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Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts

Technical Report · September 2017

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.13463.88481

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 OVERTOURISM AND TOURISMPHOBIA:
Global trends and local contexts

Member of: Partners:

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 1

 OVERTOURISM AND TOURISMPHOBIA: GLOBAL TRENDS AND LOCAL CONTEXTS

To cite this report:

MILANO, CLAUDIO (2017) Overtourism and Tourismphobia: CONTENTS
Global trends and local contexts. Barcelona: Ostelea School
of Tourism & Hospitality

Written by:
01
OVERVIEW
PAGE 4
Dr. Claudio Milano
PhD in Social and Cultural Anthropology from the Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona 02
INTERNATIONAL CASES
Master in Social and Cultural Anthropology (Cultural Differences and Transnational PAGE 7
Processes) from the Universitat Autónoma de Barcelona. Bachelor Degree in Tourism from
the Department of Economics of the Università degli Studi Federico II of Naples. He was
03
BYE BYE BARCELONA
Visiting Researcher at the University of Lumiere2 Lyon (France) and Stockholm University PAGE 2O

(Sweden) and Visiting Lecturer at the Federal University of Piauí (Brazil), the Strathmore 04
University of Nairobi (Kenya) and the University of Colombo (Sri Lanka). HOW TO INTERPRET
THE PHENOMENON
PAGE 33
He has consulted to international agencies on human rights, development and tourism
projects in India, Peru, Senegal and Brazil. He is a member of the OACU (Anthropological
05
CONCLUSIONS
Observatory of Urban Conflict), Turismografias (Tourism and Urban Processes Network), PAGE 38

the Research Group on Exclusion and Social Control (GRECS) of University of Barcelona, 06
the International Network of Researchers in Tourism, Development and Cooperation INFORMATION SOURCES
PAGE 43
(COODTUR) and the Interdisciplinary Tourism Research Group (GRIT). His recent
publications include: “Otherness Anthropologies: Toward Ibero-American Anthropologies
of Tourism” American Anthropologist and El turismo en el mundo rural ¿Ruina o
consolidación de las sociedades campesinas e indígenas? Pasos - Journal of Tourism and
Cultural Heritage with J. Gascón (Eds.).

Coordinated by:

Dra. Maria del Pilar Leal L.

Head of Research at Ostelea School of Tourism and Hospitality
Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 2
WELCOME Our mission is to contribute to the sustainable
social, economic and cultural development of the
industry by training executives and professionals
We are an in the sector. We are committed to innovation
and promote the development of bonds between
international Ostelea and companies in the sector in order to
University Centre bring new solutions to the market.
specializing in training We run Masters in the main areas of tuition in
We are a member of the WTO (World Tourism
Organization) and form part of its Knowledge
Network, one of the most important in the sector.
Ostelea has also been invited to join the CHRIE
(Council of Hotel, Restaurant and Institutional
Education), the leading international network of
tourism university centres (with headquarters
in the United States), making us one of just two
members in Spain. In 2015, Ostelea also decided
the world, with which we constantly exchange
knowledge, lecturers and students.
At our Barcelona Campus, Ostelea is affiliated
to the Universitat de Lleida, the fourth leading
university in Spain in terms of tuition with a clear
international orientation, which guarantees the
official status of certain programs run at the
School. At its Madrid Campus, Ostelea obtains

leaders, directors and the field of tourism, including Hotel Management,

Tourism and Hospitality, Protocol and Event
technicians in the Organization, International Relations, and Tourism
to join the PRME, the United Nations’ campaign
to promote responsible education in management.
Moreover, we are active members of the AEPT
the official status of certain programs through
the Universidad Rey Juan Carlos. At both
campuses, Ostelea is also proud to have one of

Hospitality and Tourism Destinations. These programs are available in full-

time and executive in-person format. In addition,
sectors with a passion some programs are also offered online in order to
(Spanish Association of Tourism Professionals),
AEDH (Spanish Association of Hotel Managers),
ITH (Instituto Técnico Hotelero) and ATLAS
the leading partners in international education:
EAE Business School. This exclusive alliance
enables us to boast a significant competitive

for good service and a give greater flexibility to our students. (Association for Tourism and Leisure Education
and Research).
advantage, as we are the only tourism training
centre that combines tuition in the field with
multicultural vision. Our students are at the heart of our activity the development of the key knowledge and
and we enable them to acquire applicable and At Ostelea, we maintain close relations with competences from the world of management.
practical knowledge, thanks to our faculty of the business ecosystem, which underpins our EAE has trained more than 70,000 executives
lecturers who combine their teaching activity academic programs and related activities. The who now head leading companies. The School
with their responsibilities in leading companies strong links that we have with the national and has regularly ranked as one of the top business
in the tourism sector. Ostelea runs its activities international business community enables us to schools in Spain in various national and
on two campuses in Barcelona and Madrid, gain privileged insight into companies operating international rankings.
two privileged locations that enable us to blend in the Tourism and Hospitality sector. Currently,
academic knowledge with the practical insight into over a hundred companies form part of our
OSTELEA is member of :
the management of the best public and private network, including Hilton, American Express,
organizations that are leaders in the tourism Barceló Viajes, Lonely Planet and Turijobs.
sector and hospitality industry at both a European
OMT AEPT AEDH and global level. Our business knowledge network is also enriched
World Tourism Spanish Association of Spanish Association of
Organization Tourism Professionals Hotel Directors by our Global Network of International University
Ostelea has received recognition from the leading Partners, made up of more than thirty tourism To contact with Eva Buendía
associations in the tourism and education sectors. universities and higher education centres all over the Department
Communication
ebuendia@ostelea.com
ATLAS ITH
Association for
Tourism and Leisure
Instituto Técnico
Hotelero
comunicacion@ostelea.com
Education and
Research
Tel. 93 281 23 80

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 3

 01 OVERVIEW

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 4

01 OVERVIEW manifests itself depends on the specific practices involved, the main six of
which can be categorised as follows:

Over the last decade various tourism destinations, particularly cities, have been 01. Congestion of public spaces in city centres
witnessing growing symptoms of tourism saturation with criticism often led 02. The privatisation of public spaces
by social movements. From the second half of the last century onwards, the 03. The growth of cruise tourism and the consequential seasonal
excessive spread of tourism in urban neighbourhoods and centres has led congestion
to a situation that is known as overtourism. Although the Spanish media has
04. The rise in housing prices (rental and purchase by square metre)
coined the term tourismphobia (turismofobia) to describe the phenomenon,
05. The loss of residents’ purchasing power
this issue is far more complex than it may appear at first. This report aims to
06. The unbalanced number of locals compared to visitors
address some of the core issues associated with this phenomenon based on
the analysis of specific cases.

The terms overtourism and tourismphobia have developed from and are
directly related to the growing evolution of unsustainable mass tourism
practices. The widespread use of the term tourismphobia is a result of,
perhaps inaccurate, its use of the term in the media to describe the social
discontentment that has emerged in response to tourism pressure. In other
words, they have devalued the criticisms and pressure from social movements
in order to “pathologize this social unrest” 1.

Over the last decade, evidence has emerged of discontentment caused by

tourism saturation in Europe (Novy and Colomb, 2016). Since then, there has
been a proliferation of ways in which this unrest manifests itself.

