Professional Documents
Culture Documents
J.B. BURLAND Head Geotechnics Div., Building Research Establishment Garston, Herts, U.K.
B.B. BROMS Prof. of Soil and Rock Mech., Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden
V.F.B. DE MELLO Prof. of Soil Mech. and Found. Eng., Univ. of Sao Paulo, Brazil
495
settlements m� be so significantly in error that of construction procedures depends heavily on this
damage m� occur. information. Of course, in m ost situations it is
prudent to carry out tests and calculations to con
1.2 SITE INVESTIGATION firm the decision. Alternatively in hie search for
an economic solution the engineer will resort to de
The prime requirement for eucoessful foundation tailed analysis to help him choose between various
design is and always will be a good site investiga schemes.
tion carried out with a knowledge of the requirements
of the proposed structure. This entailel No amount of laboratory testing or sophisticated cal
culations can compensate for a lack of knowledge
(1) A knowledge of the soil profile and ground about the soil profile. Yet, there is an increasing
water conditions across the site set in the context tendency to design on the basis of numbers contained
of the local geology and tied in with local experi in soil investigation reports in the mistaken belief
ence (eg Ohsaki and Sakaguchi, 1973; Johansson, that these are a faithful representation of the pro
1970). This can usually only be achieved by visiting perties of the ground. There is no doubt that a
the site. sound understanding of the factors influencing the
mechanical properties of the ground is essential.
(2) A detailed and systematic description of the However, these must be coupled with an awareness of
soil in each stratum in terms of its visual and tao the limitations of theories and testing techniques
tile properties. This should preferably be coupled baaed on experience in the field and an intimate
with routine in-situ indicator tests, such as the knowledge of the conditions on a given site. Peck
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and the Static Cone (1974) in the Second Nabor Carrillo Lecture outlines
Resistance (SCR), for ease of correlation with local a number of case histories which underline the above
experience and practice. Because of the empirical remarks in a most instructive and challenging manner.
nature of the tests it is important that they are
carried out in a standard manner and it is essential 1.3 DEFOm�TION PROPERTIES OF THE SOIL
to calibrate the results against known ground condi
tions. The detailed properties of the ground and their de
termination is dealt with in Session I of the Confer
(3) An estimate or determination of the mechanical ence. Our concern here is mainly with the reliabil
properties of the relevant strata. ity of such determinations and their application in
analysis and design of foundations. It is very
Where appropriate, trial pits or shafts should be ex doubtful whether there have been significant changes
cavated and the soil examined and systematically des in routine laboratory testing procedures in the last
cribed in-situ. If sampling is carried out every eight years, although the use of special testing
sample, whether it is tested or not, should be exa methods (eg stress-path methods) are becoming more
mined and described. Jennings et al (1973) have widespread.
given valuable guidelines for routine soil descrip
tion. The British Standards Institution have What is becoming clearer is that the application of
recently issued a draft revised standard Code of traditional undisturbed sampling and laboratory test-·
Practice for Site Investigations in which detailed ing techniques is limited both ill aoouraoy and in the
guidance is given on the description of soils and range of types of ground that can be studied. The
rooks. Rowe (1972) has emphasised the importance of difficulty of accurate prediction on the basis of
soil fabric in controlling its mass properties and laboratory tests have been emphasised by Peck (1965),
outlines methods of recording it. A valuable manual de Mello (1972), Lambe (1973), Burland (1973) and many
on subsurface investigations has been published by others. One only has to examine a few exposures in
the ASCE (Seviger, 1972) and reference should be made �aterials such as residual soils, stiff fissured
to the subsequent discussion. cl�s, tills, highly laminated mudstones or laoustrian
deposits etc to appreciate the limited range of mate
Much effort has gone into attempting to establish rials for which the mass in-situ deformation and con
correlations between the results of SPT and SCR tests solidation properties can be realistically determined
and fundamental soil parameters and even soil types. in the laboratory. The act of sampling such mate
This Review is hardly the place to discuss these rials often so totally alters their structure and con
matters which have been treated in depth by many sistency that even a visual description can be grossly
authors (eg de Mello, 1971; Sanglerat, 1972; and at misleading. In certain circumstances the problems
the European Symposium on Penetration Testing, Stock can be partially overcome by testing much larger
holm, 1974). However, two comments are perhaps in samples (Rowe, 1972; Hansbo and Torstensson, 1971).
order. Firstly, the practising engineer should al In other cases resort to large in-situ tests (Burland
ways use parameters derived in this manner with the and Lord, 1969; Marsland, 1971) or back analysis of
greatest caution, bearing in mind the multiple corre existing structures is the only alternative if reason
lations and wide scatter of results often involved. ably representative deformation parameters are re
Secondly, there can be no doubt that the results of quired (Ward and Burland, 1913; Breth and Amann,
these and other in-situ indicator tests, when used in 1974).
the context of well established local experience and
proven ground conditions, have proved immensely suo E>.ren where undisturbed sampling and laboratory test
oessful - for example in Brazil (de Mello, 1971, ing procedures are appropriate one has to question
1975a). the accuracies of prediction that have sometimes been
claimed. The methods are moderately expensive and
It is probably not overstating the case to say that time consuming so that usually insufficient tests are
in 95 cases out of 100 the decisions as to the type performed to permit adequate statistical treatment.
and depth of foundations can be made primarily on the �oreover, when one considers the precision which is
basis of (1) and (2) above. Moreover, the planning required to predict the compression of a 5 m thick
496
compressible layer (s�), and takes into aooount the The difficulty of selecting appropriate strength para-
difficulties of sampling, testing and inherent hete meters arises in part from the problem of testing a
rogeneity, the chances of the error being consistent representative volume of soil. However, it is also
ly less than 20 mm seem unrealistic. There is, due to the fact that recent theoretical and experi
therefore, a great need for a proper statistical and mental studies have drawn attention to the importance
probabilistic treatment of test results coupled with of pre- and post-peak stress-strain behaviour in de
objective comparisons with field measurements prefer termining the collapse condition (eg Hoeg, 1972). It
ably on the basis of Class A predictions (Lambe, is natural therefore that we should expect a pause
1973). while workers switch their attention from the classic,
highly idealised rigid-plastic limit equilibrium
One detects a feeling amongst many soil mechanics studies of stability to the more realistic, but much
experts and academicians that it is necessary to con more difficult study of the influence of deformation
vey to the structural engineer and client the same on collapse. A number of recent symposia on the
degree of apparent analytical precision which under topic attest to the rapid developments taking place
lies much structural design (Burland, 1975). Such in this subject (Palmer, 19731 Valliappan et al,
precision in structural engineering is ueuall� more 19751 Desai, 1976).
apparent than real (Peak, 1965; Golder, 1971).
Moreover, it would probably be doing a service to the Finally, it is important to emphasise that although
civil engineering profession if foundation engineers settlement is usually the conditioning factor in the
made a point of assessing objectively the bounds and choice of foundation the detailed analysis of the mag
confidence limits of their predictions without feel nitude and distribution of settlement is difficult
ings of guilt or inferiority. They have, after all, and unreliable. Hence the preliminary sizing of
to deal with by far the most complex and variable individual footings and piers is best carried out
material composing the total structure and they have using a simple approach such as a fixed allowable pre
usually had no •s�t in its specification, manufac sure (q )t constant factor of safety (qul�/q), or
a
ture or placementl Indeed such an attitude may do 'equal settlement' (0/D) - see Burland and Wroth
much to improve the total design of buildings and (1974, section 13) and Poulos (1974). A detailed
structures in terms of serviceability. analysis m� then be carried out to check the distri
bution of settlements and if necessary adjust the
1 4
• BEARllfG CAPACITY AND ALLOWABLE PRESSURES sizes in critical areas.
497
properties (including structure and fabric) must be (2) Buildings vary one from another in such features
given greater emphasis in teaching and in practice, as purpose, structural form, building materials, con
How many new civil engineering graduates can adequa struction details and finishes,
tely describe a soil profile?
(3) Buildings, including foundations, seldom perform
(2) The reliable determination of the properties of as designed because of the marzy simplifying assump
many types of ground demands the development of accu tions that have to be made rega.rdin � the properties of
rate in-situ testing devices which IIIU.Bt be robust and the ground and the total structure �see Section 5,1),
easy,to use if they are to find widespread applica
tion, As well as depending on loading and settlement, defor
mation results from such factors as oreep1 shrinkage,
(3) Whatever the method of teat the successful temperature change and moisture change, A Conference
application of teet results urgently requires greater on Design for Movement in Buildings* (1969) quotes
use of statistics and probability methode if the ac many cases of damage which result from movements other
curacies of the methode are to be assessed and objec than those of the foundations, It is clear that
tive confidence limite are to be placed on predic engineers are in no better position to eetima·�e such
tions. movements than they are for calculating settlements
(Budgen1 1969).
(4) Successful and economic design and construction
can only result if the building, including ita foun Another aspect of the problem which engineers may
dations, structure and finishes, is treated as a overlook is that a certain amount of cracking is often
whole, This requires a knowledge of the total beha unavoidable if the building is to be economic (Peck,
viour of buildings and a realistic appraisal of accu Deere and Capacete, 1956), Little (1969) has esti
racies that can be achieved in design and construc mated that in the oaae of one particular type of buil
tion. The foundation engineer has an important role ding the cost of preventing cracking by limiting move
to play and may, indeed, have to force the issue by ments in the structure and foundations could easily
confronting the parties involved with the economic exceed 10 per cent of the total building cost, i.e.
consequences of 'design in watertight compartments•. more than the costs of the foundatioas themselves in
A fr�ented approach to design usually leads to an marzy cases, It is interesting that in the Conference
uneconomic structure and is frequently a major con men·tioned above, tmroerous examples 8J.•e quoted of aim..;.
tributing factor to failure (Teohebotarioff1 1973 - ple design and construction expedients. which permit
page 17). the accommodation of movement without damage. The ma
jority of these are relatively inexpensive and it is
(5) Finally, progress in design and construction probable that significant overall economies could be
techniques and the accumulation of experience depends achieved, as well as improved serviceability, if buil
on the objective assessment of results, This re dings were designed with the accommodation of movement
quires frequent careful monitoring of the behaviour in mi.nd, This approach also has the advantage that it
of foundations and structures - a subject which will avoids the problem of precisely estimating the magni
be discussed in more detail in Chapter 6, tudes of movement.
An outstanding example of the benefits that can accrue
when the foundation engineer,. structural engineer and
CHAPTER 2 - SERVICFABILITrt DAMAGE AND LIMITING architect combine is the British CLASP system of indu
SEI'TLa.!ENT strialised buildin � which was evolved to cope with
mining subsidence � Lacey and Swain, 1957; Ward, 1974).
Compared with the literature on the prediction of The intriguing feature of the CLASP system, which is
foundation movements, the influence of such movements now widely used throughout Britain and Europe, is that
on the function and serviceability of structures and it is no more expensive than traditional building
buildings has received little attention, Yet major methode on stable ground, Another useful example of
and costly decisions are frequently taken on the de such cooperation is cited by Cowley et al (1974) in
sign of the foundations purely on the basis of rather which structural flexibility was simply and success
arbitrary limiting total and differential settlements. fully incorporated in the structure of some cold
This Chapter is primarily concerned with serviceabil stores thereby eliminating expensive piled founda
ity, movements and damage of buildings. In the tions.
final Section empirical guides on limiting settle
mente are discussed, The analysis of differential The foundation engineer baa a responsibility to pro
settlements, taking account of soil-structure inter vide an economic foundation which will ensure that
action, is dealt with in Chapter 5• the structure fulfils its fUnction. In doing so he
must not only understand the properties of the ground
2, 1 SERVICFABILITY but he also needs to know how the building will re
spond to deformation and what the consequences of such
As pointed out by Burland and Wroth (1974) the prob deformation will be to its f unction. There are
lem of limiting settlements and soil-structure inter signa that the pro't!lem of serviceability is receiving
action is a part of the much wider problem of ser increasing attention (eg draft ISO 435611976) and the
viceability and structural interaction. Little pro foundation engineer has an important role to play.
gress has been made on this global problem for a num Previous work has often suffered from a lack of clear
ber of reasons, Some of these area definitions and because these are felt to be essential
to future development some space is devoted to the
(1) Serviceability is very subjective and depends definitions of ground movement and classification of
both on the function of the building, the reaction of damage.
the user and owner and economic factors such as value,
insurance oover, and the importance of prime cost. Design fo� Movement in Buildings - Concrete Society,
London (1969).
498
2.2 DEFINITIONS OF GROUND AND FOUNDATION MOVEMENT
A study of the literature reveals a wide variety of
confusing symbols and terminology describing founda
tion movements. Burland and Wroth (1974) proposed a
consistent set of definitions based on the known (or
predicted) displacements of a number of discrete
points. Care was taken to ensure that the terms do
not prejudice � conclusions about the distortions
t;:;;J
of the building itself since these depend on a large
number of additional factors such as size, details of (a) Definitions of settlement p, relative settlement I>P,
construction, materials, time, eto. The proposed rotation a and angular strain <><.
terms are illustrated in Fig 1 for the settlement of
L Ao
I
a number of discrete points on a foundation. The
details of the foundation and superstructure are A J
deliberately not specified so as to emphasise the ex
tent to which judgement and a knowledge of the struc
ture is needed in interpreting settlement observa
tions or predictions. The terms are defined in de
tail by Burland and Wroth (1974) and will only be
-- ----
discussed briefly herel
(b) Definitions of relative deflection u and deflection
(i) Settlement p and differential or relative ratio u/L
settlement 6 p are illustrated in Fig 1(a). Upward
movement is termed� and denoted by Ph•
(ii) Rotation e is the chanfSE! in gradient of a line A
•
B
•
c D
•
•
joining two reference points (eg AB in Fig 1(a)).
(iii) Angular strain is denoted by et. The angular
strain at B is given byl
<5 �A h �c
etB ., LAB + �C (c) Definitions of tilt wand relative rotation
(angular distortion) p
It is positive if it produces 'sag' or upward conca
vity and negative if it produces 'hog' or downward
concavity. Angular strain is particularly usef'ul. Fig 1 Definitions of foundation movement.
for predicting crack widths in buildings in which
movement occurs at existing oracks or lines of weak although 'angular distortion' might be retained for
ness. known cases of shear distortion. If a smooth profile
is drawn between the reference points in Fig 1(o) the
(iv) Relative deflection (relative sag or relative maximum relative rotation will be larger than indi
hog) t::. is the displacement relative to the line con cated.
necting two reference points a distance L apart (see
Fig 1 (b)). The sign convention is the same as in (viii) Horizontal displacement u be of import can
499
I
t
architectural damage than by overstressing of the Coal Board (1975) have published a simple classifica-
structure and in this Review we are concerned prima... tion of subsidence damage which is based on wide
rily with (i) and (ii), experience, MacLeod and Littlejohn (1974) proposed
a classification which is based on the Coal Board's
2.3.1 Movements affecting visual appearances recommendations.
Visible deviation of members from the vertical or
horizontal will often cause subjective feelings that Table I has been developed from the above work. A
are unpleasant and possibly alarming. Persons vary five-point classification has been adopteds very
in their appraisal of relative movement and are often slight, slight, moderate, severe and very severe,
guided by neighbouring or adjacent buildings or mem Following Jennings and Kerrich (1962) emphasis is
bers. There seems to be wide acceptance that gene laid on ease of repair. Approximate oraOk widths
ral deviations from the vertical or horizontal in are listed and are intended merely as an additional
excess of about 1/250 are likely to be noticed, For indicator rather than a direot measure of the degree
horizontal members it is suggested that a local slope of damage, The widths are based on the views of en
exceeding 1/100 would be clearly visible as would a gineers who have had experience in the observation of
deflection ratio t:./L of more than about 1/250. building performance and the reaction of occupants.
Whether such movements become limiting depends on the It must be emphasised that the classification in
function of the building (see Moretto, 1971). Table I relates only to visible or aesthetic damage,
In situations where oraoking may permit corrosion or
2.3.2 Visible damages As mentioned previously allow penetration or leakage of liquids or gases the
damage is difficult to quantify as it depends on sub criteria are, of course, much more stringent as are
jective criteria, Moreover, damage which is accept those for reinforced concrete (Nawy, 1968),
able in one region or one type of building might be
quite unacceptable in another. Nevertheless, if 2.3.3 Movements affecting functions Often the par
progress is to be made in assessing limiting founda- ticular function of the building or one of its servi
tion movements and designing to criteria of service ces will dictate limiting movements, eg overhead
ability it is necessary to develop some system for cranes, lifts,precision machinery, drains, etc. The
classifying degrees of damage. It is probable that engineer should question very deeply such limiting
if a simple system were widely adopted some of the movements as they are sometimes stipulated arbitrari
more extreme reactions towards any form of visible ly and if adhered to can have a profound influence on
damage might be assuaged. Jennings and Kerrich the cost of foundations (Peak, 1965). Alternatively
(1962), in an important study of the economic conse the provision of simple adjustments will often over
quences of the heave of buildings on swelling olays, come the difficulties.
devised a simple classification of damage related
principally to ease of repair. The U.K. National
TABLE I - Classification of visible damage to walls with particular reference to ease of repair of plaster and
brickwork or masonry.
