Bridge Design JKR Specification PDF

FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY Bridge Design For JKR Specification
Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 1


concrete beams have been the first choice since

CONTENTS then, because they are economical and durable.
For longer spans, prestressed concrete box
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION girders have been used, the first of which was
constructed in 1974.
CHAPTER 2 - BRIDGES - AN OVERVIEW
Other types of structural forms are less com-
CHAPTER 3 - BRIDGE DESIGN mon. Most of the steel truss bridges can be
STANDARD AND CODE found in East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak).
OF PRACTICE Some trusses are mainly in the form of Bailey
bridges. However they are usually used as tem-
CHAPTER 4 - DESIGN PRINCIPLE AND porary crossings.
APPROACH
Bridge Type Number Percentage
CHAPTER 5 - BRIDGE LOADING -
Pipe Culvert 3330 50.1%
PART I Box Culvert 1348 20.3%
Precast Concrete Beam and
CHAPTER 6 - BRIDGE LOADING - Deck Slab Bridges 665 10.0%
Reinforced Concrete Beams
PART II Bridges 557 8.4%
Buckle Plate Bridges 233 3.5%
CHAPTER 7 - DESIGN OF Reinforced Concrete Slab
Bridges 219 3.3%
SUBSTRUCTURE Concrete Arch Bridges 159 2.4%
WORKED EXAMPLE Steel Beam Concrete Deck
Bridges 126 1.9%
Steel Trough 12 0.2%
Total 6649
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
Modern road bridge construction is relatively Table 1.1 - Bridges on Federal Road in
Peninsular Malaysia.
new in Malaysia, having been started in the
Source: JKR - BMS
early twentieth century. Most of the bridges
were constructed using established materials
and technology at the time of construction.
Early bridges were made up of simple struc-
CHAPTER 2 - BRIDGES - AN
tures. The earliest bridges were constructed
using steel beams and curved steel plates. This OVERVIEW
form of construction, which was introduced in
the early 1920s, came to be known as buckle
plate bridges. This form was popular until the 2.1 Introduction
late 1950s.
All bridges can be considered as made up of
Earliest reinforced concrete bridges were con- various components. Many times a bridge that
structed in the early 1930s. Standard reinforced is considered to be a non-concrete bridge will
concrete beam bridges however only became have numerous components that are made up
common in the 1960s with the introduction of of reinforced or prestressed concrete. For
precast reinforced concrete beams. instance, a typical steel beam or girder bridge,
which would be classified on the standard
Prestressed concrete was first used in bridges in inventory and appraisal form as a steel bridge,
Malaysia in the early 1950s. For most short to would most likely have reinforced concrete
medium span bridges, standard prestressed abutments and piers as well as a reinforced



concrete deck. These components, although on requires that the bridge designer/inspector
a non-concrete bridge, would be evaluated as if include several modifying terms, such as if the
they were part of a reinforced or prestressed primary load-carrying member is concrete, the
concrete bridge. bridge is classified as a concrete bridge, if the
member is steel, the bridge is classified as a
steel bridge. This classification applies even
2.2 Classification of the Bridges though other components, such as the deck or
piers, are a different material. The type of span
The bridge designers and inspectors must be design also enters into the description of the
familiar with the various types of bridges and bridge. Each bridge is described in according to
its components that may be constructed of type of span designed such as simple spans,
concrete, steel and other materials. Bridges are cantilever - suspended spans, or continuous
constructed for various purposes to support spans.
roads and highways at strategic points along
their routes. Bridge structures are required to Description of type of bridges.
cross over rivers and valleys, or for grade
separation with other roads and railways. 1. The primary load-carrying member or
Bridge structures are also required to be built members.
over roads and bridges just for pedestrian
crossings. Bridges are generally classified and Example: T-beams, 1-beams, box girder, slab,
separately called by purpose as follows: arch, trusses, frame.
(1) Road or Highway Bridges 2. Material of primary load-carrying member

Any bridge on roads and highways. Example: Concrete, steel.
(ii) Railway Bridges. 3. Type of span designed.

Any bridge on railways. Example: Simple span, cantilever-suspended
spans, continuous spans.
(iii) Flyover or Overpass Bridges.
Bridges for grade-separation with other roads,
highways or railways at intersection. 2.4 Types of Concrete Bridges.
(iv) Viaducts.
Bridges to support elevated roads, highways, or 2.4.1 Slab Bridges
railways, which are built mainly at where
ground space is limited in urban area or A concrete slab bridge is nothing more than a
embankment is difficult for ground is soft. wide shallow beam in which the beam itself
acts as the deck. A concrete slab bridge is usu-
(v) Overhead Footbridges. ally continuous, although some simple span
Bridges for pedestrian crossing. slabs exist. Slabs can be made of either rein-
forced concrete or prestressed concrete.
Precast units are sometimes used to form a slab
2.3 Types of Bridges. bridge. Several types of precast concrete units
are used by various highway agencies in slab
A bridge is classified by the primary load-car- bridge construction. These precast units include
rying member or members. For example, for channel slab, solid slab, voided slab, and the
girder-deck systems, the bridge esigner/ pan slab. These special precast units may be
inspector classifies the bridge according to the constructed of either reinforced concrete or pre-
type of girder used (T-beams, I-beams, and so stressed concrete.
on). An accurate description of a bridge

2.4.2 Girder or Beam Bridges. individual openings or boxes of less than 20ft,
but grouped together, they meet the definition
A girder or beam bridge consists of a deck sup- of a bridge and must be regarded as bridge.
ported directly by longitudinal girders or Concrete box culvert is usually analysed as a
beams. Concrete girder or beam-type bridges continuous concrete frame and is frequently
may be either reinforced concrete or pre- used over small or intermittent waterways.
stressed concrete and usually precast. Most
concrete-beam-type bridges are also composite; 2.4.5 Truss
that is, the beam and deck have a load-carrying
connection between the beam and deck. This A rare type of bridge is the reinforced concrete
composite section allows the beam and deck to truss. A truss bridge is one of in which the main
act together to carry the load. The T-beam, M- supporting members are made up of a series of
beam, Y-beam, Inverted T-beam, U-beam and triangles the sides of which act in tension or
the Ibeam are the common beam or girder-type compression.
concrete bridges. The T-beam is generally a
cast-in-place monolithic deck-and-beam sys- 2.4.6 Frame.
tem. The T-beam is named such because of the
"tee" shape used in a typical analysis of the A rigid frame reinforced concrete bridge is one
section. in which the piers or abutments are casted
monolithically with the main supporting mem-
2.4.3 Box Girders ber, either girders or slab, so that the abutment
can assist in carrying the main supporting
Concrete box girders have become quite popu- member loads. These rigid frame bridges can
lar in recent years. As the name implies, the be single span or multispan as in a concrete
girders are constructed with a cross section that box culvert. The bridge presents a pleasing aes-
is rectangular or box-shaped such that the roof thetic shape primarily because of the relatively
and floor act as flanges and the walls act as long span with a shallow depth.
webs. The bridge may be a large box, or a mul-
titude of smaller boxes. These structures may 2.4.7 Arch.
be simple span or continuous and either
prestressed or reinforced concrete. The box A concrete arch is the natural extension from
units may be castin-place or precast, depending Roman stone arch. The true arch carries load
on the location or experience of the highway by direct compression.
agency involved.
Segmental box girders are frequently used for The concrete arch bridge is generally of three
long span bridges. These units are very large types: -
box girder segments usually constructed by a
cantilever method. The concrete segmental box - the open or spandrel arch
girders are also used in cable-stayed bridges. - the filled arch
- the through tied arch
2.4.4 Concrete Box Culverts
The spandrel arch consists of the deck system
A concrete box culvert consists of a box-like supported by columns or bents, which rest on
concrete frame, generally normal to the road- the arch proper.
way, which has a waterway or roadway passing
through the culvert underneath the roadway. The filled arch has fill material contained by
The National Bridge Inspection Standards walls resting on the arch.
(NBIS) USA defines a culvert as a bridge if the
distance from backwall to backwall equals or The third and older type, which resembles a
exceeds 20ft. Concrete box girder may have truss, is the through ties arch. The main sup-

porting member is the arch which hangers sup-

porting a floor system and deck. Several precast T-beam shapes are used by var-
ious highway agencies. This include the bulb
In all cases, the arch proper can be though of as tee, the double tee, the quad tee, the rib tee, and
a long curved column. decked bulb tee.
2.5 Superstructure (i) M-beam
The pretensioned prestressed M-beam was

2.5.1 Concrete Decks. developed in the late 1960s as a beam which
could conveniently be used to form a voided
The deck is the load-carrying part of the super- slab deck. It was modelled on the inverted T-
structure that has direct contact with the wheel beam but was made a wider metre width mod-
loads on a typical highway bridge. The most ule.
common construction material for decks is
reinforced concrete. These decks are usually In the 1960s the I-beam deck was used with the
cast in place. Some concrete decks are precast, in-situ diaphragms in the span, the moulds in
prestressed units if the designer wanted to take fact providing holes for transverse steel at
advantage of the compressive strength of the 3.050m centres. The properties and normal
concrete or minimise cracking of the deck. The construction of inverted T-beam, I and box sec-
precast units are becoming popular as replace- tion bridges, at that time.
ment decks where maintaining of traffic during
replacement is a concern. In the late 1960s the better structural efficiency
of a voided slab, rather than that of an I-beam
Concrete decks on girder bridges normally and slab, layout was appreciated, as was the
have the primary reinforcement in the trans- capacity of a voided slab to do without the
verse direction or perpendicular to the girder. need for inspan diaphragms. A joint Ministry of
Transport, Cement & Concrete Association and
industry based development programme in U.K
resulted in the derivation of the M-beam shape
2.5.2 Beams/Girders
A girder or beam bridge consists of a deck sup-

ported directly by longitudinal girders or
beams. Concrete girder or beam-type bridges
may be either reinforced concrete or pre-
stressed concrete and usually precast. Most
concrete-beam-type bridges are also compos-
ite,; that is, the beam and deck have a load-car-
rying connection between the beam and deck.
This composite section allows the beam and
deck to act together to carry the load. The T-
beam, M-beam, Y-beam, Inverted T-beam, U-
beam and the Ibeam are the common beam or
girder-type concrete bridges. The T-beam is
generally a cast-in-place monolithic deck-and-
beam system. The T-beam is named such
because of the "tee" shape used in a typical
analysis of the section.

which was publicised in 1971. the construction. This is by far the most appli-
cation., With the new requirement for inspec-
Parameter study carried out in U.K pointed tion in mind and a further desire for economy,
some weakness of M-beams as follows. some designers placed M-beams with gaps of
up to 500mm and more between them. This
(i)M-beams were placed closely during con- had the penalty of the need for a deeper beam
struction. The current need for inspection of and possibly a deeper slab but does not have
bridge structures, spaces between bottom the advantage that all the superstructure may be
flanges of beams are needed for access and inspected.
inspection.
(ii) The lower flange of the beam should be

deeper than in a M-beam to allow for the
increased prestress used in recent designs and
also to allow higher covers for links without
impinging on manufacturing tolerances and
without requiring links to be bent through non-
standard radii.
(iii) The lower flange should have a more

steeply sloping top surface than on Mbeams to
keep it clean of debris and to allow it to be cast
without air bubbles and water gain under the
shutter forming the upper surface of the bottom
flange.
(iv) The beam should be ideally not have a dis-

crete top flange in order to eliminate the need After a series of reserches had been carried out,
for such a top flange to be provided with a set Y-beam was introduced in January 1991. The
of small portion links, as increasingly the case main points and advantages of M-beam are as
with M-beams. follows:
(v) The beam should have a top flange that Used on beams and deck slab of 14 to 32
would allow it to have an end cross diaphragm metres long
which is not the full depth of the deck. This
configuration is common in standard U-beam Better durability than existing bridge beams
bridges and allows access for jacking for bear- due to optimum shape for spaced beam and
ing maintenance and replacement. slab construction
All of deck, including between beams, readi-

(ii) Y-beam ly inspectable o Cost less than M-beams
M-beam decks were originally envisaged as Absence of discrete top flange allows easier
having a solid bottom flange with infill con- diaphragm and continuity detailing
crete and top flange cast on lost formwork. An
end diaphragm was used in all cases. This Decks may be shallower than M-beam decks
method of construction was found to be expen-
sive and, with the penalty of going to an extra
beam depth, it was possible to eliminate the
lower flange completely, greatly simplifying

(iii) T-beam
(v) I-beam
T-beams were introduced in the early 1990s.
The concept of a T-section arose to replace I- The most common concrete I-beam shape is
beams. Their shapes are nearly the same except the AASHTO shape used by most state high-
that T-beams are having wider and thin top way agencies. These 1-beams are normally pre-
flanges. The main purpose of this top flange is cast and prestressed. Several highway agencies
to form the permanent formwork for deck slab have developed variations of the AASHTO
construction. Because of this, the construction shapes to accommodate their particular needs.
time could be shortened and they had better Older prestressed girder bridges are generally
aesthetic appearance as compared to Ibeams. simple spans, where as many of the newer
Due to this advantage features, they became bridges are simple span for dead load and con-
popular and increasingly replaced I-beams. tinuous for live load. These bridges utilise cast-
Now T-beams are become the first choice in-place continuous decks constructed on pre-
beams for bridges having span ranging from 25 cast prestressed girders.
meter to 45 meter.
(vi) JKR Standard Beams
The Bridge Rehabilitation and Maintenance

Study in 1992 highlighted the various problems
of the bridges in this country. Some of the
problems came from lack of uniformity in both
(iv) U-beam design and construction. This study also recom-
mended the standardisation of bridge design, to
The development of U-beams was started in improve the design, construction and mainte-
1971 where the cross-section of a deck incor- nance of bridges in the country.
porating U-section beams. The main advantage
of U-beams is, in conjunction with an insitu In the study, the pre-cast pre-stressed structural
deck slab the necessary torsional stiffness is members were developed after taking into
provided for the distribution of live loads. account the technical and production capability

of the local manufacturers. Simple sectional

beam shape with straight edges were adopted
in the study to ensure high quality finished
products. In selecting the pre-cast beam, the
study team has also tried to reduce initial
investment cost of new bedding by the manu-
facturers.
Following are the summary of the slab and pre-

cast prestressed beams recommended by the
study to be adopted by JKR.
2.6 Other Elements
2.6.1 Expansion Joint Introduction
The expansion joint is an integral part of any

bridge structure and as such must be consid-
ered at an early stage in design. If the expan-
sion joint is carefully designed and detailed,
properly installed by specialist operators and
given reasonable maintenance in service, it
should be trouble free for many years.
It is important to appreciate that the expansion

joint is in the most vulnerable position on any
bridge, situated at surface level where it is sub-
jected to the unabsorbed impact and vibration
of the traffic and exposed not only to dust, silt,
grit and water but also to the effects of ultra-
violet rays, ozone attack and chemicals such as
salt solutions, cement alkalis and petroleum
derivatives.
Expansion Joints Requirements
In view of the aggressive situations above, the

following requirements must be met in select-

ing an expansion joint. It must 2.6.2 Parapet
(i)accommodate all movements of structure

and withstand all loadings; Introduction
(ii) not impart stress to the structure unless the The main objectives of the forms of parapet are
structure has been designed accordingly;
(i)To provide specified levels of containment to
(iii) have good riding characteristics; limit penetration by errant vehicles.
(iv) not present a skid hazard; (ii) To protect highway users and others in the
vicinity by redirecting errant vehicles with min-
(v) not present a danger to traffic such as imum deceleration forces on to a path as close
cyclists, animals, etc; as possible to the line of the parapet and to
reduce the risk to the vehicle of overtopping
(vi) be silent and vibration free in operation; the parapet and of overturning.
(vii)give reliable operation throughout the

expected temperature range; General Design
(viii) be sealed against water and foreign matter (i)Level of Containment

or make provision for their disposal;
Normal level of containment
(ix) resist corrosion and withstand attack from
grit, chemicals, etc; Vehicle : Saloon car
Mass : 1500 kg
(x) facilitate easy inspection, maintenance and Height of centre of gravity : 600mm
repair. Angle of impact : 20°
Speed : 113 km/h (70m/h)
Today there is a large variety of proprietary
expansion joints on the market and the problem High level of containment
facing the bridge engineer is now so often that
of selecting the most suitable joint to give good Vehicle : 4 axle rigid tanker
performance and a trouble free life for at least or equivalent
as long as that of the surfacing. Mass : 30,000 kg
Height of centre of gravity : 1800mm
Types of Expansion Joints Angle of impact : 20°
Speed :64 km/h (40 m/h)
Expansion joints are classified by the
magnitude of movements of the structure in (ii) Vehicle Impact Loading
longitudinal mode.
The parapet shall be designed to resist loading
(i)Joint for small movements (Below 10mm) appropriate to the designated level of
containment usinp- the equivalent static
(ii) Joints for medium movements nominal loadings from Table 2.1.
(10 - 25mm)
(iii) Joints for large movements (Over 25mm)

Parapet Containment Panel Nominal Bending Panel Nominal Panel Joint

Level Moment Shear Nominal Shear
Transfer
Nominal -
* without shear transfer
provision between 50 kN over lm 80L kN/panel
panels
High -
• with shear transfer
(180 + 40L) kN/panel (90 + 50H) L 110 kN
provision between
panels
• without shear transfer
(210 + 40L) kN/panel (110 + 50H) L
provision between
panels
Table 2.1 - Equivalent static nominal loads for insitu and precast concrete parapets
applicable to panel lengths (L) 1.5m to 3.5m
The load and movement capacities of the bear-

(iii) Parapet Height ing for any particular structure should be com-
patible with the assumptions made in the over-
The minimum height of concrete parapets shall all design of that structure.
be measured from the datum to the top of the
front face and it shall be for a particular Where practicable and whenever the expected
application as noted in Table 2.2. design life of the bearing is significantly less
than of the structure, provision should be made
Parapet Height Application
1.00 m • for vehicle and vehicle pedestrian parapets for the removal and replacement of the whole
• for bridges carrying motorways over railways, or
1.25 m
situations where pedestrians are excluded _ or parts of the bearings. Facilities for correcting
• for all other bridges over railways
1.50.m • for high containment applications the effects of any differential settlement and tilt
• for protection of animals
should be provided unless the structure has
Table 2.2 - Height of Parapets
been designed to accommodate such effects.
Adequate space should be provided around
If additional height is required only for the bearings to facilitate their inspection and main-
protection of animals, this may be provided by tenance. Consideration should be given in the
the addition of a metal rail mounted on posts design of the structure to the means of access
anchored into the top of the to the bearings.
concrete parapet. The rail, posts and Bearings should be detailed to exclude crevices
anchorages shall be designed to resist a and the like, which allow moisture and dirt to
horizontal ultimate loadings of 1.4 kN/m be trapped.
applied to the rail.
Where restraints are required to restrict the
translational movement of a structure, either
totally, partially or in a selected direction, they
2.6.3 Bearings may be provided as part of or separate from the
bearings and normally take the form of dowels,
keys or side restraints. In each case the
Introduction restraints should allow freedom of movement
in the desired direction(s).
The function of bearings is to provide a con-
nection to control the interaction of loading and
movements between parts of a structure, usual-
ly between superstructure and substructure.

