Departement of Computer Science

Content
Page

Introduction

Section 1: Overview of the Scientific Method

Section 1: Meaning of Hypothesis
Section 1: Definitions of Hypothesis
Section 1: Importance of Hypothesis
Section 1: Nature of Hypothesis
Section 1: Writing a Hypothesis
Section 1: Characteristics of Good Hypothesis
Section 1: Good Hypotheses Tips
Section 1: Variables in a Hypothesis
Section 1: Kinds of Hypotheses
Section 1: Scientific Hypothesis Requirements

Bibliography

BODJE N’KAUH NATHAN REGIS

M.PHIL 2010
CHRIST UNIVERSITY
 Content
Page

Introduction 03

Section 01 : Overview of the Scientific Method 04

Section 02 : Meaning of Hypothesis 05

Section 03 : Definitions of Hypothesis 06

Section 04 : Importance of Hypothesis 08

Section 05 : Nature of Hypothesis 09

Section 06 : Writing a Hypothesis 10

Section 07 : Characteristics of Good Hypothesis 11

Section 08 : Good Hypotheses Tips 12

Section 09 : Variables in a Hypothesis 14

Section 10 : Kinds of Hypotheses 16

Section 11 : Scientific Hypothesis Requirements 19

Conclusion 20

References 21

Foundation of Hypothesis Page 2

 Introduction

The typical presentation of the Scientific Method suggests that scientific

research follows a path, proceeding from a question through observation,
hypothesis formation, and experimentation and finally producing results and a
conclusion.

A scientific study is based on hypotheses. For the assignment of research

methodology courses, we have chosen to speak about hypothesis, because it may
be appropriate before write the research proposal to formulate major hypotheses
and several hypotheses of our subject.

The formulation of hypothesis is a central step in good research [6], and it is

important to give and understand very well many aspect of this.

It is what; this document is tried to do. To avoid some problem in formulate

hypothesis, and aid to ask the right question to write the good hypothesis.

Foundation of Hypothesis Page 3

Overview of the Scientific Method
The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and
answer questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and
effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to
one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way. [1]

The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How,
What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where?
And, in order for the scientific method to answer the question it must be about something that
you can measure, preferably with a number.

Just as it does for a professional scientist, the scientific method will help you to focus your
science fair project question, construct a hypothesis, design, execute, and evaluate your
experiment.

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Meaning of Hypothesis
The word hypothesis consists of two words: Hypo + thesis = Hypothesis [1]

(1) ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject to the verification and ‘Thesis’ means statement
about solution of a problem.

The world meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the
problem. Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and
based on some rationale.

(2) ‘Hypo’ means composition of two or more variables which is to be verified. ‘Thesis’
means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference.

This is the operational meaning of the term hypothesis. Hypothesis is the composition of some
variables which have some specific position or role of the variables i.e. to be verified
empirically. It is a proposition about the factual and conceptual elements. Hypothesis is called
a leap into the dark. It is a brilliant guess about the solution of a problem.

A tentative generalization or theory formulated about the character of phenomena under

observation are called hypothesis. It is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of
what is known at the time about the phenomena. It is the basis for planning and action- in the
research for new truth.

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Definitions of Hypothesis
A hypothesis is an "educated guess" about how things work. It can be an educated guess
about what nature is going to do, or about why nature does what it does. [3]
is simply an educated—and testable—guess about the answer to your research question [6]

- A tentative supposition or provisional guess

 “Hypotheses are single tentative guesses--good hunches--assumed for use in

devising theory or planning experiment, intended to be given a direct experimental
test when possible.” Eric M. Rogers, "Physics for the Inquiring Mind." (Princeton
University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1966)
 “It is a tentative supposition or provisional guess which seems to explain the
situation under observation.” James E. Greighton

- A Tentative generalization

 “A hypothesis is a tentative generalisation the validity of which remains to be

tested. In its most elementary stage the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess,
imaginative idea which becomes the basis for further investigation.” A Lungberg

- Shrewd Guess

 “It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to

explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.” John
W. Best

- Guides the Thinking Process

 “Science employs hypothesis in guiding the thinking process. When our

experience tells us that a given phenomenon follows regularly upon the appearance
of certain other phenomena, we conclude that the former is connected with the
latter by some sort of relationship and we form an hypothesis concerning this
relationship.” A.D. Carmichael

