7.

Momentum principle and flow analysis (6 hours)

7.1 Momentum principle and equations
7.2 Application of equation of calculate forces (pipe in bends, enlargements and reducer)
7.3 Forces exerted by the jet on stationary and moving vanes of different shapes
7.4 Concept of angular momentum with examples.

7.1 Momentum principle and equations

Introduction
Previously, two important fundamental concepts of fluid mechanics were discussed. One is the
continuity equation which is based on the conservation principle of mass. Another one is the energy
equation which is based on the conservation principle of energy. In this chapter a third basic concept,
the impulse-momentum principle, will be discussed. This concept is of particular importance in flow
problems where the determinations of forces are involved.
Further, such forces occur wherever the velocity of a stream of fluid is changed in either direction or
magnitude. By the law of action and reaction, an equal and opposite force is exerted by the fluid upon
the body producing the change. After developing the impulse-momentum principle, their applications
to a number of important engineering problems are discussed.

Development of the impulse-momentum principle

Newton's second law of motion for the fluid flowing through a finite control volume consists of the
linear momentum and the angular momentum. The linear momentum equation relates fluid linear
momentum to the forces that act on the fluid. The angular momentum equation relates fluid’s angular
momentum to the moment or torque acting on the fluid. Of the two, the linear momentum equation is
the most frequently used and is often referred as "the momentum equation".
Together with the continuity and energy equations, the momentum equation is also derived based on
the control volume approach. The differences between the continuity and energy equation together
with momentum equation is that, the momentum equation deals with vector quantities, whereas the
continuity and energy equations deal with scalar quantities. The momentum equation is used to
calculate force acted between a moving fluid and solid objects in contact with it.
Momentum equation based on the momentum principle (Newton's second law of motion), which
states that the net forces acting on a fluid mass in any direction is equal to the rate of change in
momentum of flow in that direction.
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity. We know that the force is equal to the mass times its
acceleration

F  ma 6-1

dV d mV s
 F  m dt or F  dt
, if mass is taken as constant. 6-2

This states that sum of the external forces F on a body of fluid or system S is equal to the rate of
change of linear momentum mV of that body or system. Both forces F and V represent vectors, and
so the change in momentum must be in the same direction as the force. Because equation 6.2 can
also be expressed as  Fdt  d (mV )s, i.e., impulse equals change of momentum, the terminology
Impulse momentum principle is used. Right hand side of this equation is impulse of applied force and
left hand side of the equation is change in momentum.
Momentum equation for steady flow through a stream tube
In large number of engineering problems the boundary of a control volume may consist of the walls of
the flow channel, and two control surfaces normal to the direction of flow through which the fluid
enters and leaves the control volume. Since no flow is possible across the walls of a flow channel, in
the above case, momentum transfer can only takes place across the control surfaces normal to the
direction of flow.

direction of
motion ''S''

1 1'

V1
P1
1 1'
Figure 6.1: External forces acting on a stream tube
The external forces acting on a stream tube in a steady flow are shown in Figure 6.1. Flow enters the
stream tube across the control surface 1-1 and leaves across 2-2. Let us assume that the velocity ‘V’
and the pressure intensities ‘p’ distribution over the control surface 1-1 and 2-2 to be uniform. Let's
consider a fluid mass enclosed between section 1-1 and 2-2.
Let V1, ρ1, A1, and p1 be the mean velocity, density, cross sectional area and intensity of pressure at
section 1-1 and V2, ρ2, A2 and p2 be the corresponding values at section 2-2
Under the effect of external force let the fluid mass in the region 1-1 and 2-2 shifts to new position 1’-
1’ and 2’- 2’ after a short time interval dt. Now, for the steady flow fluid mass within the region 1-1’
must be equal to the fluid mass with in the region 2-2’
Momentum of fluid mass contained in the region 1-1’ (mass x velocity) is
ds1
V1 1 A1 ds1  V1 1 A1 dt
dt
1 A1V1V1dt  1 A1V12 dt 6-3

Similar expression can be drawn for the region 2-2’. Momentum of fluid mass contained in the region
2.2’ is
ds 2
V2  2 A2 ds 2  V2  2 A2 dt
dt
 2 A2V2V2 dt   2 A2V22 dt 6-4

Change in momentum is the difference between the final momentum and initial momentum i.e.,
2 2
ρ 2 A2 V2 dt – ρ 1A1 V1 dt


dt  2 A2V22  1V12 A12 
By impulse momentum principle ΣFdt = d (mv)
 Fdt  dt( A V   V
2 2 2
2
1 1
2
A1 )

