MB0034 Research Methodology Fall10

MB0034 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ROLL NO 510922802
MB0034 Research Methodology

Assignment Set- 1
Q 1. Give examples of specific situations that would call for the

following types of research, explaining why –
Ans.
a) Exploratory research: Exploratory research provides insights into
and comprehension of an issue or situation. It should draw definitive
conclusions only with extreme caution. Exploratory research is a type of
research conducted because a problem has not been clearly defined.
Exploratory research helps determine the best research design, data
collection method and selection of subjects. Given its fundamental
nature, exploratory research often concludes that a perceived problem
does not actually exist. Exploratory research often relies on secondary
research such as reviewing available literature and/or data, or
qualitative approaches such as informal discussions with consumers,
employees, management or competitors, and more formal approaches
through in-depth interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case
studies or pilot studies. The Internet allows for research methods that
are more interactive in nature: E.g., RSS feeds efficiently supply
researchers with up-to-date information; major search engine search
results may be sent by email to researchers by services such as Google
Alerts; comprehensive search results are tracked over lengthy periods
of time by services such as Google Trends; and Web sites may be
created to attract worldwide feedback on any subject. The results of
exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-making by
themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a given
situation. Although the results of qualitative research can give some
indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something occurs, it
cannot tell us "how often" or "how many."
b) Descriptive research: Descriptive research, also known as

statistical research, describes data and characteristics about the
population or phenomenon being studied. Descriptive research answers
the questions who, what, where, when and how...
Although the data description is factual, accurate and systematic, the
research cannot describe what caused a situation. Thus, Descriptive
research cannot be used to create a causal relationship, where one
variable affects another. In other words, descriptive research can be
said to have a low requirement for internal validity.
The description is used for frequencies, averages and other statistical
calculations. Often the best approach, prior to writing descriptive
research, is to conduct a survey investigation. Qualitative research
often has the aim of description and researchers may follow-up with
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examinations of why the observations exist and what the implications of

the findings are.
In short descriptive research deals with everything that can be counted
and studied. But there are always restrictions to that. Your research
must have an impact to the lives of the people around you. For
example, finding the most frequent disease that affects the children of
a town. The reader of the research will know what to do to prevent that
disease thus, more people will live a healthy life.
c) Diagnostic research: diagnostic research has been focusing

primarily on sensitivity and specificity of individual tests. In this highly
interactive course we will challenge the usefulness of this so called ‘test
research’, by showing that diagnostic test results can, and should, only
be interpreted in the context of other diagnostic test results and clinical
parameters. We will extend your horizon by proposing modern methods
of diagnostic research design and analysis. You will be actively involved
by designing diagnostic studies and analyzing real life data sets. At the
end of this course, you should be able to directly estimate individual
probabilities of the presence or absence of disease, based on integrated
clinical and diagnostic information. You will be able to evaluate the true
added value of any diagnostic test in a clinical context. Finally, you will
be equipped with the skills to conceptualize, design and analyse
modern diagnostic research.
d) Evaluation research: evaluation research is of particular interest

here. The Introduction to Evaluation Research presents an overview of
what evaluation is and how it differs from social research generally. We
also introduce several evaluation models to give you some perspective
on the evaluation endeavor. Evaluation should not be considered in a
vacuum. Here, we consider evaluation as embedded within a larger
Planning-Evaluation Cycle. Evaluation can be a threatening activity.
Many groups and organizations struggle with how to build a good
evaluation capability into their everyday activities and procedures. This
is essentially an organizational culture issue. Here we consider some of
the issues a group or organization needs to address in order to develop
an evaluation culture that works in their context.
Q 2.In the context of hypothesis testing, briefly explain the

difference between a) Null and alternative hypothesis b) Type 1
and type 2 error c) Two tailed and one tailed test d) Parametric
and non parametric tests.
Ans.
a) The logic of traditional hypothesis testing requires that we set up two
competing statements or hypotheses referred to as the null hypothesis
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and the alternative hypothesis. These hypotheses are mutually

exclusive and exhaustive.
Ho: The finding occurred by chance
H1: The finding did not occur by chance
The null hypothesis is then assumed to be true unless we find evidence
to the contrary. If we find that the evidence is just too unlikely given the
null hypothesis, we assume the alternative hypothesis is more likely to
be correct. In "traditional statistics" a probability of something occurring
of less than .05 (= 5% = 1 chance in 20) is conventionally considered
"unlikely"
b) When an observer makes a Type I error in evaluating a sample
against its parent population, he or she is mistakenly thinking that a
statistical difference exists when in truth there is no statistical
difference (or, to put another way, the null hypothesis should not be
rejected but was mistakenly rejected). For example, imagine that a
pregnancy test has produced a "positive" result (indicating that the
woman taking the test is pregnant); if the woman is actually not
pregnant though, then we say the test produced a "false positive"
(assuming the null hypothesis, Ho, was that she is not pregnant). A
Type II error, or a "false negative", is the error of failing to reject a null
hypothesis when the alternative hypothesis is the true state of nature.
For example, a type II error occurs if a pregnancy test reports
"negative" when the woman is, in fact, pregnant.
From the Bayesian point of view, a type one error is one that looks at
information that should not substantially change one's prior estimate of
probability, but does. A type two error is that one looks at information
which should change one's estimate, but does not. (Though the null
hypothesis is not quite the same thing as one's prior estimate, it is,
rather, one's pro forma prior estimate.)
Rejecting a null-hypothesis when it should not have been rejected
creates a type I error.
failing to reject a null-hypothesis when it should have been rejected
creates a type II error.
(In either case, a wrong decision or error in judgment has occurred.)
Decision rules (or tests of hypotheses), in order to be good, must be
designed to minimize errors of decision.
Minimizing errors of decision is not a simple issue—for any given
sample size the effort to reduce one type of error generally results in
increasing the other type of error.
Based on the real-life application of the error, one type may be more
serious than the other.
(In such cases, a compromise should be reached in favor of limiting the
more serious type of error.)
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The only way to minimize both types of error is to increase the sample
size, and this may or may not be feasible.
Hypothesis testing is the art of testing whether a variation between two
sample distributions can be explained by chance or not. In many
practical applications type I errors are more delicate than type II errors.
In these cases, care is usually focused on minimizing the occurrence of
this statistical error. Suppose, the probability for a type I error is 1% ,
then there is a 1% chance that the observed variation is not true. This is
called the level of significance. While 1% might be an acceptable level
of significance for one application, a different application can require a
very different level. For example, the standard goal of six sigma is to
achieve precision to 4.5 standard deviations above or below the mean.
This means that only 3.4 parts per million are allowed to be deficient in
a normally distributed process. The probability of type I error is
generally denoted with the Greek letter alpha, α.
To state it simply, a type I error can usually be interpreted as a false
alarm or under-active specificity. A type II error could be similarly
interpreted as an oversight, but is more akin to a lapse in attention or
under-active sensitivity. The probability of type II error is generally
denoted with the Greek letter beta, β.
c) There are two different types of tests that can be performed. A one-
tailed test looks for an increase or decrease in the parameter whereas
a two-tailed test looks for any change in the parameter (which can be
any change- increase or decrease).
We can perform the test at any level (usually 1%, 5% or 10%). For
example, performing the test at a 5% level means that there is a 5%
chance of wrongly rejecting H0.
If we perform the test at the 5% level and decide to reject the null
hypothesis, we say "there is significant evidence at the 5% level to
suggest the hypothesis is false".
One-Tailed Test
We choose a critical region. In a one-tailed test, the critical region will
have just one part (the red area below). If our sample value lies in this
region, we reject the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative.
Suppose we are looking for a definite decrease. Then the critical region
will be to the left. Note, however, that in the one-tailed test the value of
the parameter can be as high as you like.
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Example
Suppose we are given that X has a Poisson distribution and we want to
carry out a hypothesis test on the mean, , based upon a sample
observation of 3.
Suppose the hypotheses are:
H0:  = 9
H1:  < 9
We want to test if it is "reasonable" for the observed value of 3 to have
come from a Poisson distribution with parameter 9. So what is the
probability that a value as low as 3 has come from a Po(9)?
P(X ≤ 3) = 0.0212 (this has come from a Poisson table)
The probability is less than 0.05, so there is less than a 5% chance that
the value has come from a Poisson(3) distribution. We therefore reject
the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative at the 5% level.
However, the probability is greater than 0.01, so we would not reject
the null hypothesis in favour of the alternative at the 1% level.
Two-Tailed Test
In a two-tailed test, we are looking for either an increase or a decrease.
So, for example, H0 might be that the mean is equal to 9 (as before).
This time, however, H1 would be that the mean is not equal to 9. In this
case, therefore, the critical region has two parts:
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Example
Lets test the parameter p of a Binomial distribution at the 10% level.
Suppose a coin is tossed 10 times and we get 7 heads. We want to test
whether or not the coin is fair. If the coin is fair, p = 0.5 . Put this as the
null hypothesis:
H0: p = 0.5
H1: p ≠ 0.5
Now, because the test is 2-tailed, the critical region has two parts. Half
of the critical region is to the right and half is to the left. So the critical
region contains both the top 5% of the distribution and the bottom 5%
of the distribution (since we are testing at the 10% level).
If H0 is true, X ~ Bin(10, 0.5).
If the null hypothesis is true, what is the probability that X is 7 or
above?
P(X ≥ 7) = 1 - P(X < 7) = 1 - P(X ≤ 6) = 1 - 0.8281 = 0.1719
Is this in the critical region? No- because the probability that X is at
least 7 is not less than 0.05 (5%), which is what we need it to be.
So there is not significant evidence at the 10% level to reject the null
hypothesis.
d) There are two types of test data and consequently different types
of analysis. As the table below shows, parametric data has an
underlying normal distribution which allows for more conclusions to be
drawn as the shape can be mathematically described. Anything else is
non-parametric.
Parametric Non-parametric
Assumed
Normal Any
distribution
Assumed
Homogeneous Any
variance
Ordinal or
Typical data Ratio or Interval
Nominal
Data set
Independent Any
relationships
Usual central
Mean Median
measure
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Simplicity; Less
Can draw more
Benefits affected by
conclusions
outliers
Tests
Choosing Choosing a non-

