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Abstract

The enterprise network is the lifeblood of any Small to Medium Enterprise (SME)
with more than one site or supply chain partner. It enables access to business
information and allows for profitable and effective communication flows between
employees in different enterprise sites. Network enterprise network equipment is
mature and ubiquitous, but the quality of services provided by similar networks varies
from city to city and from country to country.
In particular, the quality variation gap between most of the cities in some developing
nations and their counterparts in advanced nations is very wide. This is due to the lack
in developing nations of an adequate IT infrastructure, which is taken for granted in
developed nations. Planning an enterprise network in a developing nation is almost
like planning it in the middle of a desert. This report briefly discusses the architecture
of an enterprise network. It examines the barriers to planning, designing and
implementing an enterprise network. This report also covers the methods to
implement enterprise level networks.
In this report we will start from working basic router configuration then covering the
Routing technologies required to route data between branches.
After that we have implement WAN and Frame-relay is considered a good choice
because it connects multiple location using single interface of router and reduce the
hardware costs.
For Internet connectivity we are also using frame relay. In this setup NAT is very
essential in which we have translate live IP into local and vice-versa.
In short we can say a lot of technologies are studied and implemented for the
successful completion of the report.

Following is the list of technologies that are used in this report:


 Administration of router
 Routing
 Types of routing
 Benefits of static and dynamic routing
 Scalability of networks

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LIST OF USED DEVICES & TECHNOLOGIES CONFIGURED

 Cisco router

 Core layer switch

 Distribution layer switch

 Access layer switches

TECHNOLOGIES TO CREATE NETWORK

 Router

 IP Addressing

 Routing

 Core Switch

 VTP server

 VLAN database

 Trunk Links

 Spanning Tree Configuration

 Configuring IP & Gateway

 VLAN Port Membership

 Distribution Switches

 VTP Client

 Configuring IP & Gateway

 Trunk Link Configuration

 VLAN Port Membership

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Thanking and feeling obliged indicates that we believe in someone else’s existence
rather than in the Divine who rules everything. When we feel obliged, then we are not
honoring the principles of the Divine karma. We should appreciate people for what
they are and not thank them for what they do… We should be grateful to people for
what they are and not for their acts. Now, it is really a long journey, going back in the
past times and making a big list of names for appreciation and gratitude.
Industrial Training is an important aspect of engineering. Through this training the
student learns to conduct himself/herself in environment of the industry. This training
is also helpful in acquiring the required technical knowledge. I am pursued my
training at DUCAT-INDIA, NOIDA. I learned a lot at this place. I really feel the
deepest gratitude towards my trainer, Mr. Pankaj (Consultant and trainer, DUCAT).
His immense love has been of great value to me. Without his unrivalled guidance,
constant encouragement, painstaking efforts, keen observance, benevolent attention
the present dissertation work would have remained futile. He really has the ability to
make a laidback person the foremost one.
I am deeply grateful to all my respected teachers of Shanti Devi Institute of
Technology and Management, Israna for their smile, support, calm and soothing
attitude, which yielded peace of mind during my busy work hours.
The biggest appreciation and gratitude is towards my seniors, who were brave enough
to share their views, keep a vision on my work and who made the task of compiling
the dissertation an easy way out for me. I salute these grand masters, filled with
knowledge, patience and above all love. They were tolerant and uncomplaining all the
times and calmed and supported me, when I needed them the most. They never
retraced their steps in the hour of need and were ready with their helping hands for all
the times.
I offer appreciation to all these great people of my life, for what they are. May they all
win laurels and their names are glorified and honored. Needless to say, the more I
direct my thoughts positively and feel genuinely thankful, I find that the more I get to
experience good results.

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PREFACE

Practical training constitutes an integral part of engineering studies. The training gives
an opportunity to the students to express themselves to the industrial environment
which is quite different from the teaching classroom. The training enables the student
to work in the future. It enables the student to undergo those experiences which help
them later when they join an organization.
Industrial training is a major part of course. It is period in which we are introduced to
the industrial environment or in other words we can say that industrial training is
provided for the familiarization with the industrial environment, with the
advancement in computer technologies and increased automation in the industries for
increasing their production. In organization where Making Things Right in the first
instance is the driving motto, perfection and accuracy are inevitable.
Excellence is an attitude that the whole of the human race is born with. It is the
environment that makes sure that whether the result of this attitude is visible or
otherwise. A well planned, properly executed and evaluated industrial training helps a
lot in inculcating a professional attitude. It provides a linkage between the student and
industry to develop an awareness of industrial approach to problem solving, based on
a broad understanding of process and mode of operation of organization. The
objective of training is to raise the level of performance on one or more of its aspects
and this may be achieved by providing new knowledge and information relevant to a
job.
During this period, the students get the real, firsthand experience for working in the
actual environment. Most of the theoretical knowledge that has been gained during
the course of their studies is put to test here. It covers all the remains uncovered in the
classroom i.e. without it our studies remains ineffective and incomplete. Apart from
this, the students get an opportunity to learn the latest technology, which immensely
helps them in building their carrier.
I had the opportunity to have a real experience on many ventures, which increased my
sphere of knowledge to a great extent. I was entrusted with a real life project, working
on which had finally made me step into the ongoing technology and gradually become
a part of it. And all the credit goes to DUCAT-INDIA, NOIDA for providing me the
opportunity and facility for the making of this dissertation.

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I availed this instance in a very satisfactory manner and think it will be very beneficial
for me in building my future.

COMPANY PROFILE
DUCAT-INDIA, NOIDA is an organization which is established in the field of
Network Support, Network training, Software training and Embedded systems. In
Education Ducat has strategic alliance with Pearson VUE and Parametric. Ducat is
authorized Testing Partner of REDHAT & Cisco and also NOVELL EDUCATION
PARTNER with which it provides NOVELL and SUSE LINUX courses. DUCAT,
NOIDA also conducts courses in CADENCE based design tools.
DUCAT-INDIA, NOIDA also provides Technical Research & Development support
and consultancy to some Electronics companies.

Clients for R&D support in field of embedded systems:


 Recorders and Medicare ltd Chandigarh.
 TELEBOX India ltd.
 Lotus Machines Pvt. Ltd. Chandigarh.
 Impearl Electronics Pvt. Ltd. Chandigarh.
 KANTA Electrical Ltd. Mohali.
The partial list of its clients for network field is as below:
 CEDTI, Mohali
 Premier ISP, Chandigarh
 Innovative Solutions
 Emmet ISP
 NIPER
 Navik Technologies
 Software Technology Parks India
 Glide Internet Services
 Rana Group
 IDS
 HFCL Infotel Ltd.

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DUCAT TEAM

Presently DUCAT has a strong technical team of certified professionals for catering to
these solutions and has presence in noida, greater noida, gurgaon, Allahabad,
Faridabad etc.
Ducat had skilled team of engineers who are experienced in design, programming.
They are having more than 150 engineers who are having prestigious certifications
like CCNA, CCNP, CCSP, CCSA, MCSE, RHCE, C, C++, JAVA and PhP MySql
Programming.
Support Area (network solutions)
a. LINUX / UNIX networks
b. SUN networks
c. CISCO devices (Routers, Switches, Firewalls, Cache Engine, RAS etc)
d. Bandwidth Manager software and hardware
e. Radio Links
f. Security Solutions
DUCAT-INDIA provides the following Courses in IT & Embedded Systems given
below:
Network Training
a. CISCO CCNA, CCNP, CCSP, CCIE
b. RED HAT LINUX
c. SUN SOLARIS
d. WINDOWS 2000, 2003 (MCP, MCSA & MCSE)
e. SUSE LINUX
Software Training
a. C,C++
b. JAVA
c. PhP My Sql Programming
d. 1 year Diploma in System administration & Networking.
Design Services (Embedded systems)
a) AVR family
b) MCS 51
c) ELECTRONIC SYSTEM DESIGN