- Test to determine its validity

 “A hypothesis states what we are looking for. A hypothesis looks forward. It is a

proposition which can be put to a test to determine its validity. It may prove to be
correct or incorrect.” Goode and Han

 “A theory when stated as a testable proposition formally and clearly and subjected
to empirical or experimental verification is known as a hypothesis.” M. Verma

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 - Relationship between two or more variables

 “A hypothesis then could be defined as an expectation about events based on

generalization of the assumed relationship between variables.” Bruce W. Tuckman

- Statement temporarily accepted as true

 “A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at

the time, known about a phenomena, and it is employed as a basis for action in the
search for new truth, when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form
of facts, principles and theories.” Barr and Scates

 “Hypothesis is an assumption or proposition whose testability is to be tested on the

basis of the computability of its implications with empirical evidence with
previous knowledge.” George, J. Mouly

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Importance of Hypothesis
Bruce W. Tuckman presents the importance of Hypothesis in the Research Spectrum :
Research begins with a problem and utilization of both theories and findings in arriving at
hypothesis. These hypotheses contain variables which must be labelled and then operationally
defined to construct predictions. These steps might be considered the logical stages of the
research. These stages are followed by methodological stages, which culminate in the
development of research design and development of measures and finally in the finding
themselves.

George J. Mouley thinks that Hypotheses serve the following purposes:

1. They provide direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant literature and the
collection of useful or excess data.

2. They sensitize the investigator certain aspects of situation which are irrelevant from the
standpoint of the problem at hand.

3. They enable the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem and its
ramification.

4. They serve as a framework for the conclusive-in short a good hypothesis:

(a) Gives help in deciding the direction in which he has to proceed.

(b) It helps in selecting pertinent fact.
(c) It helps in drawing conclusions.

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Nature of Hypothesis
The following are the main features of a hypothesis:

1. It is conceptual in nature. Some kind of conceptual elements in the framework are involved
in a hypothesis. The concepts should be clearly defined, operationally if possible. Moreover,
they should be definitions which are commonly accepted and communicable rather than the
products of a “private world” .

2. It is a verbal statement in a declarative form. It is a verbal expression of ideas and concepts,

it is not merely idea but in the verbal form, the idea is ready enough for empirical verification.

3. It has the empirical referent. A hypothesis contains some empirical referent. It indicates the
tentative relationship between two or more variables. In other words, while the hypothesis
may study value judgments, such a goal must be separated from a moral preachment or a plea
for acceptance of one’s values [7]

4. It has a forward or future reference. A hypothesis is future oriented. It relates to the future
verification not the past facts and informations.

5. It is the pivot of a scientific research. All the research activities are designed for its
verification.

The nature of hypothesis can be well understood by differentiating it with other terms like
assumption and postulate.

Rapid Reference: Assumption, Postulate and Hypothesis

Assumption: Assumption means taking things for granted so that the situation is simplified
for logical procedure. They merely facilitate the progress of an agreement a partial
simplification by introducing restrictive conditions. For example, the formulas of Statistics
and measurement are based on number of assumptions. Assumption means restrictive
conditions before the argument can become valid. Assumptions are made on the basis of
logical insight and their truthfulness can be observed on the basis of data or evidences.

Postulate: Postulates are the working beliefs of most scientific activity. The mathematician
begins by postulating a system of numbers which range from 0 to 9 and can permute and
combine only thereafter. Similarly ‘Hull’s Theory of Reinforcement’s is based on eight
postulates of behavior of an organism. With many people God and Spirit is a postulate of the
good life or godly life. Postulates are not proven; they are simply accepted at their face value
so that their basic work for the discovery of other facts of nature can begin.

Hypothesis: A hypothesis is different from both of these. It is the presumptive statement of a

proposition which the investigator seeks to prove. It is a condensed generalization. This
generalization requires a knowledge of principles of things or essential characteristics which
pertain to entire class of phenomena.

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Foundation of Hypothesis Page 10
 Writing a Hypothesis
Most of the time a hypothesis is written like this:
"If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen." [1]

Example

- If skin cancer is related to ultraviolet light , then people with a high exposure to uv light will
have a higher frequency of skin cancer.
- If leaf color change is related to temperature, then exposing plants to low temperatures will
result in changes in leaf color.