Choosing
parametric test parametric test
Correlation test Pearson Spearman
Independent
Independent- Mann-Whitney
measures, 2
measures t-test test
groups
Independent One-way,
Kruskal-Wallis
measures, >2 independent-
test
groups measures ANOVA
Repeated
Matched-pair t-
measures, 2 Wilcoxon test
test
conditions
Repeated One-way,
measures, >2 repeated Friedman's test
conditions measures ANOVA
As the table shows, there are different tests for parametric and non-
parametric data.
Q 3. Explain the difference between a causal relationship and

correlation, with an example of each. What are the possible
reasons for a correlation between two variables?
Ans.
Cause and correlation are terms that are often confused or used
incorrectly, particularly the former. This is an unfortunate thing for
people who ever listen to a news report or read a newspaper. If you’ve
followed the many things that have been reported as causes of cancer,
you might never eat, drink, or leave your home again. When we hear
that there might be a link between one thing and another, we often
mistakenly assume that one thing causes the other.
The main difference between cause and correlation is the strength and
degree to which two things are related and the certainty with which
anyone can establish a causal relationship. Essentially when you say
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one thing causes another, you are saying that there is a direct line
between that one thing and the result. Cause means that an action will
always have a predictable reaction.
When you define correlation, the terms cause and correlation become
easier to understand. If you see a correlation between two things, you
can see that there is a relationship between those two things. One thing
doesn’t necessarily result in the other thing occurring, but it may
increase likelihood that something will occur.
Understanding the difference of cause and correlation can be helped by
an example. You can, perhaps, examine the statement: “Violent video
games cause violent behavior.” According to all research on this
matter, this statement is not true, due to the use of the word causes in
the sentence. Research has shown that violent video games may
influence violent behavior.
It also shows that a number of different factors may be responsible for a
person being violent, among them, poorer socioeconomic status,
mental illness, abusive childhoods, and bad parenting. You cannot say
violent video games are the cause of violence. In order to make the
above statement, you’d have to be able to prove that everyone who
ever played a violent video game subsequently exhibited violence.
Instead, what you can say, and what has been studied, is the
correlation between violent video games and violent behavior.
Researchers have shown that there is a connection/correlation there.
Such games may influence others to act in more aggressive ways but
they are not the sole factor and sometimes not even a factor for
predicting violence. Thus there’s a correlation there, which should be
considered, but there is no cause factor. Plenty of people were violent,
prior to the advent of video games, thus if you’re deciding between
cause and correlation here, you must choose correlation.
In some ways, it can be almost impossible, except in extremely
controlled circumstances to say any one thing causes something else,
especially when you’re dealing with human health or behavior. You can,
in limited ways, make blanket cause/effect statements about some
things. For example, heating water to a certain temperature causes it to
boil. This is a specific cause/effect relationship that no one would
dispute.
Yet it can be helpful to understand the difference between cause and
correlation since we are often barraged with information about things
that may pose health risks to us. What most researchers arrive at in
research is that some things, for instance, alcoholism and cancer are
connected or co-related. Alcoholism may increase your risk of getting
cancer, but it does not, in and of itself, cause cancer.
When you hear about the causes of disease, it’s important to be
skeptical. Scientists define correlations all the time, and unfortunately,
news media loves to call these causes, since they then translate to a
much more dramatic story. Read or listen carefully for qualifying words
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that suggest correlation like “may,” “might increase,” “could have an

effect,” to separate the differences between cause and correlation
The correlation is one of the most common and most useful statistics. A
correlation is a single number that describes the degree of relationship
between two variables. Let's work through an example to show you how
this statistic is computed.
Correlation Example
Let's assume that we want to look at the relationship between two
variables, height (in inches) and self esteem. Perhaps we have a
hypothesis that how tall you are effects your self esteem (incidentally, I
don't think we have to worry about the direction of causality here -- it's
not likely that self esteem causes your height!). Let's say we collect
some information on twenty individuals (all male -- we know that the
average height differs for males and females so, to keep this example
simple we'll just use males). Height is measured in inches. Self esteem
is measured based on the average of 10 1-to-5 rating items (where
higher scores mean higher self esteem). Here's the data for the 20
cases (don't take this too seriously -- I made this data up to illustrate
what a correlation is):
Person Height Self Esteem
1 68 4.1
2 71 4.6
3 62 3.8
4 75 4.4
5 58 3.2
6 60 3.1
7 67 3.8
8 68 4.1
9 71 4.3
10 69 3.7
11 68 3.5
12 67 3.2
13 63 3.7
14 62 3.3
15 60 3.4
16 63 4.0
17 65 4.1
18 67 3.8
19 63 3.4
20 61 3.6
Now, let's take a quick look at the histogram for each variable:
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And, here are the descriptive statistics:

Variabl Varianc Minimu Maximu
Mean StDev Sum Range
e e m m
Height 65.4 4.40574 19.4105 1308 58 75 17
Self 0.42609 0.18155