However, in view of the different causes, characteristics and concerns and

bearing in mind that many of these are not directly aimed at tourism in itself,
we must avoid the temptation to take a reductionist view of this complex
and contemporary phenomenon. The ways in which the discontentment

1
Horacio Espinosa Zepeda (03/07/2017) Turismofobia: Patologizar el malestar social, eldiario.es.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 5

The abovementioned practices have triggered a range of responses to what
academics refer to as ‘politicization from below’. Moreover, the responses to
tourism pressure that we are witnessing in different urban centres are based
on protests calling for greater respect for the resident community. As such,
these movements seem to display a certain level of ‘resident-philia’.
Meanwhile, residents and local groups are increasingly refocusing the agendas
of municipal governments towards tourism issues. Furthermore, various urban
destinations around the world have started to fight back and see tourism
as a social problem. In the mid-1990s, cases of local reactions against mass
tourism were already recorded in various European contexts including Spain,
Italy, Malta and France (Boissevain, 1996). A number of cities are currently
facing what the academic sector often refers to as overtourism. Key examples
include the following:
01. Anti-gentrification protests in Berlin
02. Warnings from residents’ associations in Lisbon
03. Demonstrations by various local groups on the Balearic Islands
04. The referendum against cruise ships on the Venetian Lagoon
05. Proposals for restricted tourist traffic areas in certain Italian cities
06. Complaints against tourists from the Chinese market (also known in
Hong Kong as ‘locust shoppers’)
07. Protests against increasing housing prices in cities such as New
Orleans and Toronto
08. Criticism of the city of New York’s conversion into a tourism brand
product and the emerging real estate speculation as the
primary driving force of the economy
2
Pla Estratègic de Turisme de Barcelona 2020 (Barcelona Strategic Tourism Plan).
To illustrate this phenomenon throughout the report we will focus on three
urban destinations: Barcelona, Berlin and Venice, as these are destinations
in which discontentment has arisen in response to tourism pressure.
Concerning the data on tourist arrivals, this report takes into account the
overnight stays of visitors in these three cities. However, the complaints of
tourism pressure in these destinations are based on the estimations of the
number of tourists that visit the cities over the course of a year. For example,
in the diagnosis in the Barcelona Strategic Tourism Plan 2020, it is estimated
that Barcelona receives around 30 million visitors each year, half of whom
stay overnight (tourists), while the other half do not (day-trippers, cruise
passengers, etc.)2. Due to the lack of official statistics, this report will not take
into account estimations of visitors who do not stay overnight.
In addition, the report will analyse one of the most commonly raised issues
in discussions between local residents: the rising prices and falling availability
of housing. In this respect, the report will specifically focus on the evolution
of housing prices. For the three cases analysed, the aspects covered over
the course of the report will be related to the price of housing per square
metre, the evolution of tourism activity and the social reaction to tourism.
As we will see, the cases of Venice, Berlin and Barcelona display different
characteristics and vary in terms of the symptoms and the responses of local
residents. However, the three destinations are victims of the same cause of
discontentment: the effects of tourism saturation.
Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 6
 02
INTERNATIONAL CASES

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 7

02 INTERNATIONAL CASES
In several popular tourist destinations the occupation and privatisation
of public spaces has triggered different kinds of protests. Starting with
tourist cities such as Venice and increasingly in cities accustomed to less
tourism, destinations in both the north and south of Europe have seen a
clear rise in the politicization of what had previously been a minor issue
in urban policies: tourism. Overtourism or tourism saturation has become
a problem for all agents directly or indirectly involved in the apparatus of
tourism: public agents, private sectors, tourists and residents.
This transformation has been attributed to the increase in collaborative
tourist accommodation platforms and the consequent rise in housing prices3.
The increasing tourism pressure in different international contexts has been
directly proportional to the discontentment emerging among groups of
the local population. Based on the forecasts for tourist arrivals around the
world this phenomenon has become a feature of our everyday lives and it
represents a huge challenge for present and future generations, requiring
reflection on how to tackle the issue, which will certainly have political and
practical implications in the future. The number of tourists in the world is set
to rise from 940 million to 1.8 billion and Europe will remain the leader in
this tourism boom, receiving just under half of all arrivals.

This politicization manifests itself in different ways. In some contexts,

residents and other interested parties disagree with the growth of GRAPH 1 1
GRÁFICO
tourism in itself, as well as with the impacts that it has on their cities. In
other cases, it is the particular forms of tourism and the effects that are Global projection of tourist arrivals (millions)
disputed or condemned while, in many situations, the discussions focus
less on tourism itself and more on an analysis of the broader processes,
policies and forces for urban change that seem to threaten the right of
local residents to continue living in the cities, affecting the quality of life of
the existing urban populations (Novy and Colomb, 2016).
Overtourism specifically manifests itself in two key ways:

01. The spread of urban tourism to residential neighbourhoods that

were not previously visited much by tourists..
02. Transformation and changes in the everyday lives throughout the
neighbourhoods.

3
On 29th June 2017, the New York Times published an article entitled “How Much Tourism Is Too Much?”
which presented a number of anecdotal accounts of tourism pressure in the neighbourhood of Brooklyn.
Currently, the spread of urban tourism to residential neighbourhoods not previously visited by tourists to a Source: Drafted by the author based on data from WTO Panorama on international tourism
significant degree has caused transformation and changes in the everyday lives of the neighbourhoods. (2016), 2017.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 8

 GRAPH 1

There will now be an analysis of the relationship between overnight GRAPH 2 1

GRÁFICO
tourist stays, tourist apartments and average housing price per square
metre, focusing on the emergence of protests and social discontentment Number of overnight stays in Venice
in relation to the tourism industry in three international urban centres:
Venice, Berlin and Barcelona.

02.1 THE VENICE SYNDROME

The expression “Venice Syndrome”4 is often used to refer to the

phenomena of tourism saturation and the exodus of local residents to the
surrounding urban centres.

In order to analyse this phenomenon, it is essential to observe the evolution

of overnight international tourist stays over the last decade (see Graph
2), taking into account the fact that the city of Venice has approximately
261,680 inhabitants5 and its historical centre, which is the most visited area
of the city, has 55,583 inhabitants. It is very revealing to compare these
figures with the number of overnight stays recorded in the city in 2015 Source: Drafted by the author based on data from the Annuario del Turismo (2015), 2017
(10,182,829 million6).

4
“The Venice Syndrome” is a 2012 documentary by Andreas Pichler, which shows the hyper-touristification
of the lacustrine city and the great exodus and progressive disappearance of the city’s social fabric.
5
Source: Comune di Venezia - Anagrafe della popolazione residente (31/07/2017)
6
The latest Annuario del Turismo (Tourism Yearbook) for Venice was published in 2016 with data from 2015.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 9

It is necessary to qualify and specify certain statistics with reference to With regard to day-trippers, there is a lack of more specific data. However,
tourism flows in the city of Venice. These figures are even more surprising in 2015, the Venice City Council7 calculated that approximately 34,186,544
if we observe the number of day-trippers and the area of the city in day-trippers visited the Metropolitan City of Venice8 . Additionally, a
which the tourism flow actually becomes congested: the historical centre report by the APT9 stated that in 2013 and 2014 the Metropolitan City
(see Graph 3). of Venice experienced a 0.33% increase in the number of day-trippers,
from 33,938,624 to 34,051,434. If we take into account the number of
GRAPH 3 1
GRÁFICO inhabitants in the city’s historical centre and the number of day-trippers,
we face an unprecedented situation. In terms of the local population in
Decrease in the population the historical centre of the city, in 2015, there were 55,583 registered
inhabitants. Graph 3 shows the evolution of the decreasing population in
of Venice’s historical centre
the historical centre. It should be noted that, between 2001 and 2015, the
population of Venice’s historical centre, which is the most visited part of the
city, fell by 10,000 inhabitants.