500
2.4 PREVIOW WORK ON LIMITING DEFORMATIONS OF occurring subsequent to the application of the fini
BUILDINCIS shes. For load-bearing walls the total values of �
are the relevant values. However, for frame build
Most of the recent contributions to the subject of ings the finishes will usually not be applied until
allowable deformations of structures have emphasised some settlement has occurred. In many cases there
that it is impossible to 1� down specific guidelines fore the limiting values of � m8iY be significantly
for limiting differential displacements in relation less than the total values.
to damage and that each structure must be treated on
its merits (eg Feld, 1965; Moretto, 1971; and Wroth, 5• The limiting values of relative rotation � for
1976a). Nevertheless the engineer has to rely structural damage in frame buildings are for struc
heavily on simple guidelines based on previous case tural members of average dimensions. They do not
histories. In doing so it is important that he apply to exceptionally large and stiff beams or
should be aware of the types of buildings studied, columns where the limiting values of angular distor
the criteria used in assessing performance and the tion m� be much less and must be evaluated by struc
variability of the data on which the guidelines are tural analysis.
based.
Polshin and Tokar (1957) discussed the question of
The best known study leading to recommendations on allowable deformations and settlements and defined
allowable differential settlements of structures is three criteria (using the terminology defined in this
that of Skempton and MacDonald (1956) and guidance paper) 1 relative rotation �; deflection ratio b../L;
for design has been based largely on this work. It average settlement. The limiting values of these
was concluded that the limiting value of relative three quantities adopted by the 1955 Building Code of
rotation (angular distortion) � to cause cracking in the USSR were then listed. It is of particular
walls and Partitions is 1/300 and that values in ex interest to note that frame structures were treated
,
cess of 1/500 should be avoided. The limiting value separately from continuous load-bearing brick-wall
of � to cause structural damage is 1/150. Subse buildings. Recommended maximum relative rotations
quently Bjerrum (1963) supplemented these recommenda vary from 1/500 for steel and concrete frame infilled
tions by relating the magnitude of relative rotation structures to 1/200 where there is no infill or no
to various serviceability limits. danger of damage to cladding. These values are
clearly in line with Skempton and MacDonald's recom
Skempton and MacDonald's work is undoubtedly a mile mendations.
stone in the development of the subject and is still
referred to widely. However, there is a tendency to Much stricter criteria were laid down for load-bearing
follow the guidelines blindly with little or no brick walls. For ratios of length L to height H less
account being taken of the limited range of structures than 3 the maximum deflection ratio A/L are 0.3 x
studied or the criteria that were used to define 10-3 and 0. 4 x 10-3 for sand and soft cl� respective
limiting deformations. Five important points should ly. For L/H ratios greater th� 5 the corresponding
be noted about Skempton and MacDonald's studies! deflection ratios are 0.5 x 1o-3 and 0.7 x 1o-3. In
their paper, Polshin and Tokar mads use of two import
1. They were limited to traditional steel and rein ant oonoepts1 (i) the L/H ratio of the building or
forced concrete frame buildings and to a few load wall, and (ii) the concept of limiting tensile strain
bearing briok wall buildings. Moreover, the d�ect before cracking. Using a limiting tensile strain of
evidence is based on seven frame buildings (five un 0.05 per cent the limiting relationship between L/H
damaged and two damaged) and seven load-bearing brick and deflection ratio b../L was presented and was shown
wall buildings (six of them quoted by Terzaghi, 1935) to be in good agreement with a number of cracked and
and only one of which was damaged. The remaining uncraoked brick buildings. The above recommendations
data are based on indirect evidence in which for load-bearing brick walls are based on a require
(i) settlement damage is reported but not specified ment for no cracking so that if adhered to the degree
in detail, or (ii) so far as is known no settlement of damage would be unlikely to exceed 'very slight'
damage had occurred. Indirect evidence is given for (see Table I).
only five load-bearing briok wall buildings - all of
them damaged. The limitations of the data and the It is noteworthy that Meyerhof (1953) also treated
tentative nature of the conclusions were emphasised framed buildings and load-bearing brick walls separ
by Skempton and MacDonald in their paper but these ately. He. recommended limiting relative rotations of
qualifications are seldom emphasised in text books and 1/300 for open frames, 1/1000 for infilled frames and
design recommendations. It is evident that the data A/L .. 1/2000 for load-bearing walls or continuous
for load-bearing walls is particularly limited. brick cladding.
2. The criterion used for limiting deformation is Grant, Christian and Vanmarcke (1974) carried out a
the maximum relative rotation (angular distortion) �. literature survey aimed at up-dating Skempton and Mao
As noted previously this choice implies that damage Donald's work. Data for 68 frame buildings, many of
results from shear distortion within the building modern construction, were added to the original data
which is not necessarily the case. Ward (1956) and appear to confirm that a relative rotation �•
questioned the use of this criterion. 1/300 is a reasonable damage limit. Only five addi
tional load-bearing wall buildings were included and
3• No classification of degree of damage was used four of these were damaged. Hence the conclusion by
other than 'architectural•, 'functional' and 'struc Grant et al that the damage limit of � 1/300 is con
..
501
2.5 RECmT WORK ON FlniDAMENTAL DAMAGE CRITERIA
The limiting damage criteria discussed in the previ :19 o o o o o o c;�y;m
ous section m� be useful general guides but are un
satisfactory for a number of reasons. They are 0 ' OOOO[}P
based on observations and are therefore essentially
empirical and can offer no insight into the cause of Actual building
H[
they do not encourage the engineer to examine the
details of the structure and finishes with a view to
checking serviceability.
2.5.1 LimitinR tensile strains With these limita
(a)
'----'--:- �
Bea m - s1m ple 1deah zat1o n of bL11IdHl9
-----=-t:=; I{), �
tions in mind Burland and Wroth (1974) suggested that Deflected shape of solfit
a more fundamental criterion for damage was required of beam
and put forward the idea that a criterion related to
visible cracking would be useful since tensile crack
ing is so often associated with settlement damage.
Following the work of Polshin and Tokar (1957) they
assumed that the onset of visible cracking in a given (b)
material was associated with a limiting tensile Bending deformation with crac in k g due
strain &lim (Burland and Wroth used the symbol &crit). t o direct tensile strain
L2 H G • • • • • • • •
6
L "'
L
& b(max) 12;
•
[1+- I E]
18 .-
2 H .-
0 • • • • (2.2) 05 \. -
®
-�-·---·-·
----
L ·....._�
=
2·5: na.at middle; bending strain critical
12·5; na.at middle;diagonal strain critical
--- @ E/G
•
= 05; na at bottom;hogging
By setting &(max) &(lim) equations (2.2) and (2.3)
a
502
For a beam which has a relatively low st iffne ss in 40 Key
Frnme buildings
shear (E/G "' 12.5)
the limiting relationship is given (a) o No damage
'b
• Slight damage
by curve 2. A particularly important case is that - X X Severe dAmage
; 3-0
of a beam which is relatively \teak in bending and
lthioh is subjected to hogging such that its neutral
axis is at the bottom. Curve 3
sho�1s the limiting
%·� 2·0
relationship for such a beam (E/G "' 0.5).
These
�
curves serve to illustrate that even for simple beams ·;;,
� 10
the l imiting deflection ratio causing cracking oan
vary over wide limits.
0 6 L/H
Burland and Wroth carried out a preliminary survey of lbl loadbearing wal s l
data for cracking of infill frames and masonry walls
4 Polshin and Tokar
and concluded that the range of values of average ten
g J 3·1 x16' 119571
-.............
_ 5 Wood 119521
sile strain at the onset of visible cracking for a 6 Burhouse {19 G9)
I( 1-5
7
!���
variety of common building materials was remarkably -- Breth and
�·� 1·0 M n
---
-- Chambossc(1974)
or to
-- -
small . For brickwork and blockwork set in cement 8 ar1d Au
- �:r.
9 Horn and Lambe
119641
go
for reinforced concrete having a wide range of 10 Tschebotariof I
0.03 0.05 5
1
strengths the values lie between and per 0·
119381
cent.
oB o7 04 Polshin and Tokar
L/H
--
In order to assess the potential value of the limit 0 2 4
ing tensile strain approach in estimating the onset of
20
(C) Hogging of loadbearing walls
-----,
l1 Cheney and Burford (1974}
cracking in buildings , Burland and Wroth compared the 12 Samuels and Cheney ll974)
limiting criteria obtained from the analysis of simple I(
1-5 13 Rigby and Ocl<cma (1952)
%
14 Littlejohn (1974}
beams with observations of the behaviour of a number
of buildings - many of them of modern construction. .2
!?
1-0
For this comparison a value of limiting tensile strain
;;,
"'
At this point it is necessary to emphasise that limit 2.5.2 Crack propagation& The onset of visible
ing tensile strain is not a fUndamental material pro cracking does not necessarily represent a limit of
perty like tensile strength. Mainstone has (1974) serviceability. Provided the cracking is controlled,
pointed out that local strains during the early stages as in a reinforced concrete beam, it may be acceptable
of crack development are much smaller than the values to allow deformation to continue well beyond the ini
of &lim used by Burland,and Wroth. Hence 'limiting tiation of cracking. Cases where the propagation of
tensile strain' should be regarded as a measure of initial cracks may be fairly well controlled are
serviceability which, when used in conjunction with an framed structures with panel walls and reinforced
elastic analysis, aids the engineer in deciding load-bearing structures. Unreinforced load-bearing
whether his building is likely to develop visible walls undergoing sagging under the restraining action
cracks and where the critical localities might be. of the foundations may also fall into this category.
The advantages of the approach over traditional empi However, Ward (1956)
has drawn attention to such a
rical rules limiting deformat ions are: case where slip along the bitumen damp proof cpurse
resulted in extensive cracking in the overlying brick
(1) It can be applied to complex structures employ work.
ing well established stress analysis techniques;
An important mode of deformation where uncontrolled
(2) It makes explicit the fact that damage can be cracking can occur is that of hogging of unreinforced
controlled by paying attention to the modes of deform load-bearing \tOlls. Once a crack forms at the top of
ation within the building structure and fabric; the wall there is nothing to stop it propagating down
wards. The difference in cracking due to hogging and
(3) The limiting value can be varied to take account sagging is illustrated in Fig where the two model 5
of differing materials and serviceability limit states, walls have experienced similar magnitudes of relative
e . g . Girault (1964) has pointed out that the use of deflection.
503
One of the most obvious facts facing anyone attempting
to work in this important subject is the almost total
lack of really well-documented case histories of
damage , Until a number of such case histories become
available for a variety of building types the tempta
tion to lay down definitive rules on limiting deforma
tion should be resisted as these will tend to inhibit
future developments, It is much more important that
I I the basic factors are identified and appreciated by
I I ' I 6,4
' I I engineers, In Section of this Review a few case
histories are given to illustrate various aspeots of
� the problem,
- I I-I 1
discussed in Chapter 5·
Nevertheless, the practising
�
•
engineer needs to know when it is reasonable for him
to proceed in a routine manner and for this he uses
simple guidelines based on previous experience,
This is in
D'Appolonia
]197 1 ) 1
hogging is four times that for framed buildil?gs •
eement with the results given 1n F1g
D8llerl et al ( 1 976)
.
and Burland
4, Following Terzaghi and Peck ( 1 948),
foundations on
sand will be treated separately from those on clayey
soils, Such a division does, of course, leave out a
and Hancook 1 977)
give detailed measurements of con
wide range of types of ground for which the engineer
vex deformations alongside deep excavations. In
must use his judgement and experience,
these circumstances tensile strains in the ground may
be just as significant in contributing to damage ,
2,6,1 Sander Terzaghi and Peck (1948)
suggested
that for-rooiinge on sand the differential settlement
Recently Green, MacLeod and Stark ( 1976)
successfully
is unlikely to exceed 75
per oent of the maximum set
analysed cracking of brick structures employing a
tlement and since most ordinary structures can with
finite element method incorporating a brittle limit
ing tension material. rlhile such an approach is far
stand 20
mm of differential settlement between adja
cent columns , a limiting maximum settlement of about
too complex for routine design purposes, it offers a
25 mm was recommended, For raft foundations the
useful adjunct to future research on the relation
limiting maximum settlement was increased to mm, 50
ships between movement and damage in buildings,
Littlejohn ( 1974)
describes some important experi
Skempton and MacDonald (1956)
correlated measured
ments on the cracking of brick walls subject to min
maximum relative rotation (angular distortion) P with
ing subsidence, Such studies are essential to a
total and differential settlement for eleven buildings
proper understanding of the mechanisms of cracking
founded on sand, They concluded that for a safe limit
due to foundation movement.
of p a 1 /500
the limiting maximum differential settle
ment is about 25
mm and the limiting � settlements
2.5.3 Discussions The studies referred to in this
are about 40 mm for isolated foundat ions and 40 mm to
section have served to emphasise the compiexity of
65 mm for raft foundations, The following features
the problem of allowable movements and associated
should be notedr
damage , The simple analogue of a uniform rectangu
lar beam demonstrates that the limiting relative de
(1) In sands settlement takes place rapidly under
flection will depend on the brittleness of the build
load, Henoe for frame buildings , where often a sig
ing material, the length to height ratio, the rela
nificant proportion of the load is applied prior to
tive stiffness in shear and bending and the mode of
the appl ication of the cladding and finishe s , the
deformation (sagging or hogging), In addition the
above guides may be conservative,
propagation of cracks will depend on the degree of
tensile restraint built into the structure and its
foundation, All these factors point to frame build
(2) No cases of damage to buildings founded on sand
were reported by Skempton and MacDonald* or Grant et
ings with panel walls being abl e to sustain much lar
ger relative deflections without severe damage than
*An extreme case of a building which settled mm 630
unreinforced load-bearing walls. The evidence pre
was presented, but this appears to be quite excep
sented in Fig 4 supports these conclusions,
tional (Terzaghi1 1956),
504
al ( 1 972). buildings, but it is of interest to note that many of
the results for damaged buildings lie above the curve .
(3) Terzaghi ( 1 956) stated that he knew of no buil
ding founded on sand that had settled more than 75 mm. (3) In Fig 6{a) some cases of slight damage to buil
Of the 37 settlement results reported by Bjerrum dings on isolated foundations are reported for differ
( 1 963) only one exceeded 75 mm and the majority were ential settlements in excess of 50 mm and total
------
505
(at Frame buildings on isolated foundalions
r
250·.-
----,
/
e )(
)(
.g 200
c
..
� 150
ii
�
¥ 100
�
'0
� 50
� - � � � � � � �
I
: Max setllemenl (mmt
Sltghl to moderatt
damlge
300
J(
)(
S111f surface la\·er H H
e X )(
.g
Se\tre d.amage
] 250
)( IC:N�<tyt\o,p.!tll
Nun1ber of storc-,s
St..empton and
des•gn I mrts
Mec�'d
010
,,.
�
� 200
1962 USSR Bur'c:rng code
I:g 150
. Ma� for ng-d
1963)
:l
� -strt..rc lures
18;euum
100
50 ..
310
506
The situation for unsaturated soils can be complex as
changes in moisture content subsequent to construo p al&ev l� [
x o h'" az - v (ox + oy >] &h • • • • • (3.5)
tion may give rise to heave or additional settlement.
However, provided the soil moisture suction is not using the appropriate undrained o r drained values of
high conventional methods can be used to estimate P • E and v. Alternatively the constants are used in
t
conjunction with elastic displacement theory. Simons
For the classical one-dimensional method (Terzaghi, and Som ( 1 969) have used a sophisticated form of
1 9 43) the vertical strain & ev in each successive stress path testing to evaluate the settlement of
l�er b h beneath the foundation is calculated from foundations on London Clay .
the express ionz b & a �- • �a· z
v --y
where mv is the coefficient of volume compressib Corbunov-Ponadov and Davydov ( 1 973) give a detailed
ility for the range in vertical effective pressure account of the approach to settlement prediction in
at zo to o• + A o•
zo �. The total settlement i s then the USSR. Extensive use is made of the theory of
obtained by summation to givez elasticity employing a modulus of deformation often
determined by means of in-situ plate tests. In order
P
od .. � OV • D.o'z •
bh • • • • • • ( 3 . 2) to simplify the cal culations many authors have sought
to develop elastic displacement methods using an
*
where Pod (the one-dimensional settlement) is 'equivalent ' homogeneous layer to represent the real
assumed equal to the total settlement P • Many situation in which the displacements die away rapidly
t with depth due to self-weight , non-linear stress
authors have remarked that the use of one-dimensional
methods for thick beds of compressible soils is inao strain behaviour and threshold stress effects.
curate since substantial lateral displacements can
occur. Skempton, Peck and MacDonald ( 1 955) recog- The advent of powerful numerical methods of analysis,
nised that the undrained settlement Pu could be sig in particular the finite element method, has made it
nificant and by accepting that Pt a Pod suggested possible to solve a wide range of boundary value prob
that the consolidation settlement was given byz lems given the appropriate constitutive relationships.