3.755 75.1 3.1 4.6 1.5
Esteem 0 3
Finally, we'll look at the simple bivariate (i.e., two-variable) plot:
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You should immediately see in the bivariate plot that the relationship
between the variables is a positive one (if you can't see that, review the
section on types of relationships) because if you were to fit a single
straight line through the dots it would have a positive slope or move up
from left to right. Since the correlation is nothing more than a
quantitative estimate of the relationship, we would expect a positive
correlation.
What does a "positive relationship" mean in this context? It means that,
in general, higher scores on one variable tend to be paired with higher
scores on the other and that lower scores on one variable tend to be
paired with lower scores on the other. You should confirm visually that
this is generally true in the plot above.
Calculating the Correlation
Now we're ready to compute the correlation value. The formula for the
correlation is:
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We use the symbol r to stand for the correlation. Through the magic of
mathematics it turns out that r will always be between -1.0 and +1.0. if
the correlation is negative, we have a negative relationship; if it's
positive, the relationship is positive. You don't need to know how we
came up with this formula unless you want to be a statistician. But you
probably will need to know how the formula relates to real data -- how
you can use the formula to compute the correlation. Let's look at the
data we need for the formula. Here's the original data with the other
necessary columns:
Self
Person Height (x) Esteem x*y x*x y*y
(y)
1 68 4.1 278.8 4624 16.81
2 71 4.6 326.6 5041 21.16
3 62 3.8 235.6 3844 14.44
4 75 4.4 330 5625 19.36
5 58 3.2 185.6 3364 10.24
6 60 3.1 186 3600 9.61
7 67 3.8 254.6 4489 14.44
8 68 4.1 278.8 4624 16.81
9 71 4.3 305.3 5041 18.49
10 69 3.7 255.3 4761 13.69
11 68 3.5 238 4624 12.25
12 67 3.2 214.4 4489 10.24
13 63 3.7 233.1 3969 13.69
14 62 3.3 204.6 3844 10.89
15 60 3.4 204 3600 11.56
16 63 4 252 3969 16
17 65 4.1 266.5 4225 16.81
18 67 3.8 254.6 4489 14.44
19 63 3.4 214.2 3969 11.56
20 61 3.6 219.6 3721 12.96
Sum = 1308 75.1 4937.6 85912 285.45
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The first three columns are the same as in the table above. The next
three columns are simple computations based on the height and self
esteem data. The bottom row consists of the sum of each column. This
is all the information we need to compute the correlation. Here are the
values from the bottom row of the table (where N is 20 people) as they
are related to the symbols in the formula:
Now, when we plug these values into the formula given above, we get
the following (I show it here tediously, one step at a time):
So, the correlation for our twenty cases is .73, which is a fairly strong
positive relationship. I guess there is a relationship between height and
self esteem, at least in this made up data!
Testing the Significance of a Correlation
Once you've computed a correlation, you can determine the probability
that the observed correlation occurred by chance. That is, you can
conduct a significance test. Most often you are interested in
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determining the probability that the correlation is a real one and not a
chance occurrence. In this case, you are testing the mutually exclusive
hypotheses:
Null Hypothesis: r=0
Alternative r <>
Hypothesis: 0
The easiest way to test this hypothesis is to find a statistics book that
has a table of critical values of r. Most introductory statistics texts
would have a table like this. As in all hypothesis testing, you need to
first determine the significance level. Here, I'll use the common
significance level of alpha = .05. This means that I am conducting a test
where the odds that the correlation is a chance occurrence is no more
than 5 out of 100. Before I look up the critical value in a table I also
have to compute the degrees of freedom or df. The df is simply equal to
N-2 or, in this example, is 20-2 = 18. Finally, I have to decide whether I
am doing a one-tailed or two-tailed test. In this example, since I have no
strong prior theory to suggest whether the relationship between height
and self esteem would be positive or negative, I'll opt for the two-tailed
test. With these three pieces of information -- the significance level
(alpha = .05)), degrees of freedom (df = 18), and type of test (two-
tailed) -- I can now test the significance of the correlation I found. When
I look up this value in the handy little table at the back of my statistics
book I find that the critical value is .4438. This means that if my
correlation is greater than .4438 or less than -.4438 (remember, this is
a two-tailed test) I can conclude that the odds are less than 5 out of 100
that this is a chance occurrence. Since my correlation 0f .73 is actually
quite a bit higher, I conclude that it is not a chance finding and that the
correlation is "statistically significant" (given the parameters of the
test). I can reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative.
The Correlation Matrix
All I've shown you so far is how to compute a correlation between two
variables. In most studies we have considerably more than two
variables. Let's say we have a study with 10 interval-level variables and
we want to estimate the relationships among all of them (i.e., between
all possible pairs of variables). In this instance, we have 45 unique
correlations to estimate (more later on how I knew that!). We could do
the above computations 45 times to obtain the correlations. Or we
could use just about any statistics program to automatically compute all
45 with a simple click of the mouse.
I used a simple statistics program to generate random data for 10
variables with 20 cases (i.e., persons) for each variable. Then, I told the
program to compute the correlations among these variables. Here's the
result:
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9
C10
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C1 1.000
C2 0.274 1.000
C3 -0.134 -0.269 1.000
C4 0.201 -0.153 0.075 1.000
C5 -0.129 -0.166 0.278 -0.011 1.000
C6 -0.095 0.280 -0.348 -0.378 -0.009 1.000
C7 0.171 -0.122 0.288 0.086 0.193 0.002 1.000
C8 0.219 0.242 -0.380 -0.227 -0.551 0.324 -0.082
1.000
C9 0.518 0.238 0.002 0.082 -0.015 0.304 0.347
-0.013 1.000
C10 0.299 0.568 0.165 -0.122 -0.106 -0.169 0.243
0.014 0.352 1.000
This type of table is called a correlation matrix. It lists the variable
names (C1-C10) down the first column and across the first row. The
diagonal of a correlation matrix (i.e., the numbers that go from the
upper left corner to the lower right) always consists of ones. That's
because these are the correlations between each variable and itself
(and a variable is always perfectly correlated with itself). This statistical
program only shows the lower triangle of the correlation matrix. In
every correlation matrix there are two triangles that are the values
below and to the left of the diagonal (lower triangle) and above and to
the right of the diagonal (upper triangle). There is no reason to print
both triangles because the two triangles of a correlation matrix are
always mirror images of each other (the correlation of variable x with
variable y is always equal to the correlation of variable y with variable
x). When a matrix has this mirror-image quality above and below the
diagonal we refer to it as a symmetric matrix. A correlation matrix is
always a symmetric matrix.
To locate the correlation for any pair of variables, find the value in the
table for the row and column intersection for those two variables. For
instance, to find the correlation between variables C5 and C2, I look for
where row C2 and column C5 is (in this case it's blank because it falls in
the upper triangle area) and where row C5 and column C2 is and, in the
second case, I find that the correlation is -.166.
OK, so how did I know that there are 45 unique correlations when we
have 10 variables? There's a handy simple little formula that tells how
many pairs (e.g., correlations) there are for any number of variables:
where N is the number of variables. In the example, I had 10 variables,

so I know I have (10 * 9)/2 = 90/2 = 45 pairs.
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Q 4. Briefly explain any two factors that affect the choice of a

sampling technique. What are the characteristics of a good
sample?
Ans.
Sample is a finite part of a statistical population whose properties are
studied to gain information about the whole(Webster, 1985). When
dealing with people, it can be defined as a set of respondents(people)
selected from a larger population for the purpose of a survey.
A population is a group of individuals persons, objects, or items from
which samples are taken for measurement for example a population of
presidents or professors, books or students.
What is sampling? Sampling is the act, process, or technique of
selecting a suitable sample, or a representative part of a population for
the purpose of determining parameters or characteristics of the whole
population.
What is the purpose of sampling? To draw conclusions about
populations from samples, we must use inferential statistics which
enables us to determine a population`s characteristics by directly
observing only a portion (or sample) of the population. We obtain a
sample rather than a complete enumeration (a census ) of the
population for many reasons. Obviously, it is cheaper to observe a part
rather than the whole, but we should prepare ourselves to cope with the
dangers of using samples. In this tutorial, we will investigate various
kinds of sampling procedures. Some are better than others but all may
yield samples that are inaccurate and unreliable. We will learn how to
minimize these dangers, but some potential error is the price we must
pay for the convenience and savings the samples provide.
There would be no need for statistical theory if a census rather than a
sample was always used to obtain information about populations. But a
census may not be practical and is almost never economical. There are
six main reasons for sampling instead of doing a census. These are;
-Economy -Timeliness -The large size of many populations
-Inaccessibility of some of the population -Destructiveness of the
observation -accuracy
The economic advantage of using a sample in research Obviously,
taking a sample requires fewer resources than a census. For example,
let us assume that you are one of the very curious students around. You
have heard so much about the famous Cornell and now that you are
there, you want to hear from the insiders. You want to know what all
the students at Cornell think about the quality of teaching they receive,
you know that all the students are different so they are likely to have
different perceptions and you believe you must get all these
perceptions so you decide because you want an indepth view of every
student, you will conduct personal interviews with each one of them
and you want the results in 20 days only, let us assume this particular
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time you are doing your research Cornell has only 20,000 students and
those who are helping are so fast at the interviewing art that together
you can interview at least 10 students per person per day in addition to
your 18 credit hours of course work. You will require 100 research
assistants for 20 days and since you are paying them minimum wage of
$5.00 per hour for ten hours ($50.00) per person per day, you will
require $100000.00 just to complete the interviews, analysis will just be
impossible. You may decide to hire additional assistants to help with the
analysis at another $100000.00 and so on assuming you have that
amount on your account.
As unrealistic as this example is, it does illustrate the very high cost of
census. For the type of information desired, a small wisely selected
sample of Cornell students can serve the purpose. You don`t even have
to hire a single assistant. You can complete the interviews and analysis
on your own. Rarely does a circumstance require a census of the
population, and even more rarely does one justify the expense.
The time factor.
A sample may provide you with needed information quickly. For
example, you are a Doctor and a disease has broken out in a village
within your area of jurisdiction, the disease is contagious and it is killing
within hours nobody knows what it is. You are required to conduct quick
tests to help save the situation. If you try a census of those affected,
they may be long dead when you arrive with your results. In such a
case just a few of those already infected could be used to provide the
required information.
The very large populations
Many populations about which inferences must be made are quite
large. For example, Consider the population of high school seniors in
United States of America, a group numbering 4,000,000. The
responsible agency in the government has to plan for how they will be
absorbed into the different departments and even the private sector.
The employers would like to have specific knowledge about the
student’s plans in order to make compatible plans to absorb them
during the coming year. But the big size of the population makes it
physically impossible to conduct a census. In such a case, selecting a
representative sample may be the only way to get the information
required from high school seniors.
The partly accessible populations
There are Some populations that are so difficult to get access to that
only a sample can be used. Like people in prison, like crashed aero
planes in the deep seas, presidents etc. The inaccessibility may be
economic or time related. Like a particular study population may be so
costly to reach like the population of planets that only a sample can be
used. In other cases, a population of some events may be taking too
long to occur that only sample information can be relied on. For
example natural disasters like a flood that occurs every 100 years or
17
take the example of the flood that occurred in Noah’s days. It has never
occurred again.
The destructive nature of the observation sometimes the very act of