Notice that these statements contain the words, if and then. They are necessary in a formalized
hypothesis. But not all if-then statements are hypotheses. For example,

- If I play the lottery, then I will get rich. This is a simple prediction.

In a formalized hypothesis, a tentative relationship is stated. if you always ask yourself that if
one thing is related to another, then you should be able to test it.

Formalized hypotheses contain two variables. One is "independent" and the other is
"dependent" [4]. The independent variable is the one you, the "scientist" control and the
dependent variable is the one that you observe and/or measure the results.

Rapid Reference: Sample Variables & Hypothesis [5]

Question: Which AA battery maintains its voltage for the longest period of time in low,
medium, and high current drain devices?

Variables: - Independent Variable: Time, how long each battery operates.

- Dependent Variable: Voltage.

Experimental Group Controlled Variables for Each Group

Low current drain Same portable CD player | Play the same music track | Play at the same volume level

Medium current drain Identical flashlight | Identical light bulb

High current drain Same camera flash

All groups Battery size (AA) | Constant temperature (A battery works better at a warm temperature.)

Hypothesis: As I test for increasingly long periods of time, the Energizer AA battery will
maintain a higher voltage than other batteries.

Foundation of Hypothesis Page 11

Characteristics of Good Hypothesis

A good hypothesis must possess the following main characteristics:

1. A good hypothesis is in agreement with the observed facts.

2. A good hypothesis does not conflict with any law of nature which is known to be true.

3. A good hypothesis is stated in the simplest possible term.

4. A good hypothesis permits of the application of deductive reasoning.

5. A good hypothesis shows very clear verbalization. It is different from what is generally
called hunch.

6. A good hypothesis ensures that the methods of verification are under control of the
investigator.

7. A good hypothesis guarantees that available tools and techniques will be effectively used
for the purpose of verification.

8. A good hypothesis takes into account the different types controls which are to be exercised
for the purpose of verification.

9. A good hypothesis ensures that the sample is readily approachable.

10. A good hypothesis indicates clearly the role of different variables involved in the study.

11. A good hypothesis maintains a very apparent distinction with what is called theory law,
facts, assumption and postulate.

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Good Hypotheses Tips
The question comes first. Before you make a hypothesis, you have to clearly identify
the question you are interested in studying.

A hypothesis is a statement, not a question. Your hypothesis is not the scientific

question in your project. The hypothesis is an educated, testable prediction about what
will happen.

Make it clear. A good hypothesis is written in clear and simple language. Reading
your hypothesis should tell a teacher or judge exactly what you thought was going to
happen when you started your project.

Keep the variables in mind. A good hypothesis defines the variables in easy-to-
measure terms, like who the participants are, what changes during the testing, and
what the effect of the changes will be. (For more information about identifying
variables, see: Variables in Your Science Fair Project.)

Make sure your hypothesis is "testable." To prove or disprove your hypothesis, you
need to be able to do an experiment and take measurements or make observations to
see how two things (your variables) are related. You should also be able to repeat your
experiment over and over again, if necessary.

To create a "testable" hypothesis make sure you have done all of these things:

1. Thought about what experiments you will need to carry out to do the test.
2. Identified the variables in the project.
3. Included the independent and dependent variables in the hypothesis statement. (This
helps ensure that your statement is specific enough.

Do your research. You may find many studies similar to yours have already been
conducted. What you learn from available research and data can help you shape your
project and hypothesis.

Don't bite off more than you can chew! Answering some scientific questions can
involve more than one experiment, each with its own hypothesis. Make sure your
hypothesis is a specific statement relating to a single experiment.