The methods can handle .complicated geometry and load
p ing conditions, the influence of self-weight and com
od - Pu
P (3.3)
c
a • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
507
any displacement ) prediction is a knowledge of the has been in pavement design l'lhere extreme forms of
r
initial and subsequent stresses. Most texts on soil non-homogeneity exist. Poulos and Davis ( 1 974) sum
mechanics and foundation engineering outline methods marise the results of Fox, L ( 1948) for a two-layer sys
of calculating changes in vertical stress using tem which provide a useful insight into the influence
linear, homogeneous, isotropic elastic theory. An ob of layer thickness and relative stiffness on the dis
vious and important question is the extent to which tril:ution of stress. Reductions in stiffness near
the departure of real soils from such ideal behaviour the surface do not greatly influence the vertical
influences the stress distributions beneath founda stresses ( Oiroud1 1970). However, the presence of a
tions. Many soils patently do not satisfy the assum stiff upper layer has a marked influence on the dis
ptions of simple linear elasticity and engineers feel tribution of vertical stress. Figure 8 shows the
uneasy about applying a method which, at first sight, vertical and horizontal distribution of stress be
appears to rest on suoh poor assumptions. As a re neath the centre of a circular load for three thick
sult of recent analytical and experimental work we nesses of the upper layer when E1/E2 10, It is a
are in a better position to assess the errors evident that the vertical stress distributions differ
involved. significantly from Boussinesq. Although approximate
methods exist to allow for this (Palmer and Barber
3.2.1 Non-linearity! Morgenstern and Phukan (1968) 1940) the value of E1/E2 is difficult to assess so
studied the stress changes in a homogeneous non-linear that, in practice, the calculated vertical stress
elastic foundation. They noted that the vertical changes m� be significantly in error.
-'"z/q ; -'"xjq
stress changes are essentially independent of the
stress-strain relation used in the analysis as shown
in Fig 7 • However the horizontal stress changes
proved very sensitive to non-linearity. H�eg1
0or-----�OT2�--�o�4�--�o,6�----�--��·
Christian and Whitman ( 1 968) reached similar conclu
sions for an elastio- perfectly plastic material which
conforms to the classic plastic flow laws during -+'-
/
yield. /
/
/
/
/
Uf-'-
Distance from centre
/
/
0 q = 0·7 1
/
I
/
I /
I
I
II I
II I
2 II -
zja
I'I II I1 I
I
I ,_I . 1I II ta 1
I I ,_ 1-
I I I I IIIII llfCq
tH!zfq I I I 1
I I E1
I I I 7
I I Adhesive/ E2
I I I interface
3 I II
I I
-- Boussinesq I 1 El
• Model 1 I I -- = 10
E2
II
Model 2 :I 171= 172 =0·5
I I
I I - Boussinesq
II
1·0 �-------..J II
4 II
I
Fig 7 Vertical stress distribution for three stresp
strain relations (�!orgenstern & Phukan, 1968) .
3.2.2 Non-homogeneity! Another important assump Fig 8 Influence of a stiff upper l�er (uniform
tion that is frequently made is that of homogeneity. circular load) .
Clearly this is a poor assumption for many practical
situations whe.re the soils are frequently layered and A common form of heterogeneity, and one that .has only
have stiffness properties which vary markedly with recently received detailed attention, is that in which
depth or in plan, Sovine ( 1961 ) and many others the stiffness increases continuously with depth,
have shown that the presence of an underlying rigid Gibson ( 1974 ) presents an extensive bibliography dea
layer tends to concentrate the stresses some�1hat be ling with this topic, Figure 9 shows the stress dis
neath the loaded area, but the effect is not very pro tribution for a uniform strip load on an elastic iso
nounced, The horizontal stress changes are more sen tropic half space of constant Poissons' ratio and
sitive to the presence of a rigid stratum, particular Young's modulus increasing linearly with de pth from
ly for high Poisson's ratios, zero at the surface (Gibson and Sills, 1971 ) . The
vertical stresses can be seen to be slightly dependent
Many solutions exist for the stress distributions on Poisson's ratio whereas the horizontal stresses are
within multi-l�er systems and their main application
508
3
z/b
zja 2
J L_
____
_____
____
_ __
____
____
__ _J
__
extremely sensitive to Poisson's ratio. This oan be Fig 10 Influence of anisotrop on vertical stresses
�
contrasted with the homogeneous case where the (uniform circular load)
stresses are independent of Poisson's ratio .
change beneath the centre of a uniform circular load
3.2.3 Anisotrogya Gerrard and Harrison { 1 970a and
b ) have made a major contribution to the study of where, for simplicity, VVH �
on a homogeneous cross-anisotropic elastic material
.. o. For an isotro-
foundat ions on cross-anisotropic materials, providing
compl ete solutions to a wide range of loading condi
tions for strip and circular footings . The solu
pic material EiEv• 1 and 0
this i s represented by the ��
.. t (for v • 0 and
ine (Boussin s . The
dotted line is for a fair�y extreme value of
tions are in mathematical form and are somewhat cum but maintaining �EV a �.
E\r "' 3
The chain dotted ine is
bersome, for EafE;, a 3 and a.,;;Ji}v
'" 1 . It is evident that
changes ln the shear modUlus GVH ' which is a complete
A cross-anisotropic material is characterised by the ly independent parameter, have a greater influence on
following five elastic parametersa the vertical stresses than do variations in horizon
tal stiffness EU • Yet G is seldom measured and we
VH
Young' s modulus in vertical and horizontal have little knoWledge of tlie range of values of Gv/Fy
planes that might be expected for soils.
Poisson's ratio for effect of vertical
strain on horizontal strain 3.2.4 Discussiona In this section we have examined
Poisson's ratio for effect of horizontal briefly the influence of such factors as non-lineari
strain on complementary horizontal strain ty, non-homogeneity and anisotropy on the distribution
• Shear modulus in vertical plane , of stress induced by simple surface loads . With the
advent of the finite element method it would be simple
In addition it is convenient to definea to carry out much more exhaustive studies. However,
for practical purposes enough has been done to demon
n ..
�
E;,; ( ..
VHV )
v;;; ................... . strate that for m� ground conditions the Boussinesq
equations give a reasonably accurate distribution of
vertical stress change s . We note, however, that the
and m . . . • . . . . . • . • . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . vertical changes are difficult to estimate accurately
for a stiff layer overlying a more compressible layer
1
(for an isotropic material m and there is some uncertainty for cross-anisotropic
• 2 (1 + v) ) . soils where the distribution of vertical stress is
It is notworthy that OVH is a completely independent sensitive to variations in GVH .
variable apart from being non-negative (see for
example Hooper, 1976). The situation is by no means so straight forward for
the horizontal stresses. It is well known that the
Figure 1 0 shows the distribution of vertical stress
509
horizontal stress change is dependent on Poisson's independent of the � stress.
ratio and the presence of non-homogeneity increases
this sensitivity. l•loreover, non-l inearity has a pro In contrast for non-elastic materials (eg plastic,
found influence. Hence the Bouseinesq equations are viscous, etc): ( i ) the behaviour is stress-path de
unlikely to give accurate estimates of changes in pendent and (ii) the orientation of the principal
horizontal stress. strain increments is usually dependent on both the
stress increments and the total stress. The orienta
These conclusions are supported by Morgan and Gerrard tion of the principal stra�s of importance when
(1971) who summarise the results of model oiroular significant rotations of principal stress are likely
loading tests on sand carried out by a number of wor to occur.
kers. The results of vertical stress measurements
are surprisingly well predicted by simple elastic For most foundations the initial in-situ principal
theory. However, the radial and tangential stresses stresses will usually be near enough vertical and
show a wide variation in measured values and may be horizontal unless the ground is sloping steeply or
grossly over- or underestimated by theory. the depositional or tectonic history is complex.
Moreover, for vertically loaded foundations the direc
Finally, although emphasis has been given to surface tions of the major principal stress-increments appear
loads, attention should be given to loads at the base to remain sensibly vertical beneath the major portion
of open excavations (Leonarda , 1968).
Figure 11 of the loaded area irrespective of whether the mate
shows the increase in vertical stresses beneath the rial is elastic or plastic (eg Hajid and Craig,
centre line of a strip load at the base of an open 1971). Hence, for the case of vertically loaded
excavat ion. The departure from the Boussinesq dis foundations the axes of stress and strain are usually
tribution is analogous to the depth correction factor coincident and a major difference between elastic and
for settlement (Fox, E N 1948)1
but the open excava other types of material does not arise. The situa
tion is more complex (Burland, 1 969 b)
and has re
tion is clearly very much more complex for foundat ions
ceived the detailed study it merits. subject to inclined loads, where significant rotations
of principal stress occur.
z/H
cal methods for settlement prediction first for elas
- - - - E xcavation tic materials and secondly for plastic materials.
analysis
3. 4 TOTAL SEJIVI'LEMENT ON ELASTIC SOILS
Frequently elastic formulations are assumed. Inherent 3.4.1 Homogeneous isotropic easel For an elastic
in any elastic formulation, whether linear or non isotropic soil skeleton the stress-strain behaviour
linear, are the assumptions: ( i ) that the behaviour in terms of effective stresses is tully defined by
is stress-path independent ; and (ii) that the orien the effective Young's modulus E' and effective
tation of the axes of the increments of principal Poisson's ratio vt. A drained one-dimensional test
strain is a function only of the orientation and mag (eg oedometer test) on the material gives the volumet
netude of the increments of principal stress and is ric oompressibilityr
510
have given exact solutions for a variety of loading
• • • • • • • • • • • • • (3.8) condit ione on stripe and circular areas on the surface
of anisotropic soils, Hooper ( 1 975) has presented a
We can now examine the aoouracy of the conventional useful summary of the settlement of circular loaded
one-dimensional method for calculatinf the total areas on a cross-anisotropic medium .
settlement of a uniform circular load of radius a
and u1teneity q, on a homogeneous isotropic elastic As for the isotropic case we can examine the accuracy
half space. The exact total settlement of the cen of the conventional one-dimensional analysis for esti
tre iaa mating the total settlement of the centre of a uniform
2 q a
2
(.J;tv•
) ••.......
circular load on the surface of a cross-anisotropic
half apace (refer to Section 3 , 2 , 3 for the definition
Pt(exaot)
a
0
.. 2 q a I ( 3 . 1 2)
Comparing the one-dimensional method with the exact
Pt
•
E'v
w
• • • • • • • •
m'=1·0
0·6
m'=10·0
0· 4
0·2
0
0 4 5 6
n' = E H/E v
l�vH = O = �HHl
51 1
1·5
1·4
1·3
r-
r- ·
.
· ··
.
···
·
··
·
· ·
···
····
··
··
·· · ·······--·"
· · ·
·····
··
: ··
·
·
®
· ·
-
.·
c 1-2 -
·
- -::-==-
.
------ - ®
"
E "'
_,.
�
- -- =
Q> C
H
�"' -� .,....-:: " ....�·�--
....
......
..--- -
� ;; >»··� ------...._ Soil
2 "'
1·0
properties
�� m':0·5
" 0 0·9
�vH · �ilH
@--- 0 · 2 0· 25
� "'�- �
<I> X 0·8
� (Z)--
Stresspath
Oedomeler 0 · 2 ·0·25
w w
<D
- -- - -
{Oedometer 0 0
}
0·7 stress path
-- ······
@ · ·
Skempton & 0· 2 ·0·25
®---- Bjerrum
06
0 0
0·5
0 2 3 4 5 6
n': EH/Ev
Fig 1 4 Accuracy of various methods of settlement analysis for a uniform circular load on a cross-anisotropic
'elastic' soil.
represent the relationshi p between p �Pt for ( i) given in Fi � 1 4 are for Gw/E'v .. 0.5. If1 as seems
yt .. yt 01 and ( ii) yt
a
o.� and v•HH .. likely, G fE'v increases with E• ../E'v the overpredic
H tion of e ¥¥tlement by all the met�ode would be worse,
a
that for 0 . 5 ( n ' ( 5 the one-dimensional method but the classical one-dimensional method would still
gives results which are always within 1 5 per cent of give the most accurate result.
the exact solution.
3 . 4.3 Non-homogeneous elastic soil: In Section
Curves ( 1 ) and (3) correspond to the simple elastic 3 . 2 . 2 it �ms concluded that non-homogeneity in the
displacement method using equivalent values of the form of increasing stiffness with depth had only a
isotropic parameters E' and v• determined from theo minor influence on the vertical stress distribution.
retical stress-path teste at a depth of z/a 1 • The reverse ie true for settlement. For a given ver
(following the recommendations of Davis and Poulos, tical stress the vertical strain at any depth is pri
1968). For vtVH .. vt 0 the stress path method marily dependent on E' v and G' • Hence unless the
distribution of stiffness with·VH
a
512
It is evident that the classical one-dimensional ana 1·0.-------,
lysis tends to underestimate the total settlement but
is acceptable for practical purposes, An equivalent
stress-path analysis or Sksmpton and Bjerrum analysis
was not considered practical because of the number of
layers that would have to be analysed to adequately
account for the variation of stiffness with depth,
3 . 4.4 Conolusionr For soils which are approxima
tely elastic in their response to monotonically in
creasing stresses, total settlements obtained from the
classical one-dimensional method of analysis compare
very favourably with values obtained from more
sophisticated methods,
3, 5 PROPORTION OF DIMEDIATE TO TOTAL SEI'TLEI>IENT ON
ELASTIC SOIL
uf
to a building since it is usually the finishes which Fig 15 Relationship between p pt and a/h for a
are damaged by settlement. uniform circular load on an isotropic
'elastic' soil (Poulos and Davis, 1968),
It is customary to use undrained elastic displacement
theory to estimate the immediate settlements, Since
we are only concerned with normal factors of safety
the question of local yield will not usually need to 0 ·7 .-------,
be considered (Davis and Poulos ( 1 968); D'Appolonia, 0·6
et al ( 1 971 ) ) , The accurate measurement of the un
drained stiffness of a soil presents many problems. 0·5
Moreover, it is difficult to take account of such 04
features as non-homogeneity and anisotropy in any
simple undrained analysis,
\)�H:'i)�H: O
For elastic materials there are clearly defined rela
---
tionships between the drained and undrained para ---- -\)�H =0·2, 'i)�H = -0·25
meters which can be used to estimate the proportion
of immediate to total settlement p pt
' uf
We will in
vestigate this proportion for various conditions.
0o�--L--�2--�3�--4�-�5--�6
n'= E�/Ev
3 . 5, 1 �mogeneous isotropic elastic soilr The
shear modulus G is independent of the drainage con Fig 1 6 /
Relationship between p pt and E' E'v for Hf
dition so thats a uniform circular lo on a cross-�
E E
anisotropic 'elastic' soil.
_J!_ u .. 20 ( 3 . 1 5)
1 (See Section 3 . 2 . 3 for definitions) . Figure 1 6 shows
•
+ y
• • • • • • • • •
u - 1.5
the relationship between p pt and nt for m t .. 0,5 and
Hence for any deep homogeneous layer the proportion uf 0 . 2 , Y1HH
uf
m' .. 1 .0. The dotted line is for yt
p pt of any loaded area iss -0,25 and mt .. 0 . 5 (London Clay ) . �
. a
is eviden�·that
a
513
10
(a)
I
o�a I
\
\
\
\
06
'
�:
.. e A \
. ........__
'· �
�
Pu
p;- v· . .
compress1on line
o�4
r-1
·� �
l\
c
02 ........
0
10 10 0·1 001 0001
E�/kD
514
pore pressures and vertical and lateral displacements
beneath embankments on soft natural clays, Wroth Load on footing kN
and Simpson ( 1 972) and Wroth ( 1 976b) have successful
ly used the model to estimate the deformations and 0 400 800 1200
stability of embankments on soft natural clays, It .
........
.....,,....._ ' '
appears that the Cam-Cl� models provide a self
consistent and realistic idealization of many natural o,
'\"';c"
E
Predicted values of consolidation settlement p 0 ob ...
c 0·2
tained from the Cam-Cl� model and p d from the clas Cll
E
sical one-dimensional analysis have �sen found to be
in good agreement for undrained factors of safety in
Cll
-;:; . 0"'
excess of three (Burland, 1969� 0hta and Rata, 1973).
Experimental support for the conclusion that Pod is
�
!/)
Ol
0·3
.
c
approximately equal to Pc for normally consolidated ·;:.
0
/" "'0
clay is provided by some model tests described by 0 0·4
Burland (1971 ) , Figure 19 shows the relationship
u.. Finite element /
between settlement and average footing pressure for critical state analysis
two model strip footings. The results are compared 05
with the one-dimensional analysis and •cam-Clay' pre
dictions, For undrained factors of safety greater
than about 3 the one-dimensional predictions are with
in 10 per cent of the measured settlements , Penman 0·6 '-------'
and Watson ( 1963) obtained very similar results from
a tank test on soft silty clay. Fig 20 Predicted consolidation settlements of a
lightly overconsolidated clay (Naylor 197 1 ) ,
Net average footing pressure (k�fn21
50 100 150 200 250
It will be noted that whereas for elastic materials
we find that Pod ::; Pt for yielding materials Pod q
p • In order to calCulate Pu it is necessary to
Undrained
bearing capacity
m�asure the undrained stiffness % and Simons ( 197 4)
has stressed the difficulties of making an accurate
2
determination. He also shows that resort to empiri
cal correlations 1-lith the undrained strength cu is
unreliable since values of Eu/eu have been found to
lie between 40 and 3000 (see also D'Appolonia et al,
1971 ) , From a practical point of view the difficul
ty of estimating Pu will not normally be of great
concern because generally it l·dll be only a small
proportion of the total settlement.