2.7 Substructures
2.8 Foundation - Piles

2.7.1 Abutment
2.8.1 Introduction
Abutments are the part of the substructure that
form the terminal ends of the bridge and sup- Piles are relatively long and slender members
port the end spans. Typical types of abutments used to transmit foundation loads through soil
are full heights, stub or semistub. The abutment strata of low bearing capacity to deeper soil or
is normally composed of footing (pile cap), a rock strata having a high bearing capacity.
breast wall (ballast wall), a bridge seat, wing They are also used in normal ground condition
walls, curtain walls and sometimes approach to resist heavy uplift forces or in a poor soil
slab seats on cobel. The most common con- conditions to resist horizontal loads. Piles are
struction material for abutments is reinforced convenient method of foundation construction
concrete. Some special cases call for precast for works over water such as jetties and bridge
units or prestressed units, but the great majority piers.
are cast-in-place reinforced concrete. Because
abutments are supports for end spans of The load transfer may be by friction, end bear-
bridges, they must also retain the soil on the ing or combination of both. If the bearing stra-
approaches. tum for foundation piles is a hard and relatively
impenetrable material such as rock or a very
dense sand and gravel, the piles derive most of
2.7.2 Piers their carrying capacity from the resistance of
the stratum at the toe of the piles. In these con-
Concrete piers are the substructure element ditions they are called end bearing or point
between the abutments and are usually made bearing piles (Figure 2.8). On the other hand, if
up of capping beams, footings, columns and the piles do not reach an impenetrable stratum
caps. The footings may be spread, pile or but are driven for some distance into a penetra-
drilled shafts. Each of these components of a ble soil, their carrying capacity is derived partly
pier is frequently constructed of reinforced con- from end bearing and partly from the skin fric-
crete with precast or prestressed units used tion between the embedded surface of the pile
occasionally. and the surrounding soil. Piles which obtain the
greater part of their carrying capacity by skin
Another common name for a small pier con- friction or adhesion are called friction piles
sisting of a cap or two or more columns or (Figure 2.9).
piles is a bent.

2.8.2 Common Type of Piles Used in steel H-pile is about 300 to 1800kN depending
Malaysia on size.
(1)Precast Reinforced Concrete Piles (4)Cylindrical Steel Piles (Driven cast-

in-situ Displacement Pile).
Used to be the common used pile in bridge
project before the introduction of prestressed Driven cast-in-place piles are installed by
spun piles. The pile is designed as compression drilling to the desired penetration a steel tube
members and longitudinal steel is provided to with its end closed. A reinforcing cage is next
withstand bending and tensile stress during placed in the tube which is then filled with
handling and driving. The common sizes of concrete. The tube is then withdrawn while
reinforced square concrete piles used varies placing the concrete. This system of pilling is
from 250mm to 400mm square section. The usually patented basing on using different types
usual design load for this type are in the range of shoes of driving technique or casing
of 300 to 600 kN. withdrawal procedure. The system used in this
country is patented Franki pile. The design load
(2)Prestressed Spun Piles per pile is in the range of 650 to 1500 kN.
Driven and cast-in-situ piles have the principal
This is the most commonly used type pile in advantage of being readily adjustable in length
bridge project in Malaysia currently. to suit the desired depth of penetration. The
Prestressed spun piles are produced by process design load per steel pipe pile is in the region
of spinning. The concrete used in producing the of 200 to 3000 kN.
piles are high concrete strength, e.g. Grade 56,
60 or more. Their principal advantage over (5)Bored Piles
ordinary reinforced concrete piles is the higher
strength to weight ratio, enabling long slender Bored cast-in-place piles are installed by first
units to be lifted and driven. The second main removing the soil by a drilling process, and
advantage is the effect of prestressing in clos- then constructing the pile by placing concrete
ing up cracks during handling and driving. This in the drilled hole. The simplest form of
effect, combined with the high quality concrete construction consists of drilling an unlined hole
necessary for economic employment of and filling it with concrete. In water-bearing
prestressing, gives the prestressed concrete pile soils and soft clay, casing is needed to support
increased durability. Sizes varies from 250mm the sides of the borehole. The casing is
diameter to 800mm diameter. withdrawn after placing concrete. In stiff to
hard clays and weak rock, an enlarged base can
(3)Steel H-Piles be formed to increase the end bearing
resistance. Design load for bored cast-in-situ
Steel piles have the advantage of being robust, pile varies from 400 to 6500 kN.
light to handle and capable of being driven
hard to deep penetration to reach a bearing (6) Micropiles
stratum. They can carry high compressive loads
when they are seated in a hard stratum. They Micropiles are classified as small diameter (less
can be designed as small displacement piles, than 200mm) bored cast-in-situ piles. The
which is advantageous in situations when special feature of micropile is its strength,
ground heave and lateral displacement must be resulting from placing of steel and its seating in
avoided. They can be readily cut down and a hole of sufficient diameter which may be
extended where the level of the bearing stratum bored in whatever direction is best suited to the
varies. H-section piles are the common steel requirements of the projects. The equipments
piles used in this country. The design load for used in the installation of micropiles are much

smaller than those used in bored piles and so it

is very convenient to move and install these (3) Minimum span length
equipments. In areas where the ground consist
of hard weathered rock they require special (i) Span length has a direct relation to the
diamond-tipped drills and for large diameter possibility of clogging the bridge opening
boreholes the process of drilling will be quite with floating logs or debris.
difficult. Moreover only few contractors can (ii) Pier location close to bank
supply these drills. Whereas for micropiles the (iii) Impediment ratio of pier width to water
drilling process can be easily done due to the way
small diameter. The micropiles are good
foundation in fractured rocks where the
cracks/fractures can be grouted at the same (4) Abutment Design
time of grouting the micropiles. For existing
structures where the foundation is found to fail, (i) Retaining Wall-type (or Inverted T-type)
these micropiles can be used because they do Abutment
not require large equipments or space to work (ii) Embedding depth of pie cap .
on and so the other parts of the structure will Footing shall be embedded into riverbed.
not effected. The working loads of micropiles Where the scouring risk is high, it shall be
as specified by the soils lab are between 400 deepened below the anticipated scour
kN to 800 kN but some contractors claim that depth.
they can reach up to 1500 kN for 250mm (iii) Parallel to flow
diameter. Abutments shall be laid in parallel to flow
of water.
2.9 Authorities Requirements (5) Pier Design
(i) Oval or round shape for pier column

2.9.1 Waterway Crossing (Jabatan (ii) Embedding depth of pile cap
Pengairan dan Saliran) Footing shall be embedded into riverbed
deeper than the anticipated scour depth.
General Requirement
(6) Bank Protection
(1) Location and Direction of Crossing Bank protection is required to protect the slope
of bank from the erosion which may be caused
(i) Cross river at its straight reach by the turbulence water flow induced by the
(ii) Cross river in perpendicular to its flow construction of piers.
(i)Covering Area
(2) Waterway Width and Freeboard (ii) Embedding Depth
(iii) Foot Protection
(i) Lay abutments outside waterway The toe of bank protection shall be
(ii) Minimum freeboard on highest water level protected against scouring with gabion
(HWL) packs or stones.
The freeboard between HWL and the soffit
of bridge shall not be less than 1.0 meter.

Figure 2.10 shows a diagram issued by Jabatan

Pengaliran dan Saliran Negeri Selangor in the (i)About Existing Road
pamphlet - Prosedur Memproses Pembinaan
Jambatn / Paip Menyeberangi Sungai. Class and grade
Cross sectional profile
Right of way
Hydrological Calculation - DID Clearance limit
Hydrological Procedures Longitudinal profile
Few methods have been established by the (ii) About Future Plan
Jabatan Pengaliran and Saliran, Malaysia ,
to.determine hydrological requirements Designated, or not designated to roads of
namely; city planning
Sidewalk plan, or not
1. Rational Method (HP No.5) Overlay and widening plan, or not
2. Unit Hydrograph Method (HP No. 11) Cycle track plan, or not
3. Regional Flood Frequency Method (HP
No.4) (iii) About Public Utilities
4. Urban Drainage Design Standards and
Procedures for Peninsular Malaysia (2)Consultation Items
The following items are to be consulted with

2.9.2 Roadway Crossing (State JKR, the competent authority of the crossing road:
Local Authorities, Bandaraya, etc.)
(i)Bridge length and span
(1)Information of Crossing Road (ii) Location of abutments and piers
(iii) Embedding depth of foundations
The following information of the crossing road (iv) Under bridge clearance
is required for bridge planning (v) Diversion road

(vi) Construction method (includes protection

of existing road and traffic) Class and grade
Rail gauge and cross sectional profile o
(3)Vertical Clearance Limit Right of way
Clearance limit
A clearance height of 5.3m above the existing Electrified or not
road surface under the soffit of the planned
bridge beam is recommended. ii. About future plan
(4)Location of Abutments and Piers Electrification plan, or not

Double tracking plan, or not
(i) General Elevating plan, or not
Abutments and piers are prohibited inside a (2) Consultation Items

roadway. It is favourable for the traffic of the
crossing road to have sufficient lateral margins The following items are to be consulted with
between roadway and abutment, and not to the competent authority of crossing railway:
have a pier on median strip.
(i) Bridge structural type
However, the following cases are technically (ii) Bridge length and span
and economically very difficult to avoid a pier (iii) Embedding depth of foundation
on median strip: (iv) Location of abutments and piers
(v) Under bridge clearance
i. Crossing road is very wide having six lanes (vi) Construction method (includes relocation
or more. and protection of existing railway
ii. Bridge is skewed to crossing road with over facilities)
about 50 degrees even if it has only four lanes (vii)Consignment construction, or delegation of
or less. supervisors
iii. Crossing road is separated into up and (viii)Installation of guard fence
down lanes.
iv.Frontage road and/or waterway run in paral- (3) Clearance Limit
lel to crossing road. When a pier is designed on
median strip, it is required to consider collision The clearance limit of railway is different
load of vehicles for the design of pier. depending on the type and kind of railways.
The railway of Malaysia has been developed
(ii) Lateral Clearance based on the British gauge and is now in
progress of electrification. Figure 2.11 shows
(iii) Special Lateral Clearance for the clearance of Keretapi Tanah Melayu
Expressway Berhad both for the electrified and not
electrified.
2.9.3 Railway Crossing (KTMB) However, in recent years new commuter

railway system is going to be constructed in
(1) General Requirements urban area. To cross with such new system,
clearance limit should be confined by
Information of Crossing Railway Similar to individual consultation.
road crossing, the following information of the
crossing is required beforehand:
i. About existing railway:

2.10 JKR Current Practice 2.10.2 Discouraging The Usage of

Close Spaced Beams
2.10.1 Introduction During bridge inspection, bridge engineers are

facing problem in inspecting deck slab of the
Based on The Annual Mandatory Bridge closed space beams. Based on this difficulty,
Inspection (AMBI) for 1995. Irrespective of the the department had come up with a policy to
type of observed defects, one of the agents to discourage and finally eliminating the usage of
the initiation and propagation of defects was closely spaced beams.
the presence of water. In view of the observed
defects, some new design procedures were 2.10.3 Continuous Deck Slab For
adopted whether the design would be carried Multiple-Span Bridges
out in-house or by to the consultants. Some of
these procedures were: After having recognised the problems
associated with expansion joints, adoption of
(1) To discourage the usage of closed space continuous deck slab for multi-span bridges
beams. was introduced. The expansion joints are
probably only limited at the abutments.
(2), Providing continuous deck slab for multi- Adopting continuous concept and integral
span bridges. bridges whenever is possible in bridge
superstructure construction may result in the
(3) To maintain the existing practice of reduction in maintenance liability associated
providing approach slabs at the abutments. with moving parts such as expansion joints and
bearings. Last but not least, the public users
(4) Providing retaining wall type abutments now have a better riding quality associated with
for bridges across rivers instead of bank seat a lesser number of expansion joints and
types. The invert level of the pile cap must be environmental noise disturbance reduced.
at least 1 m below the existing bed level. Figure 2.12 shows one of the typical details of
a continuous deck slab adopted over a pier.


2.10.4 Retaining Wall Type Abutments 2.10.5 Approach Slab
The majority of the existing bridges were In Malaysia, due to her climatic and
designed and constructed more than twenty geographical condition, it is a traditional
years ago. The hydrological requirement practice to provide approach slabs at both ends
required during the design stage was based on of a bridge. Initially, the approach slab was
the existing hydrological parameters such as located just below the wearing course. Due to
hydraulic gradient and type of vegetation. For the settlement at a few locations and the
the last twenty years, rapid development has difficulties to maintain, the location of the
taken place where jungles had been cleared and approach slab was placed about l.Om below
replaced with rubber and oil palm plantations. the wearing course surface.
Hills had been flattened, valleys had been filled
for the construction of roads, highways, and CHAPTER 3 - BRIDGE DESIGN
residential and industrial areas in the name of STANDARD AND CODE OF
developments. As these developments have PRACTICE
been taken place, hydrological parameters
changed resulted in new set of water volume 3.1 Code of Practices in Bridge
and flood levels. There were few occasions
Design - Malaysia
where the earthfill behind abutments were
washed due to the limited flow area of the
In 1972, Limit State Design was first appeared
water. To overcome this problem in the future,
in British Codes of Practice in the Building
only retaining wall type of abutment will be
Code - CP 110. Since then it has been used in
adopted for bridges spanning over the rivers.
the water retaining structures codes (BS 5337)
For the future deepening of the river, Drainage
in 1976, the masonry code (BS 5628) in 1978
and Irrigation Department of Malaysia requires
and finally the bridge code (BS 5400) in 1978.
that all the soffit of the pile cap must be at least
one metre below the existing bed level of the
The introduction of limit state design of
river.
concrete bridges constitutes a radical change in
the design philosophy because the existing
design documents are written, principally, in

terms of a working load and permissible stress

design philosophy. Thus, the use f BS 5400 The contents of the individual parts are
may change design procedures, though it is summarised below:
unlikely to change significantly the final sizes
adopted for concrete bridges. Part 1: The philosophy of limit state design is
presented and the method of analysis which
3.2 BS 5400 may be adopted are stated
The Codes consist of the ten parts as listed in Part 2: Details are given of the loads to be
Table 3.1. It should be noted that BS 5400 is considered for all types of bridges, the partial
both a Code of Practice and a Specification. safety factors to be applied to each load and the
However, not all aspects of the design and con- load combinations to be adopted.
struction of bridges are covered; exceptions
worthy of mention are the design of parapets Part 3: Design rules for steel bridges are given.
and such constructional aspects as expansion
joints and water proofing. Part 4: Design rules for reinforced, prestressed
and composite (Precast plus insitu) concrete
BS 5400 CODE
bridges are given in terms of material
properties, design criteria and methods of
PART 1 GENERAL STATEMENT
compliance.
PART 2 SPECIFICATION FOR LOADS Part 5: Design rules for steel-concrete

PART 3 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR DESIGN OF
composite bridges are given.
STEEL BRIDGES
Part 6: The Specification of materials and
CONCRETE BRIDGES workmanship in connection with structural
steelwork is given.
COMPOSITE BRIDGES
Part 7: The Specification of materials and
PART 6 SPECIFICATION FOR MATERIALS AND workmanship in connection with concrete,
WORKMANSHIP, STEEL
reinforcement and prestressing tendons is
PART 7 SPECIFICATION FOR MATERIALS AND given.
WORKMANSHIP, CONCRETE,
REINFORCEMENT AND PRESTRESSING
TENDONS Part 8: Recommendations are given for the
application of Part 7.
PART 8 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR MATERIALS
AND WORKMANSHIP, CONCRETE,
REINFORCEMENT AND PRESTRESSING Part 9: The design, testing and specification of
TENDONS bridge bearings are covered.
PART 9 BRIDGE BEARINGS.
Part 10: Loading for fatigue calculations and
SECTION CODE OF PRACTICE FOR DESIGN OF methods of assessing fatigue life are given.
9.1 BRIDGE BEARINGS
SECTION SPECIFICATION FOR MATERIALS, MAN- 3.3 Departmental Standard BD