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 To help demonstrate the above principles and techniques for developing and writing solid,
specific, and testable hypotheses, we offer the following good and bad examples.
Good Hypothesis
When there is less oxygen in the water, rainbow
trout suffer more lice.
Kristin says: "This hypothesis is good because it is
testable, simple, written as a statement, and establishes
the participants (trout), variables (oxygen in water, and
numbers of lice), and predicts effect (as oxygen levels go
down, the numbers of lice go up)."
Aphid-infected plants that are exposed to ladybugs
will have fewer aphids after a week than aphid-
infected plants which are left untreated.
Sandra says: "This hypothesis gives a clear indication of
what is to be tested (the ability of ladybugs to curb an
aphid infestation), is a manageable size for a single
experiment, mentions the independent variable
(ladybugs) and the dependent variable (number of
aphids), and predicts the effect (exposure to ladybugs
reduces the number of aphids)."
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Poor Hypothesis
Our universe is surrounded by another,
larger universe, with which we can have
absolutely no contact.
Kristin says: "This statement may or may not be
true, but it is not a scientific hypothesis. By its
very nature,it is not testable. There are no
observations that a scientist can make to tell
whether or not the hypothesis is correct. This
statement is speculation, not a hypothesis."
Ladybugs are a good natural pesticide for
treating aphid infected plants.
Sandra says: "This statement is not 'bite size.'
Whether or not something is a 'good natural
pesticide' is too vague for a science fair project.
There is no clear indication of what will be
measured to evaluate the prediction.
Variables in a Hypothesis
A hypothesis is made testable by providing operational definitions for the terms or variables
of the hypothesis. For a testable hypothesis there are two important things : Variables, and
Operational definitions.

There are five types of variables.

(i) The Independent Variable: The independent variable which is a stimulus variable or input
operates either within a person or within environment to affect his behaviour. It is that factor
which is measured, manipulated. or selected by the experimenter to determine its relationship
to an observed phenomena.
If a researcher is studying the relationship between two variables X and Y. If X is independent
variable, then it affects another variable Y: So the characteristics of independent variables are:

(a) It is the cause for change in other variables.

(b) Independent variables are always interested only it affects another variable, not in what
affects it.

(ii) The Dependent Variable: The dependent variable is response variable or output. It is an
observed aspect of the behaviour of an organism that has been stimulated. The dependent
variable is that factor which is observed and measured to determine the effect of the
independent variables. It is the variable that will change as a result of variations in the
independent variable. It is considered dependent because its value depends upon the value of
the independent variable. It represents the consequence of change in the parson or situation
studied.

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Relationship Between Independent and Dependent Variables: Most experiments involve
many variables when two continuous variables are compared, as in correlation studies,
deciding which variable to call independent and which dependent is sometimes arbitrary. In
such cases variables are often not labelled as independent or dependent since there is no real
distinction. Independent variables may be called factor and their variation may be called
levels.

(iii) The Moderator Variable: The term moderator variable describes a special type of
independent variable a secondary independent variable selected for study to determine if it
affects the relationship between the primary independent variable and the dependent variable.
The moderator variable is defined as that factor which is measured, manipulated or selected
by the experimenter to discover whether it modifies the relationship of independent variable
to an observed phenomena. The sex and rural urban generally function as moderator variables.

(iv) Control Variable: All the variables in a situation can not be studied at the same time,
some must be neutralized to guarantee that they will not have a differential or moderating
effect on the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. These variables
whose effects must be neutralized or controlled are known as control variables. They are
defined as those factors which are controlled by experimenter to cancel out or neutralize any
effect they might otherwise have on the observed phenomena. While the effects of the control
variables are neutralized, the effect of moderator variables are studied. Certain variables
appear repeatedly as control variables, although they occasionally serve as moderator
variables.
For example sex, intelligence and socio-economic status are three subject variables that are
commonly controlled, noise, task order and task content are common control variables in the
situation.

(v) Intervening Variable: Each independent, moderator, and control variable can be
manipulated by the experimenter and each variation can be observed by him as it affects the
dependent variable. Often these variables are not concrete but hypothetical, the relationship
between a hypothetical underlying or intervening variable and dependent variable. An
intervening variable is that factor which affects the observed phenomenon but cannot be seen
and measured or manipulated, Its effect must be inferred from the effects of the Independent
and moderator variables on the observed phenomena. The attitude, learning process, habit and
interest function as Intervening variables.

In addition, the extraneous variables have an impact upon this Intervening variable. Such
extraneous variables are not under the researcher’s control, their presence weakens a study.
One of the goals of a researcher is to remove as many significant factors as possible from the
extraneous variables category by bringing them into the categories of moderator and control
variables. Such a process of removing extraneous variables strengthens a study.