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Contents Page No

Abstract …………………………………………………………………………….. 1

Acknowledgement …………………………………………………........…………..3

Preface ………………………………………………………………………………4

Company Profile .……………………………………………………………………5

List of Figures …..…………………………………….……………………………11

Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………...… 12

1. Networking ……………………………………………………..13-20

1.1 Network …………………………………………………….….13


1.2 LAN …………………………………………………………....13
1.3 WAN …………………………………………………………...13
1.4 Devices ………………………………………………………....14
1.4.1 Hub ………………………………………………………...…14
1.4.2 Switch ……………………………………………………...…15
1.4.3 Bridge ………………………………………………………...16
1.4.4 Router ..……………………………………………………….16
1.4.5 Lan Card ……………………………………………………...17
1.5 UTP(Unshielded Twisted Pair) …….………………………......18
1.6 Administrator model for networking …………………………...20

2. OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model……….…21-26


2.1 OSI Model………………………………………………...…….21
2.1.1 Layer 1: The Physical Layer…………………..………………21
2.1.2 Layer 2: The Data Link Layer……………………….………..22
2.1.3 Layer 3: The Network Layer………………………..………...22
2.1.4 Layer 4: Transport Layer…………….………………………..23
2.1.5 Layer 5:.Session Layer……………………….……………….24
2.1.6 Layer 6: The Presentation Layer………………..…………….26
2.1.7 Layer 7: The Application Layer………………………..……..26

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2.1.8 Data Encapsulation………………………………………........26

3. TCP/IP Model…………………………………………….....……27-29
3.1 TCP/IP MODEL………………………………...……………....27
3.1.1 LAYER 1:- Application Layer………………………………..28
3.1.2 LAYER 2:- Transport Layer…………………………………..28
3.1.3 LAYER 3 Internet Layer……………...……………………...29

4. IP Routing………………………………………………………..30-40
4.1 ROUTER……………………….…………………….………....30
4.2 Routing…………………………………...…………………..…30
4.3 IP Addressing…………………………………….……….….…31
4.3.1 Class A Addresses…………………………………………….31
4.3.2 Class B Addresses…………………………………………….32
4.3.3 Class C Addresses………………………………………….…32
4.3.4 Class D Addresses…………………………………………….33
4.3.5 Class E Addresses……………………………………….……34
4.4 IP Routing………………...…………………………………….34
4.5 Routing Process……………………..……………………..........35
4.6 Router Access Modes………………………………………… 36
4.6.1 User mode…………………………….……………………...,.36
4.6.2 Privileged mode……………………………………………….36
4.6.3 Global configuration…………………………………………..37
4.6.4 Line configuration mode………….…………………………..37
4.6.5 Interface configuration mode……………….………………...37
4.6.6 Routing configuration mode…………………………………. 37
4.7 Configuring Password…………………………………………..37
4.7.1 Console Password………………………..…………………....37
4.7.2 Vty Password…………………………………..……………...37
4.7.3 Auxiliary Password……………………………………………38
4.7.4 Enable Password………………………………………………38
4.7.5 Enable Secret Password……………………………………….38
4.7.6 Encryption all passwords……………………………………...38
4.8 Managing Configuration………………………………………...39
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5 Types of Routing………………………………….………………41-58
5.1 Static Routing…………………………………………………...41
5.1.1 Steps to perform static routing………………………………..41
5.1.2 Advantages of static routing………………………………….41
5.1.3 Disadvantages of static routing……………………………….42
5.1.4 Alternate command to specify static route…………………....42
5.1.5 Backup route or loading static route…………………………..43
5.2 Default Routing………………………………………………....44
5.3 Dynamic Routing……………………………………….……….45
5.3.1 Types of Dynamic Routing Protocols………………..………..46
5.3.2 Autonomous system……………………………………..……55
5.3.3 Open Shortest Path First……………………………….….......56
5.3.4 OSPF Hierarchical Model………………………………...…...58
5.3.5 LSA Flooding in OSPF……………………………….………58

6 Access Control List……………………………………………….61-64


6.1 ACL………………...…………………………………………...61
6.2 Classification Access Control List…………….………………...61
6.3Flow chart of Inbound ACL……………………………………..62
6.4 IP Standard ACL (Numbered)………………………………….63
6.5 IP Standard ACL (Named)…………………………..………....64
6.6 IP Extended ACL (Numbered)……………………………… ...64

7 LAN Switching…………………………………………...………65-68
7.1LAN Switching…………………………………..………………65
7.2VLAN (Virtual LAN)………………………………….…….......66

8 Wide Area network…………………………………...…………..69-70


7.1 Defining WAN Terms…………………………..………………69
7.2 WAN Connection Types………………………………….…….70

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Conclusion……………………………………………….………………………….72
References and Bibliography………………………..………………………………73

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List of Figures
1.1. PCS’ CONNECTED VIA HUB………………………………….18

1.2 PCS’ CONNECTED VIA SWITCH……………………………..19


1.3 PCS’ CONNECTED VIA BRIDGE………………….………….20
1.4 DIFFERENT N/Ws CONNECTED VIA ROUTER….…………20
1.5 Internal Network Interface Card…………………………………21
1.6 PCMCIA Network Interface Card……………………………….21
1.7 UTP………………………………………………….……………21
1.8 Cross & Straight Cable…………………………………………...22
1.9 RJ 45 Connector………………………………………………….22
1.10 Networking Model……………………………………………….23
2.1 OSI MODEL……………………………………………………..24
2.2 Windowing……………………………………………………….26
2.3 3 Way hand shaking………………………………………….…...27
2.4 Connection Oriented Communication……...…………………….28
3.1 TCP/IP MODEL……………………………………………….....30
3.2 TCP Header……………………………………………………….31
4.1 Routing Process…………………………………………...............38
4.2 Router access modes………………………………………….…..38
5.1 Static routing………………………………………….…………..45
5.2 Default routing………………………………………….………...46
5.3 Distance vector routing…………………………………….……..47
5.4 Flash updates……………………………………………………..50
5.5 Split horizon……………………………………………………...50
5.6 Configuring RIP………………………………………………….52
5.7 Autonomous system……………………………………………...59
5.8 Router ID…………………………………...……………………60
5.9 Autonomous system……………………………………………...60
5.10 OSPF Hierarchical Model………………………………………..61
5.11 LSA Flooding in OSPF………………………………....………..62
5.12 OSPF……………………………………………………………..63
6.1 Flow chart of Inbound ACL……………………………………..66
6.2 Configuring ACL………………………………...........................67

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ABBREVIATIONS

N/w Network

LAN Local Area Network

WAN Wide Area Network

CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Detection

CSMA/CA Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Avoidance

ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)

OSI Open Systems Interconnection

TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol

NIC Network Interface Card

MAC Media Access Control

IETF Internet Engineering Task Force

EXEC EXECUTION

VTY (Virtual Telnet Type)

VLAN VIRTUAL Local Area Network

BGP Border Gateway Protocol

EIGRP Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

IGRP Interior Gateway Routing Protocol

OSPF Open Shortest Path First

RIP Routing Information Protocol

MTU Maximum Transmission Unit

VLSM Variable Length Subnet Mask

IOS Internetwork Operating System

CLI Command-Line Interface

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Chapter 1

NETWORKING

1.1 Network

In one network more than one computer connected with each other through
centralized device. They can share files and resources with each other. Networks are
the method to share hardware resources and software resources. We can share the
resources with the help of operating system like windows, Linux, UNIX etc. To
connect multiple networks we have to use internetworking devices like router, bridge,
layer 3 switches etc.

1.2 LAN

LAN stands for Local Area Network. The scope of the LAN is within one building,
one school or within one lab. In LAN (Hub), media access method is used CSMA/CD
in which each computer sense the carrier before sending the data over the n/w. If
carrier is free then you can transmit otherwise you have to wait or you have to listen.
In multiple accesses each computer has right that they can access each other. If two
computers sense the carrier on same time then the collision occur. Each computer in
the network aware about the collision. Now this stop transmitting and they will use
back off algorithm. In which random number is generated. This number or algorithm
is used by each computer. Who has short number or small number, he has first
priority to transmit the data over the network and other computers will wait for their
turn.

1.3 WAN

WAN stands for Wide Area Network, in which two local area networks are connected
through public n/w. it may be through telecommunication infrastructure or dedicated
lines. For e.g.: - ISDN lines, Leased lines etc.
In which we can use WAN devices and WAN technology. You can also connect with
your remote area through existing Internetwork called Internet.