observing the desired characteristic of a unit of the population destroys
it for the intended use. Good examples of this occur in quality control.
For example to test the quality of a fuse, to determine whether it is
defective, it must be destroyed. To obtain a census of the quality of a
lorry load of fuses, you have to destroy all of them. This is contrary to
the purpose served by quality-control testing. In this case, only a
sample should be used to assess the quality of the fuses
Accuracy and sampling. A sample may be more accurate than a census.
A sloppily conducted census can provide less reliable information than a
carefully obtained sample.
Criteria governing the choice of the sampling technique
1. Purpose of the survey- What does the researcher aim at? If he
intends to generalize the findings based on the sample survey to the
population, then an appropriate probability sampling method must be
selected. The choice of a particular type of probability sampling
depends on the geographical area of the survey and the size and the
nature of the population under study.
2. Measurability- the application of statistical interference theory
requires computation of the sampling error from the sample itself.
Probability samples only allow such computation. Hence, where the
research objective requires statistical interference, the sample should
be drawn by applying simple random sampling method, depending on
whether the population is homogenous or heterogeneous.
3.Degree of precision- should the results of the survey be very precise

or even rough results could serve the purpose? The desired level of
precision as one of the criteria of sampling method selection. Where a
high degree of precision of results is desired, probability sampling
should be used. Where even crude results would serve the prupose
(E.g., marketing surveys, readership surveys etc) any convenient non-
random sampling like quota sampling would be enough.
4. Information about population: How much information is available

about the population to be studied? Where no list of population and no
information about its exploratory study with non-probability sampling
may be made to gain a better idea of population. After gaining
sufficient knowledge about the population through the exploratory
study, appropriate probability sampling design may be adopted.
5. The nature of the population: In terms of the variables to be studied,
is the population homogenous or heterogenous? In the case of a
18
homogenous population, heterogenous, stratified random sampling is

appropriate.
6. Geographical Area of the Study and the Size of the Population: If the
area covered by a survey is very large and the size of the population is
quite large, multi-stage cluster sampling would be appropriate. But if
the area and the size of the population are small, single stage
probability sampling methods could be used.
7. Financial resources: If the available finance is limited, it may become
necessary to choose a less costly sampling plan like multistage cluster
sampling or even quota sampling as a compromise. However, if the
objectives of the study and the desired level of precision cannot be
attained within the stipulated budget, there is not alternative than to
give up the proposed survey. Where the finance is not a constraint, a
researcher can choose the most appropriate method of sampling that
fits the research objective and the nature of population.
8. Time Limitation: The time limit within which the research project
should be completed restricts the choice of a sampling method. Then,
as a compromise , it may become necessary to choose less time
consuming methods like simple random sampling instead of stratified
sampling/sampling with probability proportional to size; multi-stage
cluster sampling instead of single-stage sampling of elements. Of
course, the precision has to be scarified to some extent.
9. Economy: It should be another criterion in choosing the sampling

method. It means achieving the desired level of precision at minimum
cost. A sample is economical if the precision per unit cost is high or the
cost per unit of variance is low.
The above criteria frequently conflict and the reasercher must balance
and blend them to obtain to obtain a good sampling plan. The chosen
plan thus represents an adaptation of the sampling theory to the
available facilities and resources. That is, it represents a compromise
between idealism and fasibility. One should use simple workable
methods instead of unduly elaborate and complicated techniques.
The Characteristics of a good sample:
Representativeness: a sample must be representative of the

population. Probability sampling technique yield representative sample.
19
Accuracy: accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent

from the sample. An accuracy sample is the one which exactly
represents the population.
Precision: The sample must yield precise estimate. Precision is

measured by standard error.
Size: a good sample must be adequate in size in order to be reliable.
Q 5. Select any topic for research and explain how you will use
both secondary and primary sources to gather the required
information.
Ans.
After you have decided to assess the problems and the needs of the
audience, and develop their profiles, the next step is to collect
information. The programme planners and producers will use the
information only when they are sure about the quality of information.
You should, therefore, be concerned not only about the type and the
amount of information but also about the quality of information. Some
key criteria for quality information are given below :
Accuracy or Validity: It should show the true situation. For this, plan
in advance, be clear and specific with regard to information needed,
simplify your samples and research methods, use more than one
method/ source for the same data and develop guidelines for analysis
of the data.
Relevance: It should be relevant to the information users. Should
reflect the commitment for the cause of the community, engage the
target population in the process of information collection, try to know in
advance who needs what information and how it will be used.
Significance: It should be important. Many a time researchers collect a
lot of information, which is irrelevant, unnecessary and insignificant for
the purpose.
Credibility: The information should be collected in a scientific manner
to be believable. Researchers should be objective while gathering,
analyzing and interpreting information, be transparent about the
methods used to obtain information and draw conclusions.
Timeliness: Information should be available in time to make necessary
decisions. There is little use in providing information after programming
has already made a significant headway. For this you should plan in
advance, use simple tools for collection and analysis, create a schedule
with deadlines and stick to it.
20
Representativeness: It should represent the entire target audience

and not just some part of it.
Sources of Information
You can collect the required information from various sources. If
possible, use more than source and method for the same set of
information. This enables you to verify accuracy and gives more
credence to the data.
Sources of information may broadly be classified as primary sources
and secondary sources.
Primary sources refer to people or places where you can obtain new
and raw information that does not exist. The new information that you
gather from primary sources is referred to as primary data.
Secondary sources refer to sources that have already gathered
information, possibly for reasons other than the purposes of your
present concern. The information is already available, and is referred to
as secondary data.
Primary Data
Primary data are obtained by going to the field to collect new
information for the purpose of your specific requirement. Typically,
primary data are often needed for baseline study, assessment of needs
and development of audience profiles. Examples of primary sources
include:
Target population
Extension functionaries of government and non-government agencies
Social workers, activists etc.
Other interested parties working with the same or similar populations
By using primary sources, you can have full control over what, when
and how the information is collected. In this way, it is easier to maintain
control over quality of information and to do follow-up for any critical
findings or missing information.
However, primary data have also certain limitations:
Primary sources may not be easily accessible. For example, farmers
during the sowing season would not be available to give you the
information you need.
Skills needed for successfully designing study and implementation of
primary data collection are substantially greater than those needed for
working with secondary data.
There may be errors of judgment in selecting the respondents or places
from which to gather information e.g. contacting persons of high socio-
economic status from the villages along the main road only and thereby
not reflecting the issues of the target populations of lower socio-
economic status who live in remote areas.
21
Costs of primary data collection can be high.