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Kinds of Hypotheses
The following kinds of hypotheses represent an attempt to order the more commonly observed
varieties as well as to provide some general guidelines for hypothesis, development and
statement. There are four kinds of hypotheses: (a) Question (b) Declaration Statement (c)
Directional Statement and (d) Null form or Non-Directional.

a. Question form of Hypotheses: Some writers assert that a hypothesis may be stated as a
question, however, there is no general consensus on this view. At best, it represents
the simplest level of empirical observation. The following example of a question is
used to illustrate the various hypothesis forms:

H: Is there a significant interaction effect of schedule of reinforcement and extroversion on

learning outcomes?

b. Declarative Statement: A hypothesis may be developed as a declarative which provide

an anticipated relationship or difference between variables. The following is an
example of this form of hypothesis

H : There is significant interaction effect of schedule of reinforcement and extroversion on

learning outcomes.

c. Directional Hypothesis: A hypothesis may be directional which connotes an expected

direction in the relationship or difference between variables. The above hypothesis has
been written in directional statement form as follows:

H : Extrovert learns better through intermittent schedule of reinforcement whereas introvert

learns through continuous schedule of reinforcement.

d. Non-Directional Hypothesis: A hypothesis may be stated in the null form which is an

assertion that no relationship or no difference exists between or among the variables.
The following are the examples of null form of hypothesis

H0 : There is no significant interaction effect of schedule of reinforcement and extroversion

on learning outcomes.
H0 : There is no significant relationship between intelligence and achievement of students.

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Usually, we call the hypothesis that you support (your prediction) the alternative hypothesis,
and we call the hypothesis that describes the remaining possible outcomes the null hypothesis
[8]. Sometimes we use a notation like HA or H1 to represent the alternative hypothesis or your
prediction, and HO or H0 to represent the null case. You have to be careful here, though. In
some studies, your prediction might very well be that there will be no difference or change. In
this case, you are essentially trying to find support for the null hypothesis and you are
opposed to the alternative.

If your prediction specifies a direction, and the null therefore is the no difference prediction
and the prediction of the opposite direction, we call this a one-tailed hypothesis. For instance,
let's imagine that you are investigating the effects of a new employee training program and
that you believe one of the outcomes will be that there will be less employee absenteeism.
Your two hypotheses might be stated something like this:

The null hypothesis for this study is:

HO: As a result of the company employee training program, there will either be no significant
difference in employee absenteeism or there will be a significant increase.

which is tested against the alternative hypothesis:

HA: As a result of the company employee training program, there will be a significant
decrease  in employee absenteeism.

In the figure on the left, we see this situation

illustrated graphically. The alternative
hypothesis -- your prediction that the program
will decrease absenteeism -- is shown there.
The null must account for the other two
possible conditions: no difference, or an
increase in absenteeism. The figure shows a
hypothetical distribution of absenteeism
differences. We can see that the term "one-tailed" refers to the tail of the distribution on the
outcome variable.

Foundation of Hypothesis Page 18

When your prediction does not specify a direction, we say you have a two-tailed hypothesis.
For instance, let's assume you are studying a new drug treatment for depression. The drug has
gone through some initial animal trials, but has not yet been tested on humans.

You believe (based on theory and the previous research) that the drug will have an effect, but
you are not confident enough to hypothesize a direction and say the drug will reduce
depression (after all, you've seen more than enough promising drug treatments come along
that eventually were shown to have severe side effects that actually worsened symptoms). In
this case, you might state the two hypotheses like this:

The null hypothesis for this study is:

HO: As a result of 300mg./day of the drug, there will be no significant difference in

depression.

which is tested against the alternative hypothesis:

HA: As a result of 300mg./day of the drug, there will be a significant difference in depression.

The figure on the right illustrates this two-

tailed prediction for this case. Again, notice
that the term "two-tailed" refers to the tails of
the distribution for your outcome variable.

The important thing to remember about stating

hypotheses is that you formulate your
prediction (directional or not), and then you
formulate a second hypothesis that is mutually exclusive of the first and incorporates all
possible alternative outcomes for that case. When your study analysis is completed, the idea is
that you will have to choose between the two hypotheses. If your prediction was correct, then
you would (usually) reject the null hypothesis and accept the alternative. If your original
prediction was not supported in the data, then you will accept the null hypothesis and reject
the alternative. The logic of hypothesis testing is based on these two basic principles:

 the formulation of two mutually exclusive hypothesis statements that, together,

exhaust all possible outcomes
 the testing of these so that one is necessarily accepted and the other rejected

