1550 and 1900, which is known as the common-practice
period. The major time divisions of Western art music are as
follows:
the ancient music period, before 500 AD

the early music period, which includes
the Medieval (500–1400) including String quartet performing for the Mozart Year
the ars antiqua (1170–1310) 2006 in Vienna
the ars nova (1310–1377)
the ars subtilior (1360–1420)
the Renaissance (1400–1600) eras.
Baroque (1600–1750)
the galant music period (1720s–1770s)
the common-practice period, which includes
Baroque (1600–1750)
the galant music period (1720s–1770s)
Classical (1750–1820)
Romantic eras (c.1780–1910)
the 20th and 21st centuries (1901–present) which includes:
the modern (1890–1930) that overlaps from the late-19th century,

impressionism (1875 or 1890–1925) that also overlaps from the late-19th century
neoclassicism (1920–1950), predominantly in the inter-war period
the high modern (1930–present)
the postmodern (1930–present) eras
the experimental (1950–present)
contemporary (1945 or 1975–present)
European art music is largely distinguished from many other non-European classical and some popular musical forms by
its system of staff notation, in use since about the 11th century.[2] Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern
European musical notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church. Western staff notation is
used by composers to indicate to the performer the pitches (which form the melodies, basslines and chords), tempo, metre
and rhythms for a piece of music. This can leave less room for practices such as improvisation and ad libitum
ornamentation, which are frequently heard in non-European art music and in popular-music[3][4][5] styles such as jazz and
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_music 1/21
blues. Another difference is that whereas most popular styles adopt the song (strophic) form or a derivation of this form,
classical music has been noted for its development of highly sophisticated forms of instrumental music such as the
symphony, concerto, fugue, sonata, and mixed vocal and instrumental styles such as opera, cantata, and mass.[6]
The term "classical music" did not appear until the early 19th century, in an attempt to distinctly canonize the period from
Johann Sebastian Bach to Ludwig van Beethoven as a golden age.[7] The earliest reference to "classical music" recorded by
the Oxford English Dictionary is from about 1829.[1][8]
Contents
Characteristics
Literature
Instrumentation and vocal practices
Medieval music
Renaissance music
Baroque music
Classical music
Romantic music
Modernist music
Contemporary classical music
Postmodern music
Post-postmodern instrumentation
Performance
Gender of performers
Complexity
History
Roots
Early period
Common-practice period
Baroque music
Classical-era (or -period) music
Romantic-era music
20th and 21st centuries
Modern, high modern, post-modern, post-postmodern, or contemporary music
Women in classical music
Timeline of composers
Significance of written notation
Literalist view of the significance of the score
Criticism of the literalist view
Improvisation
Relationship to other music traditions
Popular music
Folk music
Commercialization
Public domain
Education
See also
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Characteristics
Given the wide range of styles in European classical music, from Medieval plainchant sung by monks to Classical and
Romantic symphonies for orchestra from the 1700s and 1800s to avant-garde atonal compositions for solo piano from the
1900s, it is difficult to list characteristics that can be attributed to all works of that type. However, there are characteristics
that classical music contains that few or no other genres of music contain,[9] such as the use of music notation and the
performance of complex forms of solo instrumental works (e.g., the fugue). Furthermore, while the symphony did not exist
prior to the late 18th century, the symphony ensemble—and the works written for it—have become a defining feature of
classical music.
Literature
The key characteristic of European classical music that distinguishes it from popular music and folk music is that the
repertoire tends to be written down in musical notation, creating a musical part or score. This score typically determines
details of rhythm, pitch, and, where two or more musicians (whether singers or instrumentalists) are involved, how the
various parts are coordinated. The written quality of the music has enabled a high level of complexity within them: fugues,
for instance, achieve a remarkable marriage of boldly distinctive melodic lines weaving in counterpoint yet creating a
coherent harmonic logic that would be difficult to achieve in the heat of live improvisation.[10] The use of written notation
also preserves a record of the works and enables Classical musicians to perform music from many centuries ago. Musical
notation enables 2000s-era performers to sing a choral work from the 1300s Renaissance era or a 1700s Baroque concerto
with many of the features of the music (the melodies, lyrics, forms, and rhythms) being reproduced.
That said, the score does allow the interpreter to make choices on how to perform a historical work. For example, if the
tempo is written with an Italian instruction (e.g., Allegro), it is not known exactly how fast the piece should be played. As
well, in the Baroque era, many works that were designed for basso continuo accompaniment do not specify which
instruments should play the accompaniment or exactly how the chordal instrument (harpsichord, lute, etc.) should play
the chords, which are not notated in the part (only a figured bass symbol in the bass part is used to guide the chord-playing
performer). The performer and the conductor have a range of options for musical expression and interpretation of a scored
piece, including the phrasing of melodies, the time taken during fermatas (held notes) or pauses, and the use (or choice not
to use) of effects such as vibrato or glissando (these effects are possible on various stringed, brass and woodwind
instruments and with the human voice).
Although Classical music in the 2000s has lost most of its tradition for musical improvisation, from the Baroque era to the
Romantic era, there are examples of performers who could improvise in the style of their era. In the Baroque era, organ
performers would improvise preludes, keyboard performers playing harpsichord would improvise chords from the figured
bass symbols beneath the bass notes of the basso continuo part and both vocal and instrumental performers would
improvise musical ornaments.[11] Johann Sebastian Bach was particularly noted for his complex improvisations.[12] During
the Classical era, the composer-performer Mozart was noted for his ability to improvise melodies in different styles.[13]
During the Classical era, some virtuoso soloists would improvise the cadenza sections of a concerto. During the Romantic
era, Beethoven would improvise at the piano.[14] For more information, see Improvisation.
Instrumentation and vocal practices