G Footing test A
Simons and Som ( 1970) have reviewed nine case histo
--•
-4-
Footing test B
Theoreti<:al
Oec:Someter
ries of buildings on normally consolidated clays and
find ratios of the settlement during construction to
the total settlement ranging from 0.077 to 0.212 with
Fig 1 9 Predicted and observed consolidation settle an average of 0,156. Since significant consolida
ments for model footings (Burland, 1971 ) , tion may well have taken place during construction it
is probable that the value of pufpt liill normally be
The explanation for this behaviour lies in the fact less than 0 , 1 for soft clays ,
that as the soil is in a state of 'yieldV it will
tend to continue to deform one-dimensionally under 3.7 RATE OF SEJI'TLEMEN'l'
the dominant influence of the in-situ tat rest• pres
sures when the footing. pressures are relatively low. The time-settlement behaviour of foundations has been
It is of interest to note that, following large ini thoroughly treated by a number of authors particular
tial horizontal displacements, consolidation beneath ly at the previous t�1o Conferences of this Interna
the test embankment at Ska Edeby described by Holtz tional Society (Scott and Ko, 1969; de Mello, 1969;
and Lindskog ( 1 972) appears to be taking place Poorooshasb, 1969; and Gorbunov-Possadov, 1973). It
approximately one-dimensionally. is outside the scope of this Revie1'1 to attempt to
deal with this question in detail .
So far we have considered 'elastic' soils and 'plas
tic' soils separately. However, the majority of A s regards the prediction of consolidation settle
soft soils exhibit a tpreconsolidation effect • ments the solutions given by Davis and Poulos ( 1 972)
(Bjerrum, 1972). Naylor ( 1 971 ) has carried out a and Schiffman and Gibson ( 1 964) are sufficient for
finite element settlement analysis for such a case most routine practical purposes. For more complex
using a Cam-Cl� ( critical state) model. Figure 20 non-homogeneous or non-linear problems resort must
shows the result of the analysis. It can be seen often be made to some form of numerical analysis.
that prior to 'yield' the one-dimensional method is
in excellent agreement with the analytical result Schiffman et al ( 1 969) discuss alternative forms of
and subsequently, during 'yield', tends to underpre analysis and give numerous references to specific
dict the settlement ae noted previously. problems·. The simpler type of solution is one in
515
which the equations governing the diffusion of the traditional highly empirical procedures of determin
pore fluid are not coupled to the equations governing ing the coefficient of secondary consolidation c
�
the deformations of the soil. Solutions of this from oedometer time-settlement curve s . Crawford and
type are readily solved using numerical techniques . Sutherland (197 1 ) give details of one of the longest
For example , Murr� (1973) describes a numerical records of building settlements known to exist and
method for predicting the two-dimensional consolida obtain good correlation between the observed seconda
tion of multi-layered soils for a wide range of load ry settlement and those computed from laboratory
ing conditions and non-linear consolidation para tests. Leonarda (1973)
draws attention to some of
meters. the implicit assumptions made in achieving this corre
lation.
The more realistic, but much more difficult, type of
analysis is one in which the equations governing de Progress is being made on the theoretical aspects of
formation and fluid flow are linked in such a way secondary compression and consolidation. An instruc
that equilibrium and continuity are satisfied at all tive paper by Hawley and Borin ( 1 973) should help to
times in both the solid and the fluid phase s . Sandhu clarify certain misconceptions about se condary com
and Hilson ( 1969) were amongst the first to propose pression. It is important to distinguish between
a satisfactory three-dimensional finite element for 'compression' and 'consolidation'; compression being
mulation. Following these procedures Hwang et al a property of the soil skeleton and consolidation re
( 1 971 ) obtained excellent agreement with some closed sulting from the flow of fluid through the voids of
form solutions for a porous elastic medium. Smith the soil. Any tendenc,y for the soil skeleton to
and Hobbs (1976) have developed a non-linear elastic compress whether it is due to the action of increased
finite element program, based on Biot•s equations, effective pressure or creep in the skeleton will
which allows for simultaneous changes in geometry cause the pore fluid to be expelled thereby creating
{ e g the construction of an emba
nkment ) and soil pro a pore pressure gradient.
perties. Recently Small et al { 1 976 ) have developed
a finite element method of analysing an elasto In the past 'secondary consolidation' has often been
plastio permeable material with cohesion and fric described as compression that continues after the ex
tion. The method is used to study the behaviour of cess pore pressures have dissipated. This .can be
a strip footing loaded to failure at different rates . misleading. Secondary compression oan clearly take
place in the presence of an excess pore pressure gra
These developments are exciting and offer valuable dient and indeed will contribute to its cause. For
insight into the mechanisms of behaviour during con thin laboratory specimens drainage takes plaoe rapid
solidation. Ho�1ever1 inspite of the rapid theore ly and little se condary compression occurs during
tical developments taking place the reliability of 'primary ' compression. However, for thick layers of
predictions of the rate of settlement of foundations clay drainage takes place slowly and an element some
is poor. The main source of error is in the deter distance from a drainage boundary will experience a
mination of the in-situ permeability of the soil. relatively slow increase in effective stress. If �he
Frequently measured rates of settlement of structures soil skeleton is significantly rate dependent secon
are very much higher than predicted even r�hen t1-10- and dary compression of the same order as the primary
three-dimensional theories are used. compression may well take place concurrently. Berre
and Iversen ( 1972) illustrate this process with some
Ro1'1e ( 1 968 and 1972) demonstrates that the permeabil excellent laboratory experiments on Drammen clay.
ity of a deposit is significantly dependent on its
fabric. Thin layers of sand and silt, roots and Mathematical models have been developed to handle
fissures can result in the overall in-situ permeabil- . one-dimensional consolidation involving time-depen
ity being many times greater than that measured on dent and rate sensitive compression (Sukl j e 1 1963 and
routine samples in the laboratory. Disturbance of 1969; Garlanger1 1972 l Berry and Poskitt
t
1972;
the soil during sampling may further reduce its natu Hawley and Borin, 1973J• Garlanger ( 1 972} has
ral permeability. developed a numerical procedure for handling the time
p
dependent com ression of the types described by
Rowe and Barden ( 1966) developed an hydraulic oedome Bjerrum ( 1 967). The method gives remarkable agree
ter to enable more reliable measurements of the per ment with the overall strains and mid-plane pore
meability k and coefficient of consolidation 0v to be pressures measured by Berra and Iversen and {1972)
made . The use of in-situ permeability tests coupled Garlange� further obtains good estimates of the
with laboratory values of compressibility appear to settlement-time histories of three buildings on
give reasonable values of c • Lewis et al (1 976) Drammen clay.
Y
compare observed consolidat on histories of seven
embankments with predictions using this approach and Inspite of these developments the engineer is still
obtain remarkably good agreement when predictions faced with a difficult problem in attempting to
based on routine laboratory tests overestimate the estimate the amount of secondary compression. It is
time by up to a factor of 20. Reference should be by no means certain, indeed it is most unlikely, that
made to the Proceedings of the Conference on In-Situ all soft clays have similar characteristics to the
Investigations in Soils and Rocks , London, 19701 for Drammen clay (Leonarda, 1972). A laboratory deter
a full discussion on the in-situ determination of the mination of a preconeolidation pressure which is sig
consolidation characteristics of soils. nificantly greater than the previous maximum over
burden pressure is no guarantee that the soil will
Simons ( 1 974) has discussed the problem of secondary exhibit large delayed compressions. Simons ( 1 974)
compression at some length and referred to the most concludes that the best guide to the form and magni
recent r10rk on the topic. Mesri ( 1973) has discussed tude of secondary compression is still local
many of the factors influencing the coefficient of experience.
secondary compression. From a practical vierTPoint
there is as yet little than can be added to the
516
3.8 SETTLDIENT OF GRANULAR MATERIALS
x Oense ) 30
At the present time no reliable method appears to
exist for extrapolating the settlement of a standard 1'bL1--'-:�
1o::-:
·3 .._
l ._._,.�; - --'--'-';;!
1o:---'-- 10:-:::
o:---'------' o·-;:;
-' --!;;
10� o--'
plate to the settlement of a prototype footing Breadth B (m}
(D'Appolonia et al, 1968; Sutherland, 1974). How
ever the use of plate tests at various depths to Fig 21 Observed settlement of footings on sand
evaluate the stiffness profile, though expensive, is of various relative densities.
likely to be more successful (Sohmertmann, 1970;
Janbu, 1973), The development of these and other foundation at the same site - all of them quoted by
direct methods of measuring compressibility at depth Bjerrum and Eggestad.* No account has been taken of
is an important task. such factors as the water table , depth of loaded area
and geometry. These factors, which are included by
The interpretation of penetration test results has a Schultze and Sherif together with Meigh's (1975) sug
number of inherent difficulties. In the first place gestion that the settlement is influenced by grain
they do not readily reflect the stress-history (and size and grading, probably contribute to the spread of
hence the in-situ stresses) of the site - a factor results.
which has a major influence on compressibility (de
Mello, 1971 and 1975; Rowe, 1974 and Leonarda, 1974), As is to be expected there are no clear boundaries
Moreover, penetration tests give notoriously erratic between the three relative densities. Nevertheless,
results as do small plate loading tests. Hence any it is possible to dra1� reasonably well defined empiri
attempt at correlation requires rigorous statistical cal upper limits for dense sands and medium dense
analysis (de Mello, 1971 ) . Yet few authors do more sands as shown by the full line and dotted line re
than plot representative values of one variable spectively in Fig 21 . It would be unwise to attempt·
against �epresentative values of the other often to define equivalent •average ' relationships as the
without even stating how these representative values data are probably not representative . However the
were obtained (is mean, lower limit etc), A notable spread of the results should aid the engineer in de
exception is t�e paper by Schultze and Sherif ( 1 973). ciding what proportion of the upper limit settlements
Their very thorough analysis of settlement data cer he will use for a particular analysis or design. For
tainly deserves close study. example , when calculating a 'probable' settlement he
may elect to work to half the upper limit values in
The present unsatisfactory •state of the art' is which case the likely maximum settlement will not nor
adequately portrayed in Simons and �lenzies1 ( 1 975) mally exceed about 1 ,5 times the 'probable ' value ,
book in which various methods are used to calculate The assumption that p is proportional to q is often
the settlement for a simple illustrative example. surprisingly accurate but engineers using the method
The six most up-to-date procedures give settlements should ensure that the pressures do not exceed the
ranging from 5 mm to 28 mm even when the representa limit of proportionality.
tive penetration results are stipulated. Presumably
.the range would be even wider in practice where the Considering the wide variety of sources and quality
engineer has, in addition, to interpret the data from of data the scatter of the results, particularly for
the penetration tests. the medium dense and dense materials, is remarkably
small. It . would be premature to treat the uppermost
In these circumstances it seems appropriate to go curve (marked L) in Fig 21 as an 'upper l imit ' line
back to the available field measurements of settle for loose sands. �luch of the data relate to a fine
ment to see whether a simpler picture emerges which slightly organic sand with a porosity of 45 per cent
is lese dependent on quantitative correlations with (Bjerrum and Eggestad, 1963), which is certainly very
erratic penetration tests. loose. Such a material would not normally be used
for founding a building on without treatment. Curve
Adopting this very simple approach the results of a L may be useful in the preliminary assessment of the
large number of settlement observations on footings settlement of structures such as storage tanks ·on
and rafts have been plotted in Fig 21 as settlement loose sand.
per unit pressure (p/q) against B. In each case the
sand is broadly classified as loose, medium dense or The difficulties of extrapolating the settlement of a
dense either on the basis of a visual description or standard plate (0.3 m) to the settlement of a proto-
the average SPT value, The following references were
used in assembling the data: Bjerrum and Eggestad *Case 2 from Bjerrum and Eggestad's paper is des-
(1963), Parry (1971 ) Davisson and Salley ( 1 972) 1 scribed as 'dens e • , but this is thought to be
Garga and Quin ( 1 974Jt , Morton ( 1 974) and Schultze and anomalous as the results are in such good agreement
Sherif ( 1 973). The points in Fig 21 1�hich are con with others described as 'loose e .
nected by thin full lines are for different sizes of
517
type footing were mentioned earlier. It is olear ( 4) For soft 'yielding' soils it appears that the
from Fig 21 that the trends are not established at classical one-dimensional method of analysis can be
B a 0.3 m and that tests with B "' 1 m are likely to be used to calculate the consolidation settlements with
more successful. Indeed, plotting the measured value sufficient accuracy . The undrained settlements are
of p q from a plate test on Fig 21 and extrapolating
f difficult to estimate but in any case they are unlike
the ,r>nstant proportion to an appropriate 'trend' ly to exceed 10 to 1 5 per cent of the total settle
line may prove to be a simple and reliable predic ment.
tion method.
(5) It will• be noted that we have been concerned
Figure 21 m� prove useful to the practitioner en with analys is and not testingprocedures which is out
gaged on routine design. If a more rigorous analysis side the scope of this Review. Nevertheless, the two
is required Schultze and Sherif's method offers a are intimat ely linked and it can be concluded that
more complete approach. Their statistical analysis testing should be aimed at establishing accurately the
gives confidence limite of ± 40 per cent. The follow simple in-�itu parameters. The most important appear
ing remarks by Sutherland (1974) seem appropriates to be the one-dimensional compressibility my or the
'Before a designer becomes entangled in the details equivalent effective vertical Young's modulus E'v �
of predicting settlement (in sand) he must clearly the variation with depth. There can be little hope
satisfy himself whether a real problem actually of obtaining an accurate estimate of total settlement
exists and ascertain �1hat advantages and economies ,.,ithout this information.
can result from refinements in settlement prediction�
(6) Although the use of simple parameters is recom
It will be noted that little has been said about mended their determination may be difficult and com
silts. There can be no question that loose silts are plex. Compressibility is usually very sensitive to
difficult foundation materials and Terzaghi and Peck the in-situ stress condit ion, stress changes and
( 1 967) remark that they are even less suitable for sample disturbance. For soft clays Bjerrum ( 1 972) has
supporting footings than soft normally consolidated outlined procedures for carrying out oedometer tests.
clay. For medium and dense silts the procedure re
commended by Terzaghi and Peck is to treat the non (7) For stiff materials the situation is far from
plastic types in the same way a s for sands and those clear as it is very difficult to obtain undisturbed
with plasticity as for clays. samples and the in-situ stress conditions are diffi
cult to estimate accurately. �loreover in Section
3.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS 3 . 4.2 it \'ISS shown that the value of GVH' which is
seldom measured, is at least as important in its in
The main object has been to examine the accuracy of fluence on settlement as E1J• In these circumstances
the traditional simple methods of settlement analysis there appear to be many advantages in developing in
for foundations having a factor of safety �2. 5 situ methods of determining the deformation parameter�
against general bearing capacity failure . The de For example, in-situ plate loading tests carried out
tailed discussion has been of a theoretical nature as at various depths include the influence of the in-situ
it has been necessary to deal with complex material stresses and of GVH and E1J and this may be an import
behaviour. However the conclusions are simple and ant factor in expH I.ining Hhy such tests often give
practical a much hi�her values of EV than laboratory determina
*
tions � eg Marsland, 1971; Gorbunov-Poesadov and
( 1 ) For a wide range of conditions including non Davydov, 1973; Burland, 1973) -see also Sect ion 6.3
homogeneity, non-linearity and anisotropy the changes o f this Review.
in vertical stress are given with sufficient accuracy
by the Boussinesq equations. The stresses may how (8 ) For granular materials there is a need to re
ever be grossly in error when there is a stiff over appraise present methods of settlement prediction
lying layer or for anisotropic properties in which based on probing tests employing rigorous statistical
o;n,/Eydiffers significantly from the isotropic valu� methods. The work of Schultze and Sherif ( 1 973) is
�¥
s ess distributions for open excavations and lateral promising in this respect. For large projects me�hods
non-homogeneity require further study . based on the direct measurement of compressibility
)
(eg loading tests or large plate teste are probably
(2) Horizontal stress changes are very sensitive to the most reliable . For routine work the use of the
a number of variables and are difficult to estimate empirical ·results assembled in Fig 21 is simple and
reliably. probably accurate enough.
* *
It is possible that the initially steeper •trend' Preliminary analysis of in-situ measurements suggest
lines relate to normally consolidated sands , while that in London Clay oVHfEV
is significantly greater
the flatter, straighter ones relate to overconsoli than the equivalent isotropic value
dated sands. (Cooke, 1976 -
Private communication) .
518
of piles is not dealt with in this Review. Neither order for piles to act economically as •settlement
is the behaviour of piles under lateral load which reducers' their load-settlement behaviour should be
was dealt with at the 5th European Conference in such that relatively large settlements can be accep
Madrid (1972). It should perhaps be emphas ised in ted without a significant reduction in load carrying
passing that in maQy cases where pile supported capacity, ie their behaviour should be 9ductile1•
structures have been damaged the cause can be traced
to faulty �rorlonanship during installation. For exam The duct ility of piles which have been driven to a
ple cast-in-situ piles have been damaged by necking stratum such as bedrock or dense gravel is lo�r, espe
of the concrete during the <rithdrawal of the protec cially if the piles are of prestressed concrete , as
tive casing. Spliced timber piles have in several the compressive strength of the pile material (pile
oases separated due to the heave caused by the driv failure) l1ill probably be exceeded if the pile is
ing of adjacent piles (�lassarch, 1976). Similarly forced to settle significantly. However, the ulti
heave has also lifted driven piles so that settle mate bearing capacity of floating piles is normally
ments occurred when the structure was erected. verned by the strength of the surrounding soil
�
(soil failure) and the load-carrying capacity does
lolaQy pile groups are still designed today ( 1977) as not usually decrease sharply even when the settlement
if the piles act individually as struts with little of the pile is large . In this case it should be
or no allowance for the contribution made by the soil possible to carry a substantial part of the vertical
between the piles. The settlement is normally cal applied load from a pile cap or raft in the soil betw
culated from the assumption that end bearing piles een the piles. It is however essential that there
are rigidly supported at the toe and that floating should be suitable factors of safety against failure
piles are rigidly supported at the centre or the of the pile section and failure of the pile cap or
lower third point. superstructure in case the soil has a greater shear
strength than predicted.