Source: Drafted by the author based on Cittá di Venezia - Servizio Statistica e Ricerca, 2017

7
Annuario del turismo 2015 – Cittá di Venezia, Assesorato al Turismo.
8
Comune di Venezia Settore Turismo su dati APT
9
Azienda di Promozione Turistica della Provincia di Venezia – Ufficio LEGALE E STATISTICA-
Movimentazione turistica in provincia di Venezia periodo gennaio-dicembre 2014.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 10

02.1.1 The residential property situation in Venice GRAPH 4 1
GRÁFICO
As well as the steady increase in tourist arrivals and the decreasing
population in Venice’s historical centre, according to the estate agency Evolution of the sale price per square metre
Nuroa, housing prices per square metre in the waterlogged city are in euros in Venice
constantly on the rise (see Graph 4). Meanwhile, in May 2016, the website
idealista.it announced that Venice was the most expensive city on the
Italian Peninsula (€4,423/m²), compared to Milan (€3,460/m²) and Rome
(€3,386/m²).

However, the problem with Venice’s real estate market is not so much the
rising housing prices, but rather the low availability of rental apartments
for residents. This is also due to the hoarding of residential properties
by tourism ventures. In the case of the most exclusive areas, such as the
historical centre and the Grand Canal, the average price ranges from
€12,000 to €20,000/m2. Moreover, the areas in the highest demand for
the sale of luxury residential properties are San Marco and San Polo, as
well as the neighbourhood of Dorsoduro (Engel & Völkers, 2016).

Source: Drafted by the author based on Nuroa - Evoluzione dei prezzi delle case in vendita a
Venezia, 2017

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 11

02.1.2 Tourist apartments These 6,027 tourist apartments (in red), private rooms (in green) and shared
rooms (in blue) for rent on the Airbnb platform can be divided into the
There is a direct relationship between the rise in residential properties
following sections:
prices and the increasing supply on tourist apartment rental platforms,
such as Airbnb. Figure 1 shows the distribution and location of the 6,027
tourist apartments advertised in Venice on Airbnb (data from Inside TABLE 1 1
GRÁFICO
Airbnb10). The average rental price per night is around €130.
Supply of residential tourism properties in Venice
FIGURE
GRÁFICO11
TOTAL SUPPLY OF RESIDENTIAL 6,027
Supply of tourist accommodation in Venice PROPERTIES

according to Inside Airbnb. Average price per night €130

Number of houses and apartments 4,513 (74.9%)
Number of private rooms 1,443 (23.9%)

Number of shared rooms 71 (1.2%)

Source: Drafted by the author based on data from Inside Airbnb, 2017

Lastly, it is worth highlighting the highest concentration of tourist

apartments in the historical centre. There is also a significant supply of
tourist apartments on the Lido island. However, the tourist flows in the
city of Venice are concentrated and congested in the historical centre
with tourists visiting attractions such as the Grand Canal, St. Mark’s
Square and Basilica, the Palazzo Ducale and the Rialto Bridge. Futhermore,
the historical centre contains most of the accommodation and tourist
apartment infrastructures that have facilitated and characterised the
Source: Inside Airbnb, 2017
significant decrease in the local population, which fell from 78,165
inhabitants in 1990 to 55,583 in 2015.
10
Inside Airbnb is an independent and non-commercial platform of tools and data that enables users to explore
the supply of rental properties for tourists on the platform Airbnb in different cities around the world through
the analysis of information on a city on the platform.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 12

02.1.3 The social reaction to tourism pressure GRAPH 5 1
GRÁFICO
Records of the social discontentment, caused by the tourism development
in the city, date back decades. The movement that has spearheaded the Cruise passenger arrivals in Venice (millions)
protests and resistance demonstrations is the Comitato No Grandi Navi -
Laguna Bene Comune. However, despite tourism playing a key role in the city’s
economy, it was not until the 1990s that it became a central topic of public
debate and local politics on urban planning and policies (Vianello, 2016).

Founded in 2012, the Comitato No Grandi Navi gained momentum

after the Costa Concordia disaster on the island of Giglio, which boosted
protests in relation to the discontentment caused by the ever-increasing
number of cruise ships docking in the city. Lastly, Graph 5 shows the
dramatic increase in the number of cruise passengers since 1997.

Source: Drafted by the author based on Ansa - Agenzia Nazionale Stampa Associata, 2017

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 13

Concerning cruise tourism, it is worth highlighting the referendum
organised by the Comitato No Grandi Navi on June 18th, 2017. The
following question was posed in the referendum: “Do you want cruise
ships to stay out of the Venetian Lagoon and for no more excavations
to take place in the Lagoon?”. Purely symbolic and populist in nature, the
referendum was a great success. Of the 18,105 people who took part,
80% were from Venice, while the rest were foreigners or tourists. A total
of 98.72% of the voters (17,874) voted against large cruise liners entering
the Lagoon, with just 180 people (0.99%) voting in favour and a small
proportion (0.28%) leaving a blank vote. This initiative has opened up new
scenarios in the lacustrine city in terms of petitioning the Government for
the immediate application of the Clini-Passera Act of 2013, which banned
cruise ships weighing over 40,000 tonnes from entering the Lagoon.
In 2017, more than 2,500 people took part in the demonstration entitled Mi
no vado via (I’m not leaving). Lastly, on June 17th, an event was organised in
Venice under the title of “Diritto alla Cittá. Venezia, Barcellona, Berlino, Parigi
nell’epoca del turismo globale11”, which debated the experiences of cities such
as Barcelona, Berlin and Paris with reference to the rights of residents,
public assets and the conservation of environmental and cultural heritage.
The aim of the event was to “promote and defend the city’s rights in the age
of global mobility”.

Additionally, in 2014, another citizens’ platform was established known

as Gruppo 25 Aprile, which has organised various campaigns, including
Venezia mio futuro (Venice, my future) and specific initiatives to highlight
the following aspects:

01. The forced exodus of many residents

02. The lack of essential shops for everyday life, which have been
replaced by tourist shops
03. Rising housing prices
04. Cruise ships in the Lagoon

11
Rights in the city. Venice, Barcelona, Berlin and Paris in the age of global tourism.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 14

02.2 WELCOME GOOD BYE BERLIN 12 GRAPH 6 1
GRÁFICO

The case of Berlin is a highly illustrative example of the relationship Number of overnight stays in Berlin
between emerging discontentment with the tourism model and rising (2009-2016)
housing prices. The number of overnight stays in hotels in Berlin rose from
11 million to 27 million in just 10 years (2003-2013). Berlin is currently
experiencing the onset of mass tourism based on what may be referred
to as a new urban tourism, which shows a preference for the ‘authentic’
areas of the city and participation in the experience of living in the city
(Füller and Michel, 2014).

Tourism in Berlin has been boosted by the increase in international tourist

arrivals, which consolidated the city’s status as a destination throughout
the 1990s and the start of this century. At the same time, many residents
took little time to react, especially in the centre of Berlin and the
residential neighbourhoods, which have started to receive a rocketing
number of tourists, welcoming this influx in a less enthusiastic way
(Novy and Colomb, 2016).

02.2.1 The Evolution of tourism in Berlin Source: Drafted by the author based on the Berlin official travel website, 2017

According to the data published by statistical office of Visit Berlin (2017), for
the third year in a row, the number of overnight stays of tourists surpassed
10 million. In a decade and a half, the number of overnight stays tripled from
9.6 million in 1999 to 30.3 million in 2015. Moreover, in 2016, the number
of visitors to the city reached 12.7 million (see Graph 6).
These statistics reflect the fact that Berlin has been promoted in the
global tourism psyche as “Europe’s Capital of Cool” (Novy, 2016). Criticism
of the rise in tourism in the German capital has been accompanied by
condemnation of the gentrification process and rising housing prices.