The instruments currently used in most classical music were largely invented before the mid-19th century (often much
earlier) and systematised in the 18th and 19th centuries. They consist of the instruments found in an orchestra or in a
concert band, together with several other solo instruments (such as the piano, harpsichord, and organ). The symphony
orchestra is the most widely known medium for classical music[15] and includes members of the string, woodwind, brass,
and percussion families of instruments. The concert band consists of members of the woodwind, brass, and percussion
families. It generally has a larger variety and number of woodwind and brass instruments than the orchestra but does not
have a string section. However, many concert bands use a double bass. The vocal practices changed over the classical
period, from the single line monophonic Gregorian chant done by monks in the Medieval period to the complex,
polyphonic choral works of the Renaissance and subsequent periods, which used multiple independent vocal melodies at
the same time.
Medieval music
Many of the instruments used to perform medieval music still exist, but in different forms. Medieval instruments included
the flute, the recorder and plucked string instruments like the lute. As well, early versions of the organ and fiddle (or vielle)
existed. Medieval instruments in Europe had most commonly been used singly, often self accompanied with a drone note,
or occasionally in parts. From at least as early as the 13th century through the 15th century there was a division of
instruments into haut (loud, shrill, outdoor instruments) and bas (quieter, more intimate instruments).[16] During the
earlier medieval period, the vocal music from the liturgical genre, predominantly Gregorian chant, was monophonic, using
a single, unaccompanied vocal melody line.[17] Polyphonic vocal genres, which used multiple independent vocal melodies,
began to develop during the high medieval era, becoming prevalent by the later 13th and early 14th century.
Renaissance music
Many instruments originated during the Renaissance; others were variations of, or improvements upon, instruments that
had existed previously. Some have survived to the present day; others have disappeared, only to be re-created in order to
perform music on period instruments. As in the modern day, instruments may be classified as brass, strings, percussion,
and woodwind. Brass instruments in the Renaissance were traditionally played by professionals who were members of
Guilds and they included the slide trumpet, the wooden cornet, the valveless trumpet and the sackbut. Stringed
instruments included the viol, the rebec, the harp-like lyre, the hurdy-gurdy, the lute, the guitar, the cittern, the bandora,
and the orpharion. Keyboard instruments with strings included the harpsichord and the virginals. Percussion instruments
include the triangle, the Jew's harp, the tambourine, the bells, the rumble-pot, and various kinds of drums. Woodwind
instruments included the double reed shawm, the reed pipe, the bagpipe, the transverse flute, the recorder, the dulcian,
and the crumhorn. Vocal music in the Renaissance is noted for the flourishing of an increasingly elaborate polyphonic
style. The principal liturgical forms which endured throughout the entire Renaissance period were masses and motets,
with some other developments towards the end, especially as composers of sacred music began to adopt secular forms
(such as the madrigal) for their own designs. Towards the end of the period, the early dramatic precursors of opera such as
monody, the madrigal comedy, and the intermedio are seen. Around 1597, Italian composer Jacopo Peri wrote Dafne, the
first work to be called an opera today. He also composed Euridice, the first opera to have survived to the present day.
Baroque music
Baroque instruments included some instruments from the earlier periods (e.g., the hurdy-gurdy and recorder) and a
number of new instruments (e.g, the oboe, bassoon, cello, contrabass and fortepiano). Some instruments from previous
eras fell into disuse, such as the shawm and the wooden cornet. The key Baroque instruments for strings included the
violin, viol, viola, viola d'amore, cello, contrabass, lute, theorbo (which often played the basso continuo parts), mandolin,
cittern, Baroque guitar, harp and hurdy-gurdy. Woodwinds included the Baroque flute, Baroque oboe, rackett, recorder
and the bassoon. Brass instruments included the cornett, natural horn, Baroque trumpet, serpent and the trombone.
Keyboard instruments included the clavichord, the harpsichord, the pipe organ, and, later in the period, the fortepiano (an
early version of the piano). Percussion instruments included the timpani, snare drum, tambourine and the castanets.
One major difference between Baroque music and the classical era that followed it is that the types of instruments used in
Baroque ensembles were much less standardized. Whereas a classical era string quartet consists almost exclusively of two
violins, a viola and a cello, a Baroque or Classical-era group accompanying a soloist or opera could include one of several
different types of keyboard instruments (e.g., pipe organ, harpsichord, or clavichord), additional stringed chordal
instruments (e.g., a lute) and an unspecified number of bass instruments performing the basso continuo, including bowed
strings, woodwinds and brass instruments (e.g., a cello, contrabass, viol, bassoon, serpent, etc.).
Vocal developments in the Baroque era included the development of opera types such as opera seria and opéra comique,
and related forms such as oratorios and cantatas.[18][19]
Classical music
The term "classical music" has two meanings: the broader meaning includes all Western art music from the Medieval era
to the 2000s, and the specific meaning refers to the art music from the 1750s to the early 1820s—the period of Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, and Ludwig van Beethoven. This section is about the more specific meaning. Classical
era musicians continued to use many of instruments from the Baroque era, such as the cello, contrabass, recorder,
trombone, timpani, fortepiano (the precursor to the modern piano) and organ. While some Baroque instruments fell into
disuse (e.g., the theorbo and rackett), many Baroque instruments were changed into the versions that are still in use today,
such as the Baroque violin (which became the violin), the Baroque oboe (which became the oboe) and the Baroque
trumpet, which transitioned to the regular valved trumpet. During the Classical era, the stringed instruments used in
orchestra and chamber music such as string quartets were standardized as the four instruments which form the string
section of the orchestra: the violin, viola, cello and double bass. Baroque-era stringed instruments such as fretted, bowed
viols were phased out. Woodwinds included the basset clarinet, basset horn, clarinette d'amour, the Classical clarinet, the
chalumeau, the flute, oboe and bassoon. Keyboard instruments included the clavichord and the fortepiano. While the
harpsichord was still used in basso continuo accompaniment in the 1750s and 1760s, it fell out of use in the end of the
century. Brass instruments included the buccin, the ophicleide (a replacement for the bass serpent, which was the
precursor of the tuba) and the natural horn.
Romantic music
In the Romantic era, the modern piano, with a more powerful, sustained tone and a wider range took over from the more
delicate-sounding fortepiano. In the orchestra, the existing Classical instruments and sections were retained (string
section, woodwinds, brass and percussion), but these sections were typically expanded to make a fuller, bigger sound. For
example, while a Baroque orchestra may have had two double bass players, a Romantic orchestra could have as many as
ten. "As music grew more expressive, the standard orchestral palette just wasn't rich enough for many Romantic
composers." [20] New woodwind instruments were added, such as the contrabassoon, bass clarinet and piccolo and new
percussion instruments were added, including xylophones, snare drums, celestas (a bell-like keyboard instrument), bells,
and triangles,[20] large orchestral harps, and even wind machines for sound effects. Saxophones appear in some scores
from the late 19th century onwards. While appearing only as featured solo instruments in some works, for example
Maurice Ravel's orchestration of Modest Mussorgsky's Pictures at an Exhibition and Sergei Rachmaninoff's Symphonic
Dances, the saxophone is included in other works, such as Ravel's Boléro, Sergei Prokofiev's Romeo and Juliet Suites 1 and
2 and many other works as a member of the orchestral ensemble. The euphonium is featured in a few late Romantic and
20th-century works, usually playing parts marked "tenor tuba", including Gustav Holst's The Planets, and Richard
Strauss's Ein Heldenleben.
The Wagner tuba, a modified member of the horn family, appears in Richard Wagner's cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen and
several other works by Strauss, Béla Bartók, and others; it has a prominent role in Anton Bruckner's Symphony No. 7 in E
Major.[21] Cornets appear in Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky's ballet Swan Lake, Claude Debussy's La mer, and several orchestral
works by Hector Berlioz. Unless these instruments are played by members doubling on another instrument (for example, a
trombone player changing to euphonium for a certain passage), orchestras will use freelance musicians to augment their
regular rosters.
Modernist music
Modernism in music is a philosophical and aesthetic stance
underlying the period of change and development in musical
language that occurred from 1890 to 1930, a period of diverse
reactions in challenging and reinterpreting older categories of
music, innovations that lead to new ways of organizing and
approaching harmonic, melodic, sonic, and rhythmic aspects of
music, and changes in aesthetic worldviews in close relation to
the larger identifiable period of modernism in the arts of the time.
The operative word most associated with it is "innovation".[22] Its The Dublin Philharmonic Orchestra performs
leading feature is a "linguistic plurality", which is to say that no Tchaikovsky's Fourth Symphony
single music genre ever assumed a dominant position.[23]
Contemporary classical music