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1.4 Devices
1.4.1 Hub
Hub is centralized device, which is used to connect multiple workstations. There are
two types of Hub: -
(i) Active Hub
(ii) Passive Hub

Fig 1.1 PCS’ CONNECTED VIA HUB

It has no special kind of memory. It simply receives the frame (data) and forwards it
to all its nodes except the receiving node. It always performs broadcasting. In case of
hub, there is one collision domain and one broadcast domain. In case of hub, the
media access method is used CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Detection).
 Active Hub
In Active hub, it receives the frame regenerate and then forward to all its
nodes.
 Passive Hub
In Passive hub, it simply receives the frame and forward to all its connected
nodes.
We cannot perform LAN segmentation using hub.

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1.4.2 Switch
Switch is also used to connect multiple workstations. Switch is more intelligent than
hub. It has special kind of memory called mac address/filter/lookup table. Switch
reads mac addresses. Switch stores mac addresses in its filter address table. Switch
when receives frame, it reads the destination mac address and consult with its filter
table. If he has entry in its filter table then he forwards the frame to that particular mac
address, if not found then it performs broadcasting to all its connected nodes.
Every port has its own buffer memory. A port has two queues one is input queue and
second is output queue. When switch receives the frame, the frame is received in
input queue and forward from output queue. So in case of switch there is no chance or
place for collisions. In case of switch, the media access method is used CSMA/CA
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access/ Collision Avoidance). Switches provide more
efficiency, more speed and security.

Fig. 1.2 PCS’ CONNECTED VIA SWITCH

There are two types of switches: -


I. Manageable switches (can be configured with console cable).
II. Non-manageable switches.

We can perform LAN segmentation by using switches.


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1.4.3 Bridge

Bridge is a hardware device, which is used to provide LAN segmentation means it is


used for break the collision domain. It has same functionality as performed by switch.
We can use bridge between two different topologies. It has fewer ports. Each port has
a own buffer memory. It works on Data Link Layer of OSI model. It also read mac
address and stores it in its filter table. In case of bridge there is one broadcast domain.

FIG. 1.3 PCS’ CONNECTED VIA BRIDGE

1.4.4 Router
Router is hardware device, which is used to communicate two different networks.
Router performs routing and path determination. It does not perform broadcast
information.

FIG. 1.4 DIFFERENT N/Ws CONNECTED VIA ROUTER

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There are two types of routers: -

I. Hardware Routers are developed by Cisco, HP.


II. Software Routers is configured with the help of routing and remote access.
This feature is offered by Microsoft. This feature is by default installed, but
you have to enable or configure it. Hardware routers are dedicated routers.
They are more efficient. But in case of software routers, it has fewer features,
slow performance. They are not very much efficient.

1.4.5 LAN Card

LAN card is media access device. LAN card provide us connectivity in the network.
There is a RJ45 (Registered Jack) connector space on the LAN card. RJ45 is used in
UTP cable. There is another led which is also called heartbeat of LAN card. When
any activity occurs it may be receiving or transmitting any kind of data. This led start
blinking and also tells us the status of LAN card.

FIG. 1.5 Internal network interface card Fig. 1.6 PCMCIA Network interface card

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1.5 UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair)

FIG. 1.7 UTP

Pin Configuration
Hub/Switch PC/Router/Online Uplink
Printer port(Hub/Switch)
1 Rx+ Tx+ Tx+
2 Rx- Tx Tx
3 Tx+ Rx+ Rx+
4 NC NC NC
5 NC NC NC
6 Tx Rx Rx
7 NC NC NC
8 NC NC NC

TABLE 1.1 Pin Configurations

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Fig. 1.8 Cross & Straight Cable

Straight Cable
1 Orange white - Orange white
2 Orange - Orange
3 Green white - Green white
4 Blue - Blue
5 Blue white - Blue white
6 Green - Green
7 Brown white - Brown white
8 Brown – Brown

Cross Cable
Fig. 1.9 RJ 45 Connector
1 Orange white - Green white
2 Orange - Green
3 Green white - Orange white
4 Blue - Blue
5 Blue white - Blue white
6 Green - Orange
7 Brown white - Brown white
8 Brown - Brown

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1.6 Administrator model for networking
Server software: - Software which are used to giving services are server software.
Client software: - which gets services.

Server Software Apache, Client Software Internet Explorer,


IIS, Outlook Express,
Exchange Yahoo messenger
2003, Cute FTP
FTP Server

P P
R R
O O
T T
O O
C C
O O
L TCP/IP, L
Stack IPX/SPX, Stack
AppleTalk,
Netbeui

NIC NIC

Media Media

Fig. 1.10 Networking Model

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Chapter 2

OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model

2.1 OSI Model


OSI model is the layer approach to design, develop and implement network.
OSI provides following advantages: -
(i) Designing of network will be standard base.
(ii) Development of new technology will be faster.
(iii) Devices from multiple vendors can communicate with each other.
(iv) Implementation and troubleshooting of network will be easy.

Software

Protocol Stack
Application Layer

Presentation Layer

Session Layer

Transport Layer

Network Layer

NIC
Data Link Layer

Physical Layer
Media

Fig. 2.1 OSI MODEL

2.1.1 Layer 1: The Physical Layer

The bottom layer, or Layer 1, of the OSI reference model is called the physical layer.
This layer is responsible for the transmission of the bit stream. It accepts frames of
data from Layer 2, the data link layer, and transmits their structure and content

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serially, one bit at a time. Layer 1 is also responsible for the reception of incoming
streams of data, one bit at a time. These streams are then passed on to the data link
layer. The physical layer, quite literally, operates on only 1s and 0s. It has no
mechanism for determining the significance of the bits it transmits or receives. It is
solely concerned with the physical characteristics of electrical and/or optical signaling
techniques. This includes the voltage of the electrical current used to transport the
signal, the media type and impedance characteristics, and even the physical shape of
the connector used to terminate the media. Transmission media includes any means of
actually transporting signals generated by the OSI's Layer 1 mechanisms. Some
examples of transmission media are coaxial cabling, fiber-optic cabling, and twisted-
pair wiring.

2.1.2 Layer 2: The Data Link Layer


Layer 2 of the OSI reference model is called the data link layer. As all the layers do, it
has two sets of responsibilities: transmit and receive. It is responsible for providing
end-to-end validity of the data being transmitted. On the transmit side, the data link
layer is responsible for packing instructions---data---into frames. A frame is a
structure indigenous to the data link layer that contains enough information to make
sure that the data can be successfully sent across a LAN to its destination. Implicit in
this definition is that the data link layer contains its own address architecture. This
addressing is only applicable to other networked devices that reside locally on the
same data link layer domain.

2.1.3 Layer 3: The Network Layer

The network layer enables internetworking. The protocols at this layer are responsible
for establishing the route to be used between the source and destination computers.
This layer lacks any native transmission error detection/correction mechanisms and,
consequently, is forced to rely on the end-to-end reliable transmission service of
either the data link layer or the transport layer. Although some data link layer
technologies support reliable delivery, many others do not. Therefore, Layer 3
protocols (such as IP) assume that Layer 4 protocols (such as TCP) will provide this
functionality rather than assume Layer 2 will take care of it.

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2.1.4 Layer 4: Transport Layer: -

Transport layer is responsible for connection oriented and connection less


communication.
Transport layer also performs other functions like
(i) Error checking
(ii) Flow Control
(iii) Sequencing
(iv) Positive Acknowledgement Response

(i) Error checking


Transport layer generates cyclic redundancy check (CRC) and forward the CRC value
to destination along with data. The other end will generate CRC according to data and
match the CRC value with received value. If both are same, then data is accepted
otherwise discard.

(ii) Flow Control


Flow control is used to control the flow of data during communication. For this
purpose following methods are used: -

(a) Buffer
Buffer is the temporary storage area. All the data is stored in the buffer
memory and when communication ability is available the data is forward to
another.
(b) Windowing
Windowing is the maximum amounts of the data that can be send to
destination without receiving Acknowledgement. It is limit for buffer to send
data without getting Acknowledgement.

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Fig. 2.2 Windowing

(c) Multiplexing
Multiplexing means combining small data segment, which has same
destination IP and same destination service.