9.2 UFACTURE AND INSTALLATION OF
BRIDGE BEARINGS 37/88 - Loads for Highway Bridges
PART 10 CODE OF PRACTICE FOR FATIGUE
3.3.1 Introduction
BSI committee CSB 59/1 has reviewed BS

Table 3.1 -BS 5400 5400: Part 2 1978 (including BSI Amendment
No. l (AMD 4209) dated March 1983) and has

agreed a series of major amendments including

the revision of the HA loading curve. It has 3.4 Foundation
been agreed that as an interim measure,
pending a long term review of BS 5400 as a Foundation shall follow British Standard
whole and bearing in mind the current work on Institution BS 8004: Foundation
Eurocodes, the present series of amendments to
Part 2 shall be issued by the Department of 3.5 Expansion Joints in Deck
Transport, U.K rather than BSI. Because of the Slabs
large volume of technical and editorial
amendments involved it has also been decided
Expansion Joints in Bridge Decks shall follow
that a full composite version of BS 5400: Part 2
Department of Transport Highways and Traffic
including all the agreed revisions should be
Departmental Standard BD 33/88- Expansion
produced, and this forms and appendix to the
Joints For Use in Highway Bridge Decks.
Departmental Standard.
3.6 Parapet
3.3.2 Additional Requirements
1. All road bridges shall be designed to carry Parapet shall be of New Jersey type concrete
HA loading. In addition, a minimum of 30 structure and in accordance to Department of
units of type HB loading shall be taken for all Transport (U.K) Technical Memorandum
road bridges except for accommodation bridges No.BE.5: The Design of Highway Parapets.
which shall be designed to HA loading only. The design of New Jersey concrete guardrail
The actual number of units shall be related to shall be in accordance to Arahan Teknik (Jalan)
the class of road as specified below: 1/85 (Pindaan 1/89) mannual on Guardrail of
Longitudinal - Traffic Barrier.
Class of road carried Number of units of type HB
by structures loading
3.7 Anti-Corrosion Protective
Motorways and Trunk 45
Roads (or principal System
road extensions of
trunk routes)
The steel materials used for the bridge struc-
Principal roads 337.5 tures shall follow BS 5400: Part 6. A compre-
hensive anti-corrosion protective system shall
Other public roads 33 0
be in accordance with BS 5493 or equivalent.
3.8 Ship Impact

2. For highway bridges where the superstruc-
ture carries more than seven traffic lanes (i.e. Appropriate ship collision forces shall be estab-
lanes marked on the running surface and nor- lished and follow AASHTO Guide
mally used by traffic), application of type HA Specification and Commentary for Vessel
and type HB loading shall be agreed with the Collision Design of Highway Bridges; 1991.
Authority (UK - Technical Approval Authority,
Malaysia - JKR). 3.9 Elastomeric Bridge Bearings
3. In determining the wind load and tempera- The elastomeric bridge bearing shall be
ture effects for foot / cycle track bridges, the designed in accordance to BS 5400: Part 9.1
return period may be reduced from 120 years - Code of Practice for Design of Bridge
to 50 years subject to the agreement of the Bearings. Elastomeric bearings shall be of
Authority (UK - Technical Approval Authority, natural rubber and in accordance with the
Malaysia - JKR). specification proposed by the Committee on
Natural Rubber in Construction, Rubber

Research Institute, Malaysia. acceptable probability of it not being achieved.

Different acceptable probabilities are associated
3.10 Vehicle Collision Loads on with the different limit states. The partial safety
Highway Bridge Supports and factors and design criteria are chosen to give
Superstructure similar levels of safety and serviceability to
those obtained at present code. However,
Vehicle Collision Loads on Highway Bridge typical levels of risk in the design life of a
Supports and Superstructure shall be designed structure are taken to be 10-6 against collapse
in accordance with BD 60/94. and 10-2 against unserviceability occurring.
Thus the chance of collapse occurring is made
remote and much less than the chance of the
CHAPTER 4 - DESIGN PRINCIPLE serviceability limit state being reached.
Limit state design principles have been agreed
AND APPROACH
internationally and set out in International
Standard ISO 2394 which becomes a document
4.1 Introduction
forms the basis of the limit state design
philosophy of BS 5400.
Rules and procedures for the design of bridges
have been the subject of continuous amend-
4.3 Limits States
ment, improvement and development over the
years. A significant development took place in
A limit state is a condition, which a structure or
1967 when a meeting was held to discuss the
a part of a structure would become less than
revision of B.S 153, on which many bridge
completely fit for its intended uses. Two limit
design documents were based. It was suggested
states are considered in BS 5400;
that a unified code of practice should be written
in .terms of limit state design which would
i) Ultimate Limit State
cover steel, concrete and composite steel con-
ii) Serviceability Limit State
crete bridge of any span. A number of subcom-
mittees were formed to draft various sections of
4.3.1 Ultimate Limit State
such a code; the work of these sub-committees
has culminated in B.S 5400.
Ultimate limit state is corresponding to the
maximum load-carrying capacity of the
4.2 Limit State Design
structure or a section of the structure, and could
be attained by:
Limit state design is a design process which
aims to ensure that the structure being designed
(i)Loss of equilibrium when a part or the
will not become unfit for the use for which it is
whole of the structure is considered as rigid
required during its design life.
body.
(ii) A section of the structure or the whole of
The structure may reach a condition at which it
the structure reaching its ultimate strength in
becomes unfit for use for one of many reasons
terms of post-elastic or post-buckling
(e.g. collapse or excessive cracking) and each
behaviour.
of these conditions is referred to as a limit state.
(iii) Fatigue failure. However, it can be seen
In limit state design each limit state is exam-
that fatigue is considered not under ultimate
ined separately in order to check that it is not
loads but under a loading similar to that at the
attained. Assessment of whether a limit state is
serviceability limit state.
attained could be made on a deterministic or a
probabilistic basis. In BS 5400, a probabilistic
4.3.2 Serviceability Limit State
basis is adopted and, thus, each limit state is
examined in order to check whether there is an
This denotes a condition beyond which a loss

of utility or cause for public concern may be = yf3 [effect of yfL Qx ]

expected, and remedial action required. For
concrete bridges the serviceability limit state is, Where
essentially, concerned with crack control and [Partial Load Factor] is a factor that takes
stress limitations. In addition, the serviceability account
limit state is concerned with the vibrations of
footbridges. (i) inaccurate assessment of the effect of
loading
4.3.3 Design Life (ii) unforeseen stress distribution in the
structure
This is defined in BS 5400 as 120 years. (iii) variation in dimensional accuracy achieved
However, The Code emphasises that this does in construction Where linear relationships
not necessarily mean that a bridge designed in can be assumed between loading and load
accordance with it will no longer fit for its effects,
purpose after 120 years, nor that it will
continue to be serviceable for that length of S* = [effect of YS. Yn..QKI
time, without adequate and regular inspection
and maintenance. 4.4.4 Design Resistance (R*)
4.4 Loads R* = function (fk)/(YR,)
4.4.1 Nominal Load (Qx) or
Where adequate statistical distributions are R* = function (fk-)

available, nominal loads are those appropriate (Ym)
to a return period of 120 years. In the absence
of such statistical data, nominal load values that where
are considered to appropriate to a 120 year
return period are given. fk = characteristic (or nominal) strength
of material
4.4.2 Design Load (Q*)
Ym = reduction factor
Q* = Yfl QK = function (Ym i . Ym2 )
Where where
Ym1 is intended to cover the possible reductions
yfl = function (yfl . yf ) in the strength of the materials in the structure
as a whole as compared with the characteristic
And value deduced from the control test specimen.
yfl take account the possibility of unfavourable Ym2 is intended to cover possible weakness of
deviation of the loads from their nominal the structure arising from any cause other than
values the reduction in the strength of the materials
allowed for in Ym1, including manufacturing
yfz takes account acting together will all attain tolerances.
their nominal values simultaneously
4.5 Partial Safety Factors
4.4.3 Design Load Effects (S*)
The values of the partial safety factor Yn, to be
S* = yf-,[effect of Q*] applied at the ultimate and serviceability limit

states for the various load combinations are tude. In the case of dead load this entails apply-
given in Table 8.4. Followings are some of ing a yn. value of 1.0: it is emphasised that this
general points should be noted: value is applied to all parts of the dead load
effect. In the case of superimposed dead load
(i)Larger values are specified for the ultimate and live load, these loads should not be applied
than for the serviceability limit state. to those portions of the structure where their
presence would diminish the load effect under
(ii) The values are less for reasonably well consideration.
defined loads, such as dead load, than for more
variable loads, such as live or superimposed Influence lines are frequently used in bridge
dead load. Hence the greater uncertainty asso- design and, in view of the above, it can be seen
ciated with the latter loads is reflected in the that superimposed dead load and live load
values of the partial safety factors. should be applied to the adverse parts of an
influence line and not to relieving parts. It is
(iii) The value for a live load, such as HA load, not intended that parts of parts of influence
is less when the load is combined with other lines should be loaded.
loads, such as wind load in Load Combination
2 or temperature loading in Load Combination 4.6.2 Overturning of Structure
3, than when it acts alone, as in Load
Combination 1. This is because of the reduced The stability of a structure against overturning
probability that a number of loads acting is calculated at the ultimate limit state. The
together will all attain their nominal values criterion is that the least restoring moment due
simultaneously. This fact is allowed for by the to unfactored nominal loads should be greater
partial safety factor Yrz, which is a component than the greatest overturning moment due to
of Yo.. design loads.
(iv) A value of unity is specified for certain 4.6.3 Foundations

loads (e.g. superimposed dead load) when this
would result in a more severe effect. The soil mechanics aspects of foundations
should be assessed in accordance with CP
(v) The values for dead and superimposed 2004, which is not written in terms of limit
dead load at the ultimate limit state can be dif- state design, Hence these aspects should be
ferent to the tabulated values. considered under nominal loads. However,
when carrying out the structural design of a
foundation, the reaction from soil should be
4.6 Application of Loads calculated for the appropriate design loads.
4.6.1 General 4.7 Material Properties
The general philosophy governing the applica- 4.7.1 Concrete

tion of the loads is that the worst effects of the
loads should be sought. In practice, this implies Characteristic Strengths
that the arrangement of the loads on the bridge
is dependent upon the load effect being consid- Material strengths are defined in terms of
ered, and the critical section being considered. characteristic strengths. The characteristic cube
In addition, the Code requires that, when the compressive strength (f,-") of concrete is
most severe effect on a structural element can referred to as its grade, e.g. grade 40 concrete
be diminished by the presence of a load on a has a characteristic strength of 40 N/mm2.
certain portion of the structure, then the load is Grades 20 to 50 may be used for normal
considered to act with its least possible magni- weight reinforced concrete and 30 to 60 for

prestressed concrete.
4.8 Design Criteria
4.7.2 Reinforcement
The design criteria are given in Part 4 : BS
Characteristic Strengths 5400 under the heading:
The quoted characteristic strengths of rein- Ultimate limit state

forcement (fy) are 250 N/mm2 for mild steel; Serviceability limit state
410 N/mm2 for hot rolled high yield steel; 460 Other considerations
N/mm2 for cold worked high yield steel,
except for diameters in excess of 16mm when Other considerations includes those criteria
it is 425 N/mm2 ; and 485 N/mm2 for hard which are not specified in BS 5400 but which
drawn steel wire. are, nonetheless, important in design terms
4.7.3 Prestressing Steel Table 4.2 shows the list of the criteria from
which it can be seen that there are a great
Characteristic Strengths number of criteria to be satisfied and, if
calculation has to be carried out for each, the
Tables are given for the characteristic strengths design procedure may be extremely lengthy.
of wire, strand, compacted strand and bars of
Limit State Design Criteria
various nominal sizes. Each tabulated value is
given as a force which is the product of the
Ultimate Limit State Rupture
characteristic strength (fp,,) and the area (Aps) Buckling
of the tendon. Overturning
Vibration
4.7.4 Material Partial Safety Factors - Serviceability Limit State Steel Stress Limitations
ym Values Concrete Stress Limitations
Cracking of Prestressed
Concrete
Design strengths are defined as characteristic Cracking of Reinforced
strengths divided by the appropriate partial Concrete
safety factors (ym). The ym values appropriate
Other Considerations Deflections
to the various limit states are summarised in Fatigue
Table 4.1. Durability
Limit State Concrete Steel

Table 4.2 - Design Criteria
Serviceability Limit State
Analysis of Structure 1.0 1.0
Reinforced Concrete Cracking 1.0 1.0
Prestressed Concrete Cracking 1.3 1.0
4.8.1 Ultimate Limit State
Stress Limitation 1.3 1.0
Vibration 1.0 1.0 The criterion for rupture of one or more
Ultimate Limit State sections, buckling or overturning is simply that
Analysis of 'Structure 1.0 1.0 these events should not occur.
Section Design 1.5 1.15
Deflection 1.0 1.0 A vibration criterion, which would be

concerned with vibrations to cause collapse of
Fatigue 1.3 1.0
a bridge, is not given, but, instead, compliance
with the serviceability limit state vibration
Table 4.1 - ym Values criterion is deemed to satisfy the ultimate limit
state requirements.

4.8.2 Serviceability Limit State hypothetical tensile stresses exist at the

maximum size of cracks.
(i) Steel Stress Limitations
(a) Serviceability limit state
It is generally only necessary to check cracks Loading Allowable Stress

widths in bridges under HA loading for load
Bending 0.33fcu (0.4f fcu at
combination 1. This means that there is an Direct compression supports)
indirect check on reinforcement stresses under 0.25 fi
primary HA loading but not under other loads. (b) Transfer
Stress Distribution Allowable Stress

(ii)Concrete Stress Limitations
Triangular 0.5fi
Concrete stress limitations include compressive Uniform 0.4fi
stresses in reinforced and prestressed concrete,

and compressive, tensile and interface shear Table 4.2 - Limiting Concrete Compressive
stresses in composite construction. Stresses in Prestressed Concrete
In order to prevent micro-cracking, spalling (iv) Cracking of Reinforced Concrete

and unacceptable amounts of creep occurring The design surface crack widths were assigned
under serviceability condition, compressive from considerations of appearance and
stresses are limited to 0.5 f"' for compressive durability. They are summarised in Table 4.3.
stresses in reinforced concrete.
The limiting compressive stresses in pre- 4.8.3 yf3 Values

stressed concrete for the serviceability limit
state and at transfer are given in Table 4.3. The nominal loads and the values of the partial
safety factors yf., by which these loads are
multiplied to give design loads. Then, the
(iii) Cracking of Prestressed effects of the latter have to be multiplied by a
Concrete partial safety factor yf3 in order to obtained
design load effects. The values of yt3 are
The criteria for the control of cracking in pre- dependent upon the material of the bridge.
stressed concrete are presented in terms of
limiting flexural tensile stresses for three The value of yr3 should be taken as 1.0 for
classes of prestressed concrete. serviceability limit state.
Class 1: No tensile stresses are permitted For ultimate limit state, the value of yf3 should
except for 1 N/mm2 under prestress plus dead be taken as 1.10, except that where plastic
loads, and at transfer. methods are used for the analysis of the
structure, yea should be taken as 1.15.
Class 2: The tensile stresses should not
exceed the design flexural tensile strength of
the concrete, which is 0.454fcu for
pretensioned member and 0.36Jfcu for post
tensioned members.
Class 2: For Class 3 members in which

cracking is allowed, it may be assumed that the
concrete section is uncracked and that

4.8.3 yf3 Values
The nominal loads and the values of the partial

safety factors yf., by which these loads are
multiplied to give design loads. Then, the
effects of the latter have to be multiplied by a
partial safety factor yf3 in order to obtained
design load effects. The values of yt3 are
dependent upon the material of the bridge.
The value of yr3 should be taken as 1.0 for

serviceability limit state.
For ultimate limit state, the value of yf3 should

be taken as 1.10, except that where plastic
methods are used for the analysis of the struc-
ture, yea should be taken as 1.15.

LIMIT STATE REQUIREMENTS
SLS OTHER
ULS CONSIDERATIONS
DEFLECTIONS
CRACKING VIBRATION FATIGUE
RUPTURE
STRESS
OR
LIMITATIONS DURABILITY
INSTABILITY
REINFORCED
CONCRETE
IN IN
BUCKLING
CONCRETE STEEL
PRESTRESSED
CONCRETE
OVERTURNING
VIBRATION
CLASS 1 CLASS 2 CLASS 3
Figure 4.1 - Design : Limit State Requirements



4.9 Reaction Forces paths
4.9.1 Free-Fixed Single Span Bridge
Figure 4.4 shows the paths of reacting forces of a Fixed-Free Single Span Bridge.
The vertical forces from the superstructure will be shared between the abutments. These loads and
vertical loads from the abutments will be transferred to the pile caps and finally-will be supported
by the pile foundation.
The horizontal forces from the superstructure will be transferred to the abutment at the fixed
joint. Depending on the direction of the horizontal forces, they may be resisted by the passive
reactions at the abutment or the abutment wall will solely resist them.
In normal practice, it is assumed that the stiff foundation where the piles are assumed to be pin
jointed to the pile cap. At the toe of the abutment wall, the vertical and horizontal forces will be
represented by the vertical forces acting at the centroid of the piles and a couple.
The piles will resist the vertical forces and the couple. Normally, in the designing the pile founda-
tion, the horizontal foundation will be resisted by the horizontal components of the raked piles
while the vertical forces will be resisted by the vertical piles and the vertical components of the
raked piles.