Contemporary classical music is the period that came into prominence in the mid-1970s. It includes different variations of
modernist, postmodern, neoromantic, and pluralist music.[24] However, the term may also be employed in a broader sense
to refer to all post-1945 musical forms.[25]
Postmodern music
Postmodern music is a period of music that began around 1930.[26][27] It shares characteristics with postmodernist art –
that is, art that comes after and reacts against modernism.
Post-postmodern instrumentation
Many instruments that in the 2010s are associated with popular music filled important roles in early music, such as
bagpipes, theorbos, vihuelas, hurdy-gurdies (hand-cranked string instruments), accordions, alphorns, hydraulises,
calliopes, sistrums, and some woodwind instruments such as tin whistles, panpipes, shawms and crumhorns. On the other
hand, instruments such as the acoustic guitar, once associated mainly with popular music, gained prominence in classical
music in the 19th and 20th centuries in the form of the classical guitar and banjo. While equal temperament gradually
became accepted as the dominant musical temperament during the 19th century, different historical temperaments are
often used for music from earlier periods. For instance, music of the English Renaissance is often performed in meantone
temperament. As well, while professional orchestras and pop bands all around the world have tuned to an A fixed at
440 Hz since the late 19th century, there was historically a great variety in the tuning pitch, as attested to in historical pipe
organs that still exist.[28]
Performance
Performers who have studied classical music extensively are said

to be "classically trained". This training may come from private
lessons from instrument or voice teachers or from completion of a
formal program offered by a Conservatory, college or university,
such as a Bachelor of Music or Master of Music degree (which
includes individual lessons from professors). In classical music,
"...extensive formal music education and training, often to
postgraduate [Master's degree] level" is required.[29]
Performance of classical music repertoire requires a proficiency

