Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The enterprise network is the lifeblood of any Small to Medium Enterprise (SME)
with more than one site or supply chain partner. It enables access to business
information and allows for profitable and effective communication flows between
employees in different enterprise sites. Network enterprise network equipment is
mature and ubiquitous, but the quality of services provided by similar networks varies
from city to city and from country to country.
In particular, the quality variation gap between most of the cities in some developing
nations and their counterparts in advanced nations is very wide. This is due to the lack
in developing nations of an adequate IT infrastructure, which is taken for granted in
developed nations. Planning an enterprise network in a developing nation is almost
like planning it in the middle of a desert. This report briefly discusses the architecture
of an enterprise network. It examines the barriers to planning, designing and
implementing an enterprise network. This report also covers the methods to
implement enterprise level networks.
In this report we will start from working basic router configuration then covering the
Routing technologies required to route data between branches.
After that we have implement WAN and Frame-relay is considered a good choice
because it connects multiple location using single interface of router and reduce the
hardware costs.
For Internet connectivity we are also using frame relay. In this setup NAT is very
essential in which we have translate live IP into local and vice-versa.
In short we can say a lot of technologies are studied and implemented for the
successful completion of the report.
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LIST OF USED DEVICES & TECHNOLOGIES CONFIGURED
Cisco router
Router
IP Addressing
Routing
Core Switch
VTP server
VLAN database
Trunk Links
Distribution Switches
VTP Client
2
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanking and feeling obliged indicates that we believe in someone else’s existence
rather than in the Divine who rules everything. When we feel obliged, then we are not
honoring the principles of the Divine karma. We should appreciate people for what
they are and not thank them for what they do… We should be grateful to people for
what they are and not for their acts. Now, it is really a long journey, going back in the
past times and making a big list of names for appreciation and gratitude.
Industrial Training is an important aspect of engineering. Through this training the
student learns to conduct himself/herself in environment of the industry. This training
is also helpful in acquiring the required technical knowledge. I am pursued my
training at DUCAT-INDIA, NOIDA. I learned a lot at this place. I really feel the
deepest gratitude towards my trainer, Mr. Pankaj (Consultant and trainer, DUCAT).
His immense love has been of great value to me. Without his unrivalled guidance,
constant encouragement, painstaking efforts, keen observance, benevolent attention
the present dissertation work would have remained futile. He really has the ability to
make a laidback person the foremost one.
I am deeply grateful to all my respected teachers of Shanti Devi Institute of
Technology and Management, Israna for their smile, support, calm and soothing
attitude, which yielded peace of mind during my busy work hours.
The biggest appreciation and gratitude is towards my seniors, who were brave enough
to share their views, keep a vision on my work and who made the task of compiling
the dissertation an easy way out for me. I salute these grand masters, filled with
knowledge, patience and above all love. They were tolerant and uncomplaining all the
times and calmed and supported me, when I needed them the most. They never
retraced their steps in the hour of need and were ready with their helping hands for all
the times.
I offer appreciation to all these great people of my life, for what they are. May they all
win laurels and their names are glorified and honored. Needless to say, the more I
direct my thoughts positively and feel genuinely thankful, I find that the more I get to
experience good results.
3
PREFACE
Practical training constitutes an integral part of engineering studies. The training gives
an opportunity to the students to express themselves to the industrial environment
which is quite different from the teaching classroom. The training enables the student
to work in the future. It enables the student to undergo those experiences which help
them later when they join an organization.
Industrial training is a major part of course. It is period in which we are introduced to
the industrial environment or in other words we can say that industrial training is
provided for the familiarization with the industrial environment, with the
advancement in computer technologies and increased automation in the industries for
increasing their production. In organization where Making Things Right in the first
instance is the driving motto, perfection and accuracy are inevitable.
Excellence is an attitude that the whole of the human race is born with. It is the
environment that makes sure that whether the result of this attitude is visible or
otherwise. A well planned, properly executed and evaluated industrial training helps a
lot in inculcating a professional attitude. It provides a linkage between the student and
industry to develop an awareness of industrial approach to problem solving, based on
a broad understanding of process and mode of operation of organization. The
objective of training is to raise the level of performance on one or more of its aspects
and this may be achieved by providing new knowledge and information relevant to a
job.
During this period, the students get the real, firsthand experience for working in the
actual environment. Most of the theoretical knowledge that has been gained during
the course of their studies is put to test here. It covers all the remains uncovered in the
classroom i.e. without it our studies remains ineffective and incomplete. Apart from
this, the students get an opportunity to learn the latest technology, which immensely
helps them in building their carrier.
I had the opportunity to have a real experience on many ventures, which increased my
sphere of knowledge to a great extent. I was entrusted with a real life project, working
on which had finally made me step into the ongoing technology and gradually become
a part of it. And all the credit goes to DUCAT-INDIA, NOIDA for providing me the
opportunity and facility for the making of this dissertation.
4
I availed this instance in a very satisfactory manner and think it will be very beneficial
for me in building my future.