Figure 4.5 shows the paths of reacting forces of a Free-Fixed-Free Two Spans Bridge. The verti-
cal forces from the superstructure will be shared between the pier and abutments. These loads
and vertical loads from the abutments will be transferred to the pile caps and finally will be sup-
ported by the pile foundation.
The horizontal forces from the superstructure will be transferred to the pier at the fixed joint.
At the toe of the pier, the vertical and horizontal forces will be represented by the vertical forces
acting at the centroid of the piles and a couple. The piles will resist the vertical forces and the
couple.

Figure 4.6 shows the paths of reacting forces of a three spans bridge. The vertical forces from the
superstructure will be shared between the piers and abutments.
The horizontal forces from the superstructure will be transferred to one of the piers, which is fixed
to the superstructure.

Figure 4.7 shows the paths of reacting forces of a four span bridge. The vertical forces from the
superstructure will be shared between the piers and abutments.
The horizontal forces from the superstructure will be transferred to the middle pier where is fixed
to the superstructure.

4.10 Step By Step in Design Due to the complex design requirements of

each component of the bridge mentioned
Logically, steps in designing bridge above, it is very difficult and troublesome to
components should follow the paths of reacting carry the design procedure as per path of
reacting forces. The author suggested the steps
forces. Therefore, superstructure should be the to be followed in are as shown in Figure 4.8. It
first component to be determined and designed. can be seen that initially the design has to be
Then follows by the design of abutment or pier started by determining the dimension and
pile caps and lastly the pile foundation. But this designing of the superstructure. It follows by
not really true in designing a bridge. In the design of pile foundation, pile caps, pier
designing each component of a bridge, each and/or abutment and finally designing of other
one of them has its own unique requirements. bridge components.
Pier may be designed either as a column or as a
reinforced concrete wall. On top of that column By referring to Figure 4.9, the process of
design may be designed either as a short or design can be divided into three independent
slender column. For either column or a design processes, i.e. Design of Superstructure,
reinforced concrete wall, the member should be Design of Pile Cap and Sub Structure and lastly
designed to satisfy the Ultimate Limit State Design of Other Bridge Components.
requirements and follows by the checking for
Serviceability Limit State conditions. Similarly,
abutment wall may be designed as cantilever
beam or as a reinforced concrete wall
depending on the configuration. For both cases,
the member should be designed to satisfy the
Ultimate Limit State requirements and follows
by the checking for Serviceability Limit State
limitations.
Slightly different from designing column and

abutment wall, in designing pile cap, it requires
to fulfil the flexural bending requirement and
checking to satisfy the flexural and punching
shears. Both flexural bending and shear designs
are to the Ultimate Limit State requirements.
Flexural bending and punching shears may be
determined by reactions of piles. Therefore,
pile number and arrangement and the reaction
at each pile at the Ultimate Limit State must be
determined and known before pile cap can be
designed.
In designing the pile foundation, the loads to be

considered are only nominal loads, i.e. without
any Factor of Safety. The factor of safety
adopted in designing pile foundation is 2.0. In
this case, validation of factor of safety will be
carried during construction where the test load
will be carried out. The test load will be twice
the design load of the pile.

Determine dimension
of Superstructure
Design Superstructure
Determine dimension
of Substructure
Determine All Loads

1) Live Loads
2) Dead Loads
3) Superimposed
Dead Loads
Nominal Load
Design Pile Foundation

Design Load
(1) Type of Pile
( Multiplied
(2) Number of Piles
by Factor
(Vertical + Rake)
of Safety)
(3) Pile Arrangement
Design Substructure
(1) Pile Cap + Pier
(2) Pile Cap + Abutment
Design Other Bridge Components

(1) Bearing
(2) Dowels
(3) Continuity Connection
Figure 4.8 - Sequence of Design


CHAPTER 5
in the consideration of loading effects which
BRIDGE LOADING - PART I are positive, the positive areas of the influence
line are referred to as adverse areas and their
effects as adverse effects and the negative areas
5.1 Definitions
of the influence line are referred to as relieving
areas and their effects as reliving effects.
Loads. External forces applied to the structure Conversely, in the consideration of loading
and imposed deformations such as those effects which are negative, the negative areas
caused by restraint of movement due to of the influence line are referred to as adverse
changes in temperature. areas and their effects as adverse effects and
the positive areas of the influence line are
Axle loads referred to as relieving areas and their effects as
Bending moments relieving effects.
Shear forces
Total effects. The algebraic sum of the adverse
Load effects. The stress resultants in the and relieving effects.
structure arising from to response to loads.
Dispersal. The spread of load through surfac-
Compressive stresses ing, fill, etc.
Flexural stresses
Shear stresses Distribution. The sharing of load between
directly loaded members and other members
Dead Load. The weight of the materials and not directly load as a consequence of the
parts of the structure that are structural stiffness of intervening connection members, as
elements, but excluding superimposed eg diaphragms between beams, or the effects of
materials such as road surfacing, rail track distribution of a wheel load across the width of
ballast, parapets, mains, ducts, miscellaneous a plate or slab.
furniture, etc.
Superimposed dead load. The weight of all

5.2 Classification of Bridge
materials forming loads on the structure that
Loads
are not structural elements.
BD 37/88 divides the nominal loads into two
Live loads. Loads due to vehicle or pedestrian
groups, largely
traffic.
- Permanent Loads.
Primary live loads. Vertical live loads, consid-
- Transient Loads
ered as static loads, due directly to the mass of
traffic.
Secondary live loads. Live loads due to 5.3 Permanent Loads.

changes in speed or direction of the vehicle
traffic, eg. Lurching, nosing, centrifugal, longi- Permanents loads consist of dead loads,
tudinal, skidding and collision loads. superimposed dead loads, loads due to filling
materials, differential settlement and load
Adverse and relieving areas and effects. Where derived from nature of the structural material.
an element or structure has an influence line In the case of concrete bridges, the latter refers
consisting of both positive and negative parts, to shrinkage and creep of the concrete.

5.3.1 Dead Load Superimposed dead load on a bridge are:-
The nominal dead load will generally be Premix

calculated from the normal assumed values for Parapet
the specific weight of material. Services (Water mains, lamp posts, etc)
Insitu concrete :24 kN/m3

Precast concrete :25 kN/m3 5.3.3 Filling Materials
Premix :22.6 kN/m3
Backfill :18.9 kN/m3 The nominal loads due to the fill should be
calculated by conventional principles of soil
Dead loads in the superstructure are : mechanics. The partial safety factor seem to be
high due to the reason that the pressure on the
Beams abutments etc due to the fill are considered to
Deck slab be calculable only with a high degree of
Diaphragm uncertainty, particularly for the conditions after
construction.
Dead loads acting on the abutment are :
Beams 5.3.4 Shrinkage and Creep.

Deck slab
Diaphragm Shrinkage and Creep only have to be taken into
Self weight of abutment account when they are considered to be
Backfill important. Obvious situations are where
Earth pressure deflection are important and in the design of
Approach slab, approach slab, wearing course, the articulation for a bridge.
backfill.
Dead loads acting on the pier are : 5.3.5 Differential Settlement.
Beams The onus is placed upon the designer in

Deck slab deciding whether differential should be
Diaphragm considered in detail.
Self weight of pier
Backfill
5.3.2 Superimposed Dead Loads.
The partial safety factor for superimposed dead

load appears to be rather large. The reason for
this is to allow for the fact that bridge decks are
often resurfaced, with the result that the actual
superimposed dead loads can be much greater
than that assumed at the design stage.

LOADS
PERMANENT TRANSIENT
LOADS LOADS
DEFERENTIAL LOADS DERIVED

DEAD LOAD
SETTLEMENT FROM THE NATURE OF LOAD DUE TO
SUPERIMPOSED
THE FILLING
DEAD LOAD
STRUCTURAL MATERIAL
MATERIAL
PRIMARY
WIND SECONDARY
HIGHWAY TEMPERATURE EXCEPTIONAL ERECTION
LOADS HIGHWAY
LOADS LOADS LOADS LOADS
LOADS
HA HB
HA-UDL HA-KEL HA+HB HB alone
FATIGUE COLLISION
COLLISION
CENTRIFUGAL LONGITUDINAL & SKIDDING WITH
WITH
LOADS BRAKING DYNAMIC PARAPET
SUPPORTS
LOADS
Figure 5.1 - Bridge Loading

COMBINATION
OF
LOADS
PRINCIPAL SECONDARY
COMBINATION COMBINATION
LOAD LOAD LOAD LOAD LOAD

COMBINATION COMBINATION COMBINATION COMBINATION COMBINATION
1 2 3 4 5
Permanent Loads Permanent Loads Permanent Loads Permanent Loads Permanent Loads
+ + + + +
Appropriate Live Appropriate Live Appropriate Live Secondary Live Loads due to
Load Load Load Load Friction at
+ + + Bearings
Wind Loads Pemperature Wind Loads
+ Range & +
Temporary Difference Appropriate
Erection Loads + Primary Live
Temporary Loads associated
Erection Loads with them
Notes;
1. Application of Loads: Each element and structure shall be examined under the effect of loads that can coexist in each combination
2. Selection to cause most adverse effect: Design loads shall be selected and applied in such a way that most adverse total effect is
cause in the element or structure under consideration
Figure 5.2 - Load Combinations

5.4 Transient Loads 5.4.4 Erection Loads.
All loads other than the permanent loads At the serviceability limit state, it is required
referred to above are transient loads. These that nothing should be done during erection
consist of wind loads, temperature loads, which would cause damage to the permanent
exceptional loads, erection loads, the primary structure, or which would alter its response in
and secondary highway loading, footway and service from that considered I design.
cycle track loading.
At the ultimate limit state, the Code considers
Primary highways loading are vertical line the loads as either temporary or permanent and
loads, whereas the secondary loading is live draws attention to the possible relieving effects
load due to changes in speed or direction. of the former.
Hence the secondary highway loading include
centrifugal, braking, skidding and collision The importance of the method of erection, and
loads. the possibility of impact or shock loading, are
emphasized.
5.4.1 Wind Loads.

5.5 Highway Bridge Live Loads.
According to BS 5400, it is not necessary to
consider wind loading in combination with Loans due to vehicle or pedestrian traffic. Live
temperature loading. In addition, as is also the loads may be categorised as Primary Live
case in BE 1/77, wind loading does not have to Loads and Secondary Live Loads.
be applied to the superstructure of a beam and
slab or slab bridges having a span less than Primary Live Loads.
20m and a width greater than I Om.
The primary live loads are vertical live loads,
The designer has to decide mean hourly wind considered as static loads, due directly to the
speed at the location where the bridge will be mass of traffic.
constructed.
Secondary Live Loads.
5.4.2 Temperature. Secondary live loads are live loads due to

changes in speed or direction of the vehicle
There are, effectively, two aspects of traffic, e.g. lurching, nosing, centrifugal,
temperature loading to be considered; namely longitudinal, skidding and collision loads.
the restraint to the overall bridge movement
due to temperature range and the effects of
temperature differences through the depth of
bridge.
5.4.3 Exceptional Loads.
These include the loads due to otherwise

unaccounted effects such as earthquakes,
stream flows, impact due to ship etc.

5.6 Loads and Factors Specified
Nominal Loads
Where adequate statistical distribution are

available, nominal loads are those appropriate
to a return period of 120 years.
Design Loads
Nominal loads shall be multiplied by the

appropriate value of yfl, to derived the design
load to be used in the calculation of moments,
shears, total loads and other effects for each of
the limit states under consideration.
Additional Factor, yf3
Moments, shears, total loads and other effects

of the design loads are also to be multiplied by
yf3 to obtain the design load effects.
In short,
Design load = Nominal load x yf. x yt3



Load Combination 5
5.8 Load Combinations
For all bridges, the loads to be considered are:
There are three principal and two secondary the permanent loads,
load combinations of loads are specified. loads due to friction at bearings
Load Combination 1

the permanent loads,
the appropriate primary live loads
Load Combination 2
For highway and foot/cycle track bridges, the

loads to be considered are:
loads due to wind
temporary erection loads where erection is
being considered
Load Combination 3

loads arising from restraint due to the effects

of temperature range and difference
temporary erection loads where erection is
being considered
Load Combination 4
For highway bridges, the loads to be consid-

ered are:
the secondary live loads together with the
appropriate primary live loads associated
with them
For foot/cycle track bridges, the loads to be

considered are:
the only secondary live loads to be
considered are the vehicle collision loads on
bridge supports and superstructures

CHAPTER 6 6.2 Relationship between

carriageway and notional lanes.
BRIDGE LOADING - PART II
6.2.1 Carriageway widths of 5.00m or
more. [Cl.3.2.9.3.1- BD 37/88]
6.1 Highway Carriageway, Traffic
and Notional Lanes. Notional lanes shall be taken to be not less than
[Cl. 3.2. 9 - BD 37/88] 2.50m wide. Where the number of notional
lanes exceeds two, their individual widths
should be not more than 3.65m. The carriage-
6.1.1 Carriageway. way shall be divided into an integral number of
[Cl.3.2.9.1 - BD 37/88] notional lanes having equal widths as follows:
Carriageway width Number of
Carriageway is that part of the running surface m notional
lanes
which includes all traffic lanes, hard shoulders,
hard strips and marker strips. The carriageway
5.00 up to and including 7.50 2
width is the width between raised kerbs. In the above 7.50 up to and including 10.95 3
absence of raised kerbs it is the width between above 10.95 up to and including 14.60 4
safety fences, less the amount of set-back above 14.60 up to and including 18.25 5
above 18.25 up to and including 21.90 6
required for these fences, being not less than
0.6m or more than 1.0m from the traffic face of
each fence. The carriage width shall be
measured in a direction at right angles to the Table 6.1- Carriageway and Notional Lanes
[Table 14 -BD37/88]
line of the raised kerbs, lane marks or edge
marking.
6.2.2 Carriageway widths of less than
5.00m. [Cl. 3.2.9.2 - BD 37/88]
6.1.2 Traffic Lanes.
[Cl. 3.2.9.2 - BD 37/88]
The carriageway shall be taken to have one
notional lane with a width of 2.50m. The
Traffic lanes are the lanes that marked on the
loading (HA UDL and KEL) on the remainder
running surface of the bridge and are normally
of the carriageway shall be multiplied by the
used by traffic.
appropriate factors from Table 6.1 [Table
14 - BD 37/88] before being applied to the
notional lanes indicated.
6.1.3 Notional Lanes.
[Cl. 3.2.9.3 - BD 37/88]
6.2.3 Dual Carriageway Structures.
The notional lanes are the notional parts of the
[Cl. 3.2. 9.3.3 - BD 37/88]
carriageway used solely for the purposes of
applying the specified live loads. The notional
Where dual carriageways are carried on one
lane width shall be measured in a direction at
superstructure, the number of notional lanes on
right angles to the lane of the raised kerbs, lane
the bridge shall be taken as the sum of the
marks or edge marking.
number of notional lanes in each of the single
carriageways as specified in Carriageway width
of 5.00m or more above.



6.3 Highway Bridge Live Loads. ii. Notional lanes, hard shoulders, etc.
[CI. 6 - BD 37/88] [CI. 6.1.2 - BD 37/88]
6.3.1 General [Cl. 6.1- BD 37/88] The width and number of notional lanes, and
the presence of hard shoulders, hard strips,
Standard highway loading consists of HA and verges and central reserves are integral to the
HB loading. HA loading is a formula loading disposition of HA and HB loading.
representing normal traffic in Malaysia. HB Requirements for deriving the width and
loading is abnormal vehicle unit loading. Both number of notional lanes for design purposes
loadings include impact. are specified in
6.1.3 [C1.3.2.9.3 - BD 37/88]

i. Loads to be considered
Requirements for reducing HA loading for
The structure and its elements shall be designed certain lane widths and loaded length are speci-
to resist the more severe effects of either: fied in
(1). Design HA loading, or

(2). Design HB 45 units loading, or
(3). Design HA loading combined with design
HB 30 units loading.