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Scientific Hypothesis Requirements
What makes a statement a scientific hypothesis, rather than just an interesting speculation? A
scientific hypothesis must meet 2 requirements:

1. A  scientific  hypothesis must be  testable,

Science proceeds by making observations of nature (experiments). If a hypothesis does not

generate any observational tests, there is nothing that a scientist can do with it. Arguing back-
and-forth about what should happen, or what ought to happen, is not the way science makes
progress [3]

2. A  scientific  hypothesis must be  falsifiable.

According to the 20th-century philosopher Karl Popper, hypotheses must be falsifiable

(Popper, 1963). In other words, the researcher must be able to demonstrate that the hypothesis
is wrong. If a hypothesis is not falsifiable, then science cannot be used to test the hypothesis.
For example, hypotheses based on religious beliefs are not falsifiable.
Therefore, because we can never prove that faith-based hypotheses are wrong, there would be
no point in conducting research to test them. Another way of saying this is that the researcher
must be able to reject the proposed explanation (i.e., hypothesis) of the phenomenon being
studied. [6]

Notice: Most Scientific Hypotheses Can't Be Proven Correct!

Hypothesis C: "Any two objects dropped from the same height above the surface of the earth
will hit the ground at the same time, as long as air resistance is not a factor."
Hypothesis C is a scientific hypothesis because:
+ It is testable - pick 2 objects, and drop them. Of course, you may have to provide a vacuum
for them to fall in, in order to remove air resistance from consideration.
+ It is falsifiable - If anyone finds 2 objects that don't hit the ground at the same time and can
show that it is not due to air resistance, then she has proven the hypothesis wrong. This
hypothesis "sticks its neck out" for every test. In theory and in practice, if Hypothesis C were
wrong, it would be very easy and straightforward to show it.

Note that it is very easy to prove Hypothesis C wrong, but it is impossible to prove it correct!
Since Hypothesis C states that any pair of objects behaves in a certain way, in order to prove
it correct, all possible combinations of objects that exist (or have ever, or will ever exist) must
be tested. This is clearly not possible. As we test Hypothesis C more and more, we can get
more and more confident in its truth, but we can never be absolutely sure. Someone could
always come up with 2 objects tomorrow which don't behave exactly as Hypothesis C says
they should, and this would make Hypothesis C incorrect.
Actually, this almost happened. Just a few years ago a group of physicists published a paper
claiming that careful reanalysis of some experimental data published at the turn of the century
(which confirmed Hypothesis C) actually showed that things made of large, heavy atoms fall
very slightly faster than things made of small, light atoms. This "fifth (antigravity) force" idea
caused quite a stir for a short while, but no one has (so far) been able to confirm this effect. If
other physicists had been able to observe it, Hypothesis C would have been proven wrong.

Foundation of Hypothesis Page 20

Foundation of Hypothesis Page 21
 Conclusion

According to L. R. Gay and Peter Airasian, a hypothesis is a tentative explanation for certain
behaviors, phenomena, or events that have occurred or will occur. "A good hypothesis states
as clearly and concisely as possible the expected relationship (or differencce) between two
variables and defines those variables in operational, measurable terms." (Gay 1996, page 62).
A well-stated and defined hypothesis must be testable. It should be possible to support or not
support the hypothesis by collecting and analyzing data. To formulate a research hypothesis
we start with a research question and generate operational definitions for all variables. A
hypothesis can be directional or non-directional. Hypothesis can also be classified in terms of
how they were derived inductive hypothesis which is a generalization based on observation
and deductive hypothesses derived from theory.

Foundation of Hypothesis Page 22

References

[1] http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/pro ject_scientific_method.shtml

[2] Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics Y.K. Singh, NEW AGE
INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS

[3] http://www.batesville.k12.in.us/physics/phynet/aboutscience/hypotheses.html

[4] http://www.accessexcellence.org/LC/TL/filson/writhypo.php

[5] http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_sample_variables.shtml

[6] Essentials of Behavioral Science Series Founding Editors, Alan S. Kaufman and Nadeen
L. Kaufman

[7] Methods in social research, William J. Goode and Paul K. Hatt

[8] http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/hypothes.php

[9] Educational Research: Competencies for Analysis and Application, Seventh Edition by L.
R. Gay and Peter Airasian (2003, Merrill/Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-099463-4)

Foundation of Hypothesis Page 23