COMPANY PROFILE
DUCAT-INDIA, NOIDA is an organization which is established in the field of
Network Support, Network training, Software training and Embedded systems. In
Education Ducat has strategic alliance with Pearson VUE and Parametric. Ducat is
authorized Testing Partner of REDHAT & Cisco and also NOVELL EDUCATION
PARTNER with which it provides NOVELL and SUSE LINUX courses. DUCAT,
NOIDA also conducts courses in CADENCE based design tools.
DUCAT-INDIA, NOIDA also provides Technical Research & Development support
and consultancy to some Electronics companies.
5
DUCAT TEAM
Presently DUCAT has a strong technical team of certified professionals for catering to
these solutions and has presence in noida, greater noida, gurgaon, Allahabad,
Faridabad etc.
Ducat had skilled team of engineers who are experienced in design, programming.
They are having more than 150 engineers who are having prestigious certifications
like CCNA, CCNP, CCSP, CCSA, MCSE, RHCE, C, C++, JAVA and PhP MySql
Programming.
Support Area (network solutions)
a. LINUX / UNIX networks
b. SUN networks
c. CISCO devices (Routers, Switches, Firewalls, Cache Engine, RAS etc)
d. Bandwidth Manager software and hardware
e. Radio Links
f. Security Solutions
DUCAT-INDIA provides the following Courses in IT & Embedded Systems given
below:
Network Training
a. CISCO CCNA, CCNP, CCSP, CCIE
b. RED HAT LINUX
c. SUN SOLARIS
d. WINDOWS 2000, 2003 (MCP, MCSA & MCSE)
e. SUSE LINUX
Software Training
a. C,C++
b. JAVA
c. PhP My Sql Programming
d. 1 year Diploma in System administration & Networking.
Design Services (Embedded systems)
a) AVR family
b) MCS 51
c) ELECTRONIC SYSTEM DESIGN
6
Contents Page No
Abstract …………………………………………………………………………….. 1
Acknowledgement …………………………………………………........…………..3
Preface ………………………………………………………………………………4
Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………...… 12
1. Networking ……………………………………………………..13-20
7
2.1.8 Data Encapsulation………………………………………........26
3. TCP/IP Model…………………………………………….....……27-29
3.1 TCP/IP MODEL………………………………...……………....27
3.1.1 LAYER 1:- Application Layer………………………………..28
3.1.2 LAYER 2:- Transport Layer…………………………………..28
3.1.3 LAYER 3 Internet Layer……………...……………………...29
4. IP Routing………………………………………………………..30-40
4.1 ROUTER……………………….…………………….………....30
4.2 Routing…………………………………...…………………..…30
4.3 IP Addressing…………………………………….……….….…31
4.3.1 Class A Addresses…………………………………………….31
4.3.2 Class B Addresses…………………………………………….32
4.3.3 Class C Addresses………………………………………….…32
4.3.4 Class D Addresses…………………………………………….33
4.3.5 Class E Addresses……………………………………….……34
4.4 IP Routing………………...…………………………………….34
4.5 Routing Process……………………..……………………..........35
4.6 Router Access Modes………………………………………… 36
4.6.1 User mode…………………………….……………………...,.36
4.6.2 Privileged mode……………………………………………….36
4.6.3 Global configuration…………………………………………..37
4.6.4 Line configuration mode………….…………………………..37
4.6.5 Interface configuration mode……………….………………...37
4.6.6 Routing configuration mode…………………………………. 37
4.7 Configuring Password…………………………………………..37
4.7.1 Console Password………………………..…………………....37
4.7.2 Vty Password…………………………………..……………...37
4.7.3 Auxiliary Password……………………………………………38
4.7.4 Enable Password………………………………………………38
4.7.5 Enable Secret Password……………………………………….38
4.7.6 Encryption all passwords……………………………………...38
4.8 Managing Configuration………………………………………...39
8
5 Types of Routing………………………………….………………41-58
5.1 Static Routing…………………………………………………...41
5.1.1 Steps to perform static routing………………………………..41
5.1.2 Advantages of static routing………………………………….41
5.1.3 Disadvantages of static routing……………………………….42
5.1.4 Alternate command to specify static route…………………....42
5.1.5 Backup route or loading static route…………………………..43
5.2 Default Routing………………………………………………....44
5.3 Dynamic Routing……………………………………….……….45
5.3.1 Types of Dynamic Routing Protocols………………..………..46
5.3.2 Autonomous system……………………………………..……55
5.3.3 Open Shortest Path First……………………………….….......56
5.3.4 OSPF Hierarchical Model………………………………...…...58
5.3.5 LSA Flooding in OSPF……………………………….………58
7 LAN Switching…………………………………………...………65-68
7.1LAN Switching…………………………………..………………65
7.2VLAN (Virtual LAN)………………………………….…….......66
9
Conclusion……………………………………………….………………………….72
References and Bibliography………………………..………………………………73
10
List of Figures
1.1. PCS’ CONNECTED VIA HUB………………………………….18
11
ABBREVIATIONS
N/w Network
EXEC EXECUTION
12
Chapter 1
NETWORKING
1.1 Network
In one network more than one computer connected with each other through
centralized device. They can share files and resources with each other. Networks are
the method to share hardware resources and software resources. We can share the
resources with the help of operating system like windows, Linux, UNIX etc. To
connect multiple networks we have to use internetworking devices like router, bridge,
layer 3 switches etc.