Part of the reluctance of the designer to utilize the
soil between the piles in a pile group has been the The number of piles which are required to reduce the
limited knowledge of the interaction of the individu settlements to an acceptable level \'fill often be rela
al piles in a pile group and the soil enclosed by the tively small and hence the spacing of the piles •rith
piles and how consolidation and creep etc in the soil in a given pile group can in that case be large . The
affects this interaction. It is well known that the group action •rill be less pronounced compared with a
remoulding of the soil that takes place during conventional pile foundation �rhere the spacing of the
driving in particularly sensitive clay or the compac piles is relatively smal l .
tion causEd by pile driving in cohesionless soils can
have a pronounced effect on the behaviour of friction Traditionally engineers engaged in pile group design
piles as pointed out, for example, by Meyerhof (1959). have asked themselves 'How many piles are required to
carry the weight of the building? ' • \'/hen settlement
In the design of pile foundations it is important to is the conditioning factor in the cho ice of piles de
know the properties of the soil both above and below signers should perhaps be asking the question: 'How
the foundation level. The properties above the many piles are required to reduce the settlements to
foundation level are important because of the diffic an acceptable amount ? • The number of piles in answer
ulties which can be encountered during installation to the second question is invariably significantly
(for example the driving of steel, timber and precast less than in ans1-rer to the first question, provided
concrete piles ) . Dynamic and static penetrometers it is accepted that the load-carrying capacity of
are used extensively, particularly in Europe, to each pile will probably be fully mobilized.
determine the length and the bearing capacity of end
bearing piles and of friction piles. In cohesionless This design approach using piles as settlement redu
soils it is also possible with dynamic penetration cers still has to be fully developed and •rill not be
tests, to get an indication of the driving resistance pursued further in this Rev iew. Besides the prospect
of piles. Vane tests are commonly used to determine of considerable savings it has the merit of encoura
the bearing capacity of friction piles in fine-grained ging the engineer to examine closely the basis of a
cohesive soils. For large diameter bored piles plate decision to use piles. The use of piles as settle
load and pressiometer tests are used frequently to ment reducers should also help to resolve the diffic
predict the settlements because of the high bearing ult problem of pile design at the base of excavat ions
capacity of such piles and the high costs of a load {Simons, 1976 ) .
test. The bearing capacity of driven piles is fre
quently checked with load tests as discussed by 4. 3 SEI'TLEJ.I�NT OF PIL� - GENERAL CONSIDE;RA'l'IONS
Fellenius ( 1 975) .
Several methods have been developed to calculate the
4. 2 PIL� AS 'S:mvl'LEMENT REDUCERS settlement of single piles and of pile groups . The
settlement and load distribution of structures sup
In many situations the decision to use piles is taken, ported by end bearing piles is often calculated from
not because of a lack of bearing capacity in the near the assumption that the soil located above the· pile
surface strata, but because the settlements of foot point does not affect the settlements or contribute
ings or rafts are deemed to be too large . The purpose to the bearing capacity. The settlement of groups
of such a piled foundation is to decrease settlements made up of friction piles is often calculated using
to tolerable amounts and they may therefore be termed traditional methods in \'lhich the stress increase i s
•settlement reducing piles•. Frequently it is only determined from elastic theory and the compressibili
necessary to reduce the settlements slightly or local ty of the soil is evaluated from laboratory or in
ly to avoid damage to the superstructure as pointed situ tests. The axial deformation required to mobil
out by Simons ( 1 976) . In these circumstances the ize the shaft resistance of a single pile is small ( a
settlements will often be sufficient to mobilize the few millimetres) compared with the end resistance.
full load-carrying capacity of a pile. Hence, in Therefore the settlement of a single friction pile
519
will often be small compared �lith an end bearing pile medium can according to Poulos and Davis ( 1 968) be
at the same relative load (Q/� . ,t ) ' The settlement evaluated from the relationship:
ratio (the settlement of the plte group compared with
the settlement of a single pile for a given load per Ps = &- Ip . .. . . . . . . . . .
........ .. ( 4. 1 )
pile) will on the other hand be larger for friction S
piles than for end bearing piles, where L is the pile length; Es is the modulus of
The settlement of single piles and of pile groups can elasticity of the soil; and I is an influence
factor which is a function of theprelative pile length
be analysed (Poulos, 1 974 a) by methods based onl L/D. An average value of 1 ,8 can be used for routim
(a} theory of elasticity (Mindlin, 1936); estimates, The deflection will thus decrease l'lith
(b) step integration using data from load tests increasing pile length, Poulos ( 1 974) points out
(Coyle and Reese, 1966); that the load-settlement relationship is substantial
( o} finite element analysis (eg Ellison and d'Appo ly linear up to 50 to 70 per cent of the failure load
lonia, 1 97 1 ; Naylor and Hooper, 1975 ) , when the L/D ratio is larger than 20, It should be
emphasised that the shear stress is not uniformly
In the elastic methods based on Mindlin's equations distributed along the pile and that the shear
it is assumed that the soil behaves as an ideal elas strength of the soil can locally be exceeded even
tic material with a constant modulus of elasticity when the applied load is relatively low,
and a high tensile strength, This approach has been
used by eg d'Appolonia and Romualdi ( 1 963), Thurman Numerical methods have also been developed where the
and d'Appolonia ( 1 965), Poulos and Davis ( 1 968) stress-strain properties determined by triaxial tests
Mattes and Poulos ( 1 969) and Poulos and lo!attes �� 1969). are used in the analysis (Coyle and Reese, 1 966),
These methods normally do not take into account the
slip that can take place along the shaft even at
relatively lo�1 load levels or the low tensile
Also the results from pressiometer tests have been
used to calculate the settlements of single piles
(Gambin, 1963; Cassan, 1 966 and 1968),
strength of the soil as pointed out by Ellison et al
( 1 971) and Boulon et al ( 1 976} , Both factors affect The shape of a pile affects its settlement, The
the stress distribution in the soil and thus the settlement of a bored pile l'lith an enlarged base will
soil-pile interaction, The group effect is as a be larger at the same relative load (Q/Qult ) than
result overestimated, The real settlement of the that for a pile l'lithout an enlarged base as pointed
pile group will normally be less than that estimated out by lfuitaker and Cooke ( 1966), At the same applied
from load tests on single piles and extrapolated load the settlement will decrease l'lith increasing
using the group settlement ratio calculated from diameter of the base, This effect decreases with
elastic theory, increasing pile length, The effect is small when
the L/D ratio is larger than about 25 as has been
The step integration method by Seed and Reese ( 1 957) shown by Poulos and Davis ( 1 968) and by lo!attes and
and by Coyle and Reese ( 1 966) is based on the asswnp Poulos ( 1 968) , For a given degree of mobilization
tion that the movement of a point at the surface of a of the shaft resistance the settlement increases with
pile depends only on the shear stress at that parti the shaft diameter, The shear resistance is mobil
cular point and that the stresses elsewhere do not ized fully �1hen the settlement is 0,5 to 1 ,0 per cent
affect the movement (Poulos, 1974), of the shaft diameter, The settlement, when the
base resistance is fully mobilized, corresponds to 10
In the finite element method non-linear and time to 15 per cent of the base diameter,
dependent stress-strain relationships can be consi
dered, For routine work it is tod� ( 1 977) only The settlement for bored piles with enlarged bases
practical to solve two-dimensional or axially-symme
tric problems due to the high coste of three
can be estimated from the following semi-empirical .
relationship:
dimensional programs,
The method used for the installation of the piles pS .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ( 4. 2 )
will have a pronounced effect on the settlements,
Pile driving and excavation affect the initial stress where q is the contact pressure at the base and �
conditions in the ground as well as the compressibil is the �ase diameter (Durland et al, 1966; Burland
ity of the soil, Also the construction sequence is and Cooke, 1974), It has been assumed that the pile
important , Heave and the settlement will be reduced length is at least six times the dia�neter of the bas�
if piles are installed before the excavation (Butler, Normally the settlement is large enough to fully
1974), It is necessary to consider these changes mobilize the shaft resistance , The given relation
when the settlements are calculated, The settlement ship represents an upper 1 imit . Iiith good supervi
of pile groups is sometimes evaluated from load tests sion and workmanship the settlement can be reduced to
on single piles, Such load tests can sometimes be about half of that calculated from eq ( 4, 2 ) ,
misleading since the settlement of a pile group is
affected by the load transfer along the piles, The 4,5 PILE GROUPS IN COHESIVE SOILS
group settlement factor is also affected by soil type,
size and shape of the pile group and the method of The settlement of a pile group in clay 1-lill generally
construction as pointed out by Leonarda ( 1 972 ) , The be much larger than the settlement of a single pile
present knm'lledge about the effects of these and at the same pile load, The initial settlement of a
other factors is very limited, Further studies of pile group is often calculated from elastic theory
particularly well instrumented full size pile groups using a modulus of elasticity, which is either con
are needed (Koizumi and Ito, 1967), stant or varies linearly �lith depth,
4,4 SINGLE PILES For a driven pile high excess pore ��ter pressures
The settlement Ps of a single pile in an elastic develop in soft normally consolidated clays during
520
driving. These pore �1ater pressures can locally ex
2·0
ceed the total overburden pressure close to a pile.
Wi
The local excess pore 1�ater pressures diss ipate
rapidly 1-li th time due to the local radial cracks a: 1-8 L
0
which develop around the piles as reported by d'Appo ·;:;
lonia and Lambe ( 1 97 1 ) and by Massarsch ( 1 976 ) . The � l6 Llo"' Too �, s �
..
radial cracks close 1-1hen the pore ,,.ater pressure cor c
Q)
responds to the total initial lateral pressure in the E 1·4 .25
Q)
soil. -;:::; v =0·5
Q) 1·2
(/)
The undrained shear strength of the clay around the
driven piles increases gradually �lith time as the 1·0
water content gradually decreases. Piles in soft 0 2 3 4 5
normally consolidated clay will 1-1ith time be surroun 0·2 0·1 0
ded by a shell of medium to stiff clay which increa
ses the effective diameter of the piles and reduces % %
both the initial and the time dependent settlements.
The reconsolidation of the soil is normally completed Fig 22 Settlement ratio for pile groups (Poulos,
after 1 to 3 months for precast concrete piles and 1 968)
after about one month for t imber piles. Considerably
shorter time is generally required for overconsolida approximately 1 . 2 compared 1-1ith a calculated value of
ted clays. The disturbance caused by pile driving 1 .6 . Cooke ( 1 974) pointed out that the theoretical
extends only a fe�1 pile diameters beloH the pile analysis tends to overestimate the interaction between
points . When the group effect is calculated the the piles.
properties of the undisturbed soil beloH the pile
group should be used in the analysis . Two cases are normally considered when the settlement
of a pile group is calculated. In the first case the
The initial settlement of friction piles in a deep load on all the piles is equal ( flexible pile cap ) .
layer of normally or sl ightly overconsolidated clay The settlement o f the different piles can then be
is generally small in comparison with the time depen calculated from Fig 22. The second case is when the
dent settlement (often lese than 25 per cent of the settlement of all the piles is equal (rigid pile cap}
total settlement ) . The initial settlement for over and a number of simultaneous equations then have to
consolidated clays can on the other hand exceed � be solved. The settlement determined from a load test
per cent of the total settlement of a pile group. on a single pile cannot strictly be used in the cal
Calculations based on elastic theory indicate that culations because the settlement of a single pile is
even for a large pile group the initial settlement is mainly governed by the deformat ion properties of the
between 60 and 70 per cent of the total settlement disturbed zone around a pile and by local slip while
( Poulos , 1968). This has been substant iated by the group effect is mainly governed by the deformation
measurements reported by �lorton and Au ( 1974). properties of the undisturbed soil around and below
the pile group. Hence considerable caution is needed
The time-dependent settlements due to consolidation in applying the results of tests on single piles.
of the soil mainly below the pile group occur rapidly
1-1hen the soil is overconsolidated. However, Booker The settlement of a pile group at a given total load
and Poulos ( 1 976) suggest that the time dependent depends mainly on the width of the pile group. The
settlement due to creep can be large even when the settlement ratio increases tlith decreasing pile spao
settlement due to consolidation is small. ing, with increasing number of piles in the pile
group and 1-1ith increasing pile length. For pile
4.5.1 The use of the settlement ratio: The initi groups with more than about 1 6 piles the settlement
al settlement of a pile group in clay is often pre ratio will increase approximately with n, where n
dicted by means of settlement ratios obtained from is the number of piles in the pile group at a given
methods based on the theory of elasticity (Davis and pile spacing. An analysis indicates that the stiff
Poulos1 1 968 and 1972; Poulos, 1 968; J.lattes and ness of the piles and of the pile cap as well as the
Poulos , 1969; Butterfield and Banerj ee, 1971a1 and number of piles in the pile group has only a small
1971b; and by Banerjee, 19751 1976). Poulos ( 1 968) effect on the settl ement ratio. In order to de
found that the settlement of a single pile in an crease the settlements, it is better to increase the
elastic medium at L/D a 25 is increased by about 45 spacing of the piles and the pile length than to in
per cent by an adjacent pile at the same depth when crease the number of piles without changing the size
the pile spacing is 5D and by about 65 per cent at of the pile cap.
2D as shown in Fig 22. The settlement of a pile
group can therefore be calculated by superposition. 4.5.2 Consolidation settlements: The time depen
Doroshkevich and Bartolomey ( 1 965) have used lo!indlin' s dent settlements are normally calculated as indicated
solution t o analyse the settlement o f six pile in Fig 23. It is generally assumed in the calcula
supported structures in the USSR. The agreement tions that the load in the pile group is transferred
between measured and calculated settlements was good. to the underlying soil at the lOiter third point and
The authors did not describe how the different para that the load is distributed uniformly over an area
meters were evaluated which were used in the analy enclosed by the pile group. The load distribution
sis. On the other hand load tests on two carefully below the third point is often calculated by the
instrumented piles in London Clay (Cooke and Price, Boussinesq ts equation or by the 1 : 2-method. The soil
1 973J Cooke, 1 974) indicate that the group effect is belotT the lo1-1er third point is divided into layers .
considerably less than that calculated by the homoge The compression of each layer is then calculated
neous elastic method. The spacing of the piles was separately. The total settlement corresponds to the
three pile diameters. The settlement ratio tTas sum of the settlement of the different layers . The
521
4·5•3 Rate of settlements The settlement rate can
in general only be estimated approximately because
of the difficulty of establishing the local drainage
conditions . There are indications that radial
cracks form in the soil around the piles during pile
driving which increases the consolidation rate of the
soil {Massarsch, 1976 ) .
The settlement o f a pile group in normally consolida
ted clays with lo11 permeability is frequently esti
mated from the assumption that the drainage effect of
timber piles is equivalent to that of a pervious
layer located at the lo�rer third point of the pile
group (Torstensson, 1971 ) . A similar effect is ex
pected for concrete piles.