It is more time consuming also.
Despite limitations, primary sources are essential and important for
audience research. Extensive interaction with them, particularly the
target audience themselves, yields rich dividends. In fact, nothing can
replace the information collected from primary sources. However, keep
your data collection sharply focused for the reasons of time and costs.
Secondary Data
The term secondary data refers to information that already exists and
that has been previously gathered by some other person or
organization. You may find it useful for your purpose. Secondary data
include many kinds of written and visual materials such as:
Previous research reports
Project reports
Historical accounts
Books and materials describing the region and the people
Documentary films/photographs.
Statistical reports/digests of various government agencies and other
institutions
Maps and other materials
Obtaining data from secondary sources is obviously cheaper and easier
to access than going out to the field to gather fresh information.
Therefore, gathering and using secondary data should generally be
considered as a first option when it is available. You can use secondary
data for various purposes:
To serve as an independent piece of information.
To select areas for further intensive study by you.
To supplement the information gathered by you from the primary
sources.
However, use the secondary data with caution, because these, too,
have certain inherent limitations:
May be out-dated and old.
May be inadequate.
If the methods and circumstances of data collection are not recorded,
you cannot be sure of their quality.
The definition of concepts used in the data may be different. For
example, your concept of a small family may be different than what has
been adopted there.
Nevertheless it is always a good idea to exploit the potential of the
secondary data to your best advantage.
22
A central principle to keep in mind for undertaking audience research,

therefore, is that after examining the available secondary data, primary
data collection may be done by focusing only on most significant issues
and using simple and straightforward research methods such as
observations, in-depth inter views and focused group discussions.
Q 6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey

on behalf of a leading Newspaper that is keen to increase its
circulation in Bangalore City, in order to ascertain reader habits
and interests. Develop a title for the study; define the research
problem and the objectives or questions to be answered by the
study.
Ans.
Newspaper publishers spend millions of dollars annually to ensure that
the newspaper arrives at the newspaper stand or the subscriber’s
doorstep every day. Reporters track down stories and editors diligently
maintain the editorial integrity of the newspaper. The production
department meticulously guarantees that advertisements make it onto
the right page. It is no small feat that this daily production process has
continued for centuries across every city and town in the world. Therein
lies the rub. With a resolute focus on both the published newspaper and
production efficiencies, newspapers have become true stalwarts of the
industrial age. The last decade has ushered in a new era, the
information age, which is characterized by an unwavering focus on
customers. A newspaper’s most valuable asset is customer acceptance.
Today, customer service means more than delivering the newspaper on
time, every time. Many newspapers are transforming their
organizations from manufacturing-oriented enterprises to customer-
centric businesses and relying on customer relationship management
solutions to help catapult newspapers into the new age
Objectives of the Study

The primary objective of the study is to identify and describe the use of
various elements of marketing mix in the newspaper industry of
Bangalore through focusing the marketing practices of the highest
circulated newspaper, Prothom Alo. This paper has been carried out
with the following specific objectives:
i. To cite the price determination process of a leading newspaper.
ii. To describe the marketing cost of Prothom Alo.
iii. To narrate the distribution channel of a national newspaper.
iv. To illustrate the promotional activities of Prothom Alo.
v. To identify the current marketing problems of a daily newspaper.
23
vi. To find out the ways of increasing the marketing efficiency of

Prothom Alo.
Research Problem
Despite of the level best effort of the researchers, this article is not fully
free of certain obvious limitations. The basic limitation of this article is
its sole dependence on secondary data. Secondly, the sources of
secondary data were very limited. Relevant data is not available
regarding this field. For this reason the accuracy of this report depends
on the accuracy of the information furnished by the secondary sources.
24
MB0034 Research Methodology

Assignment Set- 2
Q 1.Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of the

different methods of distributing questionnaires to the
respondents of a study.
Ans.
Questionnaires are easy to analyze, and most statistical analysis
software can easily process them. They are cost effective when
compared to face-to-face interviews, mostly because of the costs
associated with travel time. Questionnaires are familiar to most people
(Berdie, Anderson, and Niebuhr, 1986). Nearly everyone has had some
experience completing questionnaires and they generally do not make
people apprehensive. They are less intrusive than telephone or face-to-
face surveys. When respondents receive a questionnaire in the mail,
they are free to complete it on their own time-table. Unlike other
research methods, the respondent is not interrupted by the research
instrument. On the other hand, questionnaires are simply not suited for
some people. For example, a written survey to a group of poorly
educated people might not work because of reading skill problems.
More frequently, some people are turned off by written questionnaires
because of misuse. Questionnaires should leave adequate space for
respondents to make comments. One criticism of questionnaires is their
inability to retain the "flavor" of a response. Leaving space for
comments will provide valuable information not captured by the
response categories. Leaving white space also makes the questionnaire
look easier and this might increase response. Researchers should
design the questionnaire so it holds the respondent's interest. The goal
is to make the respondent want to complete the questionnaire. One
way to keep a questionnaire interesting is to provide variety in the type
of items used. Likewise, the most important items should appear in the
first half of the questionnaire. Respondents often send back partially
completed questionnaires. By putting the most important items near
the beginning, the partially completed questionnaires will still contain
important information. An anonymous study is one in which nobody (not
even the study directors) can identify who provided data on completed
questionnaires." (Berdie, Anderson, Niebuhr, 1986, p. 47) It is generally
not possible to conduct an anonymous questionnaire through the mail
because of the need to follow-up on nonresponders. However, it is
possible to guarantee confidentiality, where the those conducting the
study promise not to reveal the information to anyone. For the purpose
of follow-up, identifying numbers on questionnaires are generally
preferred to using respondents' names. It is important, however, to
explain why the number is there and what it will be used for.
A good questionnaire makes it convenient for the respondent to reply.
Mail surveys that include a self-addressed stamped reply envelope get
25
better response than business reply envelopes, although they are more
expensive since you also pay for the non-respondents. One important
area of question wording is the effect of the interrogation and assertion
question formats. The interrogation format asks a question directly,
where the assertion format asks subjects to indicate their level of
agreement or disagreement with a statement.
The prenotification letter should address five items (Walonick, 1993):
1. Briefly describe why the study is being done.
2. Identify the sponsors.
3. Explain why the person receiving the pre-letter was chosen.
4. Justify why the

respondent should complete the questionnaire.
5. Explain how the results will be used.
The researcher should prepare a mailing list of the selected

respondents by collecting the addresses from the telephone directory of
the association or organization to which they belong. A covering letter
should accompany a copy of the questionnaire.
Other modes of sending quetionnaries.
Methods of distributing quetionnaries to the respondents. They are: (1)
Personal delivery (2) attaching questionnaire to a product (3)
advertising questionnaire in a newspaper of magazine, and (4) news
stand insets.
Personal Delivery
The researcher or his assistant may deliver the questionnaires to the
potential respondents with a request to complete them at their
convenience. After a day or two he can collect the questionnaire
method, it combines the advantages of the personal interview and the
mail survey. Alternatively, the questionnaires may be delivered in
person and the completed questionnaires may be returned by mail by
the respondent.
Attaching Questionnaire to a product

A firm test marketing a product may attch a questionnaire to a product
and request the buyer to complete it and mail it back to the firm. The
respondent is usually rewarded by a gift or a discount coupon.
Advertising the Questionnaires
26
The questionnaire with the instructions for completion may be

advertised on a page of magazine or in section of newspapers. The
potential respondent completes it tears it out and mails it to the
advertiser. For example, the committee of Banks customer services
used this method. Management studies for collecting information from
the customers of commercial banks in India. This method may be used
for large-scale on topics of common interest.
News-stand Inserts
This method involves inserting the covering letter, quetionnarie and self
addressed reply-paid envelope into a random sample of news-stand
copies of a newspaper or magazine.
Improving the Response Rate in a Mail survey.