6.3.4.1 [Cl. 6.4.1 - BD 37/88]

ii. Nominal knife edge load (KEL)
iii. Distribution analysis of structure [Cl. 6.2.2 - BD 37/88]
[CI. 6.1.3 - BD 37/88]
The knife edge load per notional lane shall be
The effects of the design standard loadings taken as 120 kN.
shall, where appropriate, be distributed in
accordance with a rigorous distribution analysis iii. Distribution [CI. 6.2.3 - BD 37/88]
or from data derived from suitable tests.
The UDL and KEL shall be taken to occupy
one notional lane, uniformly distributed over
6.3.2 Type HA load ing[CI.6.2 the full width of the lane and applied as
- BD 37/88] specified in 6.3Ai [Cl.6.4.1- BD 37/88]
Type HA loading consists of iv.Dispersal [Cl. 6.2.4 - BD 37/88]
a uniformly distributed load (HA-UDL) and No allowance for the dispersal of the UDL and
a knife edge load (HAKEL) combined, or KEL.
a single wheel load.
v. Single Nominal Wheel Load alternative to
i. Nominal uniformly distributed load (UDL) UDL and KEL
[C1.6.2.1 - BD 37/88] [Cl. 6.2.5 - BD 3 7/88]
a. Loaded lengths up to and including 50 One 100 kN wheel, placed on the carriageway
meter, the UDL expressed in kN per linear and uniformly distributed over a circular
meter of notional lane shall be derived from the contact area assuming an effective pressure of
equation, 1.1 N/mm2 (i.e 340 mm diameter) shall be
considered.
W = 336(1/L)0.67 Alternatively, a square contact area may be

assumed, using the same effective pressure (i.e.
b. For loaded lengths in excess of 50 meter but 300 mm side).
less than 1600 meter, the UDL shall be derived
from the equation,
iv.Dispersal [Cl. 6.2.6 - BD 37/88]
W = 36 (1 /L)0.1 Dispersal of the single nominal wheel load at a

spread-to-depth ratio of 1 horizontally to 2
vertically through asphalt and similar surfacing
where may be assumed, where it is considered that
this may take place.
L = the loaded length in meter
W = the load per meter of notional lane in kN Dispersal through structural concrete slab may
Values of the load per linear meter of notional be taken at a spread-to-depth ratio of 1
lane are given in Table 6.2 and the load curve horizontally to 1 vertically down to the neutral
is illustrated in Figure 6.6. axis.

Loaded Load Loaded Load Loaded Load

Length (kN/m) Length (kN/m) Length (kN/m)
(m) (m) (m)
2 211.2 23 41.1 41 27.9

4 132.7 24 40.0 42 27.5
6 101.2 25 38.9 43 27.0
8 83.4 26 37.9 44 26.6
9 77.1 27 36.9 45 26.2
10 71.8 28 36.0 46 25.8
11 67.4 29 35.2 48 25.1
12 63.6 30 34.4 50 24.4
13 60.3 31 33.7
14 57.3 32 33.0
15 54.7 33 32.3
16 52.4 34 31.6
17 50.3 35 31.0
18 48.5 36 30.5
19 46.7 37 29.9
20 45.1 38 29.4
21 43.7 39 28.9
22 42.4 40 28.4
Table 6.2 - Type HA -UDL (up to 50m)

30 when acting together with HA

6.3.3 Type HB Loading 45 when HB alone
[CI. 6.3 -BD 37/88]
ii. Nominal HB Loading [C1.63.1 - BD 37/88]
i. General
Figure 6.7 shows the plan and axle arrange-
For all public highway bridges, the number of ment for one unit of nominal HB loading. One
units of type FIB loading that shall be consid- unit shall be taken as equal to 10 kN per axle
ered are: (i.e. 2.5 kN per wheel)

The overall length of the HB vehicle shall be construction, the maximum effect should be
taken as 10, 15, 20, 25 or 30 meter for inner determined by consideration of the adverse
axle spacings of 6, 11, 16, 21 or 26 meter area or combination of adverse areas using the
respectively, and the effects of the most severe loading appropriate to the full base length or
of these cases shall be adopted. The overall the sum of the full base lengths of any
width shall be taken as 3.5 meter. The combination of the adverse areas selected.
longitudinal axis of the HB vehicle shall be Where the influence line has a cusped profile
taken as parallel with the lane markings. and lies wholly within a triangle joining the
extremities of its base to its maximum ordinate,
iii. Contact Area [C1. 6.3.2 - BD 37/88] the base length shall be taken as twice the area
under the influence line divided by the
Nominal HB wheel loads shall be assumed to maximum ordinate.
be uniformly distributed over a circular contact
area, assuming effective pressure of 1.1 Therefore,
N/mm2. Loaded length :
the length of the base of the positive or
Alternatively, a square contact area may be negative portion of the influence line for a
assumed, using the same effective pressure. particular effect at the design point under
consideration
iv.Dispersal [Cl. 6.3.3 - BD 37/88]
ii. Single Span
Dispersal of HB wheel loads at a spread-
to-depth ratio of 1 horizontally to 2 vertically For a single span member, the loaded length for
through asphalt and similar surfacing may be the span moment is the span length. i.e. Span
assumed, where it is considered that this may length = L
take place.
Dispersal through structural concrete slabs may

be taken at a spread-to-depth ratio of 1 horizon-
tally to 1 vertically down to the neutral axis.
iv.Design [Cl. 6.3.4 - BD 37/88]

Load Combination yfi.
iii. Two Span Continuous member (Equal
Span)
For U.L.S For S.L.S
The loaded length for calculating the support

For Load Combination 1 1.30 1.10
For Load Combination 2 1.10 1.00 moment would be 2L (40m). (The loading =
For Load Combination 3 1.10 1.00 26.2 kN/m)
The loaded length for calculating the span

moment would be L (20m). (The loading =
6.3.3 Loaded Length 30.0 kN/m)
i. General
The loaded length for the member under

consideration shall be the full base length of the
adverse area. Where there is more than one
adverse area, as for example in continuous


iv.Multi Span Member Four Span 6.3.4 Application of Type HA Loading

[ Cl. 6.4 - BD 37/88]
The support moment at Support B, would be
calculated: i. Type HA Loading [ Cl. 6.4.1- BD 37/88]
by considering span AB and BC loaded with Type HA UDL determined for the appropriate
loading appropriate to a loaded length of 2L loaded length and type HA KEL loads shall be
or applied to each notional lane in the appropriate
by considering span AB, BC and DE loaded parts of the influence line for the element or
with loading appropriate to a loaded length member under consideration. The lane loadings
of 3L are interchangeable between the notional lanes
and a notional lane or lanes may be left
The first case likely to be more severe for most unloaded if this caused the most severe effect
cases. The moment in span BC, would be on the member or element under consideration.
calculated considering The KEL shall be applied at one point only in
the loaded length of each notional lane.
span BC loaded with loading appropriate to
the loaded length of L or Where the point under consideration has a dif-
ferent influence line for the loading in each
span BC and DE loaded with loading appro lane, the appropriate loaded length for each
priate to a loaded length of 2L lane will vary and the lane loadings shall be
determined individually.
HA Lane Factors [ Cl. 6.4.].1 - BD 37/88]
The HA UDL and HA KEL shall be multiplied

by the appropriate factors from Table 6.3
before being applied to the notional lanes
indicated.
Table 6.3 - HA Lane Factors [Table 14 - BD 3 7/88]

Where the carriageway has a single notional

Note: lane as specified in C1.3.2.9.3.2 - BD 37/88,
1. a, = 0.274 bL and cannot exceed 1.0 the HA UDL and HA KEL applied to that lane
a~ = 0.0137 [ bL(40-L) + 3.65(L-20)] shall be multiplied by the appropriate first lane
where bL is the notional lane width (m) factor for a notional lane width of 2.50m. The
loading on the remainder of the carriageway
2. N shall be used to determine which set of width shall be taken as 5 kN/m2.
HA lane factors is to be applied for loaded
lengths in excess of 50m. The value of N is
to be taken as the total number of notional
lanes on the bridge (this shall include all the
lanes for dual carriageway roads) except that
for a bridge carrying one-way traffic only,
the value of N shall be taken as twice the
number of notional lanes on the bridge.

point only in the loaded length.

Multilevel Structures [ Cl. 6.4.1.2 - BD 37/88]
(2) On longitudinal members and stringers.
Where multilevel superstructures are carried on On longitudinal member and stringers: in a
common substructure members (such as col- direction parallel to the supports.
umn of a multilevel interchange) the most
severe effect at the point under consideration (3) On piers, abutments and on other members
shall be determined from Type HA loading supporting the superstructure.
applied in accordance with 6.3.4.1. Type HA On piers, abutments and on other members
Loading [C1.64.1 - BD 37/88]. The number of supporting the superstructure: on the deck,
notional lanes to be considered shall be the parallel to the line of the bearings.
total number of lanes, irrespective of their
level, which contribute to the load effect at that (4) On cross members, including transverse
point. cantilever brackets.
On cross members, including transverse
Transverse Cantilever Slabs [ Cl. 6.4.1.3 - BD cantilever brackets: in a direction in line with
37/88] the span of the member
Transverse cantilever slabs, slabs supported on ii. Types HA and HB Loading Combined [Cl.
all four sides and slabs spanning transversely. 6.4.2 - BD 37/88] Type HA and HB loading
HA UDL and KEL shall be replaced by the shall be combined and applied as follows:
arrangement of HB loading given in Cl. 6.4.3.1
- BD 37/88. (1) Type HA loading shall be applied to the
notional lanes of the carriageway in accordance
Combined Effects [Cl. 6.4.1.4 - BD 37/88] with 6.4. Li, modified as given in (2) below.
Where elements of a structure can sustain the (2) Type HB loading shall occupy any trans-
effects of live load in two ways, i.e. as elements verse position on the carriageway, either
in themselves and also as parts of the main wholly within one notional lane or straddling
structure (eg. The top flange of a box girder two or more notional lanes.
functioning as a deck plate), the element shall
be proportioned to resist the combined effects Where the FIB vehicle lies wholly within the
of the appropriate loading in C1.6.4.2 - BD notional lane or where the HB vehicle lies par-
37/88. tially within a notional lane and the remaining
width of the lane, measured from the side of
Knife Edge Load (KEL) HB vehicle to the edge of the notional lane, is
[Cl. 6. 4.1.5 - BD 37/88] less than 2.5 meters, type HB loading is
assumed to displace part of the HA loading in
The KEL shall be taken as acting as follows: the lane or straddled lanes it occupied. No other
live loading shall be considered for 25 meters
(1) On Plates. in front of the leading axle to 25 meters behind
the rear axle of the HB vehicle. The remainder
On plates, right slabs and skew slabs spanning of the loaded length of the lane or lanes thus
or cantilevering longitudinally: in a direction occupied by the HB vehicle shall be loaded
which has the most severe effect. The KEL for with HA UDL only; HA KEL shall be omitted.
each lane shall be considered as acting in a sin- The intensity of the HA UDL in these lanes
gle line in that lane and having the same length shall be appropriate to the loaded length that
as the width of the notional lane and the inten- includes the total length displaced by the type
sity set out in C1.6.4.1.1. As specified in HB loading with the front and rear 25 meter
C1.6.4.1.i, the KEL shall be applied at one clear spaces.

Where the HB vehicle lies partially within a iv.Standard Footway and Cycle Track Loading
notional lane and the remaining width of [ CI. 6.5 - BD 37/88]
the lane, measured from the side of the.HB
vehicle to the far edge of the notional lane, is The live load on highway bridges due to pedes-
greater or equal to 2.5 meters, the HA UDL trian traffic shall be treated as uniformly dis-
loading in that lane shall remain but shall be tributed over footway and cycle tracks. For ele-
multiplied by an appropriate lane factor for a ments supporting footways or cycle tracks, the
notional lane width of 2.5 meters irrespective intensity of pedestrian live load shall vary
of the actual lane width; the HA KEL shall be according to the loaded length and any expec-
omitted. tation of exceptional crowds. Reductions in
pedestrian live load intensity may be made for
Only one HB vehicle shall be considered on elements supporting highway traffic lanes as
any one superstructure or on any substructure well as footways or cycle tracks. Reductions
supporting two or more superstructure. may also be made where the footway (or foot-
way and cycle track together) has a width
iii. Highway loading on transverse cantilever exceeding two meters.
slabs, slabs supported on all four sides, slabs
spanning transversely and central reserves 6.4 Secondary Live Loads
[ CI. 6. 4.3 - BD 37/88]
6.4.1 Accidental Wheel Loading
Type HB loading shall be applied to the ele- [ C1.6.6 - BD 37/88]
ments specified below,
The elements of the structure supporting outer
(1) Transverse cantilever slabs, slabs support- verges, footways or cycle tracks are not pro-
ed on all four sides and slabs spanning trans- tected from vehicular traffic by an effective
versely. barrier, shall be design to sustain local effects
of the nominal accidental wheel loading.
These elements shall be so proportioned as to
resist the effects of the appropriate number of i. Nominal accidental wheel loading
units of type HB loading occupying any trans- [ C1.6.6.1-BD 37/88]
verse position in the carriageway or placed in
one other notional lane. Proper other notional The accidental wheel loading having the plan,
lane. Proper consideration shall be given to axle and wheel load arrangement shown in
transverse joints of transverse cantilever slabs Figure 6.11 shall be selected and located in the
and to the edges of these slabs because of the position which produces the most adverse
limitations of distribution effects on the elements. Where the application
of any wheel or wheels has a relieving effect, it
This does not apply to members supporting or they shall be ignored.
these elements.
ii. Contact area [ C1.6.6.2 - BD 37/88]
(2) Central reserves
Nominal accidental wheel loads shall be
On dual carriageways the portion of the central assumed to be uniformly distributed over a
reserve isolated from the rest of the carriage- circular contact area, assuming an effective
way either by a raised kerb or by safety fences pressure of 1.1 N/mm Z. Alternatively, a square
is not required to be loaded with live load in contact area may be assumed, using the same
considering the overall design of the structure, effective pressure.
but it shall be capable of supporting 30 units of
HB loading.

iii. Dispersal [ CL. 6.6.3 - BD 37/88] 6.4.2 Loads due to Vehicle Collision
with Parapets [ C1. 6.7- BD 37/88]
Dispersal of accidental wheel loads at a
spread-to-depth ratio of 1 horizontally to 2 ver- This Section refers to the load effects resulting
tically through asphalt and similar surfacing from a collision with a parapet, locally on the
may be assumed, where it is considered that structural elements in the vicinity of the parapet
this may take place. supports and globally on bridge superstruc-
tures, bearing, and substructures and retaining
Dispersal through structural concrete slabs may walls and wing walls. Rules for design the
be taken at a spread-to-depth ratio of 1 horizon- highway parapets including requirements for
tally to 1 vertically down to the neutral axis.
high level of containment parapets are set out
iv.Live Load Combination in BS 6779 : Part 2.
[ C1.6.6.4 - BD 37/88]
The local effects of vehicle collision with para-
Accidental wheel loading need not be consid- pets shall be considered in the design of ele-
ered in Load Combinations 2 and 3. No other ments of the structure supporting parapets by
primary live load is required to be considered application of the loads given in (i) below.
on the bridge. The global effects of vehicle collision with high
level of containment parapets shall be consid-
ered in the design of bridge superstructures,
v. Design Load [ C1.6.6.5 - BD 37/88] bearings, substructures and retaining walls and
wing walls by application of loads given in (ii)
Load yfL
Combination
below. The global effects of vehicle collision
For U.L.S For S.L.S with other types or parapets need not be con-
sidered.
For Load 1.50 1.20
Combination 1
(i)Loads due to vehicle collision with parapets
for determining local effects.
[C1.6.7.1- BD 37188]

1. Nominal Loads. [ C1.6.7.1.1- BD 37188] 3. Load Combination

[ C1.6. 7.1.3 - BD 37/88 ]
In the design of the elements of the structure
supporting parapets, the following loads shall Loads due to vehicle collision with parapets for
be regarded as the nominal load effects to be determining local effects shall be considered in
applied to these elements according to the para- Load Combination 4 only, and need not be
pet type and construction. taken as coexistent with other secondary live
loads.
For concrete parapets (High and normal levels
of containment) 4. Design Load [ C1.6. 7.1.4 - BD 37/88]
The calculated ultimate design moment of
resistance and the calculated ultimate design For determining local effects on elements
shear resistance of a 4.5 meter length of parapet supporting the parapets, yn. factors to be
at the parapet base applied uniformly over any applied to the nominal load due to vehicle
4.5 meter length of supporting element. collision with the parapet and the associated
nominal primary live load shall be taken as
For metal parapets (High, normal and low follows:
levels of containment)
(a). The calculated ultimate design moment of

resistance of a parapet post applied at each base
of up to three adjacent posts and
(b). the lesser of the following:
i. the calculated ultimate design moment of (ii) Loads due to vehicle collision with high
resistance of a parapet post divided by the level of containment parapets for determining
height of the centroid of the lowest effective global effects [ C1.6. 7.2 - BD 37188]
longitudinal member above the base of the
parapet applied at each base of up to any three 1. Nominal Loads [ C1.6.7.2.1- BD 37188 ]
adjacent parapet posts;
In the design of bridge superstructures,
ii. the calculated ultimate design shear resist- bearings, substructures, retaining walls and
ance of a parapet post applied at each base up wing walls, the following nominal impact loads
to any three adjacent parapet posts. shall be applied at the top of the traffic face of
high level of containment parapets only.
In the case of all high level of containment
parapets, an additional single vertical load of (a) a single horizontal transverse load of
175 kN shall be applied uniformly over length 500 kN;
of 3 meter at the top of the front face of the (b) a single horizontal longitudinal load of
parapet. The loaded length shall be in that posi- 100 kN;
tion which will produce the most severe effect (c) a single vertical load of 175 kN.
on the member under consideration.
The loads shall be applied uniformly over a
2. Associated nominal primary live load length of 3 meter measured along the line of
[ C1.6.7.1.2 - BD 37188] the parapet. The loaded length shall be in that
position which will produce the most severe
The accidental wheel load specified in Section effect on the part of the structure under
9.4.1 shall be considered to act with the loads consideration.
due to vehicle collision with parapets.