The permeability of most soils is higher in the hori
tal than in the vertical direction. For the normally
Fig 23 Calculation of the time-dependent settlements consolidated clays 11hich are common in S1-reden the
ratio of the permeability in the horizontal and ver
compressibility of the soil below the pile group will tical directions is typically 2 to 5• The remoulding
thus have a large effect on the settlements. If a of the soil by the driving reduces the difference of
compressible layer is located belo�r the piles 'j;he the permeability.
settlement of the pile group can be even larger than
that of a spread footing located at the ground sur 4.5 . 4 Differential settlementss One important
face. function of friction piles in clay is to reduce the
differential settlements. !>lorton and Au ( 1 975) re
Bjerrum et al ( 1 957) and Yu et al ( 1965) report that port that for cast-in-place piles in stiff fissured
the actual settlements have exceeded the settlements clay the differential settlements were about 25 per
calculated by the method described above. The agree cent of the maximum settlements . This effect can be
ment improved when the applied load �,as assumed to be estimated as indicated in Fig 24. The maximum angu
transferred to the bottom of the pile group. Similar lar distortion of the soil along the perimeter of the
results have also been reported by Girault ( 1 972) for pile group can be estimated from the followin � rela
several buildings in Nexico City. Clearly the mecha tionship based on elastic theory (Broms, 1976)1
nism of load transfer to the surrounding soil depends
on the soil profile. For pile groups Hhere the indi sav 2 ( 1 + v) s
vidual piles have been driven through a layer of soft 1:1.. a .. av
••• ( 4.3)
•• • • •
S
normally consolidated clay { say) into a layer of
stiff clay most of the load will be carried by the where s is the average shear stress along the peri
stiff olay olose to the bottom of the piles. A simi meter ofsv the pile group, E and G .. the modulus of
lar load distribution 1iill be obtained when the com s s
elasticity and the shear modulus respectively of the
pressibility of the soil decreases 1iith depth or the soil and v is Poisson's ratio. The angular distor
thickness of the compressible layer below the pile tion will thus depend on the average shear stress
group is small {less than the width of the pile group along the perimeter of the pile group and on the load
or the length of the piles) . For small pile groups distribution within the pile group. Immediately af
�rhere the width is less than the pile length and the ter loading the largest part of the applied load will
compressibility of the soil is approximately constant be carried by the surrounding soil along the peri
with depth, the load in the piles will be transferred meter of the pile group and only a small part will be
to the surrounding soil more uniformly with depth. transferred to the underlying soil at the bottom of
the pile group. The part transferred through the
Davis and Poulos ( 1 972) sho�r that the settlement of a bottom of the block reinforced with piles will in
pile group is affected by the pile cap. Calculations crease with increasing depth of the pile group and
by Butterfield and Banerjee (1971b) assuming elastic with decreasing axial stiffness of the piles. Appro
behaviour indicate that 20 to 60 per cent of the ximate calculations based on elastic theory indicate
applied load will normally be transferred from the that about 80 to 90 per cent of the applied load will
pile cap to the soil bet\'leen the piles. The part be carried � skin friction along the perimeter of a
carried by the soil between the piles 1iill increase pile with DfB D 1 . 0 and v 0.5. For design pur
a
with increasing size of the pile group and with in poses it is suggested that the average shear stress
creasing pile spacing. should be calculated from the assumption that the
total load is transferred to the soil along the peri
Hight and Green ( 1976) report that for a 70 m high meter of the pile group.
office building in London which is partly supported
on a raft and partly on cast-in-place bored piles in In Fig 25 the settlements of two areas with and with
the London Clay that about 65 per cent of the dead out piles have been compared. The piles consisted
load was carried by the piles and 35 per cent by the in this case of 6 m long lime columns, 0.5 m diameter
soil between the piles. Similar results have also which were installed at a spacing of 1 . 4 m. The
been reported by Hooper ( 1 973a, 1 973b) for another total thickness of the soft normally consolidated
office building in London. Hanebo et al ( 1 973) clay at the test site was about 1 5 m. The surface
found for a pile-supported raft in a soft normally settlements outside the area reinforced with lime
consolidated clay in S11eden that the applied load on piles was large compared with the reference area.
the raft Has mainly transferred to the underlying These large surface settlements indicate that a large
soil through the raft by direct contact. part of the applied load was transferred to the
522
surrounding soil along the perimeter of the pile
a
group. The degree of consolidation of the area with
lime columns was almost 100 per cent after two years
while the degree of consolidation of the reference
area was about 25 per cent, The maximum change of
elope of the area with lime piles after two years was
about 10 per cent of that of the reference area. The
maximum differential settlements corresponded to a
5• ?
2IB CIL 1 t shear modulus (0 8 ) for the normally consolidated clay
of 100 Cu : The reduction of the total settlements
l
•
�J�,----�B�x�
C --�1-
Equation ( 4�3) can be rewritten as:
13 Es
Ia) I I sajcu .. 2 c (1 + v) ( 4. 4)
• • • • • • . • • • • • • •
u
n • .!. = 2 s l l o v ) At E8 300 cu , v 0 , 5 and p 1/300, then s /au ..
0.33. By limiting the average shear stress :Yong
.. .. ..
Shear deformation
1• G E
the perimeter to 0,33 Cu the maximum angle change will
be less than 1/300. For a building this will be in
fluenced by the stiffness of the superstructure as
well. The differential and total settlements are to
a large extent affected by the construction procedur�
For example, the settlements can be reduced appreci
ably if the piles are driven before the soil above
the foundation level has been excavated. The piles
will then restrict the bottom heave during the un
loading. Also the order of the driving of the piles
lbl
is important, The soil is pushed in the direction
of the driving. The remoulding of the soil and the
Fig 24 Differential settlements of a pile group decrease of the shear strength will thus be the lar
(Broms , 1 976) gest around and in front of the piles that are driven
10 Reference area
0 Scale 5m
6
Depth m Settlement , em
7cm
Fig 25 Settlements of two areas with and without l�1e columns ( Broms, 1976 ) ,
523
\'
J�/ - ...-...,=
_.
+-
The compaction that takes place in loose sand during
pile driving has a large effect on the bearing capa z I
.:.< I
city and settlements o f pile groups as pointed out by "0
l3 100
I - --- -
Meyerhof (19591 1976). There is a substantial dif
ference in settlements between buried and driven _, r-r:·
,, /
piles. Vesic ( 1 969) reports, for example , that the
settlements of driven piles were less than 1 j10th of 50
/
' /
I
those of buried piers when the relative density of I
I
the sand was low. When the relative density was 80
per cent the ratio was about eight . The initial
2 4 6 B
settlement of a pile group in sand is generally large
in comparison with the time dependent settlement Settlement mm
which is normally neglected in calculat ions.
Pile group : gg
Semi-empirical methods have been proposed to calcul
ate the settlements of pile groups in sand. Large Width : 100mm
deviations can be expected when the conditions at a Pile length : 2000mm
particular site deviate from those at which the method Soil : fine sand
was derived,
]'ig 27 Settlement of pile groups in sand
Methods based on the theory of elasticity (Mindl in's (Kezdi1 1957)
solution) have been proposed to calculate the initial
settlements of pile groups in sand, Koerner and ( 1 976) have pointed out that the local slip between
Partes ( 1 974) have compared calculated and observed the piles and the surrounding soil has an important
settlements of a structure supported on Franki-type effect.
cased piles using elastic theory. The soil modulus
was evaluated from drained triaxial tests on recom Comparisons with available test data indicate that
pacted samples. The agreement between calculated and often the calculated settlement of a pile group �Till
measured values ��s satisfactory, however, Kovacs and be too large when a modulus of elasticity which is
Leonarda ( 1 975) point out in a discussion to the constant with depth is used in the analysis. It
article that the evaluat ion of the elastic constants should be pointed out that results from only a few
which are used in the analysis are very uncertain . well instrumented load tests on pile groups in sand
are available, In Fig 26 the settlements o f the sur
The finite element method (FEM) has been used to ana rounding piles is sho1m when the centre pile of a pile
lyse the settl ement of pile groups but Boulon et al group consisting of five piles �1as loaded (Kezdi1
1 960) , The spacing of the piles was 4D. At low
load levels the settlement of the unloaded piles in
Load kN
creased almost linearly with applied load. The ob
8
0 E served settlement of Pile 2 was about 3 per cent of
E that of the loaded pile compared with a calculated
E settlement of 40 per cent. The corresponding measured
E (")
"0 settlement of Pile 3 was about 1 per cent compared
0·04 c
"' with a calculated value o f 30 per cent based on elas
2 N tic theory (see Fig 22) .
·a.
2
...0 8 0·08 ·a.
Load tests by Berezantzev et al ( 1 961 ) indicate that
c 0
Q) ....c the settlements of pile groups in fine sand will in
E Q) crease almost linearly �Tith the equival ent width given
�
.... 12- - 0·12 E by the square root o f the loaded area, It is thus
Q)
(/)
-;::;Q) assumed that the settlement o f a pile group is inde
a;
(/) pendent of the spacing and the diameter of the piles.
16 0 · 16 Vesic ( 1 9681 1969) found from an analysis of data re
ported by Berezantzev et al ( 1 968) and from his own
3 0 _j_ investigations that the settlement o f a pile group is
Pile group : 2° -,- 4 0 approximately proportional to ./BID, �There B .is the ·
1 .
width of the pile group and D is the pile diameter.
Fig 26 Settlement of piles adjacent to a load test Skempton ( 1 953) has found that the settlement of a
in sand (Kezdi1 1 960) pile group in sand is mainly affected by the width of
524
the pile group as expressed by the following equation times the static penetration resistance. For driven
or jacked piles, the value of E �1ill bo 25 to
[�:i]
2 50 times the statio penetration resistance .
( 4.5)
• • • • • • • • • • •
Pa 1 + 1/r • • • • • • •
settlement of a pile group consisting of four piles For silty sand the settlement is expected to be equal
at the same total load decreases with decreasing to twice the settlement calculated by the equation
pile spacing and that this decrease is mainly caused given above . A comparison with test data indicates
by an increase of the ultimate strength with decreas that the settlement estimated by eq (4.8) will be
ing pile spacing. Model tests carried out by Hanna somewhat larger than the actual settlement.
(1963 ) indicate that the settlement ratio decreases
with increasing load level and with decreasing length The settlements can also be estimated from static
/width ratio of the pile group. penetration tests (Meyerhof 1 197 4)
Available test data seem to indicate that the settle
ments of a pile group can be overestimated by the Pgroup .. � :� • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ( 4.10)
methods mentioned above when the piles have been dri
ven through a layer of soft clay into an underlying where q c is the average cone resistance down to a
layer of sand or gravel and the applied load is main depth equal to the width of the pile group ( the seat
ly carried by the pile point rather than the skin of the settlements) . If the sand is overconsolida
friction (Broms1 19671 1972 and 1976). Similar con ted the settlements of the pile group will be over
clusions have also been drawn by Leonarda ( 1 972) and estimated by eq ( 4.10) as well as in the case when
Vesio ( 1 975) from an analysis of the test data re p or the thickness of the sand layer bel01t the pile group
ted by Berezantzev et al ( 1 961 ) . Leonarda (1972) is less than the width of the group. In that case
points out that the correlation of the settlement the calculated settlement m� be reduced in propor
ratio with pile geometry can be misleading if infor tion to the thickness of the compressible layer.
mation of the relative load transfer (shaft and point
resistance) is not available . Considerable uncertainty is connected with the calcu
lations of the settlements of pile groups in cohe
The settlements o f pile groups in cohesionless soils sionless soils. The presently available methods are
can also be calculated from the results from static not satisfactory as pointed out by Kovacs and
penetration tests. The pile group is assumed to be Leonarda (1975) . The main difficulties are the eva
equivalent to a raft located at the lower third point luation of the soil properties from the field and
of the piles. The soil below the equivalent raft is laboratory tests, which are used in the different
divided into layers and the compression of each layer design methods, the changes of the soil properties
is calculated separately. Alternatively the approxi that take place during driving or excavation and how
mate empirical method shown in Fig 21 can be used. these changes can be taken into account . The compac
The compressibility index of the soil is evaluated tion that takes place during pile driving will reduce
from the relationship (DeBeer and Martens, 1957)1 the settlements appreciably compared with those for
bored piles. With presently available methods only
• . . . • . . . . . . . . . ( 4.7) rough estimates of this reduction can be made •
where q 0 is the average penetration resistance of the Only a few investigations have been concerned \'lith
different layers and p'0 is the effective overburden the differential settlements of pile groups. Test
pressure at the centre of the layer. Comparisons data suggest that friction piles will have a larger
with test data indicate that the total settlements as effect on the differential settlements than on the
calculated by this method will be two to three times total settlements.
larger than the actual settlement. However Parker and
B�liss ( 1 970) have used this method to check the
settlements of four sugar silos and the agreement CHAPTER 5 - SOIL/STRUCTURE lliTERACTION
between calculated and measured settlements was satis
factory. So far in this Review \'le have dealt \'lith the behaviour
of buildings and structures (Chapter 2) and the beha
Vesio ( 1 968) has suggested from a comparison with viour of foundations and the underlying ground (Chap
test data that the value of E to be used in cal ters 3 and 4) It is the interaction bet1teen the t\'IO
•
culating settlements of buried piles is 6 to 9 which ultimately determine the success or otherwise
525
of the total structure. 'l'he subject I'IBS discussed have t o be designed to withstand any likely magnitude
briefly in Chapter 2 when routine limiting settlements and distribution of loads . Often all the attention
were considered . In this Chapter some analytical in structural design is devoted to the sizing of in
/
aspects of soil structure interaction 1·1ill be presen dividual members with little or no analysis of the
ted briefly. Ho1·1ever, in discussing a subject of overall structure.
this complexity it is essential that the idealizations
that are being made should be thoroughly understood. 5 . 1 .6 Structural properties: The materials compo
Reference should also be made to a valuable discussion sing the building or structure are probably somewhat
on this topic by Peck ( 1 965). easier to model than the ground. Nevertheless, the
stress deformation properties of the various compo
5.1 IDEALIZATION AND REALI'PY nents that make up a building are complex, particu
larly with regard to creep, thermal and moisture
Analytical methods have been developing so rapidly effects. J�oreover the actual properties tas built Q
over the last fe1-1 years that it l'lill soon be possible undoubtedly differ significantly from those that are
to solve most boundary value problems in structural specified.
mechanics given (i ) the geometrY; ( ii ) the material
properties and ( iii ) the loading. Yet even �lith un It is evident from the foregoing that even if engi
limited analytical po�1er at their disposal engineers neers were in possession of unlimited analytical
would not be very much better off than at present power the uncertainties in both the soil and the
l'lhen attempting to design for soil-structure inter superstructure are so great that precision in the
action. It is worth considering briefly some of the prediction of behaviour would be unlikely to improve
idealizations that have to be made under the above significantly. As in so mlllly fields of engineering,
three headings , dealing first with the soil and analysis is only one of the many tools required in
secondly with the superstructure: designing for soil-structure interaction. In most
circumstances the real value of analysis will be in
5.1 . 1 Soil geometrY: Every foundation problem en assisting the engineer to place bounds on likely over
tails a site investigation and on the basis of very all behaviour or in assessing the influence of vari
limited data judgements and idealizations have to be ous detailed construction features, eg a local stiff
made about the continuity and thickness of the vari ening due to a deep beam or a shear wall ( say ) .
ous strata. In most cases the cost of drilling
sufficient boreholes to adequately define the 5.2 THE CONSTRUCTION SE};).UENCE
y of the ground is prohibitive and it is sel
geometr
dom that the engineer has more than an approximate Figure 28 is a simple diagrammatic representation of
model. the net loading and settlements of a simple frame
building founded on a raft during and subsequent to
5 . 1 .2 Soil properties: The difficult ies of obtai construct ion. During excavation some uplift of the
ning reasonable in-situ values of compressibility, soil will occur. The raft will then be constructed
undrained stiffness and permeability have been empha and will be influenced by the differential settlements
sised in this Revielf• Such 'simple' proper·ties may thereafter. As the structural load is applied short
be adequate for settlement calculations but detailed term settlements take place, the part of the structure
behaviour, such as local pressure distributions and in existence distorts and the overall stiffness gra
relative displacements, is much more sensitive to the dually increase s . The oladding is then added and
form of the stress-strain-time properties of the soil this may substantially increase the stiffness of the
and their local variations . The task of accurately building. Finally, the live load is applied, It
ascertaining realistic in-situ constitutive relations will be noted that not all the components of the buil
of most natural soils and the variations with depth ding are subject to the same relative deflections,
and plan is formidable. The relative deflections experienced by the raft will
c
0 � Ol "0
5 . 1 .3 Resultant foundation loads: The resultant ·� ::> c .,
> ti :0 .Q
loads ( as opposed to their distribution ) acting on a "'
2 "0 .,
q. (.)