1.2 LAN
LAN stands for Local Area Network. The scope of the LAN is within one building,
one school or within one lab. In LAN (Hub), media access method is used CSMA/CD
in which each computer sense the carrier before sending the data over the n/w. If
carrier is free then you can transmit otherwise you have to wait or you have to listen.
In multiple accesses each computer has right that they can access each other. If two
computers sense the carrier on same time then the collision occur. Each computer in
the network aware about the collision. Now this stop transmitting and they will use
back off algorithm. In which random number is generated. This number or algorithm
is used by each computer. Who has short number or small number, he has first
priority to transmit the data over the network and other computers will wait for their
turn.
1.3 WAN
WAN stands for Wide Area Network, in which two local area networks are connected
through public n/w. it may be through telecommunication infrastructure or dedicated
lines. For e.g.: - ISDN lines, Leased lines etc.
In which we can use WAN devices and WAN technology. You can also connect with
your remote area through existing Internetwork called Internet.
13
1.4 Devices
1.4.1 Hub
Hub is centralized device, which is used to connect multiple workstations. There are
two types of Hub: -
(i) Active Hub
(ii) Passive Hub
It has no special kind of memory. It simply receives the frame (data) and forwards it
to all its nodes except the receiving node. It always performs broadcasting. In case of
hub, there is one collision domain and one broadcast domain. In case of hub, the
media access method is used CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection).
Active Hub
In Active hub, it receives the frame regenerate and then forward to all its
nodes.
Passive Hub
In Passive hub, it simply receives the frame and forward to all its connected
nodes.
We cannot perform LAN segmentation using hub.
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1.4.2 Switch
Switch is also used to connect multiple workstations. Switch is more intelligent than
hub. It has special kind of memory called mac address/filter/lookup table. Switch
reads mac addresses. Switch stores mac addresses in its filter address table. Switch
when receives frame, it reads the destination mac address and consult with its filter
table. If he has entry in its filter table then he forwards the frame to that particular mac
address, if not found then it performs broadcasting to all its connected nodes.
Every port has its own buffer memory. A port has two queues one is input queue and
second is output queue. When switch receives the frame, the frame is received in
input queue and forward from output queue. So in case of switch there is no chance or
place for collisions. In case of switch, the media access method is used CSMA/CA
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Avoidance). Switches provide more
efficiency, more speed and security.
1.4.4 Router
Router is hardware device, which is used to communicate two different networks.
Router performs routing and path determination. It does not perform broadcast
information.
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There are two types of routers: -
LAN card is media access device. LAN card provide us connectivity in the network.
There is a RJ45 (Registered Jack) connector space on the LAN card. RJ45 is used in
UTP cable. There is another led which is also called heartbeat of LAN card. When
any activity occurs it may be receiving or transmitting any kind of data. This led start
blinking and also tells us the status of LAN card.
FIG. 1.5 Internal network interface card Fig. 1.6 PCMCIA Network interface card
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1.5 UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)
Pin Configuration
Hub/Switch PC/Router/Online Uplink
Printer port(Hub/Switch)
1 Rx+ Tx+ Tx+
2 Rx- Tx Tx
3 Tx+ Rx+ Rx+
4 NC NC NC
5 NC NC NC
6 Tx Rx Rx
7 NC NC NC
8 NC NC NC
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Fig. 1.8 Cross & Straight Cable
Straight Cable
1 Orange white - Orange white
2 Orange - Orange
3 Green white - Green white
4 Blue - Blue
5 Blue white - Blue white
6 Green - Green
7 Brown white - Brown white
8 Brown – Brown
Cross Cable
Fig. 1.9 RJ 45 Connector
1 Orange white - Green white
2 Orange - Green
3 Green white - Orange white
4 Blue - Blue
5 Blue white - Blue white
6 Green - Orange
7 Brown white - Brown white
8 Brown - Brown
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1.6 Administrator model for networking
Server software: - Software which are used to giving services are server software.
Client software: - which gets services.
P P
R R
O O
T T
O O
C C
O O
L TCP/IP, L
Stack IPX/SPX, Stack
AppleTalk,
Netbeui
NIC NIC
Media Media
20
Chapter 2
Software
Protocol Stack
Application Layer
Presentation Layer
Session Layer
Transport Layer
Network Layer
NIC
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer
Media
The bottom layer, or Layer 1, of the OSI reference model is called the physical layer.
This layer is responsible for the transmission of the bit stream. It accepts frames of
data from Layer 2, the data link layer, and transmits their structure and content
21
serially, one bit at a time. Layer 1 is also responsible for the reception of incoming
streams of data, one bit at a time. These streams are then passed on to the data link
layer. The physical layer, quite literally, operates on only 1s and 0s. It has no
mechanism for determining the significance of the bits it transmits or receives. It is
solely concerned with the physical characteristics of electrical and/or optical signaling
techniques. This includes the voltage of the electrical current used to transport the
signal, the media type and impedance characteristics, and even the physical shape of
the connector used to terminate the media. Transmission media includes any means of
actually transporting signals generated by the OSI's Layer 1 mechanisms. Some
examples of transmission media are coaxial cabling, fiber-optic cabling, and twisted-
pair wiring.