F   A V   V A
2 2 2
2
1 1
2
1

 F   QV   QV
2 2 1 1

 F   Q (V V ), for 
2 1 1  2 6-5

Equation 6-5 is the general expression for the force which is created due to the change of momentum
(here (Q1 = A1V1 = Q2 = A2V2 = Q). As already mentioned above, such forces occur whenever the
velocity of a stream of fluid is changed either direction or magnitude.
It should be noted that the direction of ΣF must be the same as that of Δv. Note that the ΣF represents
the vectorial summation of all forces acting on the fluid mass, including gravity forces, shear forces,
and pressure forces including those exerted by fluid surrounding the fluid mass under consideration
as well as the pressure forces exerted by the solid boundaries in contact with the fluid mass.
Since, equation 6.5 is vectorial; it can be expressed by the following scalar equations:

F x
 m ( Vx )   Q(Vx )   Q(V2 x  V1x ) 6-6a

F y
 m ( V y )   Q(V y )   Q(V2 y  V1 y ) 6-6b

F z
 m ( Vz )   Q(Vz )   Q(V2 z  V1z ) 6-6c

In the succeeding sections these equations will be applied to several situations that are commonly
encountered in engineering practice. If the flow in a single stream tube splits up into several stream
tubes, the  Q V values of each stream tube are computed separately and then substituted into
equations 6.6a to 6.6c. The great advantage of the impulse-momentum principle is that we need not
be concerned with the details of what is occurring within the flow; only the conditions at the end
sections of the control volume govern the analysis.
More specifically referring to Figure 6.1 we can develop the expression for resultant forces acting on
the control volume in x direction as;

F1x  P1x  P2 x  Rx 6-7

Here, P1x, and P2x are the components of pressure forces in x direction on the control surface 1-1 and
2-2 respectively, and Rx is the component of wall reaction on the stream tube in the x direction. By the
law of action and reaction, an equal and opposite force is exerted by the fluid upon the body
producing the change. As per momentum equation, the time rate of change of momentum in the x-
direction is equal to the resultant force acting on the same direction, hence,

F1x  P1x  P2 x  Rx   Q(V 2 xV1x ) 6-8

Similar equation can be written for the y and z components of the external force acting on the control
volume. If a body force such as weight of the liquid in the control volume is present, its components
should be added to the left hand side of equation 6.8.
Finally, the resultant force can be calculated as

F  Fx2  Fy 2 6-9

The direction of resultant force is finally found by

Fy Fy
tan   or   tan 1 6-10
Fx Fx
7.2 Application of equation of calculate forces (pipe in bends,
enlargements and reducer)

Applications of the momentum principle

A common application of this principle is to find force exerted by flowing fluid on structures open to
atmosphere like gates, over flow spillways, hydraulic jumps, impact of jets etc or force exerted on
pressure conduits. Forces exerted by the flowing fluid on structures open to atmosphere as
mentioned above are not dealt here, these are beyond the scope of this book. Force exerted on
pressure conduits and forces due to impact of jets are explained below.
It is very important to remember that the momentum principle only deals with forces that act on the
fluid mass in a designated control volume. It should be clear that fluid forces acting on a structure are
equal and opposite of the boundary pressure forces acting on the fluid. There is always confusion
over the sign. It is recommended to first solve for the magnitude and direction of the reaction force of
the structure on the fluid, and only in the last step to find the equal and opposite force of the fluid on
the structure.

Pipe bends, enlargement and contraction

As explained earlier whenever the velocity of a stream of fluid is changed either in direction or
magnitude the fluid exerts force on the body of the structure. Consider the case of horizontal flow to
the right through the reducer as shown in Figure 6.2a. The control volume and the forces acting on
the fluid mass contained in the reducer are also shown in Figure 6.2b.