12
The 2014 documentary ‘Welcome Goodbye’ by Nana A.T. Rebhan focuses on the development of the tourism industry in
Berlin and presents the problems of the gentrification of various neighbourhoods in the German capital.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 15

02.2.2 The residential property situation in Berlin GRAPH 7 1
GRÁFICO

Since Germany started to make its way out of the recession in 2009, it has Evolution of housing prices in Berlin in euros
started to record high growth in terms of housing prices. By 2014, prices per square metre (2004-2016)
had risen by around 29% in nominal terms (19% in real terms). However,
according to Caixa Research (2015), the greatest risks are concentrated in
the larger German cities, where the growth in housing prices exceeded
45% between 2009 and 2014.

Moreover, in the main German cities, like Berlin, nominal growth of 46%
was recorded between 2009 and 2014. However, these figures are still far
behind the real estate booms in Spain, the United Kingdom and the USA,
which recorded growth of 100%, 72% and 56%, respectively, between
2002 and 2007 (Caixa Research, 2015). Graph 7 shows the evolution of
the housing prices per square metre in Berlin.

The German capital has experienced a significant rise in rental prices since
the middle of the decade. The average rental price in 2004 was €6/m2.
In the second half of 2016, it exceeded €10/m2 to reach €10.15. In 2016,
housing prices rose by 13%. In addition, housing prices are now twice as
Source: Drafted by the author based on Jones Lang LaSalle (2016), 2017
high as they were in 2005, reaching the level of some of Germany’s main
cities, such as Munich and Frankfurt. The key factors that have driven the
rise in housing prices in the capital include the following two13:

01. The lack of residential properties

02. The lack of developable land

13
Möbert Jochen (January 13, 2017) Outlook on the German housing market in 2017 Outlook for prices
and rents in Berlin, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt, Hamburg and Munich. Deutsche Bank Research ONLINE

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 16

In the second half of 2016, the sale price of residential properties rose by
9.6% to €3,510/m2. Since 2004 the prices of condominium apartments
have increase by 115% which is equivalent to a rise of €1,880/m2. As such,
it can be observed that prices in Berlin have climbed in relation to other
German cities such as Düsseldorf and Cologne14 . Graph 8 shows the
evolution of the sale price per square metre for residential properties.
Without a doubt, over the last two decades, the city of Berlin has
experienced a dramatic increase in housing prices, particularly between
2004 and 2016. The rise in housing prices, both in terms of properties for
rent and sale, is directly related to the proliferation of tourist apartments.

GRAPH 8 1
GRÁFICO

Evolution of the sale price per square metre

in euros in Berlin (2004-2016)

Source: Drafted by the author based on Jones Lang LaSalle (2016), 2017

14
Jones Lang LaSalle (JLL) – Report Residential City Profile Berlin - 2nd half-year 2016 ONLINE

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 17

 FIGURE
GRÁFICO21 TABLE 2 1
GRÁFICO

Supply of tourist accommodation according Supply of residential tourism properties in Berlin

to Inside Airbnb.
SUPPLY OF RESIDENTIAL TOURISM
PROPERTIES IN BERLIN 20,576
Average price per night 58€
Number of houses and apartments 10,285 (50%)
Number of private rooms 10,011 (48.7%)
Number of shared rooms 280 (1.4%)

Source: Own elaboration based on Inside Airbnb, 2017

Lastly, it is worth highlighting the higher concentration of tourist

apartments in specific neighbourhoods in the city of Berlin. The
neighbourhoods with a greater concentration of tourist apartments
offered are those with the highest average rental price. For instance,
according to data from Inside Airbnb (2017), of the 20,576 residential
tourism properties offered in Berlin, the neighbourhoods with the greatest
supply are Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg (5,082), Mitte (4,106), Neukölln 3,461,
Pankow (3,363) and Charlottenburg-Wilmersdorf (1,346). Moreover, the
districts in which rental prices per square metre have rocketed are Mitte
Source: Inside Airbnb, 2017
(€4,570/m2), Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg (€4,040/m2), Charlottenburg-
Wilmersdorf (€4,100/m2), Pankow (€3,570/m2) Neukölln (€2,990/m2)
Figure 2 shows the tourist apartments (in red), private rooms (in green)
(Jones Lang Lasalle, 2016).
and shared rooms (in blue) advertised on the Airbnb platform according to
data from Inside Airbnb. Table 2 categorises the 20,576 residential tourism
properties available for rent by type of accommodation in the city of Berlin.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 18

02.2.3 The social reaction to tourism pressure in Berlin

In contrast to the case of Venice, in Berlin, the protests have not been
led by ad hoc social movements. The majority of complaints from
residents are related to the problem of rental prices, the gentrification
of neighbourhoods like Neukölln and Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg and the
privatisation of public space, rather than being aimed at tourism in itself.

The discontent among the general public concerning to tourism has

emerged more recently and primarily in relation to the transformation
of more residential neighbourhoods. Since the 1990s, and after the fall
of the Berlin Wall in 1989, the city has experienced significant tourism
development. It has only been more recently that Berlin residents have
displayed discontent with the congestion of public spaces, increasing
noise levels and rising prices. In the last decade, campaigns such as ‘Berlin
doesn’t love you’ have been organised. Furthermore, it is not uncommon
on the city’s streets to come across stickers and graffiti saying ‘Yuppies Raus’
(Yuppies out) and ‘Tourists, Raus’ (Tourists out). However, the city of Berlin
is now tackling these challenges in terms of managing the practices that
generate this discontentment.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 19

 03
BYE BYE BARCELONA

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 20

03 BYE BYE BARCELONA15 GRAPH 9 1
GRÁFICO

At a national level we will focus on the case of Barcelona. The analysis of

Number of overnight stays in Catalonia
the city of Barcelona, which has been the victim of what we could refer (2011-2016)
to as tourism pressure or overtourism for more than a decade, gives us
an ideal forum for debating in terms of a phenomenon that increasingly
affects aspects of everyday life in the city.

Undoubtedly, the current situation of unrest in relation to tourism activity

is due to the growing number of visitors to the city and Catalonia in
general. According to the Anuario Estadístico de Cataluña (Statistical
Yearbook of Catalonia - IDESCAT), the region recorded as many as 17
million overnight tourist stays in 2016 (see Graph 9).

Source: Drafted by the author based on IDESCAT - Anuario estadístico de Cataluña, 2017

15
“Bye Bye Barcelona” is a 2014 documentary directed by Eduardo Chibás Fernández, which analyses the negative effects of
tourist saturation, including the specific cases of neighbourhoods such as Barceloneta, Sagrada Familia and Park Güell.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 21

Similarly to Catalonia as a whole, the city of Barcelona has recorded a GRAPH 101
GRÁFICO
constant growth in tourist arrivals and overnight stays since the first
decade of this century. The statistics depicted in Graph 10 show the Number of overnight stays in the city of
number of tourists staying in the city’s accommodations.
It should be noted that, in 2016, the number of tourists recorded
Barcelona (1990-2016)
exceeded the limit of 9 million.

Concerning to statistics on the number of tourists in the city of Barcelona

the figures only take into account overnight stays. However, it is estimated
that there are over 30 million visitors who do not stay overnight, including
day-trippers and cruise passengers, among others. Therefore, the trend
shown in Graph 10 would be even more dramatic.