The network layer enables internetworking. The protocols at this layer are responsible
for establishing the route to be used between the source and destination computers.
This layer lacks any native transmission error detection/correction mechanisms and,
consequently, is forced to rely on the end-to-end reliable transmission service of
either the data link layer or the transport layer. Although some data link layer
technologies support reliable delivery, many others do not. Therefore, Layer 3
protocols (such as IP) assume that Layer 4 protocols (such as TCP) will provide this
functionality rather than assume Layer 2 will take care of it.
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2.1.4 Layer 4: Transport Layer: -
(a) Buffer
Buffer is the temporary storage area. All the data is stored in the buffer
memory and when communication ability is available the data is forward to
another.
(b) Windowing
Windowing is the maximum amounts of the data that can be send to
destination without receiving Acknowledgement. It is limit for buffer to send
data without getting Acknowledgement.
23
Fig. 2.2 Windowing
(c) Multiplexing
Multiplexing means combining small data segment, which has same
destination IP and same destination service.
(iii) Sequencing
Transport layer add sequence number to data, so that out of sequence data can be
detected and rearranged in proper manner.
(iv) Positive acknowledgement and Response
When data is send to destination, the destination will reply with acknowledgement to
indicate the positive reception of data. If acknowledgement is not received within a
specified time then the data is resend from buffer memory.
This layer initiate, maintain and terminate sessions between different applications.
Due to this layer multiple application software can be executed at the same time.
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1. Connection Oriented Communication
SEND
SENDER Receiver
25
2.1.6 Layer 6: The Presentation Layer
Layer 6, the presentation layer, is responsible for managing the way that data is
encoded. Not every computer system uses the same data encoding scheme, and the
presentation layer is responsible for providing the translation between otherwise
incompatible data encoding schemes, such as American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII) and Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code (EBCDIC).
The presentation layer can be used to mediate differences in floating-point formats, as
well as to provide encryption and decryption services.
26
CHAPTER 3
TCP/IP MODEL
27
3.1.1 LAYER 1:- Application Layer
This layer contains a large no. of protocols. Each protocol is designed to act as server
& client. Some of protocol will need connection oriented. TCP and others may need
connection less UDP for data transfer. Application layer use port no.’s to identity each
application at Transport layer. This layer performs most of functions, which are
specified by the Application, Presentation, and Session layer of OSI model.
(ii) Acknowledgement
(iii) Sequencing
(v) Windowing
28
Fig. 3.2 TCP Header
The main function of Internet layer is routing and providing a single network interface
to the upper layers protocols. Upper or lower protocols have not any functions relating
to routing. To prevent this, IP provides one single network interface for the upper
layer protocols. After that it is the job of IP and the various Network Access protocols
to get along and work together.
29
CHAPTER 4
IP ROUTING
4.1 ROUTER
Unlike most LAN components, routers are intelligent. More importantly, they can
operate at all layers of the OSI reference model rather than just the first two. This
enables them to internetwork multiple LANs by using Layer 3 addressing.
A router must have two or more physical interfaces for interconnecting LANs and/or
WAN transmission facilities. The router learns about the addresses of machines or
networks that are somehow connected via each of its interfaces. The list of these
addresses is kept in tables that correlate Layer 3 addresses with the port numbers that
they are directly or indirectly connected to.
A router uses two types of networking protocols, both of which operate at Layer 3.
These are routable protocols and routing protocols. Routable protocols, also known as
routed protocols, are those that encapsulate user information and data into packets. An
example of a routed protocol is IP. IP is responsible for encapsulating application data
for transport through a network to the appropriate destinations.
4.2 Routing
Routers are used to forward packets of data between devices that aren't necessarily
connected to the same local network. Routing is the cumulative processes that
discover paths through the network to specific destinations, compare redundant routes
mathematically, and build tables that contain routing information.
30
The router's task is easy: It has only two interfaces. Any packets received by one of its
interfaces was either delivered to the other interface or discarded as undeliverable. In
this particular case, the router may well have been replaced by a hub, bridge, switch,
or any other Layer 2 device. The router's real value lies in determining routes to
destinations on nonadjacent networks.
4.3 IP Addressing
IPv4 Address Formats
Class A Addresses
Class B Addresses
Class C Addresses
Class D Addresses
Class E Addresses
IP addressing is accompanied by a two-tiered network address, consisting of the
network's address and a host address.
The Class A IPv4 address was designed to support extremely large networks. As the
need for very large-scale networks was perceived to be minimal, architecture was
developed that maximized the possible number of host addresses but severely limited
the number of possible Class A networks that could be defined.
A Class A IP address uses only the first octet to indicate the network address. The
remaining three octets enumerate host addresses. The first bit of a Class A address is
always a 0. This mathematically limits the possible range of the Class A address to
127, which is the sum of 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1. The leftmost bit's decimal
value of 128 is absent from this equation. Therefore, there can only ever be 127
possible Class A IP networks.
The last 24 bits (that is, three dotted-decimal numbers) of a Class A address represent
possible host addresses. The range of possible Class A network addresses is from
1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0. Notice that only the first octet bears a network address number.
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The remaining three are used to create unique host addresses within each network
number. As such, they are set to zeroes when describing the range of network
numbers.