1 Control volume
2
V1 V2 F(R/F)x
P1A1 P2A2

Figure-6.2a: Flow through reducer

Figure-6.2b: Forces acting on the control volume of reducer

Let p1 A1 be the intensity pressure and cross-sectional area at section 1 and A2 and p2 are the
corresponding values for section 2 and neglecting the shear forces at the boundary of the reducer. Let
the force (FR/F)X represents the force exerted by the reducer on the fluid in the x-direction. Since the
pipe is in horizontal direction, the force in vertical direction (F R/F)y is equal to zero.
Total force in x direction is equal to rate of change of momentum in that direction:

 Fx  p A  p A  F   QV
1 1 2 2 R/ F 2  V1  6-11

In the above equation each term can be calculated independently from the given flow data except
(FR/F)X, which is the quantity we wish to find. This equation can be rearranged as:

FR / F   p1 A1  p2 A2  QV2  V1  6-12

The force of the fluid on the reducer is, of course equal and opposite to that of the reducer on the
fluid. In general, if the pipe is bending in certain angle θ as shown in Figure 6.3, then, the resultant
force may have vertical as well as horizontal components. The force in x direction may be expressed
as Fx = ρQ (V2x - V1x), where V2x and V1x are the components of final and initial velocities in x direction.
 V2y
V2
V2
2
Control volume P2 V2x
1
2
V1 
P1
Fy
1
F

Fx

Figure 6.3: Pipe bending at angle θ

Similarly we can develop the expression for the component of the force in vertical direction as Fy = ρQ (V2y
- V1y), where V2y and V1y are the components of final and initial velocities in y direction. And we can find
the resultant force knowing both Fx and Fy.
If the pipe is bending 90 º as shown in Figure 6.4, (like 90º elbow) then the component of final velocity in x
direction V2x and the component of initial velocity in y direction V1y and are equal to zero.

V2

P2

V1

P1
F

Figure 6.4: 900 bending of pipe (900 elbow)

The equation then reduced to:

Fx  Q V2 x  V1x   Fx  V1x

Fy  Q V2 y  V1 y   Fx V2 y
Fx and Fy are the dynamic forces exerted by the bend on the flowing fluid due to change of
momentum. Action and reaction are equal and opposite, so the flowing fluid will also exert on force
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction on the boundary of the conduit.
 Momentum equation is used in solving many practical problems in hydraulics such as pipe bent
reducer, moving and fixed vans, Jet propulsion, propeller, head losses in expansion and contraction in
pipe flow, hydraulic jump in open channel and others.
Momentum equation applied to deflectors
The application of momentum equation to deflectors forms an integral part of the analysis of many
turbomachines, such as turbines, pumps, and compressors. In this section we illustrate a few
examples. It will be separated into two parts: jets deflected by stationary deflectors and jets deflected
by moving deflectors. For both problems we will assume the following:
 The pressure external to the jet is everywhere constant so that the pressure in the fluid entering
the deflector is the same as that in the fluid exiting the deflector.
 The frictional resistance due to the fluid deflector interaction is negligible so that the relative
speed between the deflector surface and the jet stream remains unchanged, a result of
Bernoulli’s equation.
 Lateral spreading of a plane jet is neglected
 The body force, the weight of the control volume, is small and generally neglected.

7.3 Forces exerted by the jet on stationary and moving vanes of

different shapes

Force exerted by the jet on stationary plates (stationary deflector)

a) Plate in vertical direction to the jet of flowing liquid
Let V is the velocity of jet and d is the diameter of jet (at the end of nozzle). The jet of liquid after striking
will get deflected at 90º (see Figure 6.5). Hence, the velocity component of jet in the direction of jet after
striking must be zero. As per impulse-momentum principle, net force exerted by the jet on the plate in
the normal direction is equal to the rate of charge of momentum in that direction. In this situation, the
normal direction is the x-direction.

Jet of water Stationary

with area A verticle plate

Pipe Nozzle

V
Figure-6.5: Jet striking on a flat vertical plate
Fx   QV2 x  V1x 

Fx   Q0  V1x 

Fx    QV

Fx  F   . AV .V   AV 2 6-13

Expression 6.13 is the expression for the resultant force exerted by the jet on the plate or force exerted by the
plate on the jet. Here V2x = 0 because velocity of leaving jet in the direction normal to the plate is zero.
b) Force on inclined stationary plate
Let the plate is inclined with respect to the direction of the jet as shown in Figure 6.6 and let θ be the
angle between the jet and plate. Let V is the velocity of jet in x direction. After striking the jet on the
deflector (inclined plate) the flow will be divided into Q 1 and Q2, however, the magnitude of the velocity
vectors are equal (V2 = V1 = V), since the pressure is assumed to be constant external to the fluid jet
and elevation changes are negligible.
As stated earlier that the force exerted by the fluid on the plate in normal direction F n must be equal to
the rate of change of momentum in that direction.
Q1, V1