)(
"'
-�
foundation are usually reasonably well defined. The w Ui u -'
greatest difficulties arise for structures subject to
dynamic forces, eg \·Taves, earthquakes, etc. For rou
tine buildings the largest uncertainty is the precise
order in which the loads are applied, eg the method
of excavat ion or order of construction.
p
5.1 • 5 Structural loading: Unlike the resultant
foundation loads the structural loading usually can Fig 28 Settlements and relative deflections during
not be ascertained accurately. Individual members and subsequent to construction,
526
be the largest. Those experienced by the structural of buildings will be difficult to apply. De l•lello
II!Smbers will vary with location and level in the ( 1 969) has emphasised the lack of logic in relating
building. The shaded portion in Fig 28 represents such information to computed differential settlements
the relative deflections affecting the cladding, which neglect the stiffness of the structures .
partitions and finishes and are therefore the cause
of any arohiteotural damage . A first approach i s t o represent the building by a
simple equivalent raft having a similar overall stiff
It is evident from Fig 28 that the likelihood of ness. Gorbunov-Possadov and Davydov (1973) and
damage �lill diminish the larger the proportion of Fraser (1976) have summarised the development of the
immediate to long-term settlement Pi!Pt t the smaller stuey of beams and rafts on elastic foundations. Hith
the ratio of live to dead load and the later the the advent of electronic digital computers consider
stage at which the finishes etc are applied. It able progress has been made in the stuey of beams and
should be noted that the proportion of immediate to rafts on elastic and inelastic ground, An important
long-term settlement is influenced by the net in factor is the stiffness of the raft in relation to
crease in effective stress and the amount or-consoli the stiffness of the ground and this ratio is denoted
dation taking place during construction as �rell as by Kv • It can be sho1m that for a simple rectangu
the faotors discussed in Section 3 . 4. It is frequent lar raft of length L and breadth B resting on a homo
ly stated that the building materials are less prone geneous elastic half space the relative stiffness:
to damage when distortions develop over a long period E .I ( 1 - V 2 )
and this appea.x<s reasonable , although Grant et al r r s
Kr a (5.1)
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
(1972) found little direct evidence to support it. E B3
s
5.3 THE INFLUE:lCE OF NON-HOJ.IOG.ENEITY E
a ..!:
E
In Section 3.2.2 the influence of varying stiffness s
�rith depth ,.,as discussed. This type of non-homogen l·lhere the subscripts r and s refer to the raft and
eity has a very important influence on the form and soil respectively, Ir is the moment of inertia of the
extent of the •settlement bowl ' around a loaded area, raft per unit length and t is the thickness of the
For example, Terzaghi (1 943, p 426) shows that an raft . It is important to note that various expres
underlying rigid stratum concentrates the surface sions for relative stiffi1ess differ in the choice of
movements around the loaded area, Gibson { 1 967, proportionality constant , In general 'B' may be
1974) noted a similar effect for increasing stiffness thought of as a characteristic dimension, \·/hen refer
l-rith depth. Conversely a stiff overlying layer liill ring to a specific value of relative stiffness it is
disperse the settlements further from the loaded ah1ays necessary to define Kr '
area. In Section 6,3 some field observations con
firming these findings are presented. The sensitivi Bro�m ( 1969a1 b and 197 4) has studied the case of a
ty of surface settlements to non-homogeneity clearly uniformly loaded circular raft in frictionless con
has to be taken into account in any soil-structure tact with an elastic half space, Hooper ( 1 974, 1975)
interaction analysis. Lateral variations of compres has used the finite element method to stuey the same
sibility are clearly significant, but surprisingly problem for the case of adhesive contact and parabolic
little work has been done on the influence of this loading as lrell as uniform loading. These authors
form of non-homogeneity on stress distributions be present the results as curves of total and differen
neath loaded areas . tial settlement and bending moment against relative
stiffness � lrhich is defined as:
5 4
• ANALYSIS OF SOIL/STRUCTURE INTERACTION 2 3
E (1
r
-
s )
V
t
It is important to distinguish bet,;een t1·ro broad ob E ( a)
-
527
was shown to be a reasonable assumption for the ver It can be seen from Fig 29 that the most rapid chan
tical stresses, except for stiff surface layers over ges in performance is in the range of 0,05 < K < 1
lying soft layers, Hence some care is needed when for lAB and 0 , 1 ( Kr < 1 0 for lAc and lAD' Warlle and
applying the method to this case, Hooper and Wood Fraser include charts which allo1� for �e depth of
( 1976) obtained satisfactory agreement 1·1ith exact the elastic layer, They also outline approximate
values over a �1ide range of soil heterogeneity, methods for dealing with a multi-layered soil system
by means of a simple equivalent layer,
Hardle and Fraser ( 1 974) use a more precise procedure
based on the exact stress distribution within a lay Charts of the type developed by Fraser and Wardle
ered anisotropic elastic soil, Using this method should prove valuable for routine design purposes or
Fraser and Wardle ( 1 976) examine the behaviour of for preliminary design prior to a complete analysis,
smooth uniformly loaded rectangular rafts of any The stiffness of the superstructure can be included
rigidity resting on a homogeneous elastic layer in this type of simple analysis using the approximate
underlain by a rough rigid base, Graphical solutions methods outlined by Meyerhof (1 953) for estimating
are presented of the vertical displacements at the the equivalent flexural rigidity of a frame super
centre, mid-edges and corner of the raft and the max structure including panels and shear walls, This
imum bending moment in the raft , method 1�s endorsed by the American Concrete Insti
tute, Committee No 436 in its report •su�gested pro
Some typical results of relative deflections are cedures for combined footings and mats' (de Simone ,
given in Fig 29 for a raft with L/B .. 2 on a semi 1966).
infinite half space, The stiffness factor is
defined by: The value of a simple approach of this type is illus
..4 E ( 1 trated by the results of very complete settlement ob
r servations on four buildings in the city of Santos,
Kr
3 E (1 - ( 5. 4)
• • • • • • • • • •
ill
taken of the stiff upper sand layer, cladding etc,
I 0·8 Ic Further field studies of this type are required to
. B
study the influence of superstructure stiffness on
lAc
relative deflections ( eg Rabiuovioi1 1970),
0·6 D C For more complex conditions such as non-homogeneous
lAo
ground, buildings 1'1hioh are non-rectangular in plan
or non-uniform loadings, computer programs of the
0 ·4 JAB type developed b;y Larnach and Hood ( 1 974) and Fraser
and Hardle ( 1 97 4) can be used to carry out. simplified
calculations to estimate the deflection ratios. 'i'he
0·2
deformed profiles can then be used to: (i) locate
areas of high tensile strain (see Section 2,5 ) 1 or
(ii) compare directly with field evidence of the type
given in Fig 41 or (iii) compare Hith routine limit
0 ing values of the type discussed in Section 2,4,
0·0001 0001 001 01 10 100
K,
5 , 4,2 Detailed analysis: As mentioned previously a
Fig 29 Settlement and differential settlement in higher order of sophistication is required if detail
fluence factors for a rectanular raft on an ed analysis of forces and stresses acting on founda
elastic half space (�'raser and Wardle1 1 976) tions and structural members is required, Numerous
528
II
15 storeys
•,1 •· �
BuH ing A
}< - 35·6 m
.
., ,. 12·3m - -i ��L
Major axis Minor axis
-
E 100 '
, / Flexible load 2 3 x103 2·6x10 3
E
- -- prediction
� .... _ _ _ _ _ _ ,... ,...
�' ...... __ ....""
- Measured . . . . . . . . . . . 0·39xl0
-3
0·77x10
-3
200
Major axis Minor axis
12 storeys Building C
1.' .... t; '/
h ·IIIII
1- - - - 33·5m
., 1- - 190m - -J �jL
200
Major axis Minor axis
�400 -
600
� �
��
----
'
' "
/
--- Flexible load
prediction
. 4·6x10 3
-3
9·6x10 3
-3
-- ' �
... _ _ _ _ ...
- Measured . . . . . . . . . . . . 096x10 0·95x10
----- - ------
800
Major axis Minor axis
12 storeys Building D
ll I· ·I
Fig 30 Observed settlement profiles of three buildings in Santos, Brazil ( Machado, 1961 ) compared \�ith
predictions using flexible loads.
studies of this type have been carried out often placed on the problem. So often papers are published
using springs to represent the soil but more recent sho�ring pressure distributions or bending moment dis
ly using more realistic models. The finite element tributions with no indication of the sensitivity of
idealization is particularly suited to the solution these to the various assumptions . It is not infre
of plans or axisymmetric problems eg Smith, 1 970; ( quent that a foundat ion \�hich is expected to 'sag'
Hooper, 1 973 .) However, only the simplest of struc actually experiences 'hogging' and an example of such
tures can be analysed in this way and resort must a case is given in Section 6 . 4 see also Erb, 1963 . ( )
usually be mads to a three-dimensional analysis.
Recent examples are given by King and Chandrasekaran
( )
197 4a and b and Majid and Gunnell 1 976 , 1·rho have ( ) CHAP'J.'ER 6 - lofONITORlliG 'l'HE BEHAVIOUR OF FOUNDATIONS
studied the influence of soil-structure interaction AND STRUCTURES
on the bending moments in frame structures.
Instrumentation of earth structures has become accep-
The use of half-space or layer theory coupled \'lith a . ted practice. Indeed, field instrumentation is no1-r
suitable idealization of the structure offers many so widely and extensively carried out that Peck 1 973 ( )
(
advantages Fraser and l'lardle, 1976 . lo!eyerhof ) felt it necessary to warn against carrying it to ex
( )
1 9 47 obtained results for a simple plane frame us cess. Ho\�ever, in contrast to most other types of
ing this approach and recently studies of increasing structure the instrumentation of buildings has been
sophistication have been reported including time very restricted apart from simple settlement observa
effects, non-linearity and change of stiffness during tions. The explanation is undoubtedly that the rela
(
construction eg Sommer, 1965; Heil, 1969; Larnach , tive cost of instrumentation is much greater for a
1970; De Jong and Morgenstern, 1 971 ; Larnach and (
building than for a dam say . Nevertheless, in most )
Hood, 1 972; Klepikov et al, 1973; Binder and Orti countries the overall investment in building construc
gosa, 1 975; and Brown, 1 975b . Very general computer ) tion is at least as great as in major civil engineer
programs have been \�itten employing these methods ing \-rorks. A better understanding of the behaviour
(�lardle and Fraser, 1975; Larnach and Hood1 1974 ) of the ground and its interaction \·rith foundat ion and
which can handle rafts and footings of arbitrary structure must lead to better design and the prospect
shape and rigidity and superstructures made up of of reductions in overall expenditure.
plate and beam elements . It is to be hoped that in
the near future the influence of pile groups will be 6.1 INSTRill�
included perhaps by means of equivalent rafts which
include shear deformat ions as �rell as bending. It goes �ri thout saying that successful field measure
ments can only be made if the instruments are ade
Programs of this type should prove very useful to the quate. They should be simple , reliable , stable,
engineer �rishing to investigate special soil-struc cheap and easy to install and use and above all
ture interaction problems in detail. Ho\�ever, in robust and durable. The measurements require careful
doing so he should always bear in mind the limita planning, preferably at the design stage , so that all
tions in kno1�ledge about the ground and structure the parties involved are fully aware of what is being
listed at the beginning of the Chapter. �enever done. One person should be responsible for the or
possible, sensitivity studies should be carried out dering, acceptance, installallation, reading and
so that realistic upper and lower bounds can be maintenance of the equipment . Having made all the
529
plans, success depends on the dedication and perse is to be excavated �1hile the lower points are safe
verance of the staff carrying out the work. from disturbance (Fig 31o) . Reoent examples of the
use of borehole extensometers in deep excavations are
6.1 . 1 Measurement of vertical movement 1 There can given by Simm and Busbridge ( 1 976) 1 Parkinson and
be no argument that the precise level is an essential Fenoux ( 1 976 ) 1 Tomono 1 Kakurai and Okada ( 1 976) and
instrument for field measurements . The techniques Burland and Hancock ( 1 977).
and organisation of settlement measurements have been
discussed by Cheney ( 1973) who also describes simple 6 . 1 .2 Measurement of horizontal movement! The im
and unobtrusive levelling stations and datums, The portance of horizontal movement in foundation perfor
provision of deep datums is very expensive and is mance is often overlooked. Relative horizontal dis
not always necessary. In many cases levelling sta placements of the ground are particularly significant
tions on nearby structures which are founded below around excavations, areas of subsidence, and founda
the depth of seasonal influence and have been in tions subjected to lateral load. Burland and Moore
existence for a number of years are adequate, but at ( 1 973) and Littlejohn ( 1 973) have described techni
least two and preferably three such datums should be ques for the measurement of horizontal displacements.
used, As for vertical movement the value of the results is
greatly enhanced if horizontal movements are measured
The evaluation of the underlying soil properties from at various depths as well as at the surface.
surface settlements is not straight forward and Lambe
( 1 973) has gone so far as to state that such measure 6 . 1 , 3 Measurement of loadl Measurements of loads
ments are often of little or no value . The value of are clearly of great importance in any soil/structure
settlement observations is greatly enhanced if the interaction study. The principal techniques of load
compression of various discrete l�ers beneath the measurement are well understood, but the very hostile
foundation is also measured. Not only is the prin environments and long time scales involved with moni
cipal seat of movement revealed but also an accurate toring of foundations often make such measurements
calculation of the in-situ compressibility of the difficult and expensive. Load cells have to be ex
various strata can be made. Examples of field mea ceptionally stable and immune from the effects of
surements of this t� e are given by Ge� rov and moisture, rust and chemical attaok. Hanna ( 1973)
Nichiporovioh ( 1 96 1 ) 1 Ward et al ( 1 968) 1 Dalmatov et describes the basic features of a number of load cells
al ( 1 973) , Kriegel and Wiesner (1973), Egorov et al 1-rhich have apparently been used successfully in
( 1 97 4) and Breth and Amann (1974). When combined foundation instrumentation. It would appear that
with pore pressure measurements the in-situ consoli load cells involving vibration wire strain gauges (eg
dation properties of the ground at various depths can Cooling and Ward ( 1 953) 1 Sutherland and Lindsay (1961)
also be determined, offer the best prospects of long-term stability
coupled with a reasonable chance of successful insu
A wide variety of instruments are used for measure lation from environmental attack. The direct mea
ment of settlement at depth and can take the form of surement of load in the superstructure does not nor
rods (or concentric tubes) anchored at various depths mally present the same environmental and access dif
and extending to the surface in sleeved boreholes or ficulties . However, the interpretation of strain
multi-point extensometer tubes. The latter are less gauges embedded in concrete members is far from
prone to damage and can be used to great depths . straight fon-rard as corrections have to be made for
Various forms of simple and precise multi-point bore temperature, creep and shrinkage effects (see for ex
hole extensometer have been described by Burland et ample Swamy and Potter, 1976; Bate and Lewsley1 1969
al ( 1 972) , Marsland and Quarterman ( 1 974) and Smith and Elvery1 1 966) .
and Burland ( 1976 ) . �!ulti-point borehole extensome
ters can be used both as deep datums and as movement If accurate assessments of loads coming onto founda
points at various depths beneath a foundation (Fig tions are to be made it is preferable to introduce
3 1 a and b ) . They are well suited to the measurement load oells into the members at foundation level.
of heave at various depths beneath excavations as the There is a need for the development of a simple load
upper measuring points can be located in ground which cell that measures shear, bending and axial load and
which can be introduced into a concrete column at its
base. The measurement of loads in steel members does
not present the same difficulties (Hood and Mainstone
1 955) ·
... .
.----··--····- ............. .... 6.1 . 4 Measurement of pressure: The measurement of
t� j
pressure is still one of the most difficult under
� �� ����---_-_·_ : ���---_-.-���� takings in soil mechanics and the reliable determina
tion of foundation pressures is no exception. The
presence of a rigid boundary presents special prob
lems and pressure cells developed for embedm�nt in
fill may not be the most suitable (Arthur, 19731
Green, 1973 ) . Particular attention must b e given to
mounting and calibrating such cells which are very
sensitive to pressure distribution across the active
face. In general load cells which measure the total
(a) (b) ( c) resultant foroe through a stiff face acting on a
'piston' are thought to be preferable to softer dia
r
phragm or hydraulic oells and Hooper ( 1 973) describes
Fig 31 Ap lication of multipoint extensometers as the successful use of such load cells . Eden e t al
( a deep datum, (b) settlement points and ( 1 973) appear to have had considerable success 1-1ith
( c heave points . the use of hydraulic cells to measure contact
530
pressures belOI'I a foundation raft. Hight and Green Butler ( 1 9'1 4) analysed 29 case histories of se·btlement
( 1 976) refer to the uncertainties in the calibration of buildings founded on stiff clays in southern
of such cells. Gerrard et al ( 1 971 ) outline a very Britain. He used a simple drained elastic analysis
comprehensive scheme for instrumenting a number of �lith vt "' 0 . 1 and included the influence of increasing
buildings in Perth, Australia, using a wide range of stiffness with depth. By setting Young's modulus
instruments. E1 = 130 cu ("; 1/my) he obtained predicted total
settlements varying from approximately 70 per cent to
6 . 1 . 5 Hovements in buildings: An important aspect 1 25 per cent of the observed settlements. There is
of the measurement of the behaviour of structures is usually a wide scatter of cu values for stiff fissured
the recording of damage. This is best done by high clays and considerable judgement is needed in obtain
quality photographs and by making detailed notes and ing representative values. It is essential in future
sketches of the crack patterns sho�1ing crack widths . studies of this type that the statistical procedures
The monitoring of changes in crack l'lidth can be car used for obtaining the representative values are
ried out using simple Demeo gauges (Morice and Base, clearly specified.
1953)1 or by mounting transducers across the cracks.
The precise measurement of long-term movements with A particularly important conclusion to be dra1m for
in buildings is difficult and very few examples of the stiff clays studied by Butler is that consolida
such measurements appear to exist (Budgen1 1969). tion settlements take place much more rapidly than
predicted from oedometer tests. As a general rule it
6.2 REGIONAL STUDIES OF FOUNDATION BEHAVIOUR appears that 95 per cent of the settlement is complete
after about 10 years and frequently it takes place
Early examples of regional studies of the settlements more rapidly than this. In contrast there is some
of buildings are those carried out in Sao Paulo, evidence to sho1'1 that sHelling of the London Clay due
Brazil (Pichler, 1948 { Rios and Pacheco Silva, 1948; to reduction in load takes place over much longer
Vargas , 1948 and 19551 • These papers are notable periods (liard and Burland, 1973).
for the very thorough treatment given to the geology
of the region. The 1955 paper by Vargas was particu Breth and Amann ( 197 4) have assembled s!_l�tlement data
larly significant as it drew attention to the im- . from a study of eight buildings on Fr�urt Clay.
portance of the pre-consolidation pressure, p01 or The material is very similar in its behaviour to the
'yield point' as Vargas called it, in determining stiff British clays. The relationships bet1·1een net
the magnitude of settlements on clays . Further out bearing pressure and settlement are almost identical
standing examples of very complete studies are given (Sullivan, 197 4) 1 the immediate settlements are bet�l
by Teixeira ( 1 959) and Machado ( 1 961 ) for the settle een 45 per cent and 70 per cent of the total settle
ment of buildings in Santos, Brazil. ments, and 95 per cent of the total settlement is
usually achieved within about 3 years of completion
One of the best kno1m regional studies is that des of a building. Steinfeld ( 1 968) has referred to the
cribed by Bjerrum ( 1 967) . He demonstrated conclu value of case records in Hamburg.
sively that careful measurements of the behaviour of
buildings in a given region can guide the future Heasurements of the heave and settlement of tall
design of structures in that region and provide the buildings on dense sandy clay till in Edmonton,
necessary stimulus for research on the in-situ pro Alberta, have been reported by De Jong et al (1971 )
perties of the ground. Bjerrum was able to relate and ( 1973 ) . The studies sho1-1 that : ( i) over 80 per
the magnitude and rate of settlements of buildings cent of the heave and settlement response occurs dur
on Drammen Clay to the ratio Llp'f(p'0 - p'0) where ing the construction period; ( ii) settlement is prac
�P' is the net increase in effective pressure, P' c tically complete after approximately one year � (iii)
is the initial in-situ vertical effective pressure deduced values of E1 decrease from 7380 kg/em to
and P 'o is the preconsolidation pressure measured in 2110 k g/ cm 2 as the beariQg pressures increase from
the oedometer. Foss ( 1 969) has described the appli 1 . 2 k g/cm 2 to 1 1 . 5 kg/cm2 ; and ( iv) values of com
cation of Bjerrum•s results to the settlement analy pressibility determined from laboratory tests overpre
sis of three buildings in Drammen. dict settlements by bet�1een 10 and 30 times.