(iii) Sequencing
Transport layer add sequence number to data, so that out of sequence data can be
detected and rearranged in proper manner.
(iv) Positive acknowledgement and Response
When data is send to destination, the destination will reply with acknowledgement to
indicate the positive reception of data. If acknowledgement is not received within a
specified time then the data is resend from buffer memory.

2.1.5 Layer 5:.Session Layer: -

This layer initiate, maintain and terminate sessions between different applications.
Due to this layer multiple application software can be executed at the same time.

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1. Connection Oriented Communication

Fig. 2.3 3 Way hand shaking

Fig. 2.4 Connection Oriented Communication

2. Connection less Communication

SEND
SENDER Receiver

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2.1.6 Layer 6: The Presentation Layer
Layer 6, the presentation layer, is responsible for managing the way that data is
encoded. Not every computer system uses the same data encoding scheme, and the
presentation layer is responsible for providing the translation between otherwise
incompatible data encoding schemes, such as American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII) and Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange
Code (EBCDIC).
The presentation layer can be used to mediate differences in floating-point formats, as
well as to provide encryption and decryption services.

2.1.7 Layer 7: The Application Layer


The top, or seventh, layer in the OSI reference model is the application layer. Despite
its name, this layer does not include user applications. Instead, it provides the
interface between those applications and the network's services. This layer can be
thought of as the reason for initiating the communications session. For example, an
email client might generate a request to retrieve new messages from the email server.
This client application automatically generates a request to the appropriate Layer 7
protocol(s) and launches a communications session to get the needed files.
2.1.8 Data Encapsulation

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CHAPTER 3

TCP/IP MODEL

3.1 TCP/IP MODEL


TCP/IP is the most popular protocol stack, which consist of large no of protocol.
According to the OSI model TCP/IP consist of only four layers. TCP/IP model is
modified form of DOD (Department of Defense) model.

Fig. 3.1 TCP/IP MODEL

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3.1.1 LAYER 1:- Application Layer

This layer contains a large no. of protocols. Each protocol is designed to act as server
& client. Some of protocol will need connection oriented. TCP and others may need
connection less UDP for data transfer. Application layer use port no.’s to identity each
application at Transport layer. This layer performs most of functions, which are
specified by the Application, Presentation, and Session layer of OSI model.

3.1.2 LAYER 2:- Transport Layer

Two protocols are available on Transport layer

1) Transmission Control Protocol

2) User Datagram Protocol

Transmission Control Protocol: TCP performs connection-oriented


communication. Its responsibilities are:

(i) Error Checking

(ii) Acknowledgement

(iii) Sequencing

(iv) Flow Control

(v) Windowing

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Fig. 3.2 TCP Header

II) User Datagram Protocol

UDP is connection less protocol, which is responsible for error


checking and identifying applications using port numbers.

3.1.3 LAYER 3 Internet Layer

The main function of Internet layer is routing and providing a single network interface
to the upper layers protocols. Upper or lower protocols have not any functions relating
to routing. To prevent this, IP provides one single network interface for the upper
layer protocols. After that it is the job of IP and the various Network Access protocols
to get along and work together.

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CHAPTER 4

IP ROUTING

4.1 ROUTER

Unlike most LAN components, routers are intelligent. More importantly, they can
operate at all layers of the OSI reference model rather than just the first two. This
enables them to internetwork multiple LANs by using Layer 3 addressing.

A router must have two or more physical interfaces for interconnecting LANs and/or
WAN transmission facilities. The router learns about the addresses of machines or
networks that are somehow connected via each of its interfaces. The list of these
addresses is kept in tables that correlate Layer 3 addresses with the port numbers that
they are directly or indirectly connected to.

A router uses two types of networking protocols, both of which operate at Layer 3.
These are routable protocols and routing protocols. Routable protocols, also known as
routed protocols, are those that encapsulate user information and data into packets. An
example of a routed protocol is IP. IP is responsible for encapsulating application data
for transport through a network to the appropriate destinations.

Routing protocols are used between routers to determine available routes,


communicate what is known about available routes, and forward routed protocol
packets along those routes. The purpose of a routing protocol is to provide the router
with all the information it needs about the network to route datagram’s.

4.2 Routing
Routers are used to forward packets of data between devices that aren't necessarily
connected to the same local network. Routing is the cumulative processes that
discover paths through the network to specific destinations, compare redundant routes
mathematically, and build tables that contain routing information.

30
The router's task is easy: It has only two interfaces. Any packets received by one of its
interfaces was either delivered to the other interface or discarded as undeliverable. In
this particular case, the router may well have been replaced by a hub, bridge, switch,
or any other Layer 2 device. The router's real value lies in determining routes to
destinations on nonadjacent networks.

4.3 IP Addressing
IPv4 Address Formats
Class A Addresses
Class B Addresses
Class C Addresses
Class D Addresses
Class E Addresses
IP addressing is accompanied by a two-tiered network address, consisting of the
network's address and a host address.

4.3.1 Class A Addresses

The Class A IPv4 address was designed to support extremely large networks. As the
need for very large-scale networks was perceived to be minimal, architecture was
developed that maximized the possible number of host addresses but severely limited
the number of possible Class A networks that could be defined.

A Class A IP address uses only the first octet to indicate the network address. The
remaining three octets enumerate host addresses. The first bit of a Class A address is
always a 0. This mathematically limits the possible range of the Class A address to
127, which is the sum of 64 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1. The leftmost bit's decimal
value of 128 is absent from this equation. Therefore, there can only ever be 127
possible Class A IP networks.

The last 24 bits (that is, three dotted-decimal numbers) of a Class A address represent
possible host addresses. The range of possible Class A network addresses is from
1.0.0.0 to 126.0.0.0. Notice that only the first octet bears a network address number.

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The remaining three are used to create unique host addresses within each network
number. As such, they are set to zeroes when describing the range of network
numbers.
Note Technically, 127.0.0.0 is also a Class A network address. However, it is
reserved for loop-back testing and cannot be assigned to a network.

4.3.2. Class B Addresses

The Class B addresses were designed to support the needs of moderate- to large-sized
networks. The range of possible Class B network addresses is from 128.1.0.0 to
191.254.0.0. The mathematical logic underlying this class is fairly simple. A Class B
IP address uses two of the four octets to indicate the network address. The other two
octets enumerate host addresses. The first 2 bits of the first octet of a Class B address
are 10. The remaining 6 bits may be populated with either 1s or 0s.

This mathematically limits the possible range of the Class B address space to 191,
which is the sum of 128 + 32 + 16 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1. The last 16 bits (two octets)
identify potential host addresses. Each Class B address can support 65,534 unique
host addresses. This number is calculated by multiplying two to the 16th power and
subtracting two (values reserved by IP). Mathematically, there can only be 16,382
Class B networks defined.

4.3.3 Class C Addresses

The Class C address space is, by far, the most commonly used of the original IPv4
address classes. This address space was intended to support a lot of small networks.
This address class can be thought of as the inverse of the Class A address space.
Whereas the Class A space uses just one octet for network numbering, and the
remaining three for host numbering, the Class C space uses three octets for
networking addressing and just one octet for host numbering.

The first 3 bits of the first octet of a Class C address are 110. The first 2 bits sum to a
decimal value of 192 (128 + 64). This forms the lower mathematical boundary of the
Class C address space. The third bit equates to a decimal value of 32. Forcing this bit

32
to a value of 0 establishes the upper mathematical boundary of the address space.
Lacking the capability to use the third digit limits the maximum value of this octet to
255 - 32, which equals 223. Therefore, the range of possible Class C network
addresses is from 192.0.1.0 to 223.255.254.0.
The last octet is used for host addressing. Each Class C address can support a
theoretical maximum of 256 unique host addresses (0 through 255), but only 254 are
usable because 0 and 255 are not valid host numbers. There can be 2,097,150
different Class C network numbers.

Note In the world of IP addressing, 0 and 255 are reserved host address values. IP
addresses that have all their host address bits set equal to 0 identify the local network.
Similarly, IP addresses that have all their host address bits set equal to 255 are used to
broadcast to all end systems within that network number.