Note Technically, 127.0.0.0 is also a Class A network address. However, it is
reserved for loop-back testing and cannot be assigned to a network.
The Class B addresses were designed to support the needs of moderate- to large-sized
networks. The range of possible Class B network addresses is from 128.1.0.0 to
191.254.0.0. The mathematical logic underlying this class is fairly simple. A Class B
IP address uses two of the four octets to indicate the network address. The other two
octets enumerate host addresses. The first 2 bits of the first octet of a Class B address
are 10. The remaining 6 bits may be populated with either 1s or 0s.
This mathematically limits the possible range of the Class B address space to 191,
which is the sum of 128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1. The last 16 bits (two octets)
identify potential host addresses. Each Class B address can support 65,534 unique
host addresses. This number is calculated by multiplying two to the 16th power and
subtracting two (values reserved by IP). Mathematically, there can only be 16,382
Class B networks defined.
The Class C address space is, by far, the most commonly used of the original IPv4
address classes. This address space was intended to support a lot of small networks.
This address class can be thought of as the inverse of the Class A address space.
Whereas the Class A space uses just one octet for network numbering, and the
remaining three for host numbering, the Class C space uses three octets for
networking addressing and just one octet for host numbering.
The first 3 bits of the first octet of a Class C address are 110. The first 2 bits sum to a
decimal value of 192 (128 + 64). This forms the lower mathematical boundary of the
Class C address space. The third bit equates to a decimal value of 32. Forcing this bit
32
to a value of 0 establishes the upper mathematical boundary of the address space.
Lacking the capability to use the third digit limits the maximum value of this octet to
255 - 32, which equals 223. Therefore, the range of possible Class C network
addresses is from 192.0.1.0 to 223.255.254.0.
The last octet is used for host addressing. Each Class C address can support a
theoretical maximum of 256 unique host addresses (0 through 255), but only 254 are
usable because 0 and 255 are not valid host numbers. There can be 2,097,150
different Class C network numbers.
Note In the world of IP addressing, 0 and 255 are reserved host address values. IP
addresses that have all their host address bits set equal to 0 identify the local network.
Similarly, IP addresses that have all their host address bits set equal to 255 are used to
broadcast to all end systems within that network number.
The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an IP network. The
Class D multicasting mechanisms have seen only limited usage. A multicast address
is a unique network address that directs packets with that destination address to
predefined groups of IP addresses. Therefore, a single station can simultaneously
transmit a single stream of datagram’s to multiple recipients. The need to create
separate streams of datagram’s, one for each destination, is eliminated. Routers that
support multicasting would duplicate the datagram and forward as needed to the
predetermined end systems. Multicasting has long been deemed a desirable feature in
an IP network because it can substantially reduce network traffic.
The Class D address space, much like the other address spaces, is mathematically
constrained. The first 4 bits of a Class D address must be 1110. Presetting the first 3
bits of the first octet to 1s means that the address space begins at 128 + 64 + 32,
which equals 224. Preventing the fourth bit from being used means that the Class D
address is limited to a maximum value of 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1, or 239.
Therefore, the Class D addresses space ranges from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.254.
This range may seem odd because the upper boundary is specified with all four octets.
33
Ordinarily, this would mean that the octets for both host and network numbers are
being used to signify a network number. There is a reason for this. The Class D
address space isn't used for internetworking to individual end systems or networks.
Class D addresses are used for delivering multicast datagram’s within a private
network to groups of IP-addressed end systems. Therefore, there isn't a need to
allocate octets or bits of the address to separate network and host addresses. Instead,
the entire address space can be used to identify groups of IP addresses (Classes A, B,
or C). Today, numerous other proposals are being developed that would allow IP
multicasting without the complexity of a Class D address space.
A Class E address has been defined, but is reserved by the IETF for its own research.
Therefore, no Class E addresses have been released for use in the Internet. The first 4
bits of a Class E address are always set to 1s; therefore, the range of valid addresses is
from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. Given that this class was defined for research
purposes, and its use is limited to inside the IETF, it is not necessary to examine it any
further.
4.4 IP Routing
When we want to connect two or more networks using different n/w addresses then
we have to use IP Routing technique. The router will be used to perform routing
between the networks. A router will perform following functions for routing.
• Path determination
• Packet forwarding
34
(2) Packet forwarding
It is a process that is by default enable in router. The router will perform
packet forwarding only if route is available in the routing table.
(i) The pc has a packet in which destination address is not same as the local
n/w address.
(ii) The pc will send an ARP request for default gateway. The router will reply
to the ARP address and inform its Mac address to pc.
(iii) The pc will encapsulate data, in which source IP is pc itself, destination IP
is server, source Mac is pc’s LAN interface and destination Mac is router’s
LAN interface.
S. MAC D. MAC
PC1 R1
D. IP 172.16.0.5
S. IP 10.0.0.6
The router will receive the frame, store it into the buffer. When obtain packet from
the frame then forward data according to the destination IP of packet. The router will
obtain a route from routing table according to which next hop IP and interface is
selected
(iv) According to the next hop, the packet will encapsulated with new frame and data
is send to the output queue of the interface.
35
4.6 Router Access Modes
When we access router command prompt the router will display different modes.