in sight-reading and ensemble playing, harmonic principles,
Youth concert band in performance
strong ear training (to correct and adjust pitches by ear),
knowledge of performance practice (e.g., Baroque
ornamentation), and a familiarity with the style/musical idiom expected for a given composer or musical work (e.g., a
Brahms symphony or a Mozart concerto).
Some "popular" genre musicians have had significant classical training, such as Billy Joel, Elton John, the Van Halen
brothers, Randy Rhoads, Ritchie Blackmore, and Dream Theater members. Moreover, formal training is not unique to the
classical genre. Many rock and pop musicians have completed degrees in commercial music programs such as those
offered by the Berklee College of Music and many jazz musicians have completed degrees in music from universities with
jazz programs, such as the Manhattan School of Music and McGill University.
Gender of performers
Historically, major professional orchestras have been mostly or entirely composed of musicians who are men. Some of the
earliest cases of women being hired in professional orchestras was in the position of harpist. The Vienna Philharmonic, for
example, did not accept women to permanent membership until 1997, far later than the other orchestras ranked among
the world's top five by Gramophone in 2008.[30] The last major orchestra to appoint a woman to a permanent position was
the Berlin Philharmonic.[31] As late as February 1996, the Vienna Philharmonic's principal flute, Dieter Flury, told
Westdeutscher Rundfunk that accepting women would be "gambling with the emotional unity (emotionelle
Geschlossenheit) that this organism currently has".[32] In April 1996, the orchestra's press secretary wrote that
"compensating for the expected leaves of absence" of maternity leave would be a problem.[33]
In 1997, the Vienna Philharmonic was "facing protests during a [US] tour" by the National Organization for Women and
the International Alliance for Women in Music. Finally, "after being held up to increasing ridicule even in socially
conservative Austria, members of the orchestra gathered [on 28 February 1997] in an extraordinary meeting on the eve of
their departure and agreed to admit a woman, Anna Lelkes, as harpist."[34] As of 2013, the orchestra has six female
members; one of them, violinist Albena Danailova became one of the orchestra's concertmasters in 2008, the first woman
to hold that position.[35] In 2012, women still made up just 6% of the orchestra's membership. VPO president Clemens
Hellsberg said the VPO now uses completely screened blind auditions.[36]
In 2013, an article in Mother Jones stated that while "[m]any prestigious orchestras have significant female membership—
women outnumber men in the New York Philharmonic's violin section—and several renowned ensembles, including the
National Symphony Orchestra, the Detroit Symphony, and the Minnesota Symphony, are led by women violinists", the
double bass, brass, and percussion sections of major orchestras "...are still predominantly male."[37] A 2014 BBC article
stated that the "...introduction of 'blind' auditions, where a prospective instrumentalist performs behind a screen so that
the judging panel can exercise no gender or racial prejudice, has seen the gender balance of traditionally male-dominated
symphony orchestras gradually shift."[38]
Complexity
Works of classical repertoire often exhibit complexity in their use of orchestration, counterpoint, harmony, musical
development, rhythm, phrasing, texture, and form. Whereas most popular styles are usually written in song form, classical
music is noted for its development of highly sophisticated instrumental musical forms,[6] like the concerto, symphony and
sonata. Classical music is also noted for its use of sophisticated vocal/instrumental forms, such as opera. In opera, vocal
soloists and choirs perform staged dramatic works with an orchestra providing accompaniment. Longer instrumental
works are often divided into self-contained pieces, called movements, often with contrasting characters or moods. For
instance, symphonies written during the Classical period are usually divided into four movements: (1) an opening Allegro
in sonata form, (2) a slow movement, (3) a minuet or scherzo (in a triple metre, such as 3/4), and (4) a final Allegro. These
movements can then be further broken down into a hierarchy of smaller units: first sections, then periods, and finally
phrases.
History
The major time divisions of classical music up to 1900 are the Early music period,
which includes Medieval (500–1400) and Renaissance (1400–1600) eras, and the
Common practice period, which includes the Baroque (1600–1750), Classical (1750–
1820) and Romantic (1810–1910) eras.} The current period encompasses the 20th
century (1901–2000) and includes most of the Early modern musical era (1890–1930),
the entire High modern (mid 20th-century), and the first part of the Contemporary
(1945 or 1975–current) or Postmodern musical era (1930–current). The 21st century
has so far been a continuation of the same period and the same
Contemporary/Postmodern musical era which both began mostly in the 20th-century.
The dates are generalizations, since the periods and eras overlap and the categories are
somewhat arbitrary, to the point that some authorities reverse terminologies and refer Music notation from an
to a common practice "era" comprising baroque, classical, and romantic "periods".[40] early 14th-century English
For example, the use of counterpoint and fugue, which is considered characteristic of Missal, featuring the head
the Baroque era (or period), was continued by Haydn, who is classified as typical of the of Christ. Catholic monks
developed the first forms of
Classical era. Beethoven, who is often described as a founder of the Romantic era, and
modern European musical
Brahms, who is classified as Romantic, also used counterpoint and fugue, but the
notation in order to
romantic and sometimes yearning qualities of their music define their era. standardize liturgy
throughout the worldwide
The prefix neo is used to describe a 19th-, 20th-, or 21st-century composition written in
Church.[39]
the style of an earlier era, such as Classical or Romantic. Stravinsky's Pulcinella, for
example, is a neoclassical composition because it is stylistically similar to works of the
Baroque era.
Roots
Burgh (2006), suggests that the roots of Western classical music ultimately lie in ancient Egyptian art music via
cheironomy and the ancient Egyptian orchestra, which dates to 2695 BC.[41] The development of individual tones and
scales was made by ancient Greeks such as Aristoxenus and Pythagoras.[42] Pythagoras created a tuning system and helped
to codify musical notation. Ancient Greek instruments such as the aulos (a reed instrument) and the lyre (a stringed
instrument similar to a small harp) eventually led to the modern-day instruments of a classical orchestra.[43] The
antecedent to the early period was the era of ancient music before the fall of the Roman Empire (476 AD).
Early period
The Medieval period includes music from after the fall of Rome to about 1400.
Monophonic chant, also called plainsong or Gregorian chant, was the dominant form until
about 1100.[44] Catholic monks developed the first forms of modern European musical
notation in order to standardize liturgy throughout the worldwide Church.[39][45][46]
Polyphonic (multi-voiced) music developed from monophonic chant throughout the late
Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, including the more complex voicings of motets.
The Renaissance era was from 1400 to 1600. It was characterized by greater use of
instrumentation, multiple interweaving melodic lines, and the use of the first bass
instruments. Social dancing became more widespread, so musical forms appropriate to
accompanying dance began to standardize. It is in this time that the notation of music on a
staff and other elements of musical notation began to take shape.[47] This invention made
Musician playing the
possible the separation of the composition of a piece of music from its transmission;
vielle (fourteenth-century
without written music, transmission was oral, and subject to change every time it was
Medieval manuscript)
transmitted. With a musical score, a work of music could be performed without the
composer's presence.[44] The invention of the movable-type printing press in the 15th
century had far-reaching consequences on the preservation and transmission of music.[48]
Typical stringed instruments of the early period include the harp, lute, vielle,
and psaltery, while wind instruments included the flute family (including
recorder), shawm (an early member of the oboe family), trumpet, and the
bagpipes. Simple pipe organs existed, but were largely confined to churches,
Johannes Ockeghem, Kyrie "Au
travail suis" excerpt although there were portable varieties.[49] Later in the period, early versions of
keyboard instruments like the clavichord and harpsichord began to appear.
Stringed instruments such as the viol had emerged by the 16th century, as had
a wider variety of brass and reed instruments. Printing enabled the standardization of descriptions and specifications of
instruments, as well as instruction in their use.[50]
Notable Medieval composers include Hildegard of Bingen, Guillaume de Machaut, Léonin, Pérotin, Philippe de Vitry,
Francesco Landini, and Johannes Ciconia.
Notable Renaissance composers include Josquin des Prez, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina, John Dunstaple, Johannes
Ockeghem, Orlande de Lassus, Guillaume Du Fay, Gilles Binchois, Thomas Tallis, William Byrd, Giovanni Gabrieli, Carlo
Gesualdo, John Dowland, Jacob Obrecht, Adrian Willaert, Jacques Arcadelt, and Cipriano de Rore.
Common-practice period
The common practice period is usually defined as the era between the formation and the dissolution of the hegemony of
common-practice tonality. The term usually spans roughly two-and-a-half centuries, encompassing the Baroque, Classical,
and Romantic periods.
Baroque music
Baroque music is characterized by the use of complex tonal counterpoint and the use of a basso continuo, a continuous
bass line. Music became more complex in comparison with the simple songs of all previous periods.[15] The beginnings of
the sonata form took shape in the canzona, as did a more formalized notion of theme and variations. The tonalities of
major and minor as means for managing dissonance and chromaticism in music took full shape.[51]
During the Baroque era, keyboard music played on the harpsichord and pipe
organ became increasingly popular, and the violin family of stringed
instruments took the form generally seen today. Opera as a staged musical
drama began to differentiate itself from earlier musical and dramatic forms,
and vocal forms like the cantata and oratorio became more common.[52]
Vocalists for the first time began adding extra notes to the music.[15]
Instrumental ensembles began to distinguish and standardize by size, giving
rise to the early orchestra for larger ensembles, with chamber music being
written for smaller groups of instruments where parts are played by individual Baroque instruments including
hurdy-gurdy, harpsichord, bass viol,
(instead of massed) instruments. The concerto as a vehicle for solo
lute, violin, and baroque guitar
performance accompanied by an orchestra became widespread.
The theories surrounding equal temperament began to be put in wider practice,