The response rate in mail survey is generally very low more so in
developing countries like India. Certain techniques have to be adopted
to increase the response rate. They are:
1. Quality Printing: The questionnaire may be neatly printed in

quality light coloured paper, so as to attract the attention of the
respondent.
2. Covering Letter: The covering letter should be couched in a
pleasant style so as to attract and hold the interest of the
respondent. It must anticipate objections and answer them
briefly. It is a desirable to address the respondent by name.
3. Advance Information: Advance information can be provided to
potential respondents by a telephone call or advance notice in the
newsletter of the concerned organization or by a letter. Such
preliminary contact with potential respondents is more successful
than follow up efforts.
4. Incentives: Money, stamps for collection and other incentives
are also used to induce respondents to complete and return mail
questionarie.
5. Follow-up-contacts: In the case of respondents belonging to an
organization, they may be approached through some one in that
organization known as the researcher.
6. Larger sample size: A large sample may be drawn than the
estimated sample size. For example, if the required sample size is
1000, a sample of 1500 may be drawn. This may help the
researcher to secure an effective sample size closer to the
required size.
Advantages of Questionnaires
27
The advantages of mail surveys are:

1. They are less costly than personal interviews, as cost of mailing is
the same through out the country, irrespective of distance.
2. They can cover extensive geographical areas.
3. Mailing is useful in contacting persons such as senior business
executives who are difficult to reach in any other way.
4. The respondents can complete the questionnaires at their
convenience. Mail surveys, being more impersonal, provide more
anonymity than
5. personal interviews
6. Mail surveys are totally free from the interviewer’s bias, as there
is no personal contact between the respondents and the
investigator.
7. Certain personal and economic data may be given accurately in
an unsigned mail questionnaire.
Disadvantages of Questionnaires
The disadvantages of mail surveys are:

1. The scope for mail survey is very limited in a country like India
where the percentage of literacy is very low.
2. The response rate of mail survey is low. Hence, the resulting
sample will not be a representative one.
Q 2. In processing data, what is the difference between

measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion?
What is the most important measure of central tendency and
dispersion?
Ans.
These are the most familiar measurements of dispersion. Variance is
the arithmetic mean (average) of the square of the difference between
the value of an observation and the arithmetic mean of the value of all
observations. It is also referred to as the second moment about the
mean. The formal definition of variance being:
For computation purposes, the formula can be used in the form shown
below which allows the variance to be derived without first calculating
the mean:
28
Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is the square root of the variance:
Normalized Standard Deviation

It is often useful to express the difference between the mean and a
given value in units of standard deviation.
The normalized standard deviation is often referred to as z. Probability
tables for the normal distribution are usually based on z.
Mean Absolute Deviation (MAD)
A weakness of standard deviation as a measure of dispersion is its
sensitivity to anomalous values which are a feature of real life data.
This is a result of the square of the difference between a value and the
mean, this conveniently gets rid of negative values, but at the expense
of increasing the significance of extreme ones. An alternative is based
the absolute value of the difference between a given value and the
mean:
The downside is that the use of absolute values makes the analytical
treatment of functions difficult, but this is a small price to pay for such
an acronym.
In situations where the median is a more stable measure of central
tendency, it is used in place of the mean.
The example below compares the standard deviation and the MAD for a
small sample which contains an anomalous extreme value. The
measures of central tendency for the sample are:
Mean 1.7
Median 1.5
1.2 0.5 0.3 0.25
1.4 0.3 0.1 0.09
1.5 0.2 0.0 0.04
29
1.6 0.1 0.1 0.01
2.8 1.1 1.3 1.21
Totals 2.2 1.8 1.60
Mean Absolute Deviation 0.44
Median Absolute
0.36
Deviation
Standard Deviation 0.57
The MAD statistics are less sensitive to extreme anomalous values,

however, it is important to use the statistic which is best suited for a
given analysis.
Easily telling people about your data
Collecting data can be easy and fun. But sometimes it can be hard to
tell other people about what you have found. That’s why we use
statistics. Two kinds of statistics are frequently used to describe data.
They are measures of central tendency and dispersion. These are often
called descriptive statistics because they can help you describe your
data.
Mean, median and mode
These are all measures of central tendency. They help summarize a
bunch of scores with a single number. Suppose you want to describe a
bunch of data that you collected to a friend for a particular variable like
height of students in your class. One way would be to read each height
you recorded to your friend. Your friend would listen to all of the heights
and then come to a conclusion about how tall students generally are in
your class But this would take too much time. Especially if you are in a
class of 200 or 300 students! Another way to communicate with your
friend would be to use measures of central tendency like the mean,
median and mode. They help you summarize bunches of numbers with
one or just a few numbers. They make telling people about your data
easy.
Range, variance and standard deviation
These are all measures of dispersion. These help you to know the
spread of scores within a bunch of scores. Are the scores really close
together or are they really far apart? For example, if you were
describing the heights of students in your class to a friend, they might
want to know how much the heights vary. Are all the men about 5 feet
11 inches within a few centimeters or so? Or is there a lot of variation
where some men are 5 feet and others are 6 foot 5 inches? Measures of
dispersion like the range, variance and standard deviation tell you
30
about the spread of scores in a data set. Like central tendency, they
help you summarize a bunch of numbers with one or just a few
numbers.
Q 3. What are the characteristics of a good research design?

Explain how the research design for exploratory studies is
different from the research design for descriptive and
diagnostic studies.
Ans.
Design research investigates the process of designing in all its many
fields. It is thus related to Design methods in general or for particular
disciplines. A primary interpretation of design research is that it is
concerned with undertaking research into the design process.
Secondary interpretations would refer to undertaking research within
the process of design. The overall intention is to better understand and
to improve the design process.
Throughout the design construction task, it is important to have in mind
some endpoint, some criteria which we should try to achieve before
finally accepting a design strategy. The criteria discussed below are
only meant to be suggestive of the characteristics found in good
research design. It is worth noting that all of these criteria point to the
need to individually tailor research designs rather than accepting
standard textbook strategies as is Theory-Grounded. Good research
strategies reflect the theories which are being investigated. Where
specific theoretical expectations can be hypothesized these are
incorporated into the design. For example, where theory predicts a
specific treatment effect on one measure but not on another, the
inclusion of both in the design improves discriminant validity and
demonstrates the predictive power of the theory.
Situational. Good research designs reflect the settings of the
investigation. This was illustrated above where a particular need of
teachers and administrators was explicitly addressed in the design
strategy. Similarly, intergroup rivalry, demoralization, and competition
might be assessed through the use of additional comparison groups
who are not in direct contact with the original group.
Feasible. Good designs can be implemented. The sequence and timing
of events are carefully thought out. Potential problems in measurement,
adherence to assignment, database construction and the like, are
anticipated. Where needed, additional groups or measurements are
included in the design to explicitly correct for such problems.
Redundant. Good research designs have some flexibility built into
them. Often, this flexibility results from duplication of essential design
features. For example, multiple replications of a treatment help to
insure that failure to implement the treatment in one setting will not
invalidate the entire study.
31
Efficient. Good designs strike a balance between redundancy and the

tendency to overdesign. Where it is reasonable, other, less costly,
strategies for ruling out potential threats to validity are utilized.
This is by no means an exhaustive list of the criteria by which we can
judge good research design. nevertheless, goals of this sort help to
guide the researcher toward a final design choice and emphasize
important components which should be included.
The development of a theory of research methodology for the social
sciences has largely occurred over the past half century and most
intensively within the past two decades. It is not surprising, in such a
relatively recent effort, that an emphasis on a few standard research
designs has occurred. Nevertheless, by moving away from the notion of
"design selection" and towards an emphasis on design construction,
there is much to be gained in our understanding of design principles
and in the quality of our research.
Exploratory research provides insights into and comprehension of an
issue or situation. It should draw definitive conclusions only with
extreme caution. Exploratory research is a type of research conducted
because a problem has not been clearly defined. Exploratory research
helps determine the best research design, data collection method and
selection of subjects. Given its fundamental nature, exploratory
research often concludes that a perceived problem does not actually
exist.
Exploratory research often relies on secondary research such as
reviewing available literature and/or data, or qualitative approaches
such as informal discussions with consumers, employees, management
or competitors, and more formal approaches through in-depth
interviews, focus groups, projective methods, case studies or pilot
studies. The Internet allows for research methods that are more
interactive in nature: E.g., RSS feeds efficiently supply researchers with
up-to-date information; major search engine search results may be sent
by email to researchers by services such as Google Alerts;
comprehensive search results are tracked over lengthy periods of time
by services such as Google Trends; and Web sites may be created to
attract worldwide feedback on any subject.
The results of exploratory research are not usually useful for decision-
making by themselves, but they can provide significant insight into a
given situation. Although the results of qualitative research can give
some indication as to the "why", "how" and "when" something occurs, it
cannot tell us "how often" or "how many."
Exploratory research is not typically generalizable to the population at
large.
Applied research in administration is often exploratory because there is
need for flexibility in approaching the problem. In addition there are
often data limitations and a need to make a decision within a short time
32
period. Qualitative research methods such as case study or field

research are often used in Exploratory research..
There are three types of objective in a marketing research project.
Exploratory Research or Formulative Research
Descriptive research
Causal research
Exploratory Research or Formulative Research 'The objective of
exploratory research is to gather preliminary information that will help
define problems and suggest hypotheses.'
Descriptive Research 'The objective of descriptive research is to
describe things, such as the market potential for a product or the
demographics and attitudes of consumers who buy the produc t.
Q 4. How is the Case Study method useful in Business