Source: Drafted by the author based on Tourism Statistics 2016. Barcelona: ciutat i entorn.
Barcelona Turisme, 2017

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 22

03.1 TOURIST APARTMENTS AND ACCOMMODATION GRAPH 111
GRÁFICO

The statistics provided by Barcelona City Council, Barcelona Turisme Evolution of the number of hotels in Barcelona
and Barcelona Provincial Council do not take into account the 13,555 (1990-2016)
residential tourism properties (RTP) in the city of Barcelona16. Of the
13,555 RTPs on the APARTUR inventory, the Barcelona City Council
reports that 9,606 of these properties are legally registered at the
Department of Statistics17 .

Meanwhile, Inside Airbnb calculates that there are 17,369 RTPs in

Barcelona. In other words, the figures on RTPs and a possible gauge
of overnight stays does not enable us to have a global overview of the
arrival and presence of tourists in the city of Barcelona. Lastly, in the
2016 statistical report “Barcelona: ciutat i entorn” (Barcelona: city and
surrounding area) produced by Barcelona Turisme, 211,553 overnight
stays in RTPs are registered. Even in view of the discrepancies between
the two sources (APARTUR and Inside Airbnb), these figures seem
inadequate. If we take the figures from Inside Airbnb (17,369 RTPs), for
example, and cross-reference them with the data from Barcelona Turisme,
there would be an average of 12.1 overnight stays per year in each RTP.
Source: Drafted by the author based on Tourism Statistics 2016. Barcelona: ciutat i entorn. Barcelona
Turisme, 2017
Alongside the evolution and rise in the number of tourists in Barcelona,
there has been a constant increase recorded in the number of hotels.
Over the last three decades, the number of establishments has rocketed
from 118 in 1990 to 408 in 2016 (see Graph 11).

16
APARTUR – The impact of letting residential tourism properties on the residential rental market in Barcelona. Executive
Summary (Barcelona, 7th June 2017).
17
Anuario Estadístico de la Ciudad de Barcelona 2016. (Statistical Yearbook of the City of Barcelona) Online

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 23

In the same way as the number of hotel establishments has increased, the
number of hotel beds has also risen. Graph 12 shows how between 1990
and 2017 the number of accommodations and the number of beds has
jumped from 18,569 to 67,640. The number of beds takes into account
hotels, tourist apartments, hostels, guest houses, residential tourism
properties, campsites and rural tourist accommodation.
The rise in accommodation places in Barcelona has also contributed
towards an increase in the number of overnight stays (see Graph 13), with
a notable rise of 7.3% between 2015 and 2016, to take the total to more
than 19 million overnight stays.

GRAPH 121
GRÁFICO GRAPH 131
GRÁFICO

Evolution of the number of tourist beds in the city Evolution of the number of overnight stays per
of Barcelona (1990-2016) night in the city of Barcelona (1990-2016)

Source: Drafted by the author based on Tourism Statistics 2016. Barcelona: ciutat i entorn. Barcelona Source: Drafted by the author based on Tourism Statistics 2016. Barcelona: ciutat i entorn.
Turisme, 2017 Barcelona Turisme, 2017

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 24

As well as the growth in the numbers of hotel establishments and
overnight stays, another significant development is the rise in the
number of residential tourism properties on offer in the city. One of the
aspects that has generated a great degree of concern relating to tourism
development is directly related to the rental and sale prices of residential
properties, which, in turn, is attributed to the emergence of platforms
offering tourist apartments leading to the rise in housing and rental prices.
In August 2017, on one of the best-known residential tourism property
rental sites, Airbnb, a total of 17,369 tourist apartments and rooms are
available for rent, with an average price of around €84. On the website
Inside Airbnb the supply of accommodation types is categorised into the
sections shown in Table 3.
TABLE 3 1
GRÁFICO

Figure 3 shows the distribution and location of the tourist apartments (in Supply of residential tourism properties
red), private rooms (in green) and shared rooms (in blue) for rent on the
in Barcelona
Airbnb platform (Source: Inside Airbnb)
TOTAL SUPPLY OF RESIDENTIAL
PROPERTIES 17,369
FIGURE
GRÁFICO31 Average price per night 84€
Number of houses and apartments 8,762 (50.4%)
Supply of tourist accommodation in Barcelona
according to Inside Airbnb. Number of private rooms 8,405 (48.4%)
Number of shared rooms 202 (1.2%)

Source: Inside Airbnb, 2017

Source: Inside Airbnb, 2017

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 25

Based on the rise in the number of hotel establishments and overnight The increase in the price of housing per square metre has led to
stays, as well as the growing number of residential tourism properties, population displacement. According to Cocola Gant (2016), the problem of
Graph 14 shows the new rise in housing prices per square metre displacement or exclusion of local residents, is not just a consequence of
experienced in the Catalan capital tourism but also the result of real estate speculation.

GRAPH 141
GRÁFICO

Evolution of the sale price per square metre in euros

in Barcelona (2008-2017)

Source: Drafted by the author based on data published by the Idealista website, 2017

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 26

03.3 THE NEGATIVE PERCEPTION OF TOURISM IN BARCELONA
In 2017 the results of the Barómetro Semestral de Barcelona (Barcelona’s
twice-yearly Opinion Barometer) were published. For the first time since
2011, the city’s residents identified tourism as the most serious problem
in Barcelona. The following question was asked: “What do you consider to
be the most serious problem in the city of Barcelona nowadays?”. Graph
15 shows how the negative perception of tourism has steadily grown
among citizens.
GRAPH 151
GRÁFICO
Negative perception of tourism in Barcelona
(What do you consider to be the most serious problem in the city of Barcelona
nowadays?)
Source: Barómetro Semestral de Barcelona. Evolution 2011 – 2017
This perception of tourism pressure in the Catalan capital is a new challenge
for the local public authorities. In the Opinion Barometer, Barcelona
residents were asked which problem affected them most on a personal
level. In response, 4.6% of the people surveyed said “tourism”. In comparison,
working conditions, economic problems, public equipment and services,
among other factors, were not perceived as the most pressing personal
problem. Nevertheless, the perception of tourism as a problem that directly
affects Barcelona residents has indeed grown (see Graph 16).
GRAPH 161
GRÁFICO
Negative personal perception
of tourism in Barcelona
(Personally, which problem affects you most?)
Source: Barómetro Semestral de Barcelona. Evolution 2011 – 2017
Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 27
03.2 BARCELONA IN THE PRESS TABLE 4
The negative perception of tourism may be related to increasing sale and rental
prices of housing, and the privatisation and congestion of public space, among First press articles on tourism in Barcelona (2008)
a diverse range of factors involved in the tourism phenomenon. This negative ARTICLE TITLE AUTHOR MEDIA OUTLET/DATE
perception and discontentment has been recorded for around a decade. In fact,
various articles in the press, public opinion reports and journals have reported TURISTOFOBIA (TOURISTPHOBIA) Manuel Delgado El País, 12th July 2008
the conflicts and reactions of local residents in response to tourism saturation.
QUERIDOS VISITANTES Y OTROS
The first recorded use of the newly coined term ‘tourismphobia’ was on July CUENTOS CHINOS (DEAR La Vanguardia, 19th
VISITORS, AND OTHER Quim Monzó
12th, 2008 (see table 4). September 2008
TALL STORIES)
LA CIUDAD MUSEO La Vanguardia, 24th
(THE MUSEUM CITY) Màrius Carol
In his press article, Delgado (2008) explained that tourists demand the same September 2008.
rights that any citizen can demand when they travel, such as the right to visit PARANOIES TURÍSTIQUES
Sebastià Alzamora Avui, 27th September 2008
(TOURISM PARANOIAS)
and the right to be a newcomer. According to the author, the problem is not the
fact that there are tourists, but rather that there are only tourists. Therefore, TURISMOFOBIA EN AUGE (TOU- El Periódico, 13th October
RISMPHOBIA ON THE RISE) David Placer
2008
tourism should not be blamed for stripping historical centres of their history and
forcing out the residents, but rather this is a result of the city being managed MÁS TURISTAS NO, GRACIAS (NO La Vanguardia, 6th
MORE TOURISTS, THANKS) Francesc Peirón
November 2008
as a business. Table 4 lists the first press articles that analysed the phenomenon
CIUTAT VELLA HA EXPEDIENTAT
dating back to 2008.. 30 BOTIGUES DE ‘SOUVENIRS’
(THE CIUTAT VELLA DISTRICT FI- El Periódico El Periódico, 8th April 2009
LES CHARGES AGAINST 30 SOU-
VENIR SHOPS)