especially as it enabled a wider range of chromatic possibilities in hard-to-tune keyboard instruments. Although Bach did
not use equal temperament, as a modern piano is generally tuned, changes in the temperaments from the meantone
system, common at the time, to various temperaments that made modulation between all keys musically acceptable, made
possible Bach's WellTempered Clavier.[53]
Important composers of this era include Johann Sebastian Bach, Antonio Vivaldi, George Frideric Handel, Henry Purcell,
Claudio Monteverdi, Domenico Scarlatti, Georg Philipp Telemann, Arcangelo Corelli, Alessandro Scarlatti, Jean-Philippe
Rameau, Jean-Baptiste Lully, and Heinrich Schütz.
Classical-era (or -period) music

The Classical era, from about 1750 to 1820, established many of the norms of
composition, presentation, and style, and was also when the piano became the
predominant keyboard instrument. The basic forces required for an orchestra became
somewhat standardized (although they would grow as the potential of a wider array of
instruments was developed in the following centuries). Chamber music grew to include
ensembles with as many as 8 to 10 performers for serenades. Opera continued to
develop, with regional styles in Italy, France, and German-speaking lands. The opera
buffa, a form of comic opera, rose in popularity. The symphony came into its own as a
musical form, and the concerto was developed as a vehicle for displays of virtuoso
playing skill. Orchestras no longer required a harpsichord (which had been part of the
traditional continuo in the Baroque style), and were often led by the lead violinist (now
called the concertmaster).[54] Joseph Haydn (1732–1809)
c. 1770
Wind instruments became more refined in the Classical era. While double-reed
instruments like the oboe and bassoon became somewhat standardized in the Baroque,
the clarinet family of single reeds was not widely used until Mozart expanded its role in orchestral, chamber, and concerto
settings.[55]
Major composers of this period include Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Ludwig van Beethoven, Joseph Haydn, Christoph
Willibald Gluck, Johann Christian Bach, Luigi Boccherini, Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Muzio Clementi, Antonio Salieri,
and Johann Nepomuk Hummel.
Romantic-era music
The music of the Romantic era, from roughly the first decade of the 19th century to the early 20th century, was
characterized by increased attention to an extended melodic line, as well as expressive and emotional elements, paralleling
romanticism in other art forms. Musical forms began to break from the Classical era forms (even as those were being
codified), with free-form pieces like nocturnes, fantasias, and preludes being written where accepted ideas about the
exposition and development of themes were ignored or minimized.[56] The music became more chromatic, dissonant, and
tonally colorful, with tensions (with respect to accepted norms of the older forms) about key signatures increasing.[57] The
art song (or Lied) came to maturity in this era, as did the epic scales of grand opera, ultimately transcended by Richard
Wagner's Ring cycle.[58]
In the 19th century, musical institutions emerged from the control of wealthy patrons, as composers and musicians could
construct lives independent of the nobility. Increasing interest in music by the growing middle classes throughout western
Europe spurred the creation of organizations for the teaching, performance, and preservation of music. The piano, which
achieved its modern construction in this era (in part due to industrial advances in metallurgy) became widely popular with
the middle class, whose demands for the instrument spurred a large number of piano builders. Many symphony orchestras
date their founding to this era.[57] Some musicians and composers were the stars of the day; some, like Franz Liszt and
Niccolò Paganini, fulfilled both roles.[59]
The family of instruments used, especially in orchestras, grew. A wider array of percussion instruments began to appear.
Brass instruments took on larger roles, as the introduction of rotary valves made it possible for them to play a wider range
of notes. The size of the orchestra (typically around 40 in the Classical era) grew to be over 100.[57] Gustav Mahler's 1906
Symphony No. 8, for example, has been performed with over 150 instrumentalists and choirs of over 400.[60]
European cultural ideas and institutions began to follow colonial expansion into other parts of the world. There was also a
rise, especially toward the end of the era, of nationalism in music (echoing, in some cases, political sentiments of the time),
as composers such as Edvard Grieg, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, and Antonín Dvořák echoed traditional music of their
homelands in their compositions.[61]
Prominent composers of this era include Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, Frédéric Chopin, Hector Berlioz, Franz Schubert,
Robert Schumann, Felix Mendelssohn, Franz Liszt, Giuseppe Verdi, Richard Wagner, Johannes Brahms, and Johann
Strauss II.
Prominent composers of the early 20th century include Igor Stravinsky, Claude Debussy, Dmitri Shostakovich, Sergei
Rachmaninoff, Sergei Prokofiev, Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern, Alban Berg, Aram Khachaturian, George Gershwin,
Edvard Grieg, and Béla Bartók. Although composers of this time can be considered Romantic, usually their works are not
in the style of the period.
20th and 21st centuries
Modern, high modern, post-modern, post-postmodern, or contemporary music