 Fn
n

V Fy
 Fx 
Noozzel Jet of
Pipe area A Vsin

Vcos
Q2, V2

V 

Figure-6.6: Jet striking on a inclined flat plate

Fn   QV2 n  V1n 
Fn  Q0  V sin  
where, V1n = Vsinθ is the component of initial velocity in normal direction and, final velocity of jet in
normal direction of the plate is zero. i.e., V2n = 0

Fn    QV sin   AV 2 sin  6-14

Expression 6.14 is the expression for the resultant force exerted by the jet on the plate or force exerted by the
plate on the jet. This force can be dissolved in horizontal as well as vertical directions as:

Fx = Fn sin = AV 2 sin 2 

Fy = Fn cos = AV 2 cos . sin 
The division of flow Q1 and Q2 can be computed by applying the momentum equation. Momentum of
the flowing liquid in the direction of the surface of the plate can be expressed as:

 QV cos  6-15
and  Q1 V1   Q2 V2 are the differences of final component of momentum in the same direction.
Both momentums must be the same hence,

 Q1 V   Q2 V   QV cos ; (here V1  V2  V )

Q1  Q2  Q cos Q1 Q2  Q cos  0 And

Q1  Q2  Q  Q1  Q  Q2
By solving these two equations simultaneously we can get:

Q
Q1  (1  cos  ) 6-16
2
Q
Q2  (1  cos ) 6-17
2
Now, if the deflector angle θ is 90º, i.e. vertical plane surface, then Q1 = Q2 = Q/2. Or in other words
the flow will equally divide after striking on the vertical plane surface.
(C) Force on stationary symmetrical curved vane at its centre
The horizontal jet of velocity V is striking a smooth symmetrical curved vane at its centre on the
concave side as shown in Figure 6.7. The jet divides and leaves at the outer tips. As we have
assumed the frictional effect, the outgoing velocity at the vane tips must be equal to the velocity of
incoming jet.

V Vsin

Vcos
V
Nozzle
180-


Pipe
V
Figure-6.7: Jet striking on a curve stationary plate
Let 2 be angle between the two tangents drawn to the vane at its outlet, hence, the jet after striking will
be deflected on each side through the angle of (1800 - ). Component of velocity leaving in the direction
of flow is Vcos (see Figure 6.7). As per impulse-momentum principle, the force exerted by the jet in
normal direction of vane is:

Fn   QV2 n  V1n 

Fn  Q V cos   V    QV 1  cos 

Fn  AV 2 1  cos   6-18

(Force exerted by the jet on the plate is equal to the force exerted by the body of plate on the
jet).Here, A is the cross-sectional area of jet and V is the initial velocity of the jet.
Now, we can make the following conclusion:

If the angle  is equal to 900 (or 180 -  = 900) the curve vane becomes a flat and vertical plate and
this equation is reduced to force exerted by the jet in vertical plane as similar expression as 6.13

Fn  AV 2
This indicates that force exerted by the jet on curved vane is more than that of flat vane,
because, AV 2 1  cos  always more than AV 2 .
Now, if the   0 0 or (180 -  0  180 0 ) , the vane becomes semi-circular. The jet leaves the vane
tips in a direction parallel to the striking jet but opposite in direction. The force exerted on the vane
can then be estimated as;

Fn  AV 2 1  cos    2 AV 2 6-19

It indicates that force exerted by the jet on semicircular vane is twice the force exerted on a flat plate
in vertical direction. This is the reason to make bucket of Pelton turbine close to semicircular in shape.

(d) Force on stationary curved vane with jet striking tangentially at one tip

Let the jet of flowing liquid with cross=sectional area A and velocity V strike tangentially at one of the
tips (known as inlet tip), of a smooth curved vane as shown in Figure 6.8. The jet after gliding the
inner surface of the vane leaves it tangentially at other part of vane (known as outer lip).