2. Associated nominal primary live load

[ C1.6.7.2.2 -BD 37/88]
Type HA and the accidental wheel loading, 4. Design Load

shall be considered to act with the load due to
vehicle collision on high level of containment The load due to vehicle collision with high
parapets. The type HA and the accidental wheel level of containment parapets for determining
loading shall be applied in accordance with global effects on bridge superstructures, sub-
Section 9.3.5 - Application of Types HA and structures, non-elastomeric bearings, retaining
HB Loading and Section 9.4.1.i - Nominal walls and wing walls need only be considered
accidental wheel loading, respectively and such at the ultimate limit state. In the case of elas-
that they will have the most severe effect on the tomeric bearings however, the load due to vehi-
member under consideration. They may be cle collision with high level of containment
applied either separately or in combination. parapets for determining global effects should
only be considered at the serviceability limit
3. Load Combination state.
Loads due to vehicle collision with high level The yf, values to be applied to the nominal
of containment parapets for determining global load due to vehicle collision with high level of
effects shall be considered in Load containment parapets and the associated
Combination 4 only, and need not be taken as nominal primary live load shall be taken as
coexistent with other secondary live loads. follows:
*Note:
The yn, value of 1.4 shall only be used for
small and light structures (such as some wing
walls cantilevered off abutments, low light
retaining walls, very short span bridge decks)
where the attenuation of the collision loads is
unlikely to occur. For other structures, account
may be taken of the dynamic nature of the
force and its interaction with the mass of the
structure by application of the reduced ya, val-
ues given above.

6.4.3 Vehicle collision loads on (iii) Associated nominal primary live load
highway bridge supports and [ C1.6.8.3 - BD 37/88]
superstructures
[C1. 6.8 - BD 37/88 ] No primary live load is required to be
considered on the bridge.
Where bridges over carriageways have piers
located within 4.5 meter of an edge of the
carriageway (Refer to 6.2.1 [Cl.3.2.9.2 - BD (iv) Load Combination [ C1.6.8.4 - BD 37/88 ]
37188] and Figure 1 - BD 37188), these shall
be designed to withstand vehicle collision Vehicle collision loads on supports and on
loads. Vehicle collision loads on abutments superstructures shall be considered separately,
need not be considered. Where bridges over in Load Combination 4 only, and need not be
carriageways have a headroom clearance of taken as coexistent with other secondary live
less than 5.7 meter, the vehicle collision load loads.
on superstructures shall be considered.
(v) Design Load [ Cl. 6.8.5 - BD 37/88 ]
(i)Nominal load on supports
[ C1. 6.8.1-BD 37/88 ] For all elements excepting elastomeric
bearings, the effects due to vehicle collision
The nominal loads are given in Table 9.15 loads on supports and on superstructures need
together with their direction and height of only be considered at the ultimate limit state.
application, and shall be considered as acting The Yf, to be applied to the nominal loads shall
horizontally on bridge supports. All of the loads have a value of 1.50.
given in Table 9.15 shall be applied
concurrently. The loads shall be considered to For elastomeric bearings, the effects due to
be transmitted from the safety fence provided vehicle collision loads on supports and on
at the supports with residual loads acting above superstructures should be only considered at
the safety fence. the serviceability limit state. The yfL to be
applied to the nominal loads shall have a value
of 1.00.
(vi) Bridges crossing railway track, canals or

navigable water [ C1.6.8.6-BD 37/88]
Collision loading on bridges shall be as agreed

with the appropriate authority.
(ii) Nominal load on superstructures
[ C1.6.8.2 - BD 37/88 ] 6.4.4 Centrifugal Loads
[ C1.6.9-BD 37/88]
A single nominal load of 50 kN shall be
considered to act as a point load on the bridge On highway bridges carrying carriageway with
superstructure in any direction between the horizontal radius of curvature less than 1000
horizontal and the vertical. The load shall be meter, centrifugal loads shall be applied in any
applied to the bridge soffit, thus precluding a two notional lanes in each carriageway at 50
downward vertical application. Given that the meter centres. If the carriageway consists of
plane of the soffit may follow a superelevated one lane only, centrifugal loads shall be applied
or non-planar form, the load can have an out at 50 meter in that lane
ward or inward application.

(i)Nominal centrifugal load 1. Nominal Load for Type HA

[ C1.6.9.1- BD 37/88] [ C1.6.10.1- BD 37/88]
A nominal centrifugal load F., shall be taken as: The nominal load for HA shall be 8 kN/m of
40000 loaded length plus 250 kN, subject to a maxi-
F = r+ 150 kN mum of 750 kN, applied to an area one notion-
al lane width x the loaded length.
where,
r : the radius of curvature of the lane in meter. 2. Nominal Load for Type HB
[ C1.6.10.2 - BD 37/88]
A nominal centrifugal load shall be considered
to act as a point load, acting in a radial direc- The nominal load for HB shall be 25% of the
tion at the surface of the carriageway and paral- total nominal HB load adopted, applied as
lel to it. equally distributed between the eight wheels of
two axles of the vehicle, 1.8 meter apart.
(ii) Associated nominal primary live load j
C1.6.9.2 - BD 37/88] 3. Associated Nominal Primary Live Load
[ C1.6.10.3 -BD 37/88]
With each centrifugal load there shall also be
considered a vertical live load of 400 kN, dis- Type HA or HB load, applied in accordance
tributed over the notional lane for a length of 6 with ii. Application of Types HA and HB
meter. Loading, shall be considered to act with
longitudinal load as appropriate.
(iii) Load Combination [ Cl.6.9.3 - BD 37/88 ]
4. Load Combination [ C1.6.10.1- BD 37/88]
Centrifugal loads shall be considered in Load
Combination 4 only and need be taken as Longitudinal load shall be considered in Load
coexistent with other secondary live loads. Combination 4 only and need not be taken as
coexistent with other secondary live loads.
(iv) Design Load [ C1.6.9.4 - BD 37/88 ]
5. Design Load [ C1.6.10.4- BD 37/88]
For the centrifugal loads and primary live
loads, yfL shall be taken as follows: yfL
Type of Load
For U.L.S For S.L.S
For the ultimate limit state : 1.50
For the serviceability limit state : 1.00
For HA Load 1.25 1.25 1.00
6.4.5 Longitudinal Load For HB Load 1.10 1.10 1.00

[ C1.6.10 - BD 37/88]
The longitudinal load resulting from traction or 6.4.6 Accidental Load Due to
braking of vehicles applied at the road surface Skidding [ C1.6.11- BD 37/88]
and parallel to it in one notional lane only shall
be taken as the more severe design load On straight and curved bridges a single point
resulting from the following: load shall be considered in one notional lane
only, acting in any direction on and parallel to,
Nominal load for Type HA the surface of the highway.
Nominal load for Type HB
Design Load i. Nominal Load [ C1.6.11.1-BD 37/88]

The nominal load shall be taken as 300 kN. Wind loading will not be significant in its effect
on a large proportion of bridges, such as con-
ii. Associated Nominal Primary Live Load crete slab or slab and beam structures 20 meter
[ C1.6.11.2 - BD 37/88] or less in span, 10 meter or more in width and
at nominal height above ground
Type HA loading, applied in accordance with
6.3.4.1. Type HA Loading [C1.64.1 - BD In general, a suitable check for bridges in nor-
37/88], shall be considered to act with the mal circumstances would be to consider a wind
accidental skidding load. pressure of 6 kN/m2 applied to the vertical pro-
jected area of the bridge or structural element
iii. Load Combination [ C1.6.11.3 - BD 37/88] under consideration, neglecting those areas
where the load would be beneficial.
Accidental load due to skidding shall be
considered in Load Combination 4 only, and 6.5.2 Wind Gust Speed
need not be taken as coexistent with other [C1.5.3 - BD 37/88]
secondary live loads.
i. Maximum wind gust speed on bridges
iv.Design Load [ C1.6.11.4 - BD 37/88] without live load, v, [ C1.5.3.2.1 - BD 37188]
yfL Maximum wind gust speed on those parts of

Load Combination
For U.L.S For S.L.S the bridge or its element on which` the applica-
tion of wind loading increases the effect being
For Load Combination 4 1.25 1.00 considered shall be taken as:
v, = V KI S, S2
6.4.7 Dynamic Loading on Highway
Bridges [ C1.6.13 - BD 37188 ] Where
v : the mean hourly wind speed 40 m/sec
The effects of vibration due to live load are not K1 : a wind coefficient related to the return
normally required to be considered. However, period 1.0 for highway, railway and
special consideration shall be given to foot/cycle track bridges for a return
dynamically sensitive structures. period of 120 years
: 0.94 for foot/cycle track bridges for a
6.5 Wind Load return period of 50 years
[ C1.5.3 - BD 37/88 ] : 0.95 for erection period, that is corre
sponding to a return period of 10
6.5.1 General years
S1 : the funneling factor
Wind pressure on a bridge depends on the : 1.0 for general cases
geographical location, the local topography, the : > 1.1 in valleys where local funnelling
height of the bridge above ground, and the of the wind occurs, or where a bridge is
horizontal dimensions and cross section of the situated to the lee of a range of hills
bridge or element under consideration. The causing local acceleration of wind
maximum pressures are due to gusts that cause S2 : the gust factor
local and transient fluctuations a bout the mean : as shown in Table 6.4
wind pressures. Design gust pressures are
derived from mean hourly wind speed. In
Malaysia, mean hourly wind speed of 40 m/sec
is adopted.

ii. Minimum wind gust speed on relieving gives relief to the member under consideration,
areas of bridges without live load, v'c the effective coexistent value of wind gust
speed v'c on the parts affording relief shall be
Where wind on any part of a bridge or element taken as:
gives relief to the member under consideration,
the effective coexistent value of minimum 35 x K2/S2 m/sec or v KI K2 m/sec which
wind gust speed v'c on the parts affording relief ever is lesser for
shall be taken as: highway and foot/cycle
track bridges
v'C=vK1 K2
Where 6.5.3 Nominal transverse wind load,

K2 : the hourly speed factor as given in Pt [C1.5.3.3 - BD 37/88]
Table 6.4
i. Nominal transverse wind load, Pt (N)
iii. Maximum wind gust speed on bridges
with live load, vc The nominal transverse wind load shall be
taken as acting at the centroids of the appropri-
The maximum wind gust speed on those parts ate areas and horizontally unless local condi-
of the bridge or its elements on which the tions change the direction of the wind, and
application of wind loading increases the effect shall be derived from:
being considered shall be taken as:
Pt =qAl CD
v, = v KI SI S2
where
for highway and foot/cycle track bridges q : the dynamic pressure head
but not exceeding 35 m/sec 0.613 v,2 in N/m2 with v, in m/sec
AI : the solid area (in m2)
iv.Minimum wind gust speed on relieving CD : the drag coefficient
areas of bridges with live load, v'c
Where wind on any part of a bridge or element ii. Area A1

The area of the structure or element under

consideration shall be the solid area in normal Where there are more than two parapets or
projected elevation derived as followings. safety fences, irrespective of the width of the
superstructure, only those two elements having
a. Erection stages for all bridges the greatest unshielded effect shall be
The area A1 at all stages of construction shall considered.
be the appropriate unshielded solid area of the
structure or element.
(ii) For superstructures with solid parapets:
b. Highway bridge superstructures with solid
elevation The superstructure, using depth d2 from Table
6.5 which includes the effects of windward and
For the superstructures with or without live leeward parapets. Where there are safety fences
load, the area A, shall be derived using the or additional parapets, Pt shall be derived
appropriate value of d as given in Table 6.5. separately for the solid areas of the elements
above the top of the solid windward parapet.
Superstructures without live load
Superstructures with live load
Pt shall be derived separately for areas of the Pt shall be derived for the area A, as given in
following elements Table 6.5 which includes the effects of the
superstructure, the live load and the windward
(i)For superstructures with open parapets: and leewards parapets. Where there are safety
- the superstructure, using depth dl from fences or leeward parapets higher than the live
Table 6.5; load depth dL, Pt shall be derived separately
- the windward parapet or safety fence; for the solid areas of the elements above the
- the leeward parapet or safety fence. live load.

The area A, for each truss, parapet, etc shall be

Superstructures separated by an air gap the solid area in normal projected elevation.
Where two generally similar superstructures The area A, for the deck shall be based on the
are separated transversely by a gap not full depth of the deck.
exceeding 1 meter, the nominal load on the
windward structure shall be calculated as if it P1 shall be derived separately for the areas of
were a single structure, and that on the leeward the following elements:
superstructure shall be taken as the difference - the windward and leeward truss girders;
between the loads calculated for the combined - the deck;
and the windward structures. - the windward and leeward parapets;
except that Pt need not be considered on
Where the superstructures are dissimilar or the projected areas of.
air gap exceeds 1 meter, each superstructure - the windward parapet screened by the
shall be considered separately without any windward truss, or vise versa;
allowance for shielding. - the deck screened by the windward truss, or
vise versa;
c. Foot/cycle track bridge superstructures width - the leeward truss screened by the deck;
solid elevation - the leeward parapet screened by the leeward
truss, or vise versa.
Where the ratio b/d as derived from Superstructures with live load
Table 5 - BD 37/88 is greater than, or equal to, The area A, for the deck, parapet, trusses, etc
1.1, the area A, shall comprise the solid area in shall be as for the superstructure without live
normal projected elevation of the windward load. The area A, for the live load shall be
exposed face of the superstructure and parapet derived using the appropriate live load depth
only. Pt shall be derived for this area, the dL as given in Table 6.5.
leeward parapet being disregarded.
Pt shall be derived separately for the areas of
Where b/d is less than 1.1, the area A, shall be the following elements:
derived as specified in b. Highway bridge - the windward and leeward truss girders;
superstructures with solid elevation, above. - the deck;
- the windward and leeward parapets;
Superstructures with live load - the live load depth;
Where the ratio b/d as derived from except that PC need not be considered on
Table 5 - BD 37/88 is greater than, or equal to, projected areas of
1.1, the area A, shall comprise the solid area in - the windward parapet screened by the
normal projected elevation of the deck, the live windward truss, or vise versa;
load depth (taken as 1.25 meter above the - the deck screened by the windward truss, or
footway) and the parts of the windward parapet vise versa;
more than 1.25 meter above the footway. Pt - the live load screened by the windward truss
shall be derived for this area, the leeward or the parapet;
parapet being disregarded. - the leeward truss screened by the live load
and the deck;
Where b/d is less than 1.1, the area A, shall be - the leeward parapet screened by the leeward
derived as specified in b. Highway bridge truss and the live load;
superstructures with solid elevation, above. - the leeward truss screened by the leeward
parapet and the live load.
d. All truss girder bridge superstructures

e. Parapets and safety fences beam or box girder above, where n is the num-
ber of beams or box girders.
For open and solid parapets and fences, P, shall
be derived for the solid area in normal project- c. Single plate girder
ed elevation of the element under considera-
tion. CD shall be taken as 2.2.
f. Piers d. Two or more plate girders.
Pt shall be derived for the solid area in normal CD for each girder shall be taken as 2.2
projected elevation for each pier. No allowance without any allowance for shielding. Where the
shall be made for shielding. combined girders are required to be considered,
CD for the combined structure shall be taken as
iii. Drag coefficient CD for erection stages for 2(1 + c/20d), but not more than 4, where c is
beams and girders. [C1.5.3.3.2 - BD 37/88] the distance centre to centre of adjacent girders,
and d is the depth of the windward girder.
Followings are requirements for discrete beams
or girders before deck construction or other iv. - Drag coefficient CD for all superstructures
infilling (e.g. shuttering) with solid elevation.
a. Single beam or box girder For superstructures as shown in Figure 3 - BD

37/88, with or without live load, CD shall be
CD shall be derived from Figure 6.12 [Figure 5 derived from Figure 6.12 in accordance with
- BD 37/88] in accordance with the ratio b/d. the ratio b/d as derived from Table S - BD
37/88.
v. Drag coefficient CD for all truss girder

superstructures
a. Superstructure without live load

The drag coefficient CD for each truss and for
the deck shall be derived as follows:
1. For a windward truss,CD shall be taken

b. Two or more beams or box girders from Table 6.6
Solidity For flatsided For round members where d is
CD for each beam or box shall be derived from ratio members diameter of member
Figure 9.3 without any allowance for shielding. dv, < 6 m2/sec dv, >- 6 m2/sec
Where the combined beams or boxes are 0.1 1.9 or 1.2 or 0.7
required to be considered, CD shall be derived 0.2 1.8 dvc' 1.2 dvc' 0.8
0.3 1.7 1.2 0.8
as follows: 0.4 1.7 1.1 0.8
Where the ratio of the clear distance between 0.5 1.6 1.1 0.8
the beams or boxes to the depth does not
exceed 7, CD for the combined structure shall Table 6.6 - Drag coefficient CD for a
be taken as 1.5 times CD derived as specified single truss [Table 6 - BD 37/88]
in a. - Single beam or box girder above.
Where the ratio is greater than 7, CD for the The solidity ratio of the truss is the ratio of net
combined structure shall be taken as n times area to the overall area of the truss.
the value derived as specified in a. - Single

the mesh becoming filled with rubbish. In these

2. For the leeward truss of a supestructure circumstances, the parapet shall be considered
with two trusses the drag coefficient shall as solid.
be taken as rj CD. Value of rj are given in
Table 6.7. vii. Drag coefficient Co for pier
Spacing Value of rj for solidity ratio of
ratio The drag coefficient shall be taken from Table
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 9 - BD 37/88.
Less than 1 1.0 0.90 0.80 0.60 0.45
2 1.0 0.90 0.80 0.65 0.50 CD shall be derived for each pier, without
3 1.0 0.95 0.80 0.70 0.55
4 1.0 0.95 0.85 0.70 0.60
reduction for shielding.
5 1.0 0.95 0.85 0.75 0.65
6 1.0 0.95 0.90 0.80 0.70 6.5.4 Nominal longitudinal wind load,
PL [ Cl.5.3.4 - BD 37/88]
Table 6.7 - Shielding factor
[Table 7-BD 3 7/88] The nominal longitudinal wind load PL (in N),
taken as acting at the centroids of the
The spacing ratio is the distance between appropriate areas, shall be the more severe of
centres of trusses divided by the depth of the either:
windward truss.
the nominal longitudinal wind load on the
3. Where a superstructure has more than two superstructure, PLS, alone; or
trusses, the drag coefficient for the truss the sum of the nominal longitudinal wind
adjacent to the windward truss shall be derived load on the superstructure, PLS, and the
as specified in 2. - above. The coefficient for all nominal longitudinal wind load on the live
other trusses shall be taken as equal to this load, PLL, derived separately, as specified as
value. appropriate in (1) to (iii) of the followings:
b. Superstructures with live load (i)All superstructures with solid elevation,