4.3.4. Class D Addresses

The Class D address class was created to enable multicasting in an IP network. The
Class D multicasting mechanisms have seen only limited usage. A multicast address
is a unique network address that directs packets with that destination address to
predefined groups of IP addresses. Therefore, a single station can simultaneously
transmit a single stream of datagram’s to multiple recipients. The need to create
separate streams of datagram’s, one for each destination, is eliminated. Routers that
support multicasting would duplicate the datagram and forward as needed to the
predetermined end systems. Multicasting has long been deemed a desirable feature in
an IP network because it can substantially reduce network traffic.

The Class D address space, much like the other address spaces, is mathematically
constrained. The first 4 bits of a Class D address must be 1110. Presetting the first 3
bits of the first octet to 1s means that the address space begins at 128 + 64 + 32,
which equals 224. Preventing the fourth bit from being used means that the Class D
address is limited to a maximum value of 128 + 64 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1, or 239.
Therefore, the Class D addresses space ranges from 224.0.0.0 to 239.255.255.254.

This range may seem odd because the upper boundary is specified with all four octets.

33
Ordinarily, this would mean that the octets for both host and network numbers are
being used to signify a network number. There is a reason for this. The Class D
address space isn't used for internetworking to individual end systems or networks.
Class D addresses are used for delivering multicast datagram’s within a private
network to groups of IP-addressed end systems. Therefore, there isn't a need to
allocate octets or bits of the address to separate network and host addresses. Instead,
the entire address space can be used to identify groups of IP addresses (Classes A, B,
or C). Today, numerous other proposals are being developed that would allow IP
multicasting without the complexity of a Class D address space.

4.3.5 Class E Addresses

A Class E address has been defined, but is reserved by the IETF for its own research.
Therefore, no Class E addresses have been released for use in the Internet. The first 4
bits of a Class E address are always set to 1s; therefore, the range of valid addresses is
from 240.0.0.0 to 255.255.255.255. Given that this class was defined for research
purposes, and its use is limited to inside the IETF, it is not necessary to examine it any
further.

4.4 IP Routing

When we want to connect two or more networks using different n/w addresses then
we have to use IP Routing technique. The router will be used to perform routing
between the networks. A router will perform following functions for routing.
• Path determination
• Packet forwarding

(1) Path determination


The process of obtaining path in routing table is called path determination.
There are three different methods to which router can learn path.
i) Automatic detection of directly connected n/w.
ii) Static & Default routing
iii) Dynamic routing

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(2) Packet forwarding
It is a process that is by default enable in router. The router will perform
packet forwarding only if route is available in the routing table.

4.5 Routing Process

(i) The pc has a packet in which destination address is not same as the local
n/w address.
(ii) The pc will send an ARP request for default gateway. The router will reply
to the ARP address and inform its Mac address to pc.
(iii) The pc will encapsulate data, in which source IP is pc itself, destination IP
is server, source Mac is pc’s LAN interface and destination Mac is router’s
LAN interface.

Fig. 4.1 Routing Process

S. MAC D. MAC
PC1 R1
D. IP 172.16.0.5
S. IP 10.0.0.6

The router will receive the frame, store it into the buffer. When obtain packet from
the frame then forward data according to the destination IP of packet. The router will
obtain a route from routing table according to which next hop IP and interface is
selected
(iv) According to the next hop, the packet will encapsulated with new frame and data
is send to the output queue of the interface.

35
4.6 Router Access Modes

When we access router command prompt the router will display different modes.
According to the modes, privileges and rights are assigned to the user.

Fig. 4.2 Router access modes

4.6.1 User mode

In this mode, we can display basic parameter and status of the router we can test
connectivity and perform telnet to other devices. In this mode we are not enable to
manage & configure router.

4.6.2 Privileged mode

In this mode, we can display all information, configuration, perform administration


task, debugging, testing and connectivity with other devices. We are not able to
perform here configuration editing of the router.

The command to enter in this mode is ‘enable’. We have to enter enable password or
enable secret password to enter in this mode. Enable secret has more priority than
enable password. If both passwords are configured then only enable secret will work.

4.6.3 Global configuration

This mode is used for the configuration of global parameters in the router. Global
parameters applied to the entire router. For e.g.: - router hostname or access list of
router the command enters in this mode is ‘configure terminal’.

36
4.6.4 Line configuration mode
This mode is used to configure lines like console, vty and auxiliary. There are main
types of line that are configured.
* Console router(config)#line console 0
*Auxiliary router(config)#line aux 0
*Telnet or vty router(config)#line vty 0 4

4.6.5 Interface configuration mode


This mode is used to configure router interfaces. For e.g:- Ethernet, Serial, BRI etc.
Router(config)#interface <type> <number>
Router(config)#interface serial 1

4.6.6 Routing configuration mode


This mode is used to configure routing protocol like RIP, EIGRP, OSPF etc.

*Router(config)#router <protocol> [<option>]


*Router(config)#router rip
*Router(config)#router eigrp 10

4.7 Configuring Password


There are six types of password available in a router
4.7.1 Console Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line console 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit
4.7.2 Vty Password
router>enable
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line vty 0 4
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit

37
4.7.3 Auxiliary Password
router#configure terminal
router(config)#line Aux 0
router(config-line)#password <word>
router(config-line)#login
router(config-line)#exit

4.7.4 Enable Password


router>enable
router#configure terminal
router(config)#enable password <word>
router(config)#exit

4.7.5 Enable Secret Password

Enable Password is the clear text password. It is stored as clear text in


configuration where as enable secret password is the encrypted
password with MD5 (Media Digest 5) algorithm.
Router>enable
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#enable secret <word>
Router(config)#exit

4.7.6 Encryption all passwords


All passwords other than enable secret password are clear text
password.

We can encrypt all passwords using level 7 algorithms. The command


to encrypt all passwords is
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#service password-encryption

38
4.8 Managing Configuration
There are two types of configuration present in a router
(1) Startup Configuration
(2) Running Configuration
(1) Startup configuration is stored in the NVRAM. Startup configuration is
used to save settings in a router. Startup configuration is loaded at the time of
booting in to the Primary RAM.
(2) Running Configuration is present in the Primary RAM wherever we run a
command for configuration; this command is written in the running
configuration.
To save configuration
Router#copy running-configuration startup-configuration
Or
Router#write
To abort configuration
Router#copy startup-configuration running-configuration
To display running-configuration
Router#show running-configuration
To display startup configuration
Router#show startup-configuration
Configuring HostName
Router#configure terminal
Router#hostname` <name>
#exit

Configuring Interfaces

Interfaces configuration is one of the most important part of the router configuration.
By default, all interfaces of Cisco router are in disabled mode. We have to use
different commands as our requirement to enable and configure the interface.

Configuring IP, Mask and Enabling the Interface


39
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#ip address <ip> <mask>
Router(config-if)#no shutdown
Router(config-if)#exit
Interface Numbers
Interface numbers start from 0 for each type of interface some routers will directly
used interface number while other router will use slot no/port no addressing
technique.
To display interface status:
Router#show interfaces (to show all interfaces)
OR
Router#show interface <type> <no>

40
CHAPTER 5

TYPES OF ROUTING

5.1 Static Routing

In this routing, we have to use IP route commands through which we can specify
routes for different networks. The administrator will analyze whole internetwork
topology and then specify the route for each n/w that is not directly connected to the
router.

5.1.1 Steps to perform static routing


(1) Create a list of all n/w present in internetwork.
(2) Remove the n/w address from list, which is directly connected to n/w.
(3) Specify each route for each routing n/w by using IP route command.

Router(config)#ip route <destination n/w> <mask> <next hop ip>

Next hop IP: It is the IP address of neighbor router that is directly connected to our
router.

Static Routing Example: -


Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 192.168.10.2

5.1.2 Advantages of static routing

(1) Fast and efficient.


(2) More control over selected path.
(3) Less overhead for router.
(4) Bandwidth of interfaces is not consumed in routing updates.

41
5.1.3 Disadvantages of static routing

(1) More overheads on administrator.


(2) Load balancing is not easily possible.
(3) In case of topology change routing table has to be change manually.

5.1.4 Alternate command to specify static route


Static route can also specify in following syntax: -
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0 172.25.0.2
Or
Router(config)#ip route 172.16.0.0 255.255.0.0 serial 0

5.1.5 Backup route or loading static route


If more than one path is available from our router to destination then we can specify
one route as primary and other route as backup route.
Administrator Distance is used to specify one route as primary and other route as
backup. Router will select lower AD route to forward the traffic. By default static
route has AD value of 1. With backup path, we will specify higher AD so that this
route will be used if primary route is unavailable.