Fy F

Stationeary
Curved Vane
Fx
Tangent to the
vane at outlet tip


Tangent to the
vane at inlet tip

V
Figure 6.8: Jet striking tangentially on a unsymmetrical curved vane

Looking a general case, when the tangent at the inlet tip makes an angle α with the horizontal axis
and that of outlet tip be β (see Figure 6.8). Then, the jet gets deflected through an angle 180 0-β. The
components of the velocity of the jet in x direction at the inlet and outlet tips would be Vcosα and –
Vcosβ respectively. Similarly the components of the velocity of the jet in the y direction at the inlet and
outlet tips would be Vsinα and Vsinβ respectively (see Figure 6.8). Based on the impulse-momentum
principle, the force exerted by the jet on the curve vane in the x and y directions would be;

Fx   QV2 x  V1x 

Fx   Q V cos   V cos 

Fx    QV cos   cos 
Fx   AV 2 cos   cos   6-20

Expression 6.20 is the expression for the force exerted by the jet on the plate in x direction is equal to
the force exerted by the body of plate on the jet. Similar expression can be drawn for y direction.

Fy   QV2 y  V1 y 

Fx   QV sin   V sin  

Fx   QV sin   sin  

Fx   AV 2 sin   sin   6-20

The resultant force exerted by the jet on the wall of the vane will be

F  Fx2  Fy2

And the inclination θ with the horizontal axis is

Fy
  tan 1
Fx
Having above information we can now make the following conclusions.
Let us consider that the vane is symmetrical i.e. α = β, then sin α = sin β and hence, F y = 0 (see the
expression for Fy) and Fx  2 AV 2 cos  represents the resultant force on the vane due the change
in momentum. Similarly for semicircular vane Fy = 0 (see the expression for Fy) and Fx  2 AV 2
(because sin α = sin β = sin 0º = 0) represents the resultant force on the vane due the change in
momentum.
Force exerted by the jet on moving plates
Let's consider the flow system as shown in Figure 6.9. The jet of water issues from the nozzle strikes a flat
vertical plate, but the plate is moving with velocity u. The plate is moving with respect to the flow of jet. Let
V is the absolute velocity of the jet and A is the cross-sectional area of jet and u is the absolute velocity of
plate. The velocity with which the jet strikes the plate will not be its absolute velocity V, but will be relative
velocity. Relative velocity of the jet with respect to plate is (V - u)

V-u

Pipe Nozzle Jet of area A

u

V
V-u
Figure-6.9: Jet striking on a moving flat plate
Subsequent analysis is then made by assuming the plate to be stationary and the jet moving with a
velocity (V-u). Mass of water striking the plate per second is equal to  AV - u 
By the impulse momentum principle, force exerted by the jet in a direction normal to the plate is equal
to the rate of change of momentum in that direction.

Fn  AV - u  V1n  V2n 

Fn  AV - u  V  u   0

Fn   AV  u 
2
6-21

Here component of final velocity is taken as zero, because the component of final velocity in the normal
direction of the plate is zero.
We can now estimate the work done by the striking jet. Work done per second by the jet on the plate
is equal to the force times the distance through which the body moves in the direction of force per
time.

 AV  u  u
2
Work done = force times distance moved 6-22

N .m
and the unit is  Watt
sec
We can also calculate the efficiency of the system. The input of jet to the plate will be the kinetic
energy per unit time supplied by the jet which is equal to

1 m 2 1 volume 1
Kinetic energy /unit time  V    V 2   AV 3
2 time 2 time 2
Work done on the plate
Hydraulic efficiency of the system  
kinetic energy supply by the jet
 AV  u 2 u 2u (V  u ) 2
 
1 V3
 AV 3
2


2
V3

V 2 u  2V u 2  u 3  6-23

For a given jet velocity the efficiency is maximum when dη/du = 0. Differentiating expression 6.23
with respect to u results;
d d 2
 (
du du V 3

V 2 u  2V u 2  u 3 )  0 
d 2

 3 V 2  4V u  3 u 2  0
du V

V 2

 4V u  3u 2  0

V 2
 3V u  Vu  3u 2  0 
V (V  3u )  u (V  3u )  0

(V  u )(V  3u )  0 6-24

Equation 6.24 shows that if V = u, the work done by the jet will be equal to zero, and hence, for
maximum efficiency V = 3u and correspondingly
 2
 V V 4
Maximum work done   AV     AV 3 6-25
 3  3 27
And maximum efficiency would be

Maximum work done

Maximum efficiency 
Kinetic energy of jet

4
 AV 3
8
Maximum efficiency  27  or 29.62%
1 27
 AV 3

2
Similarly we can develop the relationship for the moving plate with inclined plate. If the inclined plate
is also moving with its absolute velocity u the expression for the force becomes:

Fn  AV  u  sin 
2
6-26

and its components in x and y directions could be:

Fx  AV  u  sin 2 
2

Fy  AV  u  sin  cos 

2

Apparently when θ is equal to 90º, the above equations reduce to the expressions for a flat plate held
normal to the direction of jet.
Jet striking on series of flat vanes
In engineering practices, a series of flat plates is mounted on the periphery of a wheel (like water mills) and
this wheel turns when the fluid jet impinges onto a plate. Plates are arranged properly around the
circumference of the wheel so that the fluid missed by one plate gets deflected by the next. A series of flat
plane plates are shown in Figure 6.10. Because of continuous action, the entire fluid mass issuing from the
jet is considered to strike the plates.