BARCELONA
El Periódico, 8th April La Vanguardia,
2009 26th September 2008
BARCELONA, HACIA OTRO
LIDERAZGO (BARCELONA, La Vanguardia, 26th
HEADING TO ANOTHER Xavier Bru de Sala
September 2008
LEADERSHIP POSITION)
EL MODELO TURÍSTICO DE
BARCELONA (BARCELONA’S El Periódico, 25th November
TOURISM MODEL) Josep-Francesc Valls,
2008

Source: Anàlisi de l’opinió publicada als mitjans escrits Curs 2008 – 2009 (Oficina del Pla Juliol 2009),
Barcelona City Council/Turisme de Barcelona.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 28

 TABLE 5
Barcelona in the international press (2017)
ARTICLE TITLE
NEW THREAT FACING BARCELONA
TOURISTS AS MASKED MEN AMBUSH
BUS WITH MORE ATTACKS PROMISED
ANTI-TOURIST ACTIVISTS IN
BARCELONA THREATEN FRESH
ATTACKS ON HOLIDAYMAKERS:
CAMPAIGNER SLASH TYRES OF
RENTAL BIKES DAYS AFTER HOODED
MEN STORMED OPEN-TOP BUS
BARCELONA ANTI-TOURISM
ACTIVISTS VANDALISE
BIKES AND BUS
Over the last decade, this issue has started to become a recurring topic.
The privatisation of public space in the city has become one of the most
commonly cited complaints in many newspaper opinion columns. The
increase in tourist arrivals, to which many attribute the transformation of
AUTHOR MEDIA OUTLET/DATE some parts of the city, partly caused by the democratisation of tourism and
the low-cost phenomenon, has given rise to a sense of rejection, distrust
Daily and Sunday Daily and Sunday Express, and contempt towards the tourism industry in general. Moreover, on
Express 1th August 2017 several occasions in the local press, journalists and experts have questioned
the city’s tourism model. Furthermore, the tourism conflicts in Barcelona
have even been reported in the international press. Since the attack on a
Mail Online, bus earlier this year near Camp Nou in Barcelona, with the phrase ‘Tourism
Rita Sobot
1th August 2017
kills neighbourhoods’ being painted on its windscreen, there have been
articles warning the social reaction against tourism in leading British
newspapers, such as The Daily Express, The Daily Mail and The Guardian
The Guardian,
Stephen Burgen (see Table 5).
1th August 2017

ANTI-TOURISM PROTESTERS
IN BARCELONA SLASH TYRES
The Telegraph,
ON SIGHTSEEING BUSES Chris Leadbeater
AND RENTAL BIKES 2th August 2017

‘TOURISM KILLS NEIGHBOURHOODS’:

HOW DO WE SAVE CITIES FROM The Guardian,
Elle Hunt
THE CITY BREAK? 4th August 2017

WHY BARCELONA LOCALS Almudena López Independent,

REALLY HATE TOURISTS Díaz 9th August 2017
FIRST VENICE AND BARCELONA:
NOW ANTI-TOURISM MARCHES
Will Coldwell
The Guardian,
SPREAD ACROSS EUROPE 10th August 2017

Source: Drafted by the author, 2017

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 29

03.4 TOURISM ON THE AGENDA OF SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
In recent years, tourism and social movements have converged to create
platforms for reciprocal appropriation. Initially, such platforms were mainly
interested in combating employment instability, sexual discrimination and
gender inequality, the growing elitism and privatisation of the education
system, healthcare services and social exclusion. However, nowadays, their
focus has shifted to campaigning against excessive pressure on the local
community (Milano, 2017). The ABTS (Assemblea de Barris per un Turisme
Sostenible – Assembly of Neighbourhoods for Sustainable Tourism) is a
good example of this change of direction.
During its presentation when it was established in 2015, the ABTS
highlighted the need to fight for the city’s rights, alleviate the pressure of
speculation and slow down the rising rental prices.
Since it was formed, the ABTS has managed to generate more consistent
debate in the media and political arenas concerning the tourism conflict in
the Catalan capital.
Since the ABTS was founded, its campaigning against tourism pressure has
focused on decreasing tourist numbers in Barcelona. In order to achieve
such a decrease, the Assembly makes the following proposals:
• Cancellation of the public promotion of tourism.
• Overseeing the public/private consortium Turisme de Barcelona with
public funds.
• Withdrawing subsidies, tax relief, grants and transfer of public funds
to the private sector.
• Implementing more restrictive urban planning legislation than the
current Special Urban Planning Plan for Tourist Accommodation
(PEAUT).
• Having resident representation on the Boards of Directors of the
port and airport.
• Amending the legislation to improve the working conditions of
workers in the tourism industry.
• Increased democratisation and implementation of a public debate on
the city’s tourism development.
Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 30
 TABLE 6 1
GRÁFICO residential properties, public space, the current economic model, cruise
tourism and the administration of Barcelona Port. After two days of
Associations and platforms that are members the Forum, filled with discussions and workshops, ten conclusions18 and
of the ABTS challenges were defined. Some extracts of these conclusions can be seen in
1) Assemblea de Joves de Ciutat Vella 15) Fem Sant Antoni
TABLE 7 1
GRÁFICO
2) Assemblea de l’Esquerra de l’Eixample 16) Grup Impulsor del Parlament Ciutadà

3) Assemblea Gòtic
4) Assemblea Social Guinardó-Can Baró
5) Associació de Veïnes i Veïns de l’Òstia
6) Associació de Veïns i Veïnes del Barri Gòtic
7) Associació de Veïns i Veïnes Sagrada Família
8) Ciutat Vella no Està en Venda
9) CUP Casc Antic / Barceloneta
10) CUP Horta-Guinardó
11) Defensem els tres Turons
12) Ecologistes en Acció Catalunya
13) El Raval no está en venta
17) La Barceloneta Diu Prou
18) PisosTurísticsNO Eixample
19) Associació de Guies de Turisme de Catalunya
20) Plataforma Defensem El Park Güell
21) Plataforma Gràcia Cap On Vas
22) Plataforma No hotel al Rec Comtal
23) Al Poblenou Ens Plantem
24) Recuperem La Niza
25) Salvem pensions – Gràcia
26) Som Paral·lel
27) SOS Enric Granados
Conclusions of first residents’ forum on tourism
1) Despite the initial diagnosis, there is still a lack of specific data that validates the
diagnosis.
2) Developing an index that enables the quality of life in cities to be measured, which
goes beyond GDP.
3) Agreeing actions related to tourism between the various key players.
4) Running a campaign to raise awareness among the inhabitants of Barcelona and Ca-
talonia, as well as establishing alliances, if required, with the political representatives
of institutions that are sensitive to the issue.
5) Calling on the representatives of the Catalan Government, City Council and unions
of the Barcelona Port Authority Administration Council concerning their policies in
relation to the port and the city.
6) Capitalizing on any opportunities that arise to raise the political debate on the issue
in Catalonia.
7) Use tourism taxes to resolve the negative impacts of tourism in the city, particularly
in the worst affected districts, rather than promoting mass tourism.