Protocols AD
Directly Connected 0
Static 1
BGP 20
EIGRP 90
IGRP 100
OSPF 110
RIP 120

Syntax: - To set backup path


Router(config)#ip route <dest. n/w> <mask> <next hop> <AD>
<exit interface>

42
Example: -
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#ip route 150.10.0.0 255.255.0.0 150.20.0.5
Router(config)#ip route 150.10.0.0 25.255.0.0 160.20.1.1 8 (below 20)
Router(config)#exit
Scenario 1

Fig.5.1 Static routing

To display routing table


Router#show ip route

To display static routes only


Router#show ip route static

To display connected n/ws only


Router#show ip route connected

43
To check all the interface of a router
Router#show interface brief

5.2 Default Routing


Default routing means a route for any n/w. these routes are specify with the help of
following syntax: -
Router(config)#ip route 0.0.0.0 0.0.0.0 <next hop>

This type of routing is used in following scenario.

Scenario 2: -
Stub network
A n/w which has only one exit interface is called stub network.

Fig. 5.2 Default routing

(If there is one next hop then we can use default routing)

Internet connectivity
On Internet, million of n/ws are present. So we have to specify default routing on our
router.

44
Default route is also called gateway of last resort. This route will be used when no
other routing protocol is available.
If there is one next hop then we can use default routing.

5.3 Dynamic Routing


In dynamic routing, we will enable a routing protocol on router. This protocol will
send its routing information to the neighbor router. The neighbors will analyze the
information and write new routes to the routing table.

The routers will pass routing information receive from one router to other router also.
If there are more than one path available then routes are compared and best path is
selected. Some examples of dynamic protocol are: -
RIP, IGRP, EIGRP, OSPF

5.3.1 Types of Dynamic Routing Protocols


According to the working there are two types of Dynamic Routing Protocols.
(1) Distance Vector
(2) Link State

According to the type of area in which protocol is used there are again two
types of protocol: -

(1) Interior Routing Protocol


(2) Exterior Routing Protocol

(a) Distance Vector Routing

The Routing, which is based on two parameters, that is distance and direction
is called Distance Vector Routing.
The example of Distance Vector Routing is RIP & IGRP.

Operation: -
(1) Each Router will send its directly connected information to the neighbor
router. This information is send periodically to the neighbors.

45
Fig.5.3 Distance vector routing

(2) The neighbor will receive routing updates and process the route according
to following conditions: -
(i) If update of a new n/w is received then this information is stored in
routing table.
(ii) If update of a route is received which is already present in routing
table then route will be refresh that is route times are reset to zero.
(iii) If update is received for a route with lower metric then the route,
which is already present in our routing table. The router will discard
old route and write the new route in the routing table.
(iv) If update is received with higher metric then the route that is
already present in routing table, in this case the new update will be
discard.

(3) A timer is associated with each route. The router will forward routing
information on all interfaces and entire routing table is send to the neighbor.

There are three types of timers associated with a router route:

(i) Route update timer. It is the time after which the router will send
periodic update to the neighbor.
(ii) Route invalid timer. It is the time after which the route is declared
invalid, if there are no updates for the route. Invalid route are not
forwarded to neighbor routers but it is still used to forward the traffic.
(iii) Route flush timer. It is the time after which route is removed
from the routing table, if there are no updates about the router.

46
Metric of Dynamic Routing
Metric are the measuring unit to calculate the distance of destination n/w. A protocol
may use a one or more than one at a time to calculate the distance. Different types of
metric are: -
(1) Hop Count
(2) Band Width
(3) Load
(4) Reliability
(5) Delay
(6) MTU

Hop Count
It is the no. of Hops (Routers) a packet has to travel for a destination n/w.
Bandwidth
Bandwidth is the speed of link. The path with higher bandwidth is preferred to send
the data.
Load
Load is the amount of traffic present in the interface. Paths with lower load and high
throughput are used to send data.
Reliability
Reliability is up time of interface over a period of time.
Delay
Delay is the time period b/w a packet is sent and received by the destination.
MTU (Maximum Transmission Unit)
It is the maximum size of packet that can be sent in a frame mostly MTU is set to
1500.

Problems of Distance Vector


There are two main problems of distance vector routing:
*Bandwidth Consumption
*Routing Loops

47
(i) Bandwidth Consumption
The problem of excessive bandwidth consumption is solved out with the help of
autonomous system. It exchanges b/w different routers. We can also perform route
summarization to reduce the traffic.

(ii) Routing Loops


It may occur b/w adjacent routers due to wrong routing information. Distance Vector
routing is also called routing by Rumor. Due to this the packet may enter in the loop
condition until their TTL is expired.

Methods to solve routing loops


There are five different methods to solve or reduce the problem of routing loop.
(i) Maximum Hop Count
This method limits the maximum no. of hops a packet can travel. This method
does not solve loop problem. But it reduces the loop size in the n/w. Due to
this method the end to end size of a n/w is also limited.
(ii) Flash Updates/Triggered Updates
In this method a partial update is send to the all neighbors as soon as there is
topology change. The router, which receives flash updates, will also send the
flash updates to the neighbor routers.

Fig.5.4 Flash updates

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(iii) Split Horizon
Split Horizon states routes that update receive from an interface cannot be
send back to same interface.

Fig.5.5 Split horizon

(iv) Poison Reverse


This method is the combination of split Horizon and Flash updates. It
implements the rule that information received from the interface can not be
sent back to the interface and in case of topology change flash updates will be
send to the neighbor.

(v) Hold Down


If a route changes frequently then the route is declared in Hold Down state and
no updates are received until the Hold Down timer expires.

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Routing Information Protocol (RIP):
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is a true distance-vector routing protocol.

RIP Features:

 Distance Vector Routing Protocol


 Maximum Reachable hop-count is 15
 Hop 16 is considered unreachable
 Metric is HOP COUNT
 Administrative distance 120
 Sends periodic update every 30 seconds
 Supports equal path load balancing
 Works at application layer

RIP Timers:-
RIP uses different kinds of timers to regulate its performance:

1. Route update timer Sets the interval (typically 30 seconds) between periodic
routing updates, in which the router sends a complete copy of its routing table
out to all neighbours.
2. Route invalid timer Determines the length of time that must elapse (180
seconds) before a router determines that a route has become invalid. It will
come to this conclusion if it hasn’t heard any updates about a particular route
for that period. When that happens, the router will send out updates to all its
neighbours letting them know that the route is invalid.
3. Hold down timer This sets the amount of time during which routing
information is suppressed. Routes will enter into the hold down state when an
update packet is received that indicated the route is unreachable. This
continues until either an update packet is received with a better metric or until
the hold down timer expires. The default is 180 seconds.

50
4. Route flush timer Sets the time between a route becoming invalid and its
removal from the routing table (240 seconds). Before it’s removed from the
table, the router notifies its neighbours of that route’s impending demise. The
value of the route invalid timer must be less than that of the route flush timer.
This gives the router enough time to tell its neighbors about the invalid route
before the local routing table is updated.

Configuring RIP

Router#confiure terminal
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#network <own net address>
Router(config-router)#network <own net address>
Router(config-router)#exit

RIP advanced configuration

(a) Passive Interfaces


An interface, which is not able to send routing updates but able to receive
routing update only is called Passive Interface. We can declare an interface as
passive with following commands: -

Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#Passive-interface <type> <no>
Router(config-router)#exit

(b) Configuring Timers

Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#timers basic <update> <invalid> <hold down>
<flush>
Router(config-router)#exit

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Example: -
Router(config-router)#timer basic 50 200 210 300
Update 50 sec
Invalid 200 sec
Hold 210 sec
Flush 300 sec

(d) To configure Load Balance


RIP is able to perform equal path cost Load Balancing. If multiple
paths are available with equal Hop Count for the destination then RIP
will balance load equally on all paths.
Load Balancing is enabled by default 4 paths. We can change the no.
of paths. It can use simultaneously by following command: -
Router(config)#router rip
Router(config-router)#maximum-path <1-6>

(e) To display RIP parameters


Router#show ip protocol
This command displays following parameters: -
(i) RIP Timers
(ii) RIP Version
(iii) Route filtering
(iv) Route redistribution
(v) Interfaces on which update send
(vi) And receive
(vii) Advertise n/w
(viii) Passive interface
(ix) Neighbor RIP

RIP version 2
RIP version 2 supports following new features: -
(1) Support VLSM (send mask in updates)
(2) Multicast updates using address 224.0.0.9
(3) Supports authentication

52
Commands to enable RIP version 2
We have to change RIP version 1 to RIP version 2. Rest all communication will
remain same in RIP version 2.