Vanes

Shaft

Radial
Spokes

V
u
Wheel
Noozle Jet Periphery
Figure-6.10: Jet striking on flat plates mounted on the periphery of a wheel

The absolute velocity of the jet is V and that of plate is u. Force exerted on the plate can be expressed as:

Fn  AV V1n   V2n 

Fn  AV V  u   0

Fn  AV V  u  6-27

We can also calculate the work done by the jet on the plate and its efficiency as it was done before for
other cases.

Work done = force times distance moved  AV V  u u

1 m 2 1
Kinetic energy/unit time  V   AV 3
2 time 2
Work done on the wheel
Hydraulic efficiency of the system  
kinetic energy issues by the jet
 AV V  u u 2u (V  u )
 
1
 AV 3 V2
2
For a given jet velocity the efficiency is maximum when dη/du = 0. Differentiating above expression
with respect to u results;

d d 2u
 ( (V  2u ))  0
du d V 2
d 2
 2 (V  2u )  0
du V
2 V
Since , 2
 (V  2u )  0  u  6-28
V 2
Equation 6.28 shows that when u = V/2 i.e., the peripheral velocity u is half of the jet velocity V occurs
maximum efficiency.

 V V 1
Maximum work done   AV V     AV 3 6-29
 22 4
And maximum efficiency would be

Maximum work done

Maximum efficiency 
Kinetic energy of jet

1
 AV 3
1
Maximum efficiency  4  or 50.0 %
1
 AV 3 2
2
Jet striking on the centre of a moving curved vane
Let the curve vane itself moves with velocity u as shown in Figure 6.11 in the direction of jet.
 (V-u) (V-u) sin

(V-u) cos
Moving covered vane
u

Jet 180°
V 


u Tangent to the vane

at outlet Tip

(V- u)
Figure 6.11: Jet striking on the centre of moving vane
Then, the effective incoming velocity should be V-u, and correspondingly we can estimate the force
exerted by the jet as

Fn  AV  u  (V1n  V2 n )

Fn  AV  u  (V  u)  (V  u) cos  

Fn  AV  u  1  cos 
2
6-30

Here  be angle between the tangents drawn to the vane at its outlet, hence, the jet after striking will be
deflected on each side through the angle of (1800 - ) (see Figure 6.11). We also calculate the
efficiency in this case too. As already mentioned the work done is the product of force exerted on the
vane times distance moved by the vane. Mathematically, it can be expresses as:

 Fn u  AV  u  1  cos u
2
Work done

1
Kinetic energy/unit time   AV 3
2
Work done on the vane
Hydraulic efficiency of the system  
2u (V  u ) 2 1  cos 
kinetic energy issues by the jet

V3
 AV  u 2 1  cos   u 2u (V  u ) 2 1  cos  
 
1 V3
 AV 3
2
6-31

For a given jet velocity V and the constant angle θ, the efficiency is maximum when dη/du = 0.
Differentiating expression 6.31 with respect to u results;

d d 2u (V  u ) 2 1  cos 
 ( )0
du du V3
d 21  cos  d
du

V3 du

V 2 u  2Vu 2  u 3  0 
21  cos  2
V3

V  4V u  3u 2  0 
21  cos 
Since  0, therefore
V3
V 2

 4V u  3u 2  0 , it gives
(V  u )(V  3u )  0 6-32

Equation 6.32 shows that if V = u, the work done by the jet will be equal to zero, and hence, for
maximum efficiency V = 3u or u = V/3 and correspondingly the maximum efficiency would be

Maximum work done

Maximum efficiency 
Kinetic energy issues by the jet

Maximum efficiency 
 
2 u 3u  u 2 1  cos  8
 (1  cos ) 6-33
(3u ) 3 27
For a semi-circular vane when the jet strike at the centre of the vane, the angle θ is 0 0, hence cosθ =
1 and the maximum efficiency would be

8 16
 max  (1  cos 0)   59.25%
27 27
Jet striking on the centre of a moving of curved vane (series)
We have seen that the efficiency of the system even for single curve vane moving with velocity u is
higher than the efficiency for the series of flat plate mounted on the periphery of a wheel. This
indicates that efficiency is higher for curved vane than a flat plate.
A series of curved vanes is mounted equidistantly around the periphery of a wheel are in practice, for
example bucket of Pelton turbine as shown in Figure 6.12. When the wheel turns, there is always one
or other vane facing the jet. Hence, the entire fluid mass issuing from the jet is utilized in striking the
vanes.