Research? Give two specific examples of how the case study
method can be applied to business research.
Ans.
A case study is a research methodology common in social science. It is
based on an in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or
event. Case studies may be descriptive or explanatory. The latter type
is used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles.
Rather than using samples and following a rigid protocol (strict set of
rules) to examine limited number of variables, case study methods
involve an in-depth, longitudinal (over a long period of time)
examination of a single instance or event: a case. They provide a
systematic way of looking at events, collecting data, analyzing
information, and reporting the results. As a result the researcher may
gain a sharpened understanding of why the instance happened as it
did, and what might become important to look at more extensively in
future research. Case studies lend themselves to both generating and
testing hypotheses.
Another suggestion is that case study should be defined as a research
strategy, an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its
real-life context. Case study research means single and multiple case
studies, can include quantitative evidence, relies on multiple sources of
evidence and benefits from the prior development of theoretical
propositions. Case studies should not be confused with qualitative
research and they can be based on any mix of quantitative and
qualitative evidence. Single-subject research provides the statistical
framework for making inferences from quantitative case-study data.
This is also supported and well-formulated in (Lamnek, 2005): "The case
study is a research approach, situated between concrete data taking
techniques and methodologic paradigms."
33
When selecting a case for a case study, researchers often use

information-oriented sampling, as opposed to random sampling. This is
because an average case is often not the richest in information.
Extreme or atypical cases reveal more information because they
activate more basic mechanisms and more actors in the situation
studied. In addition, from both an understanding-oriented and an
action-oriented perspective, it is often more important to clarify the
deeper causes behind a given problem and its consequences than to
describe the symptoms of the problem and how frequently they occur.
Random samples emphasizing representativeness will seldom be able
to produce this kind of insight; it is more appropriate to select some few
cases chosen for their validity, but this isn't always the case.
Three types of information-oriented cases may be distinguished:
Critical cases
Extreme or deviant cases
Paradigmatic cases
Yin (2005) suggested that researchers should decide whether to do
single-case or multiple-case studies and chose to keep the case holistic
or have embedded sub-cases. This two-by-two combination can
produce four basic designs for case studies.
In business research, Case study research excels at bringing us to an
understanding of a complex issue or object and can extend experience
or add strength to what is already known through previous research.
Case studies emphasize detailed contextual analysis of a limited
number of events or conditions and their relationships. Researchers
have used the case study research method for many years across a
variety of disciplines. Social scientists, in particular, have made wide
use of this qualitative research method to examine contemporary real-
life situations and provide the basis for the application of ideas and
extension of methods. Researcher Robert K. Yin defines the case study
research method as an empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the
boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident;
and in which multiple sources of evidence are used.
Critics of the case study method believe that the study of a small
number of cases can offer no grounds for establishing reliability or
generality of findings. Others feel that the intense exposure to study of
the case biases the findings. Some dismiss case study research as
useful only as an exploratory tool. Yet researchers continue to use the
case study research method with success in carefully planned and
crafted studies of real-life situations, issues, and problems. Reports on
case studies from many disciplines are widely available in the literature.
How to use the case study method and then applies the method to an
example case study project designed to examine how one set of users,
non-profit organizations, make use of an electronic community network.
The study examines the issue of whether or not the electronic
34
community network is beneficial in some way to non-profit

organizations and what those benefits might be.
Many well-known case study researchers such as Robert E. Stake, Helen
Simons, and Robert K. Yin have written about case study research and
suggested techniques for organizing and conducting the research
successfully. This introduction to case study research draws upon their
work and proposes six steps that should be used:
Determine and define the research questions
Select the cases and determine data gathering and analysis techniques
Prepare to collect the data
Collect data in the field
Evaluate and analyze the data
Prepare the report
Q 5. What are the differences between observation and

interviewing as methods of data collection? Give two specific
examples of situations where either observation or interviewing
would be more appropriate.
Ans.
The most complete form of the sociological datum, after all, is the form
in which the participant observer gathers it: An observation of some
social event, the events which precede and follow it, and explanations
of its meaning by participants and spectators, before, during, and after
its occurrence. Such a datum gives us more information about the
event under study than data gathered by any other sociological
method. Participant observation can thus provide us with a yardstick
against which to measure the completeness of data gathered in other
ways, a model which can serve to let us know what orders of
information escape us when we use other methods.' By participant
observation we mean that method in which the observer participates in
the daily life of the people under study, either openly in the role of
researcher or covertly in some disguised role, observing things that
happen, listening to what is said, and questioning people, over some
length of time. We want, in this paper, to compare the results of
intensive field work with what might be regarded as the first step in the
other direction along this continuum: the detailed and conversational
interview (often referred to as the unstructured or undirected
interview).3 In this kind of interview, the interviewer explores many
facets of his interviewee's concerns, treating subjects as they come up
in conversation, pursuing interesting leads, allowing his imagination and
ingenuity full rein as he tries to develop new hypotheses and test them
in the course of the interview. In the course of our current participant
observation among medical students? we have thought a good deal
about the kinds of things we were discovering which might ordinarily be
missed or misunderstood in such an interview. W e have no intention of
35
denigrating the interview or even such less precise modes of data

gathering as the questionnaire, for there can always be good reasons of
practicality, economy, or research design for their use. We simply wish
to make explicit the difference in the data gathered by one or the other
method and to suggest the differing uses to which they can legitimately
be put. In general, the shortcomings we attribute to the interview exist
when it is used as a source of information about events that have
occurred elsewhere and are described to us by informants. Our
criticisms are not relevant when analysis is restricted to interpretation
of the interviewee's conduct during the interview, in which case the
researcher has in fact observed the behavior he is talking about.? The
differences we consider between the two methods involve two
interacting factors: the kinds of words and acts of the people under
study that the researcher has access to, and the kind of sensitivity to
problems and data produced in him. Our comparison may prove useful
by suggestive areas in which interviewing (the more widely used
method at present and likely to continue so) can improve its accuracy
by taking account of suggestions made from the perspective of the
participant observer. We begin by considering some concrete problems:
learning the native language, or the problem of the degree to which the
interviewer really understands what is said to him; matters interviewees
are unable or unwilling to talk about; and getting information on
matters people see through distorting lenses. We then consider some
more general differences between the two methods.
Observation as a method of data collection has certain

characteristics.
1. It is both a physical and a mental activity: The observing eye
catches many things that are present. But attention is focused on
data that are pertinent to the given study.
2. Observation is selective: A researcher does not observe
anything and everything, but selects the range of things to be
observed on the basis of the nature, scope and objectives of his
study. For example, suppose a researcher desires to study the
causes of city road accidents and also formulated a tentative
hypothesis that accidents are caused by violation of traffic rules
and over speeding. When he observed the movements of the
vehicles, the persons sitting in them, their hair style, etc. all such
things which are not relevant to his study are ignored and only
over speeding and traffic violation are keenly observed by him.
3. Observation is purposive and not casual: it is made for the
specific purpose of noting things relevant to the study. It captures
the natural social context in which persons behavior occur. It
grasps the significant events and occurrences that affect social
relations of the participants.
36
4. Observation should be exact and be based on standardized tools