Router(config)#Router RIP
Router(config-router)#version 2
Router(config-router)#exit

To debug RIP routing


Router#debug ip rip
To disable debug routing
Router#no debug ip rip

(b) Link State Routing

This type of routing is based on link state. Its working is explain as under

(1) Each router will send Hello packets to all neighbors using all interfaces.
(2) The router from which Hello reply receive are stored in the neighbor ship
table. Hello packets are send periodically to maintain the neighbor table.
(3) The router will send link state information to the all neighbors. Link state
information from one neighbor is also forwarded to other neighbor.
(4) Each router will maintain its link state database created from link state
advertisement received from different routers.
(5) The router will use best path algorithm to store the path in routing table.

Problems of Link State Routing


The main problems of link state routing are: -
(1) High bandwidth consumption.
(2) More hardware resources required that is processor and memory
(RAM)
The routing protocols, which use link state routing, are:-
OSPF, EIGRP etc.

53
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol:
EIGRP is sometimes referred to as a hybrid routing protocol because it has
characteristics of both distance-vector and link-state protocols

Features of EIGRP: -
Following are the EIGRP features:
 Cisco proprietary
 Hybrid protocol
 Link state
 Distance Vector
 Multicast Updates using Address 224.0.0.10
 Support AS
 Support VLSM
 Automatic Route Summarization
 Unequal path cost load balancing
 Metric (32 bit composite)
o Bandwidth
o Delay
o Load
o Reliability
o MTU
 Neighbor Recovery
 Partial updates
 Triggered updates
 Backup Route
 Multi Protocol Routing

Configuring EIGRP
Router(config)#router eigrp <as no>
Router(config-router)#network <net addr.>
Router(config-router)#network <net addr.>
Router(config-router)#exit

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EIGRP Timers:-

To control performance, EIGRP includes the following timers with default settings:

1. Update timers:-These specify how frequently routing-update messages


should be sent. The default is 90 seconds.

2. Invalid timers:-These specify how long a router should wait before declaring
a route invalid if it doesn’t receive a specific update about it. The default is
three times the update period.

3. Hold down timers:-These specify the hold down period. The default is three
times the update timer period plus 10 seconds.

4. Flush timers These indicate how much time should pass before a route should
be flushed from the routing table. The default is seven times the routing update
period. If the update timer is 90 seconds.

5.3.2 Autonomous system

Autonomous system is the group of contiguous routers and n/w, which will share their
routing information directly with each other. If all routers are in single domain and
they share their information directly with each other then the size of routing updates
will depend on the no. of n/w present in the Internetwork. Update for each n/w may
take 150 – 200 bytes information.

For example: - if there are 1000 n/ws then size of update will be
200*1000 = 200000 bytes.

The routing information is send periodically so it may consume a large amount of


bandwidth in our n/w.

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Fig. 5.7 Autonomous system

Protocols used under different conditions:

Interior Routing Exterior Routing


RIP BGP
IGRP EXEIGRP
EIGRP
OSPF

5.3.3 Open Shortest Path First Protocol


Features: -
 Link State Routing Protocol
 Open standard
 Multicast updates at 224.0.0.5 and 224.0.0.6
 Support VLSM
 Support Area similar to AS
 Manual Route Summarization
 Hierarchical model
 Metric is Bandwidth
 Support authentication
 Supports unlimited hop count

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OSPF Terminology
(1) Hello packets
(2) LSA (Link State Advertisement)
(3) Neighbor
(4) Neighbor table
(5) Topology table (LSA database)
Router ID
Router ID is the highest IP address of router interfaces. This id is used as the
identity of the router. It maintains link state databases. The first preference for
selecting router ID is given to the Logical interfaces. If logical interface is not
present then highest IP of physical interface is selected as router id.
ROUTER ID

Fig. 5.8 Router ID


Area
Area is the group of routers & n/ws, which can share their routing information
directly with each other.

OSPF Area Characteristics:

FIG: 5.9 Autonomous System

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.
- Minimizes routing table entries.
- Localizes impact of a topology change within an area.
- Detailed LSA flooding stops at the area boundary.

Adjacency
A router is called adjacency when neighbor relationship is established. We can also
say adjacency relationship is formed between the routers.

5.3.4 OSPF Hierarchical Model

Fig. 5.10 OSPF Hierarchical Model

Area Router (Autonomous System Border Router – ASBR)


A router, which has all interfaces member of single area, is called area router.
Backbone Area
Area 0 is called backbone area. All other areas must connect to the backbone area for
communication.

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Backbone Router
A router, which has all interfaces members of area 0, is called backbone router.

Area Border Router


A router, which connects an area with area 0, is called area border router.

Commands to configure OSPF


Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#router ospf <process no>
Router(config-router)#network<net address><wild mask>area<areaid>
Router(config-router)#exit

Wild Mask – Complement of subnet mask

OSPF SCENARIO

Fig. 5.12 OSPF

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COMMANDS:
R1
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 10.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
R2
Router(config-router)#network 20.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 0
Router(config-router)#network 30.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 1
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 1
R3
Router(config-router)#network 40.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 1
Router(config-router)#network 50.0.0.0 0.255.255.255 area 1

Command to display OSPF parameter


Router#show ip protocol

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CHAPTER 6

Access Control List

6.1 ACL

ACL are the basic security feature that is required in any network to control the flow
of traffic. Most of time our network may have servers and clients for which traffic
control is required. We can also use ACL to classify the traffic. ACLs are used in
features like QOS (Quality of Service), Prioritize traffic and interesting traffic for
ISDN.

6.2 Classification Access Control List: -

Types of ACL based on Protocol: -


(1) IP Access Control List
(2) IPX Access Control List
(3) AppleTalk Access Control List

Types of ACL based on Feature: -


(1) Standard ACL
(2) Extended ACL

Types of ACL based on Access mode: -


(1) Numbered ACL
(2) Named ACL

Types of ACL based on Order of rules: -


(1) Deny, permit
(2) Permit, deny

Types of ACL based on direction of implementation: -


(1) Inbound ACL
(2) Outbound ACL

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6.3 Flow chart of Inbound ACL

A Packet is
received

Is there any Access The packed


N
list applied on is passed to
o
interface in Routing
inbound direction? Engine

Yes

Is there any N The packet


matching rule in o is dropped
ACL from top-
down order?

Yes

Yes N
The Is it permit? The
o
packed is packet is
passed to dropped
RE

Fig. 6.1 Flow chart of Inbound ACL

6.4 IP Standard ACL (Numbered)


In Standard ACL, we are only able to specify source address for the filtering of
packets.
The syntax to create IP standard ACL are: -
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#access-list <no> <permit|deny> <source>
Router(config)#exit

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Example: - 172.16.0.16 – 18 should not access Internet; rest of all other pc should
access Internet.

Fig. 6.2 Configuring ACL


Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#access-list 30 deny 172.16.0.16
Router(config)#access-list 30 deny 172.16.0.17
Router(config)#access-list 30 deny 172.16.0.18
Router(config)#access-list 30 permit any
Router(config)#exit

Applying ACL on interface


Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#interface <type> <no>
Router(config-if)#ip access-group <ACL no.> <in|out>
Router(config-if)#exit

Rule for applying ACL


Only one ACL can be applied on each interface, in each direction for each protocol.