The difficulty of applying the concepts developed Weak rock often represents a sort of twilight zone
for one region to another region is emphasised by between soils and hard rock and quantitative informa
the fact that Nordin and Swensson ( 1 974) observed tion on them has been notably lacking. lo!eigh ( 1 976)
the settlement of structures in Sweden which gave a gives a wealth of information arising out of studies
completely different �ttern of behaviour from the of the settlement of major structures on the soft
Drammen Cla,y in that even at values of A p'f( p ' -p') Triassic rocks in Britain. These studies emphasise
approaching unity the drained settlements were0sma�l the difficulties of making accurate settlement predic
and took place rapidly. tions in weak rocks. The best prospects for success
appear to 1 ie first in developing an understanding of
Resendiz et al ( 1 967) describe a valuable field the depositional environment and subsequent geological
study of the elastic properties of saturated clays in history of the material ; secondly, in a careful
Mexico City. Simons ( 1 974) has concluded that for visual examination and logging of the complete profile
normally and lightly overconsolidated clays at the and thirdly, in carrying out in-situ tests (or labora
present time laboratory studies alone will not allow tory tests if all else fails) on suspect strata. As
accurate settlement predictions to be made. Long experience of the settlement of structures develops
term regional studies are vitally necessary to deter in a region, particularly if it is based on these
mine in particular: ( 1 ) whether in the field primary three principles, less reliance has to be placed on
consolidation and/or secondary settlement �1ill de expensive quantitative tests. Experience on the
velop over a long period of time; and {2) whether a Chalk in Britain has developed along the above lines
threshold level exists above which large and poten over the last decade (Hobbs, 1974; Burland, 1976)
tially dangerous settlements will be experienced. with the result that considerable economies have been
531
settlement s / s 10101 ( '/, I
10 20 30 10 so 60 '/0 80 90 100
l--f.--�
v
10 ,....- /
/""
�A_E = 40 (1·10· 8�2)7
/' r i r
v
const = 225
/
Ec / cml
/ t----- 8 • l.lm--1
I / !Wffi'$1///#/,l
I
IIJ $ settlement readings
selllement analysis
-•- stresses after Steinbrenner
V=O
50
Fig 32 Location of anchor points and settlement distribution beneath AFE building, Frankfurt
(Breth and Amann, 19741 and Breth, 1974)
made in the cost of foundations. and Hancook1 1977) where it was necessary to make
accurate estimates of the movements of the ground sur
6.3 STUDIES OF SOIL DISPLACEMENTS BENEATH AND face outside the excavation.
AROUND FOUNDATIONS
Measurements of settlement at depth are invaluable for
Breth ( 1 974) presents the measured settlements at checking the accuracy of laboratory or in-situ deter
various depths beneath a nuclear reactor with a 60 m minations of compressibility (Nikitin et al1 1970;
diameter raft founded on granular materials extending Kriegel and \Hesner1 1973 ) . Bauer et al ( 1976) pre
to greath depth. The measured distribution of sent measurements of displacement at various depths
settlement �dth depth revealed that the compression beneath footings on a fissured clay. They also con
of the sand was concentrated almost entirely in the ducted a programme of undrained triaxial tests of va
top 20 m. A similar distribution of vertical strain rious types, vertical and horizontal plate bearing
is indicated by the measurements made by Dunn ( 1 974) . tests and pressuremeter tests. It is evident from
These measured strain distributions differ from that the results that the values of undrained deformation,
adopted by Schmertmann ( 1 970) who assumes it to be �1 obtained from the laboratory tests were between
zero at the surface, increasing to a maximum at a 0.2 and 0 . 5 times the values obtained from a test
depth equal to half the �1idth of the foundation. More footing. The corresponding ratios for pressuremeter
observations of settlement at depth beneath founda tests and for plate loading tests �1ere 0,3 to 0,5 and
tions of various sizes are required on sand to iden- · 0.5 to 0,7 respectively. It �1as also found that the
tify the correct strain distributions and their depen values of compressibility deduced from the standard
dence on foundation size. oedometer test grossly overestimated the consolidation
settlements. These findings are consistent with the
Breth and Amann ( 1 974) measured the distribution of general body of experience on overoonsolidated clays
settlement with depth beneath the AFE building an and weak rocks \'lhioh indicate that the stiffnesses
Frankfurt Clay. The distribution is sho\m in Fig 32 obtained from routine laboratory tests can be very
and it can be seen that the settlements reduce very much lo\'/er than the true in-situ values and that more
tnuch more rapidly with depth than for the homogeneous reliabl.e values can be obtained from plate loading
elastic case, Moreover, the observed settlement tests, The observations that the major settlements
distribution corresponds closely to a l inearly increa are often concentrated immediately beneath the founda
sing stiffness with depth, Measurements of this type tions over a depth of approximately B/2 suggest that
will be valuable in the future design of structures much more emphasis should be placed on measuring the
on Frankfurt Clay and can be used not only for esti soil properties in this region.
mating settlements, but also for deciding on suitable
depths and types of foundation. The measurements �1ere Often the major damage occurring during construction
originally undertaken because of the difficulty of takes place in adjacent buildings . Hence ·studies of
making reliable laboratory measurements on the the movement of the ground around foundations are
material , needed, As mentioned in Section 5.3, the effect of
increasing stiffness with depth is to localize the
Cole and Burland ( 1 972) baok analysed the variation ground surface settlements around the loaded area
of Eu with depth for London Clay from measurements of much more than the simple Boussinsq theory predicts.
retaining \'1&11 movements around a deep excavation. Burland et al (1973) provide field evidence to support
The deduced stiffness profile has been successfully this. Breth and Amann ( 1 974) comment that in the
used in the design of other deep excavations in the Frankfurt Clay1 �1hich exhibits marked increasing
London Clay1 the most notable being the deep under stiffness \'lith depth, the settlement depression is
ground oar park at the Houses of Parliament (Burland very localised.
532
For a stiff layer overlying more compressible layers
surface movements will extend further aw� from the
loaded area than predicted by the Boussinesq theory,
Dalmatov et al ( 1 9'(3) present the results of measure
ments of vertical displacement beneath and around
footings founded on a layer of sand overlying soft
soils. The analysis of the settlement observations
suggest that the sand \·las five to ten times stiffer
than the overlying soil. The measured surface
settlements died a�1ay much less rapidly with distance
from the loaded area than predicted
��
Srlo ffoor level
showed that hairline cracks developed in many of the
e " $? �
--, Y..
columns at a deflection ratio D./L .. 0 , 45 x 1o-3 and ,y
"''
by the time IJ../L had increased to 0,6 x 1 0-3 the "' � Inside face
u
�
to install temporary props. The maximum deflection -----
�
-..___..
one of the damaged columns corresponding to this
value of A/L. Even though these relative deflections r \r 0
"'
"'
x
N Outsrdo rns:de
face face
'
'
'
'
'
'
' Raft foundalion
'
\
�
Fig 33 Relationship bet�teen bearing pressure and A simple analysis of the structure reveals that it
average settlement for a silo on soft chalk had a low relative stiffness (see Section 5.4. 1 ) , On
(Burland and Davidson, 1976 ) , the other hand it is evident from Fig 34 that the
533
short large diameter reinforced concrete columns made and cracking have been maintained over 17 years since
the structure 'brittle' and sensitive to differential the start of construction.
settlement. Thus the structure has little inherent
stiffness to resist differential settlements and at Figure 36 sho1�s an elevation of one side of the buil
the same time no 'ductility' to absorb the deforma ding 1�ith the foundation movements plotted beneath it.
tions without damage . The left hand end of the building has been subjected
to a hogging mode of deformation whereas the right
In Chapter attention was drawn to the rather speci
1 hand end has undergQne sagging. The maximum hogging
al nature of silos. Nevertheless, there are import ratio is 0.84 x 10-.j and the maximum sagging ratio is
ant lessons to be learned from the case history, par 0.38 x 10-3 . Damage is confined exclusively to the
t icularly as this type of design for silos is common portion of the building undergoing hogging and takes
throughout the world. ( D eere and Davisson ( 1961 ) and the form of cracks radiating out1'1ards and upwards
Colombo and Ricceri ( 1 973) have reported cracking in from the region of maximum curvature of the founda
reinforced concrete columns supporting some silos and tions. The crack 1�idths are greatest at roof level .
the General Reporter has come across other cases of The damage 1·1as classified as 'slight' to 'moderat e '
similar damage. ) according t o Table I . Some disruption of electrical
conduits occurred, concrete floors cracked and inter
Having recognised the problem a number of solutions nal repairs were necessary.
are possible for future designs. In principle these
could involve limiting settlements (eg using piles ) , The broken line at the bottom of Fig 36 corresponds
increasing the relative stiffness of the structure to the movements l'lhen the building occupants on the
(eg thickening the raft or introducing shear \'lalla) top storey began to complain of drafts , leaks and
or reducing the sensitivity of the structure to rela broken l�indOI'ISo The hogging ratio at this stage �18.s
tive displacements (eg use steel columns or incorpo 0.65 x 1o-3 . The hogging ratio corresponding to maxi
rate hinge s ) . It appears that for ground conditions mum crack �lidths in the upper storey of about mm 5 .o
o.;p X 1 - .
o
similar to those encountered in this case the most ( slight damage ) �las 3 It should be noted
satisfactory approach �rould be to modify the struc that no visible cracking had occurred for a sagging
tural design rather than resort to a more expensive ratio of 0.38 x 10-3 1·1hich provides field evidence
foundation solution. Although more conventional confirming that load-bearing �1all s are more sensitive
buildings will not normally be as sensitive to to hogging than to sagging.
differential settlement this case history emphas ises
the care that must be exercised when stiff or brittle The main benefits of detailed studies of this type
elements (particular if they are load-bearing) are are that they provide informat ion on the 1�ay damage
introduced into an othen�ise flexible structure. develops in a building, they allow correlations betw
een degrees of damage and magnitudes of relative dis
6 . 4.2 in brickY1ork due t o ho ' n : Cheney placement and they dra1� attention to unsuspected
and Burford 197 describe an interesting case of weaknesses in design and detailing.
damage to a three-storey office building of load
bearing brick l'lhich 1·18.s subjected to both hogging and 6.5 PRESENTATION AND PUBLICATION OF CASE HISTORIES
sagging modes of deformation due to a swelling clay
subsoil. Careful records of foundation displacements In this Chapter some of the benefits to be had from
02
8·3m
D D
D D
D D
02
c:
�
15
.,
E 10
�
E
;;; p
-- - - -
u
·;;
---
R
� -- --- ---
534
field studies have been discussed, The importance of ( iii) Structures founded in soil strata for which
publishing comprehensive case records cannot be over there is little or no previous experience in the
st�ted, 'rhey provide the means of assessing the reli region,
ability of prediction methods, they give guidance to
practitioners Hho are faced 1·1ith the design of found ( iv) Structures for which there are local high con
ations and structures in similar circumstances, they centrations of load ,.,here differentioal settlement
can be used to develop an understanding of hoH struc might be troublesome,
tures interact 1·1ith the ground and dra�1 attention to
weaknesses in design and construction, In short, �tell (v) Structures that are subject to large fluctua-
documented case studies provide the recorded prece tions in load,
dents Hhich are so valuable in developing the art of
foundation engineering, (vi) Existing structures that may be adversely
affected by proposed works nearby,
The value of published case histories ie often dimi
nished because vital information is missing, The (vii) Structures 1-1here movement has already taken
follo�1ing information that should be included in any place and ,.,here there is reason to suspect that move
report or publ ication tlhenever possible is: ment is continuing and may lead to some measure of
failure.
(1) A detailed profile of the ground and ground
�tater conditions and the variations underlying the (viii) Often the adequacy of foundations is brought
structure , A detailed description of the soil inclu into question after they have been constructed, The
ding consistency, structure , fabric1 Atterburg possibility of carrying out a full-scale loading test
limits etc, should ahtays be considered , These can be quicker
and cheaper than extensive soil tests and the case
(2) The results of penetrometer and other routine history described by Leonarda (1972) attests their
in-situ index tests, value ,
(3) A description o f sampling equipment and methode, In all these cases efforts should be made not only to
measure foundation movements but also movements at
( 4) Laboratory results giving details of test pro depth and around the structure , Although some civil
cedures, Typical stress-strain curves and if •aver engineering and building contractors may well be
age' results are given the spread of the data should interested in carrying out the work themselves, con
also be given in statistical terms, tinuity and expert ise will be more readily available
from organisations such as local authorit ies, consul
(5) Detailed results o f in-situ tests, tants and research or teaching establishments, Any
organisation of this type which sets out to assemble
(6) Details of all instrumentation, methods of detailed case histories in a given locality or region
calibration and an objective assessment of accuracy, will be rendering the profession a great service,
535
1·1 ider problem of serviceability of buildings. The (7) When designing pile groups purely t o reduce
problem of coping 1�ith differential settlement, as settlements to tolerable amounts 1 consideration should
with creep, shrinkage and structural deflections, may be given to using the fully mobilized load carrying
frequently be solved by designing the building, and capacity of piles. If this approach is adopted care
in particular the cladding and partitions, to accom must be taken to ensure that the load-settlement cha
modate movements rather than to resist them. Success racteristics of the piles are 'ductile' and that there
ful and economic design and construction of the total is a suitable factor of safetr against failure of the
structure require cooperation between foundation-en= pile material ( of S e ction 4. 2) .
gineer1 structural engineer and architect from the
earliest stages of planning ( cf Sections 1 .5 and 2 . 1 ). (8) Friction pile groups designed by conventional
methods can be very effective in reducing differential
( 4) Progress in the study of the behaviour of foun settlements ( of Section 4.5 . 4) .
dations and structures Hill be aided by adopting
clear definitions of foundation movements and simple (9) Present methods of evaluating settlements of
classifications of degrees of damage . The schemes footings , rafts and pile groups on cohesionless soils
outlined in Sections 2.2 and 2.3 are offered as a are not satisfactory due to difficult ies in evaluating
basis for discussion �1ith a view to further develop the in-situ properties and in assessing the influence
ment. of pile driving etc. Ho�1ever1 settlements take place
rapidly and for medium dense to dense sands �1ill usu
(5) The concept of limiting tensile strain is in ally be fairly small ( of Sections 3.8 and 4.6 ) .
troduced in Section 2.5 as a means of gaining insight
into some of the factors influencing limiting deflec (10) The many assumptions and idealizations that have
tions in buildings . It is demonstrated by means of to be made in a soil-structure interaction analysis
a simple illustrative analysis and a number of obser are listed in Section 5.1. Interactive analysis can
vations of the performance of buildings that the be used at a relatively humble level to improve esti
limiting relative deflections are significantly de mates of differential settlement or at a much more
pendent on (i) the length to height ratio; ( i i ) re sophisticated level to calculate load and pressure
lative stiffness in shear and in bending; ( iii ) the distributions within structures. The former can be
degree of tensile restraint built into the structure; achieved by representing the structure and its fini
and ( iv ) the mode of deformation ( eg hogging or sag shes by a simple equivalent raft ( of Section 5 . 4. 1 ) .
ging) . Techniques are no1� available for carrying out more
detailed interactive analysis but this should be un
,.
(6) Chapter 3 contains a theoretical study of the dertaken with considerable caution because of the
accuracy of settlement calculations. It is concluded severe limitations of kno�rledge about the properties
that for factors of safety greater than about 2.5 the of the ground and structur e .
errors introduced by the simple classical one-dimen
sional method of calculating total settlement are usu (11) The Review has underlined the dependence of the
ally small compared �lith thosetii'at can occur during engineer on field observations for his understanding
sampling and testing. Hence the emphas is should be on of the behaviour both of the ground and of structures.
the accurate determination of simple parameters, such The importance of regional studies of settlement has
as one-dimensional compressibility, at a number of been amply demonstrated. A better understanding of
depths. There is a continuing and urgent need for soil-structure interaction requires detailed measure
the development and improvement of laboratory and in ments of ground behaviour beneath and around founda
situ procedures for measuring the representative in tions coupled �rith careful observations of the beha-
situ properties of the ground in the mass. viour of the superstructure. Examples of such studies
are given in Chapter 6.
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