Encompassing a wide variety of post-Romantic styles composed through the year 2000, 20th-century classical music
includes late romantic, impressionist, neoclassical, neoromantic, neomedieval, and postmodern styles of composition.
Modernism (1890–1930) marked an era when many composers rejected certain values of the common practice period,
such as traditional tonality, melody, instrumentation, and structure. The high-modern era saw the emergence of neo-
classical and serial music. A few authorities have claimed high-modernism as the beginning of postmodern music from
about 1930.[26][27] Others have more or less equated postmodern music with the "contemporary music" composed from
the late 20th century through to the early 21st century.[62][63]
Women in classical music

Almost all of the composers who are described in music textbooks on classical music
and whose works are widely performed as part of the standard concert repertoire are
male composers, even though there has been a large number of women composers
throughout the classical music period. Musicologist Marcia Citron has asked "[w]hy is
music composed by women so marginal to the standard 'classical' repertoire?"[64]
Citron "examines the practices and attitudes that have led to the exclusion of women
composers from the received 'canon' of performed musical works." She argues that in
the 1800s, women composers typically wrote art songs for performance in small recitals
rather than symphonies intended for performance with an orchestra in a large hall, with
the latter works being seen as the most important genre for composers; since women
composers did not write many symphonies, they were deemed to be not notable as
composers.[64] In the "...Concise Oxford History of Music, Clara S[c]humann is one of Igor Stravinsky, by Pablo
the only [sic] female composers mentioned."[65] Abbey Philips states that "[d]uring the Picasso, collaborators on
20th century the women who were composing/playing gained far less attention than Pulcinella (1920)
their male counterparts."[65]
Timeline of composers
Significance of written notation
Literalist view of the significance of the score

While there are differences between particular performances of a classical work, a piece of classical music is generally held
to transcend any interpretation of it. The use of musical notation is an effective method for transmitting classical music,
since the written music contains the technical instructions for performing the work.
The written score, however, does not usually contain explicit instructions as to how to interpret the piece in terms of
production or performance, apart from directions for dynamics, tempo and expression (to a certain extent). This is left to
the discretion of the performers, who are guided by their personal experience and musical education, their knowledge of
the work's idiom, their personal artistic tastes, and the accumulated body of historic performance practices.
Criticism of the literalist view