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6.5 IP Standard ACL (Named)

In Numbered ACL editing feature is not available that is we are not able to delete
single rule from the ACL. In Named ACL editing feature is available.
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#ip access-list standard <name>
Router(config-std-nacl)#<deny|permit> <source>
Router(config-std-nacl)#exit
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#ip access-list standard abc
Router(config-std-nacl)#deny 172.16.0.16
Router(config-std-nacl)#deny 172.16.0.17
Router(config-std-nacl)#deny 172.16.0.18
Router(config-std-nacl)#permit any
To modify the ACL
Router#confiue terminal
Router(config)#ip access-list standard abc
Router(config-std-nacl)#no deny 172.16.0.17
Router(config-std-nacl)#exit
To control Telnet access using ACL
If we want to control telnet with the help of ACL then we can create a standard ACL
and apply this ACL on vty port. The ACL that we will create for vty will be permit –
deny order.

Example: - suppose we want to allow telnet to our router from 192.168.10.5 &
192.168.10.30 pc.
Router#configure terminal
Router(config)#access-list 50 permit 192.168.10.5
Router(config)#access-list 50 permit 192.168.10.30
Router(config)#line vty 0 4
Router(config-line)#access-class 50 in
Router(config)#exit

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Chapter 7

LAN Switching

7.1 LAN Switching

Ethernet switches are used in LAN to create Ethernet n/ws. Switches forward the
traffic on the basis of MAC address. Switches maintain a Mac Addressee table in
which mac addresses and port no’s used to perform switching decision. Working of
bridge and switch is similar to each other.
Classification of switches
Switches are classified according to the following criteria: -

Types of switches based on working


(1) Store & Forward
This switch receives entire frame then perform error checking and start
forwarding data to the destination.
(2) Cut through this switch starts forwarding frame as soon as first six bytes of
the frame are received.
(3) Fragment-free this switch receives 64 bytes of the frame, perform error
checking and then start forwarding data.
(4) Adaptive cut-through it changes its mode according the condition. If it sees
there are errors in many frames then it changes to Store & Forward mode from
Cut through or Fragment-free.

Types of switches based on management


(1) Manageable switches
(2) Non-Manageable switches
(3) Semi-Manageable switches

Types of switches based on OSI layer


(1) Layer 2 switches (only switching)
(2) Layer 3 switches (switching & routing)

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Types of switches based on command mode (only in Cisco)
(1) IOS based
(2) CLI based
Type of switches based on hierarchical model
(1) Core layer switches
(2) Distribution layer switches
(3) Access layer switches

Qualities of switch
- No. of ports
- Speed of ports
- Type of media
- Switching or wire speed or throughput

Configuring IP and Gateway on switch


We can configure IP address on switch for web access or telnet IP address is required
for the administration of the switch. If we have to access switch from remote n/w then
we will configure default gateway in addition to IP address.
IP address is assigned to the logical interface of switch with following command:-

Switch(config)#interface vlan 1
Switch(config)#IP address <ip> <mask>
Switch(config)#no sh
Switch(config)#exit

7.2 VLAN (Virtual LAN)

VLAN provides Virtual Segmentation of Broadcast Domain in the network. The


devices, which are member of same Vlan, are able to communicate with each other.
The devices of different Vlan may communicate with each other with routing. So that
different
Vlan devices will use different n/w addresses.

66
Vlan provides following advantages: -

(1) Logical Segmentation of network


(2) Enhance network security

Creating port based Vlan


In port based Vlan, first we have to create a Vlan on manageable switch then we have
to add ports to the Vlan.

Commands to create Vlan

Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#vlan <no>
[name <word>]
Switch(config)#exit optional
Or
Switch#vlan database
Switch(vlan)#vlan <no>
[name <word>]
Switch(vlan)#exit

Commands to configure ports for a Vlan


By default, all ports are member of single vlan that is Vlan1. We can change vlan
membership according to our requirement.
Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#interface <type> <no>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan <no>
Switch(config-if)#exit

Commands to configure multiple ports in a vlan


Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#interface range <type> <slot/port no (space)–(space) port no>
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan <no>
Switch(config-if)#exit

67
Example: - Suppose we want to add interface fast Ethernet 0/10 to 0/18 in vlan5
Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#interface range fastethernet 0/10 – 18
Switch(config-if)#switchport access vlan 5
Switch(config-if)#exit

To Disable web access in switch


Switch#config ter
Switch(config)#no ip http server

To display mac address table


Switch#show mac-address-table

To Display Vlan and port membership


Switch#show vlan
VTP server
VTP server is a switch in which we can create, delete or modify Vlans. The server
will send periodic updates for VTP clients.
VTP client
On VTP client, we are not able to create, modify or delete Vlans. The client will
receive and forward vtp updates. The client will create same Vlans as defined in vtp
update.
Commands
Switch#configure terminal
Switch(config)#vtp domain <name>
Switch(config)#vtp password <word>
Switch(config)#vtp mode <server|client|transparent>
Switch(config)#exit
By default in cisco switches the VTP mode is set as VTP server with no
domain and no password.

To display VTP status


Switch#show vtp status

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Chapter 8

Wide Area Network (WAN)

8.1 Defining WAN Terms

Before ordering a WAN service type, it would be a good idea to understand the
following terms, commonly used by service providers:

Customer premises equipment (CPE)


Customer premises equipment (CPE) is equipment that’s owned by the subscriber and
located on the subscriber’s premises.
Demarcation point
The demarcation location is the spot where the service provider’s responsibility ends
and the CPE begins. It’s generally a device in a telecommunications closet owned and
installed by the telecommunications company. The customer is responsible to cable )
from this box to the CPE, which is usually a connection to a CSU/DSU or ISDN
interface.
Local loop
The local loop connects the demarc to the closest switching office, called a central
office.
Central office (CO)
This point connects the customers to the provider’s switching network.
A central office (CO) is sometimes referred to as a point of presence (POP).
Toll network
The toll network is a trunk line inside a WAN provider’s network. This network is a
collection of switches and facilities owned by the ISP.

8.2 WAN Connection Types


A WAN can use a number of different connection types and this section will provide
you with an introduction to the various types of WAN connections you’ll find on the
market today.

69
Figure shows the different WAN connection types that can be used to connect your
LANs together (DTE) over a DCE network.

FIG: WAN Connection Types

The following list explains the WAN connection types:

Leased lines
Typically, these are referred to as a point-to-point connection or dedicated connection.
A leased line is a pre-established WAN communications path from the CPE, through
the DCE switch, to the CPE of the remote site, allowing DTE networks to
communicate at any time with no setup procedures before transmitting data. When
cost is no object, it’s really the best choice. It uses synchronous serial lines up to
45Mbps. HDLC and PPP encapsulations are frequently used on leased lines, and I’ll
go over them with you in detail in a bit.

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Circuit switching

When you hear the term circuit switching, think phone call. The big advantage is
cost—you only pay for the time you actually use. No data can transfer before an end-
to end connection is established. Circuit switching uses dial-up modems or ISDN, and
is used for low-bandwidth data transfers.

Packet switching

This is a WAN switching method that allows you to share bandwidth with other
companies to save money. Packet switching can be thought of as a network that’s
designed to look like a leased line, yet charges you (and costs) more like circuit
switching. There is a downside: If you need to transfer data constantly, forget about
this option. Just get yourself a leased line. Packet switching will only work well if
your data transfers are bursty in nature. Frame Relay and X.25 are packet-switching
technologies. Speeds can range from 56Kbps to T3 (45Mbps).

_____________________________________________________________________

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CONCLUSION

CCNA training has made me learn 21st century skills such as complex problem
solving and critical thinking.

To conclude one can say that CCNA training was really beneficial for
me and making report for such a great training is not being written just for the sake of
writing. I am crisply stating the main take away points from my work.

I feel that CCNA Security Course help to meet the growing demand for network
security skills. It provides the blended curriculum which provides a hands-on and
carrier oriented introduction to come security concepts. The course is highly
beneficial, as I feel; it helps students differentiate themselves in the marketplace.
Develop students for network security carrier opportunities. It enhances specialized
security skills.

BHARAT KHANEJA
(3409135)
ECE-2009 BATCH

72
BIBLIOGRAPHY

REFERENCES

 CCNA TEXTBOOK, BY DUCAT-INDIA

 CCNA COURSE GUIDE -By Todd Lammle

 Computer Hardware & Design -By Mouris Mano

Websites

 www.google.com

 www.cisco.com

 www.scribd.com

 www.wikipedia.org

 www.faadooengineers.com

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