According to the modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user.
In this mode, we can display basic parameter and status of the router we can test
connectivity and perform telnet to other devices. In this mode we are not enable to
manage & configure router.
The command to enter in this mode is ‘enable’. We have to enter enable password or
enable secret password to enter in this mode. Enable secret has more priority than
enable password. If both passwords are configured then only enable secret will work.
This mode is used for the configuration of global parameters in the router. Global
parameters applied to the entire router. For e.g.: - router hostname or access list of
router the command enters in this mode is ‘configure terminal’.
36
4.6.4 Line configuration mode
This mode is used to configure lines like console, vty and auxiliary. There are main
types of line that are configured.
* Console router(config)#line console 0
*Auxiliary router(config)#line aux 0
*Telnet or vty router(config)#line vty 0 4
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4.7.3 Auxiliary Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line Aux 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
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4.8 Managing Configuration
There are two types of configuration present in a router
(1) Startup Configuration
(2) Running Configuration
(1) Startup configuration is stored in the NVRAM. Startup configuration is
used to save settings in a router. Startup configuration is loaded at the time of
booting in to the Primary RAM.
(2) Running Configuration is present in the Primary RAM wherever we run a
command for configuration; this command is written in the running
configuration.
To save configuration
Router#copy running-configuration startup-configuration
Or
Router#write
To abort configuration
Router#copy startup-configuration running-configuration
To display running-configuration
Router#show running-configuration
To display startup configuration
Router#show startup-configuration
Configuring HostName
Router#configure terminal
Router#hostname` <name>
#exit
Configuring Interfaces
Interfaces configuration is one of the most important part of the router configuration.
By default, all interfaces of Cisco router are in disabled mode. We have to use
different commands as our requirement to enable and configure the interface.
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CHAPTER 5
TYPES OF ROUTING
In this routing, we have to use IP route commands through which we can specify
routes for different networks. The administrator will analyze whole internetwork
topology and then specify the route for each n/w that is not directly connected to the
router.
Next hop IP: It is the IP address of neighbor router that is directly connected to our
router.
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5.1.3 Disadvantages of static routing
Protocols AD
Directly Connected 0
Static 1
BGP 20
EIGRP 90
IGRP 100
OSPF 110
RIP 120
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Example: -
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#ip route 150.10.0.0 255.255.0.0 150.20.0.5
Router(config)#ip route 150.10.0.0 25.255.0.0 160.20.1.1 8 (below 20)
Router(config)#exit
Scenario 1
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To check all the interface of a router
Router#show interface brief
Scenario 2: -
Stub network
A n/w which has only one exit interface is called stub network.
(If there is one next hop then we can use default routing)
Internet connectivity
On Internet, million of n/ws are present. So we have to specify default routing on our
router.
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Default route is also called gateway of last resort. This route will be used when no
other routing protocol is available.
If there is one next hop then we can use default routing.
The routers will pass routing information receive from one router to other router also.
If there are more than one path available then routes are compared and best path is
selected. Some examples of dynamic protocol are: -
RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF
According to the type of area in which protocol is used there are again two
types of protocol: -
The Routing, which is based on two parameters, that is distance and direction
is called Distance Vector Routing.
The example of Distance Vector Routing is RIP & IGRP.
Operation: -
(1) Each Router will send its directly connected information to the neighbor
router. This information is send periodically to the neighbors.
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Fig.5.3 Distance vector routing
(2) The neighbor will receive routing updates and process the route according
to following conditions: -
(i) If update of a new n/w is received then this information is stored in
routing table.
(ii) If update of a route is received which is already present in routing
table then route will be refresh that is route times are reset to zero.
(iii) If update is received for a route with lower metric then the route,
which is already present in our routing table. The router will discard
old route and write the new route in the routing table.
(iv) If update is received with higher metric then the route that is
already present in routing table, in this case the new update will be
discard.
(3) A timer is associated with each route. The router will forward routing
information on all interfaces and entire routing table is send to the neighbor.
(i) Route update timer. It is the time after which the router will send
periodic update to the neighbor.
(ii) Route invalid timer. It is the time after which the route is declared
invalid, if there are no updates for the route. Invalid route are not
forwarded to neighbor routers but it is still used to forward the traffic.
(iii) Route flush timer. It is the time after which route is removed
from the routing table, if there are no updates about the router.
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Metric of Dynamic Routing
Metric are the measuring unit to calculate the distance of destination n/w. A protocol
may use a one or more than one at a time to calculate the distance. Different types of
metric are: -
(1) Hop Count
(2) Band Width
(3) Load
(4) Reliability
(5) Delay
(6) MTU
Hop Count
It is the no. of Hops (Routers) a packet has to travel for a destination n/w.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the speed of link. The path with higher bandwidth is preferred to send
the data.
Load
Load is the amount of traffic present in the interface. Paths with lower load and high
throughput are used to send data.
Reliability
Reliability is up time of interface over a period of time.
Delay
Delay is the time period b/w a packet is sent and received by the destination.
MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit)
It is the maximum size of packet that can be sent in a frame mostly MTU is set to
1500.
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(i) Bandwidth Consumption
The problem of excessive bandwidth consumption is solved out with the help of
autonomous system. It exchanges b/w different routers. We can also perform route
summarization to reduce the traffic.