All critics express the opinion that it is only from the mid-19th century, and especially in the 20th century, that the score
began to hold such a high significance. Previously, improvisation (in preludes, cadenzas and ornaments), rhythmic
flexibility (e.g., tempo rubato), improvisatory deviation from the score and oral tradition of playing was integral to the
style. Classical musicians tend to use scores and the parts extracted from them to play music. Yet, even with notation
providing the key elements of the music, there is considerable latitude in the performance of the works. Some of this
latitude results from the inherent limitations of musical notation, though attempts to supplement traditional notation with
signs and annotations indicating more subtle nuances tend to overwhelm and paralyse the performer.
Some quotes that highlight a criticism of overvaluing of the score:
"... one of the most stubborn modern misconceptions concerning baroque music is that a metronomic regularity was
intended" (Baroque Interpretation in Grove 5th edition by Robert Donington)
"Too many teachers, conditioned to 20th century ideas, teach Bach and other Baroque music exactly the wrong way.
This leads to what musicologist Sol Babitz calls 'sewing machine Bach'."[66]
"... tendency to look alike, sound alike and think alike. The conservatories are at fault and they have been at fault for
many years now. Any sensitive musician going around the World has noted the same thing. The conservatories, from
Moscow and Leningrad to Juilliard, Curtis and Indiana, are producing a standardized product.
[...] clarity, undeviating rhythm, easy technique, 'musicianship'. I put the word musicianship in quotes, because as
often as not, it is a false kind of musicianship—a musicianship that sees the tree and not the forest, that takes care of
the detail but ignores the big picture; a musicianship that is tied to the printed note rather than to emotional meaning
of a piece.
The fact remains that there is a dreadful uniformity today and also an appalling lack of knowledge about the culture
and performance traditions of the past." ("Music Schools Turning out Robots?"[66] by Harold C. Schonberg)
Improvisation
Improvisation once played an important role in classical music. A remnant of this improvisatory tradition in classical
music can be heard in the cadenza, a passage found mostly in concertos and solo works, designed to allow skilled
performers to exhibit their virtuoso skills on the instrument. Traditionally this was improvised by the performer; however,
it is often written for (or occasionally by) the performer beforehand. Improvisation is also an important aspect in authentic
performances of operas of Baroque era and of bel canto (especially operas of Vincenzo Bellini), and is best exemplified by
the da capo aria, a form by which famous singers typically perform variations of the thematic matter of the aria in the
recapitulation section ('B section' / the 'da capo' part). An example is Beverly Sills' complex, albeit pre-written, variation of
"Da tempeste il legno infranto" from Händel's Giulio Cesare.
Its written transmission, along with the veneration bestowed on certain classical works, has led to the expectation that
performers will play a work in a way that realizes in detail the original intentions of the composer. During the 19th century
the details that composers put in their scores generally increased. Yet the opposite trend—admiration of performers for
new "interpretations" of the composer's work—can be seen, and it is not unknown for a composer to praise a performer for
achieving a better realization of the original intent than the composer was able to imagine. Thus, classical performers often
achieve high reputations for their musicianship, even if they do not compose themselves. Generally however, it is the
composers who are remembered more than the performers.
The primacy of the composer's written score has also led, today, to a relatively minor role played by improvisation in
classical music, in sharp contrast to the practice of musicians who lived during the medieval, renaissance, baroque and
early romantic eras. Improvisation in classical music performance was common during both the Baroque and early
romantic eras, yet lessened strongly during the second half of the 20th century. During the classical era, Mozart and
Beethoven often improvised the cadenzas to their piano concertos (and thereby encouraged others to do so), but for violin
concertos they provided written cadenzas for use by other soloists. In opera, the practice of singing strictly by the score, i.e.
come scritto, was famously propagated by soprano Maria Callas, who called this practice 'straitjacketing' and implied that
it allows the intention of the composer to be understood better, especially during studying the music for the first time.[67]
Relationship to other music traditions
Popular music
Classical music has often incorporated elements or material from popular music of the composer's time. Examples include
occasional music such as Brahms' use of student drinking songs in his Academic Festival Overture, genres exemplified by
Kurt Weill's The Threepenny Opera, and the influence of jazz on early and mid-20th-century composers including Maurice
Ravel, exemplified by the movement entitled "Blues" in his sonata for violin and piano.[68] Some postmodern, minimalist
and postminimalist classical composers acknowledge a debt to popular music.[69]
Numerous examples show influence in the opposite direction, including popular songs based on classical music, the use to
which Pachelbel's Canon has been put since the 1970s, and the musical crossover phenomenon, where classical musicians
have achieved success in the popular music arena.[70] In heavy metal, a number of lead guitarists (playing electric guitar),
including Ritchie Blackmore and Randy Rhoads, modeled their playing styles on Baroque or Classical-era instrumental
music.
Folk music
Composers of classical music have often made use of folk music (music created by musicians who are commonly not
classically trained, often from a purely oral tradition). Some composers, like Dvořák and Smetana,[71] have used folk
themes to impart a nationalist flavor to their work, while others like Bartók have used specific themes lifted whole from
their folk-music origins.[72]
Commercialization
Certain staples of classical music are often used commercially (either in advertising or in movie soundtracks). In television
commercials, several passages have become clichéd, particularly the opening of Richard Strauss' Also sprach Zarathustra
(made famous in the film 2001: A Space Odyssey) and the opening section "O Fortuna" of Carl Orff's Carmina Burana;
other examples include the "Dies irae" from the Verdi Requiem, Edvard Grieg's "In the Hall of the Mountain King" from
Peer Gynt, the opening bars of Beethoven's Symphony No. 5, Wagner's "Ride of the Valkyries" from Die Walküre, Rimsky-
Korsakov's "Flight of the Bumblebee", and excerpts of Aaron Copland's Rodeo. Several works from the Golden Age of
Animation matched the action to classical music. Notable examples are Walt Disney's Fantasia, Tom and Jerry's Johann
Mouse, and Warner Bros.' Rabbit of Seville and What's Opera, Doc?
Similarly, movies and television often revert to standard, clichéd excerpts of classical music to convey refinement or
opulence: some of the most-often heard pieces in this category include Bach´s Cello Suite No. 1, Mozart's Eine kleine
Nachtmusik, Vivaldi's Four Seasons, Mussorgsky's Night on Bald Mountain (as orchestrated by Rimsky-Korsakov), and
Rossini's "William Tell Overture". The same passages are often used by telephone call centres to induce a sense of calm in
customers waiting in a queue. Shawn Vancour argues that the commercialization of classical music in the early 20th
century may have harmed the music industry through inadequate representation.[73]
Public domain
Since the range of production of classical music is from the 14th century to 21st century, most of this music (14th to early
20th century) belongs to the public domain, mainly sheet music and tablatures. Some projects like Musopen and Open
Goldberg Variations were created to produce musical audio files of high quality and release them into the public domain,
most of them are available at the Internet Archive website.
The Open Goldberg Variations project released a braille format into the public domain that can be used to produce paper
or electronic scores, Braille e-books, for blind people.[74]
Education
During the 1990s, several research papers and popular books wrote on what came to be called the "Mozart effect": an
observed temporary, small elevation of scores on certain tests as a result of listening to Mozart's works. The approach has
been popularized in a book by Don Campbell, and is based on an experiment published in Nature suggesting that listening
to Mozart temporarily boosted students' IQ by 8 to 9 points.[75] This popularized version of the theory was expressed
succinctly by the New York Times music columnist Alex Ross: "researchers... have determined that listening to Mozart
actually makes you smarter."[76] Promoters marketed CDs claimed to induce the effect. Florida passed a law requiring
toddlers in state-run schools to listen to classical music every day, and in 1998 the governor of Georgia budgeted $105,000
per year to provide every child born in Georgia with a tape or CD of classical music. One of the co-authors of the original
studies of the Mozart effect commented "I don't think it can hurt. I'm all for exposing children to wonderful cultural
experiences. But I do think the money could be better spent on music education programs."[77]
In 1996/97, a research study was conducted on a population of preschool through college students in the Cherry Creek
School District in Denver, Colorado, US. The study showed that students who actively listen to classical music before
studying had higher academic scores. The research further indicated that students who listened to the music prior to an
examination also had positively elevated achievement scores. Students who listened to rock-and-roll or Country music had
moderately lower scores. The study further indicated that students who used classical music during the course of study had
a significant leap in their academic performance; whereas, those who listened to other types of music had significantly
lowered academic scores. The research was conducted over several schools within the Cherry Creek School District and
was conducted through the University of Colorado. This study is reflective of several recent studies (i.e. Mike Manthei and
Steve N. Kelly of the University of Nebraska at Omaha; Donald A. Hodges and Debra S. O'Connell of the University of
North Carolina at Greensboro; etc.) and others who had significant results through the discourse of their work.[78]
See also
List of classical and art music traditions
List of classical music in literature

