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2.2.

9 Design Life of the Pipe Material

Water supply systems are planned for a pre-decided time horizon generally called design period. In current
design practices, disregarding the increase in water demand, the life of pipes, and future discount rate, the
design period is generally adopted as 30 years on an ad hoc basis. In table 2.3, the life expectancy of a
pipe material is shown.

Table 2.3 Life of Pipes © Design of Water Supply Pipe Networks by Prabhata K. Swamee and Ashok K.
Sharma

Pipe Material Life, T u (Years)


Cast Iron (CI) 120
Galvanized Iron (GI) 120
Electric Resistance Welded (ERW) 120
Asbestos Cement (AC) 60
Poly(Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) 60

2.3 Review of Related Literature

According to an article by Lee and Schwab that was publish in 2015 the limiting availability of water
supplies is one of the most important environmental issue encountered in most countries at the present
time. As stated in United Nations Environment Program of 2002, approximately two-thirds of nations
worldwide will experience water difficulties by the year 2025.Exponatial growth in population and climate
change have resulted in the increase for the demand of water usage for domestic, industrial, and
agricultural purposes. [1]As quoted “Water is essential to our physical life” [2], it has been a natural thing to
know that where there is water, there life. It is fundamental to life on earth and thus one of our most
valuable resources. It was very noticeable in the last century where global water consumption has grown
twice as fast as population, resulting to a large increase in the need in irrigation, industrialization,
urbanization, tourism development and per capital demand [3].

[1]
Lee, E. J., & Schwab, K. J. (2005). Deficiencies in drinking water distribution systems in developing
countries. Journal of water and health, 3(2), 109-127.
[2]
Feed My Sheep (Book 1)
[3]
(WELL, 1998)
Since all biological life is dependent on water, it must be obtained and distributed systematically in order
that all living things can make use of it. Men built most of their early communities near the watercourses
which served their economic, social, and physiological requirements. As technology developed, it became
possible to transport water for physiological needs and to exploit more profitably other resources and
features, such as topography, for improved community location. In the development of water resources
beyond their natural condition in rivers, lakes, and springs, the digging of shallow wells was probably the
earliest innovation [4].

It is evidently shown that water was an important factor in the location of the earliest settled communities,
and the evolution of public water supply systems is tied directly to the growth of cities [5]. Having a
sustainable water supply will improve the area. Aside from electricity that is really one of the factors for an
area to be developed water is also essential, because having a sustained supply of clean water will make
the population grow in that area and probable investors will soon arise. Companies will be attracted to that
area to promote their business and this will be beneficial to the people because it can open to many
possibilities of having jobs. [6]

In rural areas, water is generally supplied by LGUs and small-scale community-based organizations,
including cooperatives. However there have been relatively few projects for improving access to water
supply services in rural areas, mainly because investment costs are difficult to recover and the government
has not been able to provide the required grants on a sufficient scale [7]. Some places in Asian countries
are still having difficulties in accessing water. In rural areas, access to piped water still remains about 29%
[8].

Overlooking the need for the water supply and distribution in rural areas. That is why the designers chose
to design a water supply and distribution system in barangay Hinguiwin located in the Municipality of Padre
Burgos Province of Quezon. Distribution system infrastructure is generally the major asset of a water utility.
The American Water Works Association (AWWA, 1974) defines the water distribution system as “including
all water utility components for the distribution of finished or potable water by means of gravity storage feed
or pumps though distribution pumping networks to customers or other users, including distribution
equalizing storage.” These systems must also be able to provide water for non-potable uses, such as fire
suppression and irrigation of landscaping [9].

[4]
WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATION MONOGRAPH SERIES No. 42(WATER SUPPLY FOR RURAL
AREAS AND SMALL COMMUNITIES)
[5]
GROLIER FAMILY ENCYCLOPEDIA (Vol. 19, page 275)
[6]
https://intrepidwanderer.com/2013/10/a-travel-guide-to-padre-burgos-in-quezon/#.W1gqEdIzbDc
[7]
Philippines Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Assessment, Strategy, and Road Map January 2013
[8]
(Hunter PR, MacDonald AM, Carter RC (2010) Water Supply and Health. PLoS Med 7(11)
[9]
Regulation of the Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan on Sector Program. “Drinking Water” for
2002–2010. Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan; Astana, Kazakhstan: 2002.
In general, water distribution systems can be divided into four main components: (1) water sources and
intake works, (2) treatment works and storage, (3) transmission mains, and (4) distribution network. The
common sources for the untreated or raw water are surface water sources such as rivers, lakes, springs,
and man-made reservoirs and groundwater sources such as bores and wells. For efficient distribution, it is
required that water should reach end use with required flow rate with needed pressure in the piping system.
There are three main types of distribution system that can be adopted in villages/towns:

a. Gravity Fed Distribution

When the ground level of water source/storage is sufficiently raised than the core village/town area, such
system can be utilized for distribution. The water in the distribution pipeline flow due to gravity and no
pumping is required. Such system is highly reliable and economical.

b. Pumping System

In such system, water is supplied by continuous pumping. Treated water is directly pumped into the
distribution main with constant pressure without intermediate storing. Supply can be affected during power
failure and breakdown of pumps. Hence, diesel pumps also in addition to electrical pumps as stand by to
be maintained. Such system works only in condition where there is continuous power supply, reliable water
source and where intermediate storage system cannot be installed.

c. Dual/Combination

In such system, both gravity as well as pumping systems are used. Such systems are used where there are
variations in topography in town/village.