The drag coefficient CD for each truss and for
the deck slab shall be as for the superstructure PLS = 0.25 q Ai CD
without live load. CD for unshielded parts of
the live load shall be taken as 1.45. Where
q : the dynamic pressure head 2
vi.Drag coefficient CD for parapets and safety 0.613 vc2
fences the appropriate value of v, for
superstructures with or without live load
For the windward parapet or fence, CD shall be being adopted
taken from Table 8 - BD 37188. A, : as defined in 6.5.3 [CL5.3.3 - BD 37/88]
for the superstructure alone
Where there are two parapets or fences on a CD : the drag coefficient for the
bridge, the value of CD for the leeward superstructure as defined in 6.5.3
element shall be taken as equal to that of the [Cl.5.3.3 - BD 37/88], but not less
windward element. Where there are more than than 1.3.
two parapets or fences the values of CD shall
be taken from Table 8 - BD 37/88 for the two (ii) All truss girder superstructures,
elements having the greatest unshielded effect.
PLS = 0.5 q A, CD Where
Where parapets have mesh panels,
consideration shall be given to the possibility of

q : the dynamic pressure head 0.613 vcz ,

the appropriate value of v, for super (vi) Piers
structures with or without live load
being adopted The load derived from a horizontal wind acting
A l : as defined in 6.5.3 [C1.5.3.3 - BD along the longitudinal axis of the bridge shall
37/88] for the superstructure alone be taken as
CD : the drag coefficient for the
superstructure as defined in 6.5.3 PL = q A2 CD
[C1.5.3.3 - BD 37/88], CD being
adopted where appropriate Where
q : the dynamic pressure head
(iii) Live Load on all superstructures A2 : the solid area in projected elevation
normal to the longitudinal wind
PLL = 0.5 q A, CD Where direction (m2)
CD : the drag coefficient, taken from Table 8
q : the dynamic pressure head
- BD 37/88, with values of b and t
: 0.613 vc2
interchanged.
the appropriate value of v. for
superstructures with or without live load
6.5.5 Nominal vertical wind load, Pv
being adopted
A, : the area of live load derived from the
An upward or downward nominal vertical
depth dL as given in Table 6.5 and the
wind load Pv (in N), acting at the centroids of
appropriate horizontal wind loaded
the appropriate areas, for all superstructures
length as defined in the note of
shall be derived from
Table 6.2.
CD : 1.45
Pv = q A3 CL
(iv) Parapets and safety fences Where

q : the dynamic pressure head A; : the area
(1) With vertical infill members, PL = 0.8 Pt in plan (m2)
(2) With two or three horizontal rails only, CL : the lift coefficient as derived from
PL = 0.4 Pt Figure 6.12 for superstructures where
(3) With mesh panels, PL = 0.6 Pt the angle of superelevation is less than
1°.
Where
Pt : the appropriate nominal transverse wind Where the angle of superelevation of a super-
load on the element. structure is between 1° and 5°, CL shall be
taken as ± 0.75.
(v) Cantilever brackets extending outside main
girders or trusses Where the angle of superelevation of a super-
structure exceeds 5°, the value of CL shall be
PL is the load derived from a horizontal wind determined by testing.
acting at 45° to the longitudinal axis on the area
of each bracket not shielded by a fascia girder Where inclined wind may affect the structure,
or adjacent bracket. The drag coefficient CD CL shall be taken as ± 0.75 for wind inclination
shall be taken from Table 8 - BD 37/88. up to 5°.The angle of inclination in these
circumstances shall be taken as the sum of the
angle of inclination of the wind and that of the
superelevation of the bridge.

Maximum shade air temperature = 35° C

6.6 Temperature
[C1.5.4 - BD 37/88]
6.6.3 Minimum and maximum
6.6.1 General effective bridge temperature
Daily and seasonal fluctuations in shade air The minimum and maximum effective bridge
temperature, solar radiation, re-radiation, etc, temperature for different types of construction
cause the following: shall be derived from the minimum and maxi-
mum shade air temperatures. The different
i. Changes in the effective temperature of a types of construction are as shown in Figure 9-
bridge superstructure which, in turn, govern its BD 37/88.
movement.
6.6.4 Range of effective bridge
The effective temperature is a theoretical temperature
temperature calculatedby weighting and
adding temperature measured at various levels In determining load effects due to temperature
within the superstructure. The weighting is in restraint, the effective bridge temperature at the
the ratio of the area of cross section at the time the structure is effectively restrained shall
various levels to the total area of cross section be taken as datum in calculating expansion up
of the superstructure. Over a period of time to the maximum effective bridge temperature
there will be a minimum, a maximum, and a and contraction down to the minimum effective
range of effective bridge temperature, resulting bridge temperature.
in loads and/or load effects within the
superstructure due to 6.6.5 Temperature Difference [Cf.
5.4.5 - BD 37/88]
a. restraint of associated expansion or
contraction by the form of construction such Effects of temperature differences within the
as portal frame, arch, flexible pier, superstructure shall be derived from the data
elastomeric bearings which referred to as given in Figure 9- BD 37/88.
temperature restraint; and Positive temperature differences occur when
conditions are such that solar radiation and
b. friction at roller or sliding bearings where other effects cause a gain in heat through the
the form of the structure permits associated top surface of the superstructure. Conversely,
expansion and contraction, referred to as reverse temperature differences occur when
frictional bearing restraint. conditions are such that heat is lost from the
top surface of the bridge deck as a result of
ii. Differences in temperature between the top reradiation and other effects.
surface and other levels in the superstructure.
These are referred to as temperature differences Adjustment for thickness of surfacing.
and they result in loads and/or load effects
within the superstructure. Temperature differences are sensitive to the
thickness of surfacing, and data given in Figure
Effective bridge temperatures are derived from 9- BD 37/88 assume depths of 40mm for
the isotherms of shade air temperature. groups 1 and 2 and 100mm for groups 3 and 4.
For other depths of surfacing values are given
6.6.2 Minimum and maximum shade in Appendix C - BD 37,188.
air temperature
Minimum shade air temperature = 22° C

6.6.6 Coefficient of thermal displace the elastomer by the amount of

expansion [C1.5.4.6 - BD 37/88] expansion or contraction for the appropriate
effective bridge temperature range shall be
For the purpose of calculating temperature taken as the nominal load
effects, the values of coefficients of thermal
expansion, a, are as follows: The nominal load shall be determined in accor-
dance with 5.14.2.6 of BS 5400: Part 9: Section
12 x 10-6 /°C - for structural steel and for 9.1: 1983.
concrete
9 x 10-6 /°C - for concrete with limestone iii. Nominal load for frictional bearing
aggregate restraint
The nominal load due to frictional- bearing
6.6.7 Nominal values restraint shall be derived from the nominal
[C1.5.4.7-BD 37/88] dead load, the nominal superimposed dead
load, using the appropriate coefficient of fric-
i. Nominal range of movement tion given in tables 2 and 3 of BS 5400: Part 9:
Section 9.1 1983.
The effective bridge temperature at the time the
structure is attached to those parts permitting iv.Nominal effects of temperature difference
movement shall be taken as datum and the The effects of temperature difference shall be
nominal range of movement shall calculated regarded as nominal values.
for expansion up to the maximum effective
bridge temperature and for contraction down to 6.6.8 Design values
the minimum effective bridge temperature. [C5.4.8 - BD 37/88]
ii. Nominal load for temperature restraint i. Design range of movement
The load due to temperature restraint of For ultimate limit state - 1.3 times the appro
expansion or contraction for the appropriate priate nominal value
effective bridge temperature range shall be For serviceability limit state -1.0 times the
taken as the nominal load. nominal value
Where temperature restraint is accompanied by For the purpose of this clause, the ultimate
elastic deformations in flexible piers and limit state shall be regarded as a condition
elastomeric bearings, the nominal load shall be where expansion or contraction beyond the
derived as follows: serviceability range up to the ultimate range
would cause collapse or substantial damage to
a. Flexure of piers main structural members. Where expansion or
contraction beyond the serviceability range will
For flexible piers pinned at one end and fixed not have such consequences, only the
at the other, or fixed at both ends, the load serviceability range need be provided for.
required to displace the pier by the amount of
expansion or contraction for the appropriate ii. Design load for temperature restraint For
effective bridge temperature range shall be Load Combination 3,
taken as the nominal load
YfL = 1.30 for U.L.S
b. Elastomeric bearings yn. = 1.00 for S.L.S
For temperature restraint accommodated by iii. Design load for frictional bearing restraint
shear in an elastomer, the load required to For Load Combination 5,

ya. = 1.30 for U.L.S for all five load combinations as follows:
yfL = 1.00 for S.L.S
yfL = 1.20 for U.L.S
Associated vertical design load - The design yn. = 1.00 for S.L.S
dead load and design superimposed dead load
shall be considered in conjunction with the 6.9 Exceptional Loads
design load due to frictional bearing restraint. [Cd.5.7-BD 37/88]
iv.Design effects of temperature difference For Where other loads not specified in the standard
Load Combination 3, are likely to be encountered, such as the effects
of abnormal indivisible live loads, earthquakes,
yo. = 1.00 for U.L.S stream flows, these shall be taken into account.
yfl, = 0.80 for S.L.S The nominal loading to be adopted shall have a
value in accordance with the general basis of
6.7 Effects of Shrinkage and probability of occurrence.
Creep, Residual Stresses, etc.
[C1.5.5-BD 37/88] (i)Design loads
For abnormal indivisible live loads, yfL shall
Where it is necessary to take into account the be taken as specified for HB loading. For other
effects of shrinkage or creep in concrete, stress- exceptional design loads, yfL shall be assessed
es in steel due to rolling, welding or lack of fit, in accordance with the general basis of proba-
variations in the accuracy of bearing levels and bility of occurrence.
similar sources of strain arising from the nature
of the material or its manufacture or from cir- 6.10 Earth Pressure on Retaining
cumstances associated with fabrication and Structures [C1.5.8 - BD 37/88]
erection, requirements are specified in the
appropriate Parts of BS 5400. 6.10.1 Filling Material
[Cl.5.8.1- BD 37/88]
6.8 Differential Settlement
[C1.5.6 - BD 37/88] i. Nominal Load
Where differential settlement is likely to affect Where filling material is retained by abutments
the structure in whole or in part, the effects of or other parts of the structure, the loads calcu-
this shall be taken into account. lated by soil mechanics principles from the
properties of the filling material shall be
i. Assessment of differential settlement regarded as nominal loads.
In assessing the amount of differential
movement to be provided for, the designer shall The nominal loads initially assumed shall be
take into consideration the extent to which its accurately checked with the properties of the
effect will be observed and remedied before material to be used in construction and, where
damage ensues. necessary, adjustments shall be made to recon-
cile any discrepancies.
ii. Design load
The values of yn. given are based on the Consideration shall be given to the possibility
assumption that the nominal values of that the filling material may become saturated
settlement assumed have a 95% probability of or may be removed in whole or in part from
not being exceeded during the design life of the either side of the fill retaining part of the
structure. The factor of to be applied to the structure.
effects of differential settlement, shall be taken

ii. Design load

6.11.1 Temporary loads [C1.5.9.1- BD
For all five design load combinations, yfL shall 37/88]
be taken as follows:
(a). Nominal loads.
Vertical loads;
yfL = 1.20 for U.L.S The total weight of all temporary materials,
yf. = 1.00 for S.L.S plant and equipment to be used during erection
shall be taken into account. This shall be accu-
Non-vertical loads; rately assessed to ensure that the loading is not
yfL = 1.50 for U.L.S underestimated.
yf. = 1.00 for S.L.S
(b). Design loads.
iii. Alternative load factor
Where the structure or element under consider- For the ultimate limit state for load combina-
ation is such that the application of yfL as tions 2 and 3, yfL shall be taken as 1.15 except
given in ii. Design load above, for the ultimate as specified in (c). Relieving effect below.
limit state causes a less severe total effect than For the serviceability limit state for load combi-
would be the case if yfL , applied to all parts of nations 2 and 3, yfL shall be taken as 1.00.
the filling material, had been taken as 1.0, val-
ues of 1.0 shall be adopted. (c). Relieving effect.
6.10.2 Live Load Surcharge Where any temporary materials have a reliev-
[C1.5.8.2 -BD 37/88] ing effect, and have not been introduced spe-
cially for this purpose, they shall be considered
The effects of live load surcharge shall be taken not to be acting. Where, however, they have
into consideration. i. Nominal load been so introduced, precaution shall be taken to
In the absence of more exact calculations the ensure that they are not inadvertently removed
nominal load due to live load surcharge for during the period for which they are required.
suitable material properly consolidated may be The weight of these materials shall also be
assumed to be: accurately assessed to ensure that the loading is
(a) for HA loading: 10 kN/m2 not overestimated. This value shall be taken as
(b) for HB loading the design load.
45 units: 20 kN/m2 (intermediate values 30
units : 12 kN/m2 by interpolation) 6.11.2 Permanent loads
[Cl.5.9.2 - BD 37/88]
6.11 Erection Loads (a). Nominal loads.

[C1.5.9 - BD 37/88]
All dead and superimposed dead loads
For the ultimate limit state, erection loads shall affecting the structure at each stage of erection
be considered in accordance with (1) to (v) shall be taken into consideration.
below.
The effects of the method of erection of
For the serviceability limit state, nothing shall permanent material shall be considered and due
be done during erection that will cause damage allowance shall be made for impact loading or
to the permanent structure or will later its shock ' loading.
response in service from that considered in
design.

(b). Design loads. can improve stability as easily as an increase in

weight. However, intersections of component
The design loads due to permanent loads for parts of the structure are possibly the most time
the serviceability limit state and the ultimate consuming and expensive portions to construct
limit state for load combinations 2 and 3 shall and consequently are best kept to a minimum.
be as specified for Dead Load and Reinforced concrete walls and bases are
Superimposed Dead Loads whichever is generally more satisfactory when designed with
relevant. more than the theoretically economic thickness.
Flexural stiffness is increased and steel fixing
6.11.3 Disposition of permanent and and concreting are much easier.
temporary loads [Cl.5.9.3 - BD 37/88]
Followings are some typical types of
The disposition of all permanent and temporary abutments:
loads at all stages of erection shall be taken into
consideration and due allowance shall be made Reinforced T Abutment
for possible inaccuracies in their location.
Precautions shall be taken to ensure that the This is the most common form of construction.
assumed disposition is maintained during Often cheaper than mass concrete but relative
erection. merits are balanced. Minimum width of base is
likely to be achieved with heel larger than toe.
6.12 Wind and Temperature However in cutting situation a smaller heel is
Effects [Cl.5.9.4 - BD 37/88] likely to be economic because of reduced exca-
vation and working space, though sliding
Wind and temperature effects shall be consid- resistance is reduced.
ered in accordance with C1.5.3 - BD 3 7/88 -
Wind Load and Cl..5. 4 - BD 3 7/88 -
Temperature, respectively.
CHAPTER 7 - DESIGN OF
SUBSTRUCTURE.
7.1 Introduction
Complicated reinforcement detail make con-
Substructure of a bridge consists abutments and
struction slower than semi-mass. For single lift
piers.
construction walls need to be wide enough for
a man to stand between reinforcement to sim-
7.2 Bridge Abutment and Wing
plify construction and inspection.
Walls
Bank Seats On Piles
7.2.1 Type of Bridge Abutments and
Wing Walls Bank seats are placed on piles beside cuttings
and on embankments when the ground or fill is
The stability of a retaining wall is usually not string enough. However settlement of the
calculated in terms of the forces acting on a embankment can subject the piles to downdrag
vertical plane element of unit length. However settlement and loads. They are found more
economies can sometimes be made by convenient if the piles can be placed at the
considering the full structure as a single three same time as other piles in the contract (usually
dimensional body. A simple change of shape at start). They can be uneconomic if the piles

restrict the construction sequence or require major difference is the number of analysis
remobilising plant. which need to be carried out. Previously, a sin-
gle analysis covers all aspects - of design but,
in accordance with BS 5400, five analyses,
each under a different design load, have to be
carried out for the following five design
aspects.
(i). Strength at the ultimate limit state.