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(iii) Split Horizon
Split Horizon states routes that update receive from an interface cannot be
send back to same interface.
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Routing Information Protocol (RIP):
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a true distance-vector routing protocol.
RIP Features:
RIP Timers:-
RIP uses different kinds of timers to regulate its performance:
1. Route update timer Sets the interval (typically 30 seconds) between periodic
routing updates, in which the router sends a complete copy of its routing table
out to all neighbours.
2. Route invalid timer Determines the length of time that must elapse (180
seconds) before a router determines that a route has become invalid. It will
come to this conclusion if it hasn’t heard any updates about a particular route
for that period. When that happens, the router will send out updates to all its
neighbours letting them know that the route is invalid.
3. Hold down timer This sets the amount of time during which routing
information is suppressed. Routes will enter into the hold down state when an
update packet is received that indicated the route is unreachable. This
continues until either an update packet is received with a better metric or until
the hold down timer expires. The default is 180 seconds.
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4. Route flush timer Sets the time between a route becoming invalid and its
removal from the routing table (240 seconds). Before it’s removed from the
table, the router notifies its neighbours of that route’s impending demise. The
value of the route invalid timer must be less than that of the route flush timer.
This gives the router enough time to tell its neighbors about the invalid route
before the local routing table is updated.
Configuring RIP
Router#confiure terminal
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#network <own net address>
Router(config-router)#network <own net address>
Router(config-router)#exit
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#Passive-interface <type> <no>
Router(config-router)#exit
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#timers basic <update> <invalid> <hold down>
<flush>
Router(config-router)#exit
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Example: -
Router(config-router)#timer basic 50 200 210 300
Update 50 sec
Invalid 200 sec
Hold 210 sec
Flush 300 sec
RIP version 2
RIP version 2 supports following new features: -
(1) Support VLSM (send mask in updates)
(2) Multicast updates using address 224.0.0.9
(3) Supports authentication
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Commands to enable RIP version 2
We have to change RIP version 1 to RIP version 2. Rest all communication will
remain same in RIP version 2.
Router(config)#Router RIP
Router(config-router)#version 2
Router(config-router)#exit
This type of routing is based on link state. Its working is explain as under
(1) Each router will send Hello packets to all neighbors using all interfaces.
(2) The router from which Hello reply receive are stored in the neighbor ship
table. Hello packets are send periodically to maintain the neighbor table.
(3) The router will send link state information to the all neighbors. Link state
information from one neighbor is also forwarded to other neighbor.
(4) Each router will maintain its link state database created from link state
advertisement received from different routers.
(5) The router will use best path algorithm to store the path in routing table.
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Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol:
EIGRP is sometimes referred to as a hybrid routing protocol because it has
characteristics of both distance-vector and link-state protocols
Features of EIGRP: -
Following are the EIGRP features:
Cisco proprietary
Hybrid protocol
Link state
Distance Vector
Multicast Updates using Address 224.0.0.10
Support AS
Support VLSM
Automatic Route Summarization
Unequal path cost load balancing
Metric (32 bit composite)
o Bandwidth
o Delay
o Load
o Reliability
o MTU
Neighbor Recovery
Partial updates
Triggered updates
Backup Route
Multi Protocol Routing
Configuring EIGRP
Router(config)#router eigrp <as no>
Router(config-router)#network <net addr.>
Router(config-router)#network <net addr.>
Router(config-router)#exit
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EIGRP Timers:-
To control performance, EIGRP includes the following timers with default settings:
2. Invalid timers:-These specify how long a router should wait before declaring
a route invalid if it doesn’t receive a specific update about it. The default is
three times the update period.
3. Hold down timers:-These specify the hold down period. The default is three
times the update timer period plus 10 seconds.
4. Flush timers These indicate how much time should pass before a route should
be flushed from the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update
period. If the update timer is 90 seconds.
Autonomous system is the group of contiguous routers and n/w, which will share their
routing information directly with each other. If all routers are in single domain and
they share their information directly with each other then the size of routing updates
will depend on the no. of n/w present in the Internetwork. Update for each n/w may
take 150 – 200 bytes information.
For example: - if there are 1000 n/ws then size of update will be
200*1000 = 200000 bytes.
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Fig. 5.7 Autonomous system
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OSPF Terminology
(1) Hello packets
(2) LSA (Link State Advertisement)
(3) Neighbor
(4) Neighbor table
(5) Topology table (LSA database)
Router ID
Router ID is the highest IP address of router interfaces. This id is used as the
identity of the router. It maintains link state databases. The first preference for
selecting router ID is given to the Logical interfaces. If logical interface is not
present then highest IP of physical interface is selected as router id.
ROUTER ID
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.
- Minimizes routing table entries.
- Localizes impact of a topology change within an area.
- Detailed LSA flooding stops at the area boundary.
Adjacency
A router is called adjacency when neighbor relationship is established. We can also
say adjacency relationship is formed between the routers.
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Backbone Router
A router, which has all interfaces members of area 0, is called backbone router.