14) Fem Plaça 28) SOS Rambla 8) Establishing a citizens’ platform to promote the municipalization of areas of Barcelo-
na Port that directly affect the life of the city, but which are not currently subject to
Source: ABTS, 2017 any controls by the general public or the City Council.

9) Developing a comprehensive port plan of a more civic nature.

Since it was established, the ABTS has organised several different initiatives, campaigns
and protests. It should be highlighted that all the initiatives have been peaceful,
campaigning for a change in the tourism model. In order to achieve it, the 1st Residents’
Forum on Tourism was held on July 1st and 2nd, 2016 with the aim of building a network
of the different residents’ groups and debating controversial issues such as the use of
18
Conclusions of the 1st Residents’ Form on Tourism. Available online: Link
10) Promoting greater public coordination. The business sector already meets at an
international level. The problems and proposals need to be internationalized through
the promotion of the Forum of Mediterranean Cities affected by Tourism, in coor-
dination and collaboration in order to develop common criteria identified by the
general public.
Source: Extracts from the conclusions of the 1st Residents’ Forum on Tourism.
Available online, 2016

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 31

Many of the ten points raised by the Forum are far from being implemented
and the local social movements continue striving to decrease tourism
numbers. Furthermore, in the summer of 2017, they ran the campaign
#CapMésEstiuComAquest (No more summers like this one). The campaign declares
that, despite the turnaround in public opinion that was unthinkable a few years
ago, the tourism industry continues to grow at an increasing rate. Meanwhile, the
stakeholders have tried to cover up the problem talking of “tourismphobia”. For the
ABTS, the phobia that is the real issue is the fear of increasingly well-organised and
demanding residents’ movements.

Lastly, it is worth highlighting the event held in Mallorca in June during the same
year (2017). A variety of groups from Spanish and European cities, including Lisbon,
Venice, Valencia, Madrid, Palma and Barcelona, took part in a round table organised
by Alba Sud and the GOB (Grup Balear d’Ornitologia i Defensa de la Naturalesa
– Balearic Group of Ornithology and Defence of Nature). The event was entitled
“Social movements against tourism – a battle shared between different regions and
cities” and it involved a round table that discussed the similarities and differences
between the participating cities, with representatives from institutions and
organisations such as the Comitato No Grandi Navi from Venice, the Oficina de
Urbanismo Social from Lavapiés, the Sindicato de Inquilinos from Madrid, the
Assemblea Ciutat per qui l’Habita from Mallorca, the group Morar em Lisboa from
Lisbon, the group Entre Barris from Valencia and the Assemblea de Barris per un
Tourism Sostenible (ABTS) from Barcelona.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 32

 04
UNDERSTANDING THE PHENOMENON

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 33

04 UNDERSTANDING THE PHENOMENON FIGURE
GRÁFICO41

Tourism Irritation Index

There follows an overview of some of the theories that may help to explain the
intolerance towards the predominant tourism model in many urban destinations

04.1 . TOURISM IRRITATION INDEX

George Doxey (1975) developed a theory on the four phases of local perception in a EUPHORIA
tourism destination (Seer Figure 4). .

01. First phase: euphoria. Tourists are welcomed and the destination hosts are
extremely happy to receive the first flows of tourists.

02. Second phase: apathy. The number of visitors starts to rise and the APATHY
relationship becomes less euphoric and more dismissive.

03. Third phase: Irritation. When number of tourists reaches saturation point,
the irritation phase begins. In other words, this is the phase in which hosts start
to pay the price of the presence of tourism and to be wary of the benefits of INVITATION
tourism.

04. Fourth phase: antagonism. The residents’ level irritation starts to be

expressed and the visitors are seen as the cause of all of the problems.

ANTAGONISM

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 34

04.2 TOURISM CARRYING CAPACITY FIGURE
GRÁFICO51

Ainsley O’Reilly (1986) first developed the concept of a tourism destination having a The Tourism Area Life Cicle (TALC)
load capacity. Used in this way, the word “capacity” in its original sense, refers to the
maximum quantity of tourists that can be contained in a certain space. The World
Tourism Organization (WTO, 1981) proposed the following definition for tourism
carrying capacity: “the maximum number of people that could visit a location within
a given period, such that local environmental, physical, economic, and sociocultural
characteristics are not compromised, and without reducing tourist satisfaction”.

Moreover, the theory of Tourism Carrying Capacity does not simply take the number
of visitors into consideration. Other important variables include:

01. The distribution of visitors in the area

02. Their activities

03. Their behaviour

Source: http://ramiropetrizzi.blogspot.com.es/2011/05/capacidad-de-carga-una-problematica.html
04. The state of tourism infrastructure

The theory of Tourism Carrying Capacity has been strongly criticised because of
its conceptual assumptions and limited practical application, as tourism destinations
are dynamically complex and unstable, and cannot be considered to be constant.
Nevertheless, it is often used to measure the tourism pressure in a destination
(see Figure 5)

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 35

04.3 THE TOURISM AREA LIFE CICLE FIGURE
GRÁFICO61

Richard Butler (1980) developed the concept of the Tourism Area Cycle The Tourism Area Life Cicle (TALC)
of Evolution (see Figure 6), which is made up of four phases. Despite being
developed almost forty years ago, the theory can still help us to understand
the phases that the development of a tourism destination goes through.
3 MATURITY
01. Introduction Stage: this is the time when the product is launched
in line with a commercialisation and advertising strategy. This stage is
characterised by a slow growth in sales and high promotional costs.

02. Growth Stage: in this stage, the product is accepted on the market.
It is characterised by steeper sales and profit curves.

03. Maturity Stage: the product is well known on the market in this 2 CROWTH 4 DECLINE
stage and, at the same time, the competition strives to counteract
its success, launching new products to take some of its rival’s market
share. The company with the successful product tries to step up its
advertising to tackle the competition.

04. Decline Stage: this is the final stage of a product’s life cycle and
it is characterised by the fact that the new products launched by
competitors start to become popular, gradually replacing the product
in terms of consumer preferences.
1 INTRODUCTION

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 36

The three theories presented can give us an insight into the phenomenon
of tourism pressure. However, the phenomenon is far more complex and
depends on a range of specific features in each context. The summary in
Table 8 below, shows some of the key statistics of the three cities analysed
that may contribute to a greater understanding of this complex phenomenon.
Lastly, a trend can be observed in relation to increasing tourist flows,
the number of residential tourism properties and the emergence of
discontentment among residents. With this in mind, Graph 17 shows
the evolution in the supply of residential tourism properties in the three
cities. Of the three cities, Berlin and Barcelona have recorded the greatest
number and increase in terms of residential tourism properties since 2010.