(ii). Stresses at the serviceability limit state.
(iii).Crack widths at the serviceability limit
state; but deemed to satisfy rules for bar
Reinforced Earth Abutment spacing are appropriate in some situations.
(iv).Overturning. BS 5400 requires the least
Reinforced earth is appropriate for situations restoring moment due to unfactored
with embankments behind: but less likely to be nominal loads exceed the greatest
suitable in cuttings or where ties interfere with overturning moment due to the design
boundaries and obstructions. loads.
(v). Factor of safety against sliding and soil
The structure has a large tolerance for move- pressures due to unfactored nominal loads
ment and so is ideal for sites with poor ground in accordance with CP 2004.
near the surface (but if poor stratum is deep
then circular slip is not resisted by ties). A further important difference in design proce-
dures occurs when considering the effects of
Differential settlement between abutments and applied deformations described in BS 5400 and
embankment should be smooth. A batter to the in the previous documents. In the previous
front face helps to hide forward movement or practice, all design aspects are considered
facing during construction. under working load conditions, and thus the
effects of applied deformations (creep,
shrinkage and temperature) need to be
considered for all aspects of design. However,
the effects of applied deformations can be
ignored under collapse conditions. Thus Part 4
of BS 5400 permits creep, shrinkage and
temperature effects to be ignored at the ultimate
limit state. The implication of this is that less
main reinforcement would be required in an
abutment designed to BS 5400 than one
The wall can be built overhand with a designed to the previous documents.
minimum working space. Damaged facing
units if appropriately design can be replaced Although the effects of applied deformations
during life without affecting stability. can be ignored at the ultimate limit state, they
have to be considered at the serviceability limit
state. The effects of applied deformations thus
7.3 Design Concept of Bridge contribute to the stresses at the serviceability
Abutment and Wing Walls limit state. Since less reinforcement would be
present in an abutment designed to BS 5400
The design of abutments and wing walls in than one designed to the previous documents,
accordance with BS 5400 is very different to the stresses at the serviceability limit state
their design to previous practice (CPI10). A would be greater than in the former abutment.

However, it is unlikely that they would exceed

BS 5400 limiting stresses of 0.8fy and 0.5f, for
reinforcement and concrete respectively.


FLOWCHART - DESIGN OF ABUTMENT
Determine the sizes and dimensions
Determine type, number and arrangement of pile to be used
Calculate all loads Design
- Dead loads - Wing Walls

- Superimposed dead loads - Ballast Walls
- Live Loads - Bridge Seat
- Self weight - Corbel
- Other
Nominal Loads
Check adequacy of
piles; OK
- Vertical/Axial Loads at
adequacy ULS
- Horizontal
adequacy
Design Abutment
Wall
Forces in
Pile Cap
at ULS As Cantilever
Beam
As Reinforced
Concrete Wall
Design Pile Cap
Short Long
Column Column
Reinforcement
- Reinforcement
- Main
- Links
Check Shear requirements, Loads at SLS

- Punching
- Flexure Shear
Check for SLS requirements:

- Stress limitations
- Crack width

7.4 Wing Wall The design of the wing wall shall be based on
slab construction and it shall be designed as a
Wing walls shall be designed as slabs which two-sides fixed slab for Type (a) and (b) and as
are loaded by live loads and earth pressure. In cantilever slab for Type (c). But the analysis of
this case, slabs shall be cantilever slabs fixed to two-sides fixed slab is complicated, therefore it
the wall or two-sides fixed slabs fixed to the may be designed in the following conventional
wall and footing. method if L1 and LZ as shown in Figure 10.3
are not so long (i.e. less than 8 metres).
Generally, the abutment is provided with wing
walls for the purpose of protecting earth at the The portion of A and D in the Figure shall be
back of the abutment and such wing walls are designed as cantilever beams supported by a-b
fixed to the body of the abutment or its ballast and e-f respectively. In this case, the design of
wall in the direction at right angle. the a-b and e-f may be accomplished by evenly
distributing over the a-b and e-f portions the
There are few shape of wing wall as shown in fixed end cross sectional force which is
Figure 10.4. Type (a) and (b) are called as side obtained by causing earth pressure resultant
wall type and type (c) is called as parallel type. force acting on A and A portions to act on the
cantilever beams.
The shape and size of wing walls considerably
vary depending on site conditions, height of B and C portions also shall be designed as can-
embankment behind the abutment and the tilever beams supported by b-c and cd. In this
slope of embankment. case, b-c and c-d are divided into two sections
such as b-b' and b'-c and c-c' and c'-d respec-
Since wing wall is directly fixed to the body of tively and each section should be designed with
abutments for holding earth at the side of abut- a cross section force applied which is calculat-
ments, it shall be designed in consideration of ed at the most adverse point of each section. In
live loads and earth pressure. Figure 10.4, section b-b' can be designed by
moment Mb per unit length at point b and in
the same manner, b'-c by Mb', c-c' by M,' and
c'-d can be designed by Md respectively.

However, when L 1 or L2 exceeds 8 metres, 7.5 Ballast Wall

difference is generated between the result of
analysis of two-sides fixed slab and that of the The ballast wall must be designed so that it is
conventional method. The conventional method safe against the impact of wheel load, wheel
tends to cause an uneconomical design. load and earth pressure acting on the back of
Consequently, it is desirable that the wing wall abutment. Moreover, unforeseen external
be designed as a two-sides fixed slab when the forces such as forward slide of abutment, dis-
length is over 8 metres. placement of beams etc., may act on the ballast
wall. Therefore the ballast wall must be suffi-
In designing the thickness of wall and the ciently reinforced.
arrangement of reinforcing bars, careful consid-
eration shall be given so that the force is safely
and securely transmitted to structures and it is
desirable that haunches be provided at joints of
walls since they tend to become weak points of
the structure.
Since the main horizontal reinforcing bars of a

wing wall is parallel type and must be
anchored to reinforcing bars of secondary (hor- 7.6 Piers (Columns)
izontal bar) of the ballast wall, it may become
necessary to use additional reinforcing bars in 7.6.1 Introduction
the ballast wall if the thickness of the ballast
wall or the horizontal reinforcing bars of the Piers are normally designed as columns or
ballast wall is smaller than that of the wing reinforced concrete wall.
wall.
A reinforced concrete column is a compression

member whose greater lateral dimension is less

than or equal to four times its lesser lateral motorway, trunk or principal road interchanges,
dimension, and in which the reinforcement is the collision loads are to be considered for each
taken into account when considering its level of carriageway separately. Vehicle colli-
strength. A column should be considered as sion on abutments need not normally be con-
short if the ratio 1,1h in each plane of buckling sidered as they are assumed to have sufficient
is less than 12, where mass to withstand the collision loads for global
purposes. Where bridges over carriageway
le : the effective height in the plane of have a headroom clearance less than 5.7metres,
buckling under consideration the vehicle loads on superstructures shall be
considered.
h : the depth of the cross section in the
Load normal Load parallel Point of application
plane of buckling under to the to the on bridge support
consideration carriageway carriageway
below below
KN KN At the most severe
A reinforced wall is a vertical load bearing Main load point between
component 0.75m and 1.5m
concrete member whose greater lateral 500 1000 above carriageway
dimension is more than four times its lesser level
lateral dimension, and in which the

Residual 250 500 At the most severe
reinforcement is taken account when load point between 1 m
component and 3m above
considering its strength. carriageway level
Vehicle Collision Loads on

Highway Bridge Supports and Table 10.1 - Nominal Collision Loads on
Supports of Bridges over Highways
Superstructures (Volume 1
Section 3 Part 5 BD 60/94)
Nominal Loads on Supports
Vehicle collision loads on supports and super-
The nominal loads are given in Table 10.1
structures shall be considered for the design of
together with their direction and height of
bridges and other highway structures as sec-
applications and shall be considered as acting
ondary live loads, as defined in BD 37 (DMRB
horizontally on bridge supports. Supports shall
1.3), and shall be applied in Load Combination
be capable of resisting the main and residual
4. No other live load shall be considered as
load components acting simultaneously. Loads
coexistent.
normal to the carriageway shall be considered
separately from loads parallel to the
Where bridges over carriageways have sup-
carriageway.
ports of which any part is located within 4.5m
of the edge of a carriageway, these shall be
Nominal Loads on Superstructures
designed to withstand the vehicle collision
loads given in Table 10.3. However, where
The nominal loads are given in Table 10.2
foot/cycle track bridge ramps and stairs are
together with their direction of application. The
structurally independent of the main highway
load normal to the carriageway shall be
spanning structure, their support may be
considered separately from the load parallel to
designed to the loads classified in Clause 6.8 of
the carriageway. The load shall be considered
BD 37/88, as shall all foot/cycle track bridge
to act as point loads on the bridge
supports with a carriageway clearance equal to
superstructure in any direction between the
or greater than 4.5m. In the case of multi level
horizontal and vertical. The load shall be
carriageways, such as those encountered in
applied to the bridge soffit, thus precluding a

downward vertical application. Given that the have effected the transfer to the next element(s)
plane of the soffit may follow a super-elevated in the load-path, but it must be neglected in
or non-planar (curved) form, the load normal to carrying out the Stage 2 check. Each element in
the carriageway may be applicable in either the load-path shall be considered on the same
sideways direction. basis. It should be noted that in adequacy at
Load normal Load parallel Point of application this stage is not a cause for concern, since such
to the to the on bridge inadequacy generally helps to absorb the
carriageway carriageway superstructure
below below
impact force.
In order to prevent the whole structure being

kN kN On the soffit in any bodily displaced by the impact, its bearings or
inclination
250 500 between the supports shall be designed to be fully adequate
horizontal and the to resist the impact loads.
(upward) vertical
Stage 2 - Immediately after the impact

General Principles Immediately after the event, the bridge has to
be able to stand up whilst still carrying traffic
The intention behind the requirements is that which may be crossing. Since the check is one
the overall structural integrity of the bridge of survival and the likely traffic is of an
should be maintained following the impact but everyday intensity, it shall be carried out at
that local damage to a part of the bridge deck ULS only using the partial load factors
can be accepted. normally appropriate to SLS. Load
Combination 1 shall be used. The partial factor
Design Checks - Supports and Superstructures ym and yea should take their usual UL S
of Bridges values. HA loading and/or a maximum of 30
units of HB loading shall L.: applied for
Design checks shall be carried out in two bridges carrying public highways. For this
stages as described below: check, judgement has to be made what local
damage might reasonably have occurred and
Stage 1 - At the moment of impact must ignore elements which were assumed or
A check is to be made at ULS only, using the found to be inadequate in Stage 1. If the struc-
nominal impact loads with partial factors ya. ture does not satisfy the Stage 2 check, ten
appropriate to Load Combination 4. No other Stage 1 will have to be repeated with different
live load is to be included in this check. Local assumptions about the adequacy of some ele-
damage is to be ignored. ments in the load-path. To justify such amend-
ed assumptions, elements may need to be
It is assumed that full transfer of the collision redesigned to ensure their adequacy.
forces from the point of impact takes place.
Elastomeric Bearings
For the bridge, as in design for all other load
cases, it has to determined a likely and For elastomeric bearings, the effects due to
reasonable load-path to transfer the impact vehicle collision loads on supports and on
loads to the bearings, supports and foundations superstructures should only be considered at
(in the case of superstructures strikes) or to the serviceability limit state. The yfL to be
foundations, bearings or other supports (in the applied to the nominal loads shall have a value
case of support strikes). Each structural element of 1.0.
in the load-path is to be considered, starting
with the element which sustains the immediate
impact. If it is assumed or found to be
inadequate, it may nevertheless be assumed to

Foundations section can be obtained at that section, and the

total amount of reinforcement at the section
Foundations shall be designed to resist the determined from simple bending theory. Such a
impact forces transmitted from the collision design method is not correct because a pile cap
using BD 30 (DMRB 2.1) and/or BD 32 acts as a deep, rather than a shallow, beam;
(DMRB 2.1), as appropriate, with the follow- however, the method has been shown by tests
ing qualifications: to result in adequate designs. This is probably
because most pile caps fail in shear and the
(i). Only ULS checks are required, both for method of design of the main reinforcement is,
structural elements and soil-structure largely, irrelevant. The total amount of
interaction. reinforcement calculated at a section should be
uniformly distributed across the section.
(ii). When checking against sliding of the base
and bearing capacity, even for piled founda- Shear
tions, the collision loads shall be reduced by The design shear is the algebraic sum of all
50% but full loading shall be considered for ultimate vertical loads acting on one side of or
checking against overturning. outside the periphery of the critical section. The
shear strength of pile caps is governed by the
7.7 Pile Caps more severe of the following two conditions.
Pile caps may be designed either by bending (i)Shear along any vertical section extended
theory (as beams) or by truss analogy across the full width of the cap.
7.7.1 Truss Analogy (ii) Punching shear around the loaded areas.
The truss analogy assumes a strut and tie sys-

tem within the cap,- and is in the spirit of - a (i). Shear along any vertical section extended
lower bound method of design. The strut and across the full width of the cap.
tie system for a four-pile cap is shown in
Figure 10.2. The pile caps are designed by tak- BS 5400 requires flexural shear to be checked
ing the apex of the truss at the centre of the across the full width of a cap at a section at the
loaded area and the corners of the base of the face of the column, as shown in Figure 10.3. It
truss at the intersections of the centre lines of should be noted that the critical section is not
the piles with the tensile reinforcement. It can intended to coincide with the actual failure
be seen from Figure 10.2 that, because of the plane, but is chosen merely because it is
assumed structural action, the reinforcement, convenient for design purposes.
calculated from the tie forces, should be con-
centrated in strips over the piles. However, The enhancement factor (2dla,,) where d is the
since it is considered good practice to have effective depth and a,, is the shear span which ,
some reinforcement throughout the cap, BS in the present context, is taken as the distance
5400 requires 80% of the reinforcement to be between the face of the column and the nearer
concentrated in strips joining the piles and the edge of the piles, viewed in elevation, plus
remainder to be uniformly distributed through- 20% of the pile diameter.
out the cap.
(ii) Punching Shear
7.7.2 Bending Theory
Clarke suggests that punching shear of the
When applying the bending theory, the pile cap column through the pile cap need only be
is considered to act as a wide beam in each considered if the spacing exceeds four times
direction. The total bending moment at any the pile diameter, which is unlikely; thus BS

5400 only requires punching of a pile through based upon considerations of the BS 5400
the pile cap to be considered. BS 5400 does not section of figure (b) but of the section which
state what value of allowable design shear would actually occur as shown in figure (c).
stress should be used with the critical section. The basic shear stress, obtained from Table
In view of this, it would be suggested using should then be enhanced by (2dla,,), where
value from the Table which is appropriate to should be taken as the distance from the pile to
the average of the two areas of reinforcement the critical section (i.e. d/2).
which pass over the pile. This suggestion is not

design loads which should be considered for a

WORKED EXAMPLES
1. WORKED EXAMPLE NO.1 highway bridge having the longitudinal and

cross sections of Figure 1, zero skew and spans
It is required to calculate the nominal and of 25 meter. Design to BD 3 7/88 and to BS
5400.

















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FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY Bridge Design For JKR Specification

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 1

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concrete beams have been the first choice since

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 3

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Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 5

(1) Road or Highway Bridges 2. Material of primary load-carrying member

(ii) Railway Bridges. 3. Type of span designed.

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 6

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 7

porting member is the arch which hangers sup-

2.5 Superstructure (i) M-beam

The pretensioned prestressed M-beam was

A girder or beam bridge consists of a deck sup-

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 8

(ii) The lower flange of the beam should be

(iii) The lower flange should have a more

(iv) The beam should be ideally not have a dis-

 All of deck, including between beams, readi-

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 9

(vi) JKR Standard Beams

The Bridge Rehabilitation and Maintenance

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 10

of the local manufacturers. Simple sectional

Following are the summary of the slab and pre-

2.6 Other Elements

2.6.1 Expansion Joint Introduction

The expansion joint is an integral part of any

It is important to appreciate that the expansion

Expansion Joints Requirements

In view of the aggressive situations above, the

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 11

following requirements must be met in select-

(i)accommodate all movements of structure

(vii)give reliable operation throughout the

(viii) be sealed against water and foreign matter (i)Level of Containment

(iii) Joints for large movements (Over 25mm)

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 12

Parapet Containment Panel Nominal Bending Panel Nominal Panel Joint

The load and movement capacities of the bear-

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 13

2.8 Foundation - Piles

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(1)Precast Reinforced Concrete Piles (4)Cylindrical Steel Piles (Driven cast-

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smaller than those used in bored piles and so it

2.9 Authorities Requirements (5) Pier Design

(i) Oval or round shape for pier column

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 16

Figure 2.10 shows a diagram issued by Jabatan

The following items are to be consulted with

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 17

(vi) Construction method (includes protection

(4)Location of Abutments and Piers  Electrification plan, or not

Abutments and piers are prohibited inside a (2) Consultation Items

2.9.3 Railway Crossing (KTMB) However, in recent years new commuter

i. About existing railway:

Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat JKR, K.L Page 18

2.10 JKR Current Practice 2.10.2 Discouraging The Usage of

2.10.1 Introduction During bridge inspection, bridge engineers are

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All of deck, including between beams, readi-

(4)Location of Abutments and Piers Electrification plan, or not

The quoted characteristic strengths of rein- Ultimate limit state