Nationspecific:
American classical music

Andalusian classical music
Australian classical music
Canadian classical music
Carnatic music
French classical music
Gagaku
Hindustani classical music
Indian classical music
Italian classical music
Ottoman classical music
Persian traditional music
Russian classical music
Classical music of the United Kingdom
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Bowles, Edmund A. 1954. "Haut and Bas: The Grouping of Musical Instruments in the Middle Ages". Musica
Disciplina 8: 115–40.
Grout, Donald Jay (1973). A History of Western Music. W. W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-09416-9.
Grout, Donald J.; Palisca, Claude V. (1988). A History of Western Music. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-95627-6.
Johnson, Julian (2002), Who Needs Classical Music?: Cultural Choice and Musical Value. Oxford University Press,
140pp.
Hall, John R., Mary Jo Neitz, and Marshall Battani. 2003. Sociology on Culture. Sociology/Cultural Studies. London
and New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-28484-4 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-415-28485-1 (pbk).
Karolyi, Otto. 1994. Modern British Music: The Second British Musical Renaissance – From Elgar to P. Maxwell
Davies. Rutherford, Madison, Teaneck: Farleigh Dickinson University Press; London and Toronto: Associated
University Presses. ISBN 0-8386-3532-6.
Katz, Adele (1946; reprinted 2007), Challenge to Musical Tradition – A New Concept of Tonality. Alfred A.
Knopf/reprinted by Katz Press, 444pp., ISBN 1-4067-5761-6.
Kennedy, Michael (2006), The Oxford Dictionary of Music, 985 pages, ISBN 0-19-861459-4
Lebrecht, Norman (1996). When the Music Stops: Managers, Maestros and the Corporate Murder of Classical Music.
Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-01025-6.
Metzer, David Joel. 2009. Musical Modernism at the Turn of the Twenty-first Century. Music in the Twentieth Century
26. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51779-9.
Meyer, Leonard B. 1994. Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns and Predictions in Twentieth-Century Culture, second
edition. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-52143-5.
Morgan, Robert P. 1984. "Secret Languages: The Roots of Musical Modernism". Critical Inquiry 10, no. 3 (March):
442–61.
Swafford, Jan (1992). The Vintage Guide to Classical Music. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN 978-0-679-72805-4.
Further reading
Copland, Aaron (1957) What to Listen for in Music; rev. ed. McGraw-Hill. (paperback).
Gray, Anne; (2007) The World of Women in Classical Music, Wordworld Publications. ISBN 1-59975-320-0
(Paperback)
Grout, Donald Jay; Palisca, Claude V. (1996) A History of Western Music, Fifth edition. W.W. Norton & Company.
ISBN 0-393-96904-5 (hardcover).
Hanning, Barbara Russano; Grout, Donald Jay (1998 rev. 2009) Concise History of Western Music. W.W. Norton &
Company. ISBN 0-393-92803-9 (hardcover).
Johnson, Julian (2002) Who Needs Classical Music?: cultural choice and musical value. Oxford University Press.
ISBN 0-19-514681-6.
Kamien, Roger (2008) Music: an appreciation; 6th brief ed. McGraw-Hill ISBN 978-0-07-340134-8
Lihoreau, Tim; Fry, Stephen (2004) Stephen Fry's Incomplete and Utter History of Classical Music. Boxtree.
ISBN 978-0-7522-2534-0
Scholes, Percy Alfred; Arnold, Denis (1988) The New Oxford Companion to Music. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-
19-311316-3 (paperback).
Schick, Kyle (2012). "Improvisation: Performer as Co-composer" (http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicaloffering

s/vol3/iss1/3/), Musical Offerings: Vol. 3: No. 1, Article 3.
Sorce Keller, Marcello (2011) What Makes Music European. Looking Beyond Sound. Latham, New Jersey: Scarecrow
Press.
Taruskin, Richard (2005, rev. paperback version 2009) Oxford History of Western Music. Oxford University Press
(US). ISBN 978-0-19-516979-9 (Hardback), ISBN 978-0-19-538630-1 (Paperback)
External links
Media related to Classical music at Wikimedia Commons
Historical classical recordings from the British Library Sound Archive (http://sounds.bl.uk/BrowseCategory.aspx?categ
ory=Classical-music)
Chronological list of recorded classical composers (http://www.discogs.com/lists/Classical-Composers/396)
Music World (http://music-world.org), timeline, composers, instruments
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3/3/2019 Classical music - Wikipedia

the ancient music period, before 500 AD

the modern (1890–1930) that overlaps from the late-19th century,

Instrumentation and vocal practices

Contemporary classical music

Performers who have studied classical music extensively are said

Performance of classical music repertoire requires a proficiency

The theories surrounding equal temperament began to be put in wider practice,

Classical-era (or -period) music

20th and 21st centuries

Modern, high modern, post-modern, post-postmodern, or contemporary music

Women in classical music

Literalist view of the signiﬁcance of the score

Criticism of the literalist view

Some quotes that highlight a criticism of overvaluing of the score:

List of classical music in literature

American classical music

19. "Oratorio" (https://www.britannica.com/art/oratorio). Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 4 November 2017.

75. Prelude or requiem for the 'Mozart effect'? (http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v400/n6747/abs/400827a0.html)

Schick, Kyle (2012). "Improvisation: Performer as Co-composer" (http://digitalcommons.cedarville.edu/musicaloffering

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Classical_music&oldid=885285643"

This page was last edited on 27 February 2019, at 02:45 (UTC).

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