of research and such as observation schedule, social metric scale
etc., and precision instruments, if any.
Observation has following advantages:
(1) The main virtue of observation is its directness: It makes it
possible to study behavoiur as it occurs. The researcher need not
ask people about their behavour and intereactions he can simply
watch what they do and say.
(2)Data collected by observation may describe the observed
phenomena as they occur in their natural settings. Other methods
introduce elements or artificiality into the researchers situation
for instance, in interviews, the respondent may not behave in a
natural way. There is no such artificiality into the researched
situation for instance, in interview; the respondent may not
behave in a natural way. There is not such artificiality in
observational studies, especially when the observed persons are
not aware of their being observed
(3)Observations is more suitable for studying subjects who are
unable to articulate meaningfully, e.g. studies of children, tribal,
animals, birds etc.
(4)Obeservations improve the opportunities for analyzing the
contextual back ground of behavior. Further more verbal resorts
can be validated and compared with behavior through
observation. The validity of what men of position and authority
say can be verified by observing what they actually do.
Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing

effect on their conduct than questioning.
Interview method
Interviewing is one of the prominent methods of data collection. It may
be defined as a two way systematic conversation between an
investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining information
relevant to a specific study. It involves not only conversation, but also
learning from the respondent’s gesture, facial expressions and pauses,
and his environment. Interviewing requires face to face contact or
contact over telephone and calls for interviewing skills. It is done by
using a structured schedule or an unstructured guide.
Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as a

supplementary one in studies of persons. Interviewing is the only
suitable method for gathering information from illiterate or less
educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data
from factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate
37
information relating to a person’s opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs

past experience and future intentions. When qualitative information is
required or probing is necessary to draw out fully, and then interviewing
is required. Where the area covered for the survey is a compact, or
when a sufficient number of qualified interviewers are available,
personal interview is feasible.
Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. People are

usually more willing to talk than to write. Once report is established,
even confidential information may be obtained. It permits probing into
the context and reasons for answers to questions.
Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the

investigator to grasp the behavioural context of the data furnished by
the respondents.
There are several advantages to personal interviewing.
First the greatest value of this method is the depth and detail of
information that can be secured. When used with well conceived
schedules, an interview can obtain a great deal of information. It far
exceeds mail survey in amount and quality of data that can be secured.
Second, the interviewer can do more to improve the percentage of
responses and the quality of information received than other method.
He can note the conditions of the interview situation, and adopt
appropriate approaches to overcome such problems as the
respondent’s unwillingness, incorrect understanding of questions,
suspicion, etc.
Third, the interviewr can gather other supplemental information like

economic level, living conditions etc. through observation of the
respondents environment.
Fourth, the interviewer can use special scoring devices, visual materials
and the like in order to improve the quality of interviewing.
Fifth, the accuracy and depdendability of the answers given by the

respondent can be checked by observation and probing.
Last, interview is flexible and adaptable to individual situations. Even

more, control can be exercised over the interview situation.
38
Demerits of interview method

Interviewing is not free limitations. Its greatest drawback is that it is
costly both in money and time. Second, the interview results are often
adversely affected by interviewer’s mode of asking questions and
interactions, and incorrect recording and also by the respondent’s faulty
perception, faulty memory, inability to articulate etc.
Third, certain types of personal and financial information may be

refused in face-to face interviews. Such information might be supplied
more willingly on mail questionnaires, especially if they are to be
unsigned.
Fourth, interview poses the problem of recording information obtained

from the respondents. No full proof system is available. Note taking in
invariably distracting to both the respondent and the interviewer and
affects the trhead of the conversation.
Last interview calls for highly interviewers. The availability of such
persons is limited and the traininmg of interviewers is often a long and
costly process.
Situation where observation is appropriate:

Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs.
For example only observation can provide an insight into all the aspects
of the process of negotiation between union and management
representatives.
Situation where interview method is appropriate: to study the Reading
habits of newspaper/magazines readers.
6. Case study- you are engaged to carry out a market survey on

behalf of a leading Newspaper that is keen to increase its circulation in
Bangalore city, in order to ascertain reader habits and interests. What
type of Research report would be most appropriate? Develop an outline
of the research report with the main sections.
Ans-
Popular Reports would be most appropriate for this study.
In popular report the reader is less interested in the methodological
details, but more interested in the findings of the study. Complicated
statistics are avoided and pictorial devices are used. After a brief
introduction to the problem and the objectives of the study, and
abstract of the findings of the study, conclusion and recommendations
39
are presented. More headline, underlining pictures and graphs may be

used. Sentences and paragraphs should be short.
Title of the study: A study of Reader’s Choice of Topics on the

front page and depth of coverage of various categories of news.
Objectives of the study/ Questions to be answered by the study:
• To understand what the readers wish to see on the front page of

the newspaper.
• To understand how much depth of the news is to be covered.
• To understand the kind of images the readers like.
• To understand what proportion of politics, sports, cinema and
health etc is to be covered in the newspaper.
• What readers want to read in the newpaper other that the current
topics.
And outline of a research report is given below:
Prefatory items
Title page
Declaration
Preface/acknowledgement
Table of contents
List of tables
List of graphs/figures/ charts
Abstract of synopsis.
Body of the report

• Introduction
• Theoretical background of the topic
• Statement of the problem
• Review of literature
• The scope of the study
• The objectives of the study
• Hypothesis to be tested
• Definition of the concepts
40
• Models if any
• Design of the study
• Methodology
• Method of data collection
• Sources of data
• Sampling plan
• Data collection instruments
• Field work
• Data processing and analysis plan
• Overview of the report
• Limitation of the study
• Results: findings and discussions
• Summary, conclusions and recommendations.
41

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MB0034 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ROLL NO 510922802

MB0034 Research Methodology

Q 1. Give examples of specific situations that would call for the

b) Descriptive research: Descriptive research, also known as

examinations of why the observations exist and what the implications of

c) Diagnostic research: diagnostic research has been focusing

d) Evaluation research: evaluation research is of particular interest

Q 2.In the context of hypothesis testing, briefly explain the

and the alternative hypothesis. These hypotheses are mutually

Choosing Choosing a non-

Correlation test Pearson Spearman

Q 3. Explain the difference between a causal relationship and

that suggest correlation like “may,” “might increase,” “could have an

And, here are the descriptive statistics:

Height 65.4 4.40574 19.4105 1308 58 75 17

Self 0.42609 0.18155

1 68 4.1 278.8 4624 16.81

2 71 4.6 326.6 5041 21.16

3 62 3.8 235.6 3844 14.44

4 75 4.4 330 5625 19.36

5 58 3.2 185.6 3364 10.24

6 60 3.1 186 3600 9.61

7 67 3.8 254.6 4489 14.44

8 68 4.1 278.8 4624 16.81

9 71 4.3 305.3 5041 18.49

10 69 3.7 255.3 4761 13.69

11 68 3.5 238 4624 12.25

12 67 3.2 214.4 4489 10.24

13 63 3.7 233.1 3969 13.69

14 62 3.3 204.6 3844 10.89

15 60 3.4 204 3600 11.56

17 65 4.1 266.5 4225 16.81

18 67 3.8 254.6 4489 14.44

19 63 3.4 214.2 3969 11.56

20 61 3.6 219.6 3721 12.96

Sum = 1308 75.1 4937.6 85912 285.45

where N is the number of variables. In the example, I had 10 variables,

Q 4. Briefly explain any two factors that affect the choice of a

The destructive nature of the observation sometimes the very act of

3.Degree of precision- should the results of the survey be very precise

4. Information about population: How much information is available

homogenous population, heterogenous, stratified random sampling is

9. Economy: It should be another criterion in choosing the sampling

The Characteristics of a good sample:

Representativeness: a sample must be representative of the

Accuracy: accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent

Precision: The sample must yield precise estimate. Precision is

Size: a good sample must be adequate in size in order to be reliable.

Representativeness: It should represent the entire target audience

Costs of primary data collection can be high.

A central principle to keep in mind for undertaking audience research,

Q 6. Case Study: You are engaged to carry out a market survey

Objectives of the Study

vi. To find out the ways of increasing the marketing efficiency of

MB0034 Research Methodology

Q 1.Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of the

4. Justify why the

5. Explain how the results will be used.

The researcher should prepare a mailing list of the selected

Attaching Questionnaire to a product

Advertising the Questionnaires

The questionnaire with the instructions for completion may be

Improving the Response Rate in a Mail survey.