Minimum Residual Pressure in a distribution system should be 7 m for single storied, 12 m for two storied
and 17 m for three storied building [10]

[10]
DESIGN OF WATER SUPPLY PIPE NETWORKS, Prabhata K. Swamee, Ashok K. Sharma

The systems of pipes that transport water from the source (such as a treatment plant) to the customer are
often categorized from largest to smallest as transmission or trunk mains, distribution mains, service lines,
and premise plumbing. The three requirements for a pipe include its ability to deliver the quantity of water
required, to resist all external and internal forces acting upon it, and to be durable and have a long life. [12]

Pumps are used infrequently to add energy to the system. Because pumps add energy and maintenance
costs to the owner, they should be used only when absolutely necessary. A pump failure or power loss
could affect large service areas. Grade changes and friction losses may require the addition of pumps
when a tower or tank cannot be used. Pumps may be needed to fill elevated tanks. Centrifugal pumps
generally are the type used.

Variable speed pumps are more useful when used as a booster, not to fill a tank or reservoir. Variable
speed pump performance is altered by changing the power to the pump, thereby changing the pump
speed. There is a direct relationship between total dynamic head (TDH) and pump discharge expressed as
gallons per minute (GPM) or cubic feet per second (CFS). Manufacturers design and build pumps by
discharge size, impellers shape, fin angle, etc. each having a pump curve graphically shown and
associated with its operating parameters. As a designer and modeler it is your responsibility to specify a
pump and design the pump system. The pump system includes the site, foundation, vault or housing,
power source, valves, piping, warning system and other associated appurtenances.

Choosing a pump manufacturer may depend on the type already in use for a particular system. A
municipality may require a certain manufacturer. The pump model is selected based on required TDH
versus required GPM or CFS. Every point along the pump curve represents the operating parameters of
that pump. Below is a simple typical pump curve as you might see from a pump manufacturer. Efficiency is
a third parameter associated with pump selection from the pump curve. Most pump curves have a parabolic
efficiency curve or series of curves overlaying the pump curve. You will want to choose a pump with the
highest efficiency for the specific performance parameters. The pump efficiency is estimated (interpolated if
necessary) based on the point where the system curve (explained below) intersects the pump curve (TDH
versus GPM). As a matter of due diligence, the designer should consult with the manufacturer regarding the
pump selection. The pump manufacturer can guide you to the model which best fits your conditions and
operating parameters.

In order to begin choosing a pump model you need to develop a system curve. The system curve is
developed by the associational relationship between flow rate and friction losses. As the flow rate is
increased the friction losses increase at an exponential rate. [11]

[11]
Basics of Water Supply System- Training Module for Local Water and Sanitation Management
When a series of calculations are made incrementally increasing the theoretical rate, thereis a resultant
head loss. The system curve is developed by adding the original static head above the discharge and
plotting the TDH versus GPM on the pump curve. There is a point where the system curve intersects the
pump curve. If this intersection crosses too far below the overlaid efficiency curve you need to choose a
different pump. In consideration of a tank filling pump there will be a family of system curves in a design
that has been determined to require a pump to fill an elevated tank. A series of curves is developed as the
water elevation in the tank changes. Each system curve will represent a static elevation in the tank. The
series of curves must include the lowest allowable elevation in the tank and the maximum elevation in the
tank. At the very least you will need to develop curves for the high tank, low tank during low demand
periods, and high tank and low tank during high demand periods. The series of curves intersecting the
pump curve represents the pump operating range. As discussed earlier, there are several friction loss
computational methods available. To determine the TDH for each system curve, add the frictional losses
and the particular point of static head.

TDH =∑ h L +h L

∑ hL = Summation of friction and minor losses.

hl = Static head or the tank elevation for that system curve.

To repeat, the friction losses are a function of flow rates. Note the four system curves intersecting the pump
curve. The highest curve is the high tank levels during low demand and the bottom line is the low tank level
during high demands. This is the operating range of the theoretical pump system.

As mentioned in the beginning of the pump discussion, energy use is a concern that requires consideration
and calculation. There must be a conversion from water energy to electrical energy. The pump efficiency
can be determined by the equation below.

Wp
E p= x 100
Pp
Motor efficiency is determined by:

Pp
Em = x 100
Pe

Ep = Pump efficiency.

Wp = Water power out.

Pp = Pump power.

Em = Motor efficiency.

Pe = Electric power.

Water power is expressed by the equation:

W p=Qh γ C

Q = Flow in GPM

γ = Specific weight of water.

C = Conversion factor equal to 4.058E–06.

Finally the net positive suction head (NPSH) must exceed the pump rated NPSH, otherwise the pump will
cavitate. When a pump cavitates the fluid undergoes negative pressure and causes damage in the pump
housing and impellers. By design, each pump has a unique minimum NPSH. This is known as NPSH
required. In contrast, available

NPSH is a function of flow and head. NPSH available is calculated by summation of atmospheric pressure
+ static head ahead of pump + water vapor pressure + head losses from source to pump.

NPSH=H atm + H h + H vap+ H L


Once the available NPSH is calculated it must be compared to the NPSH required for the selected pump. If
it is equal or less than the required NPSH of the pump, the following adjustments to the model can be made
and re-calculated:

1.) Select a pump with a lower NPSH required;

2.) Raise the source tank or reservoir;

3.) Lower the pump gradient;

4.) Increase the pipe diameter of the suction line.

Pumps can be used in parallel or series. Pumps can be used to fill elevated tanks and to energize a
system. Power and maintenance are considerations to be examined. As you have seen, when selecting
pumps there are many variables to consider. A series of pump models may very only slightly by fin angle,
throat size, or impeller diameter. The manufacturers are very helpful to the designer in selecting the correct
or optimum pump for your system. Rely on the manufacturer and consult the available data for a given
pump or series of pumps.
[12]
Clark, R. M., and D. L. Tippen. 1990. Water Supply. Pp. 5.173–5.220 In:Standard Handbook of
Environmental Engineering. R. A. Corbitt (ed.).New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.

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