OSPF SCENARIO
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COMMANDS:
R1
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
R2
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 1
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 1
R3
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 1
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 1
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CHAPTER 6
6.1 ACL
ACL are the basic security feature that is required in any network to control the flow
of traffic. Most of time our network may have servers and clients for which traffic
control is required. We can also use ACL to classify the traffic. ACLs are used in
features like QOS (Quality of Service), Prioritize traffic and interesting traffic for
ISDN.
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6.3 Flow chart of Inbound ACL
A Packet is
received
Yes
Yes
Yes N
The Is it permit? The
o
packed is packet is
passed to dropped
RE
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Example: - 172.16.0.16 – 18 should not access Internet; rest of all other pc should
access Internet.
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6.5 IP Standard ACL (Named)
In Numbered ACL editing feature is not available that is we are not able to delete
single rule from the ACL. In Named ACL editing feature is available.
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#ip access-list standard <name>
Router(config-std-nacl)#<deny|permit> <source>
Router(config-std-nacl)#exit
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#ip access-list standard abc
Router(config-std-nacl)#deny 172.16.0.16
Router(config-std-nacl)#deny 172.16.0.17
Router(config-std-nacl)#deny 172.16.0.18
Router(config-std-nacl)#permit any
To modify the ACL
Router#confiue terminal
Router(config)#ip access-list standard abc
Router(config-std-nacl)#no deny 172.16.0.17
Router(config-std-nacl)#exit
To control Telnet access using ACL
If we want to control telnet with the help of ACL then we can create a standard ACL
and apply this ACL on vty port. The ACL that we will create for vty will be permit –
deny order.
Example: - suppose we want to allow telnet to our router from 192.168.10.5 &
192.168.10.30 pc.
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#access-list 50 permit 192.168.10.5
Router(config)#access-list 50 permit 192.168.10.30
Router(config)#line vty 0 4
Router(config-line)#access-class 50 in
Router(config)#exit
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Chapter 7
LAN Switching
Ethernet switches are used in LAN to create Ethernet n/ws. Switches forward the
traffic on the basis of MAC address. Switches maintain a Mac Addressee table in
which mac addresses and port no’s used to perform switching decision. Working of
bridge and switch is similar to each other.
Classification of switches
Switches are classified according to the following criteria: -
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Types of switches based on command mode (only in Cisco)
(1) IOS based
(2) CLI based
Type of switches based on hierarchical model
(1) Core layer switches
(2) Distribution layer switches
(3) Access layer switches
Qualities of switch
- No. of ports
- Speed of ports
- Type of media
- Switching or wire speed or throughput
Switch(config)#interface vlan 1
Switch(config)#IP address <ip> <mask>
Switch(config)#no sh
Switch(config)#exit
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Vlan provides following advantages: -
Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#vlan <no>
[name <word>]
Switch(config)#exit optional
Or
Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#vlan <no>
[name <word>]
Switch(vlan)#exit
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Example: - Suppose we want to add interface fast Ethernet 0/10 to 0/18 in vlan5
Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#interface range fastethernet 0/10 – 18
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 5
Switch(config-if)#exit
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Chapter 8
Before ordering a WAN service type, it would be a good idea to understand the
following terms, commonly used by service providers:
69
Figure shows the different WAN connection types that can be used to connect your
LANs together (DTE) over a DCE network.
Leased lines
Typically, these are referred to as a point-to-point connection or dedicated connection.
A leased line is a pre-established WAN communications path from the CPE, through
the DCE switch, to the CPE of the remote site, allowing DTE networks to
communicate at any time with no setup procedures before transmitting data. When
cost is no object, it’s really the best choice. It uses synchronous serial lines up to
45Mbps. HDLC and PPP encapsulations are frequently used on leased lines, and I’ll
go over them with you in detail in a bit.
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Circuit switching
When you hear the term circuit switching, think phone call. The big advantage is
cost—you only pay for the time you actually use. No data can transfer before an end-
to end connection is established. Circuit switching uses dial-up modems or ISDN, and
is used for low-bandwidth data transfers.
Packet switching
This is a WAN switching method that allows you to share bandwidth with other
companies to save money. Packet switching can be thought of as a network that’s
designed to look like a leased line, yet charges you (and costs) more like circuit
switching. There is a downside: If you need to transfer data constantly, forget about
this option. Just get yourself a leased line. Packet switching will only work well if
your data transfers are bursty in nature. Frame Relay and X.25 are packet-switching
technologies. Speeds can range from 56Kbps to T3 (45Mbps).
_____________________________________________________________________
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CONCLUSION
CCNA training has made me learn 21st century skills such as complex problem
solving and critical thinking.
To conclude one can say that CCNA training was really beneficial for
me and making report for such a great training is not being written just for the sake of
writing. I am crisply stating the main take away points from my work.
I feel that CCNA Security Course help to meet the growing demand for network
security skills. It provides the blended curriculum which provides a hands-on and
carrier oriented introduction to come security concepts. The course is highly
beneficial, as I feel; it helps students differentiate themselves in the marketplace.
Develop students for network security carrier opportunities. It enhances specialized
security skills.
BHARAT KHANEJA
(3409135)
ECE-2009 BATCH
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
REFERENCES
Websites
www.google.com
www.cisco.com
www.scribd.com
www.wikipedia.org
www.faadooengineers.com
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