TABLE 8 GRAPH 17

Comparison between Venice, Berlin and Barcelona Evolution of the supply of residential tourism
VENICE BERLIN BARCELONA
properties in Barcelona, Berlin and Venice
(2010-2017)
INHABITANTS 261,680 3,450,889 1,608,746

NUMBER OF OVERNIGHT
STAYS IN 2016 10,182,829 12,731,640 9,065,650

% INCREASE IN NUMBER OF
OVERNIGHT STAYS BETWEEN 19.5% 36.66% 16.4%
2010 AND 2015

PRICE IN €/M2 IN 2016 €2,894 €3,510 €3,467

NUMBER OF TOURIST AC-

COMMODATION OPTIONS ON 6,027 20,576 17,369
AIRBNB

AVERAGE PRICE PER NIGHT Source: Drafted by the author based on data from Airdna.co
FOR ACCOMMODATION ON €130 €58 €84
AIRBNB
In conclusion, in the cases analysed, Berlin and Barcelona have recorded the
TOURISTS/OVERNIGHT STAYS greatest increase in residential tourism properties since 2010. In addition, in
PER INHABITANT 38.9 3.6 5.6
both cities, there is a direct relationship between the rise in overnight stays
Source: Drafted by the author based on the abovementioned sources, 2017 and increasing housing prices.
19
2015 data. Lack of official data for 2016.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 37

 05
CONCLUSIONS

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 38

01
The cases of Venice, Berlin
and Barcelona have different
characteristics. However, the three
destinations face a similar scenario:
tourism saturation.
02
Berlin and Barcelona are experiencing
the constant rise of housing prices per
square metre.
03
Venice directly suffers from tourist
congestion due to the increase in
day-trippers from cruise tourism.
04
Barcelona and Venice have presented
more structured ‘politicisation from
below’ responses and ad hoc
movements have emerged dedicated
to organising initiatives and campaigns
against tourism pressure.

05
The widespread use of the term
‘tourismphobia’ is a result of the,
perhaps inaccurate, use of the term in
the media to describe the emergence of
in response to tourism pressure.
06
Overtourism or tourism saturation
is a problem for all agents that are
directly or indirectly involved in the
apparatus of tourism: public agents,
private sectors, tourists and
residents.
07
Rather than the term tourismpho-
08
bia, in these three cases, it is more
useful to talk about tourism
pressure or overtourism.
For the three cities, the number of
overnight stays by tourists have been
observed. If we take into account
the number of tourists who do not
stay overnight (day-trippers, cruise
passengers etc.), the proportions are
even more alarming.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 39

09
Venice has 261,680 inhabitants
and receives more than 10 million
overnight stays. Taking the number of
inhabitants in the historical centre into
account, the ratio is even more drastic.
13
In Barcelona, in 2016, there were 5.6
overnight tourist stays per inhabitant.
10
In 2015, in Venice, there were 38.9
overnight tourist stays per inhabitant.
14
Between 2010 and 2015, there was
a 16.4% rise in overnight stays in
Barcelona.
11 12
Between 2010 and 2015, in Venice, a The population of Venice’s historical
19.5% increase in overnight stays was centre, which is the most visited part
recorded. of the city, fell by 10,000 inhabitants
between 2001 and 2015.
15
In Berlin, in 2016, there were 3.6
16
In most exclusive areas of Venice, such
overnight tourist stays per inhabitant. as the historical centre and the Grand
Canal, the average price ranges from
€12,000 to €20,000/m2.
Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 40
17
The number of overnight stays in
hotels in Berlin rose from 11 million
to 27 million in just 10 years.
21
The number of hotel beds in
Barcelona increased from 18,569
in 1990 to 67,640 to 2016.
18
In Berlin, in 16 years, the number
of overnight stays tripled from 9.6
million in 1999 to 30.3 million in 2015.
In addition, in 2016, the number of
visitors to the city reached 12.7 million.
22
In Barcelona, tourism has been
identified as the most serious
problem in the city by the residents
themselves.
19 20
Between 2010 and 2015 the number The number of hotel establishments
of overnight stays in Berlin rose by in Barcelona rose from 118 in 1990 to
36.66% 408 in 2016.
23
Berlin and Barcelona have recorded the
24
In Berlin and Barcelona, there is a direct
greatest number and increase in terms relationship between the rise in overni-
of residential tourism properties since ght stays and increasing housing prices.
2010.
Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 41
25
In Venice, there is a direct relationship
between the decreasing population in
the city’s historical centre and the rise
in overnight stays and tourist arrivals.
26
The phenomenon of overtourism can
partly be explained by the different
phases that the local perception of a
tourism destination goes through, the
Tourism Area Cycle of Evolution and
the Tourism Carrying Capacity of these
destinations.
Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 42
 06 REFERENCES

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 43

→ Azienda di Promozione Turistica della Provincia di Venezia – Ufficio LEGALE E STATISTICA (2014) Movimentazione turistica in provincia di Venezia
periodo gennaio-dicembre 2014.

→ ABTS (2015) Conclusions from the 1st Residents’ Forum on Tourism.

→ APARTUR (2017) El impacto del alquiler de viviendas de uso turístico en el mercado de alquiler residencial de Barcelona. Resumen Ejecutivo
(Barcelona, 07/06/2017).

→ Barcelona City Council (2016) Anuario Estadístico de la Ciudad de Barcelona.

→ Boissevain, J. (Ed.) (1996) Coping with tourists: European reactions to mass tourism (Vol. 1). Berghahn Books.

→ Butler, R.W. (1980) The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for management of resources. Canadian Geographer 24 (1), 5-12.

→ Caixa Research (2015) ¿Está sobrecalentado el mercado inmobiliario alemán? FOCUS (June 2015)

→ Cocola Gant, A (2016) Apartamentos turísticos, hoteles y desplazamiento de población. Informe para el debate sobre el nuevo Plan Especial
Urbanístico de Regulación de los Alojamientos Turísticos. Barcelona.

→ Doxey, G. V. (1975) A causation theory of visitor/resident irritants: Methodology and research inferences. Proceedings of the Travel Research
Association 6th Annual Conference (195-198). San Diego: Travel Research Association.

→ Engel & Völkers (2016) Market Report Venice 2016.

→ Füller, H., & Michel, B. (2014). ‘Stop being a tourist!’ New dynamics of urban tourism in Berlin‐Kreuzberg. International Journal of Urban and
Regional Research, 38(4), 1304-1318.

→ Jones Lang LaSalle Incorporated (JLL) (2016) Report Residential City Profile Berlin - 2nd half-year 2016.

→ Milano, C. (2017) Turismofobia: cuando el turismo entra en la agenda de los movimientos sociales. Marea Urbana (1): 5-8.

→ Möbert Jochen (13/01/2017) Outlook on the German housing market in 2017 Outlook for prices and rents in Berlin, Düsseldorf, Frankfurt,
Hamburg and Munich. Deutsche Bank Research.

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→ New York Times (29/06/2017) How Much Tourism Is Too Much?, Ginia Bellafante.

→ Novy, J. (2016). The selling (out) of Berlin and the de- and re-politicization of urban tourism in Europe’s ‘Capital of Cool’. Protest and Resistance in
the Tourist City, 52-72.

→ Novy, J. & Colomb, C. (2016) ‘Urban tourism and its discontents: an introduction’, in Colomb, C. and Novy, J. (eds) Protest and Resistance in the
Tourist City, London; New York: Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 1-30.

→ O’Reilly, Ainsley M. (1986) Tourism carrying capacity: concept and issues. Tourism management 7(4): 254-258.

→ Pla estratègic de Turisme de Barcelona (2009) Informe Anàlisi de l’opinió publicada als mitjans escrits Curs 2008-2009.

→ Pla estratègic de Turisme de Barcelona (2020) Programes d’actuació.

→ Jones Lang Lasalle (2016) Residential City Profile Berlin. 2nd half of 2016. Published in March 2017.

→ Vianello, M. (2016). ‘The No Grandi Navi campaign’, in Colomb, C. and Novy, J. (eds) Protest and Resistance in the Tourist City, London; New York:
Routledge/Taylor & Francis, 171-190.

→ World Tourism Organization (1992) Guidelines: Development of National Parks and Protected Areas for Tourism. Madrid.

→ World Tourism Organization (2004) Gestión de la saturación turística en sitios de interés natural y cultural. Guía práctica. Madrid.

Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global trends and local contexts 45

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