Curved vanes

u
Pipe

u
V
Jet Nozzle
Figure 6.12: Jet striking at the centre of series of moving vane
Let the velocity of jet be V and the vane is moving with velocity u. Then, the effective incoming
velocity should be V-u. Force exerted by the jet on the vane can be written as
 Fn   AV V1n  V2 n 

Fn   AV V  u   ((V  u) cos  )

Fn   AV V  u 1 cos  6-34

Here  be angle between the tangents drawn to the vane at its outlet, hence, the jet after striking will be
deflected on each side through the angle of (1800 - ). We can also calculate the efficiency in this case
too. Work done can be expressed as

Work done F n u   AV V  u  1 cos u

Work done on the wheel
Hydraulic efficiency of the system  
2 u (V  u ) 1  cos 
kinetic energy supplied by the jet

V2
 AV V  u  1  cos   u 2 u (V  u )1  cos  
 
1 V2
 AV 3
2
6-35

For a given jet velocity V and the constant angle θ, the efficiency is maximum when dη/du = 0.
Differentiating expression 6.35 with respect to u results;

d d 2u (V  u ) 1  cos 
 ( )0
du du V2
d 21  cos  d
du

V 2
du

uV  u 2  0 
21  cos 
V  2 u   0
V2
21  cos 
Since  0, therefore
V2

V 
 2 u  0 , it gives
V
V  2u or u  6-36
2
Thus, for maximum efficiency speed of vane should be half of the velocity of jet. The corresponding
maximum efficiency is

2u 2u  u 1  cos  1  cos

 max   6-37
(2u ) 2 2
Equation 6.37 shows that the maximum efficiency i.e., 100% occurs when θ = 0 0, or when the vanes
are of semi-circular in shapes. As mentioned above, this concept is utilized for designing of buckets of
Pelton turbines. The buckets are, however, not exactly semi-circular. The angle of deflection is limited
to 1600-1700 depending upon the particular design. This is to ensure that the jet coming out of a
bucket does not interface with the jet striking the bucket.

7.4 Concept of angular momentum with examples.

Moment of momentum equation
Because the radius usually varies as fluid flows through a rotor, it is desirable to compute torque
rather than force. The resultant torque is the sum of the torques produced by all the elementary
forces, but it has been shown that this sum may be considered as equivalent to two single forces, one
concentrated at the entrance and the other at the exit of any device.
The equation for the torque is derived from moment of momentum principle, which states that the
resulting torque acting on a rotating fluid is equal to the rate of change moment of momentum
(angular momentum). Let the fluid particle moves along a curved path as shown in Figure 6.13. Moment of
momentum (angular momentum) exerted on the fluid particle is equal to the product of momentum
and moment arm (lever arm). V 2n
Centre V2
O r2
2

r1 Curved Path

V1

1 V1n
Figure-6.13: Moving of particles on a curved path
Consider a fixed point O in a surface as shown in Figure 6.13. Let's consider the mass of the particle
is m. At point 1 let the velocity V1 is the tangential velocity and V1n be the normal velocity with respect
to point O. Similarly V2 and V2n; V3 and V3n are tangential and normal velocities for point 2 and 3
respectively.
Moment of momentum or angular momentum at section 1 is equal to the product of momentum and its
arm (perpendicular distance from point O to the point 1)

moment of momentum for sec tion 1  m V1n r1

Similarly moment of momentum for section 2 is equal to

moment of momentum for sec tion 2  m V2n r2

Hence, the of change of momentum (differences of momentum) is equal to

m (V2 n r2  V1n r1 ) 6-38

Now, the rate of change of angular momentum would be

m mass  x Volume
(V2 n r2  V1n r1 ) , here   Q
time time time
And finally, the rate of change of momentum is the torque T and it can be expressed as

T  QV2n , r2  Vin .r1  6-39