(Library of Hebrew Bible - Old Testament Studies 522) Bo H. Lim - Way of The Lord in The Book of Isaiah-Continuum Intl Pub Group (2010)

LIBRARY OF HEBREW BIBLE/
OLD TESTAMENT STUDIES
522
Formerly Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series
Editors
Claudia V. Camp, Texas Christian University
Andrew Mein, Westcott House, Cambridge
Founding Editors
David J. A. Clines, Philip R. Davies and David M. Gunn
Editorial Board
Richard J. Coggins, Alan Cooper, John Goldingay, Robert P. Gordon,
Norman K. Gottwald, Gina Hens-Piazza, John Jarick, Andrew D. H. Mayes,
Carol Meyers, Patrick D. Miller, Yvonne Sherwood
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THE “WAY OF THE LORD”
IN THE BOOK OF ISAIAH
Bo H. Lim
Copyright © 2010 by Bo H. Lim
Published by T & T Clark International

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Printed in the United States of America
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments vii
Abbreviations ix
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION 1
The Enduring Inuence of Isaiah’s “Way of the LORD” 1
Different Authors, Different Ways 3
One Author, One Way 7
Composite Book, One Message 10
Conclusion 15
Chapter 2
METHODOLOGY 18
Isaiah as a Prophetic Book 19
The Composition of Isaiah 40–66 25
Innerbiblical Interpretation 34
Israelite Religion 35
Literalism, Metaphor, and Typology 37
Imagination, Myth, and Eschatology 40
Chapter 3
THE “WAY OF THE LORD” IN ISAIAH 40:1–52:12 43
Denitions of “Way” 43
The Genre of Second Isaiah 46
A New Exodus in Second Isaiah? 47
The Divine Council in Isaiah 40:1–11 49
The Way as the Reversal of Judgment 52
The Way as Transformation of the Wilderness 53
The Way as Eschatological and Ethical 61
The Way of Cyrus 68
The Way of the Servant 85
Summary and Conclusion 93
Chapter 4
THE “WAY OF THE LORD” IN ISAIAH 52:13–66:24 95
The Death of the Servant as the Beginning of Third Isaiah 95
Isaiah 55 as Conclusion and Continuation of the New Exodus 96
vi The “Way of the LORD” in the Book of Isaiah
Is Isaiah 56–66 the Result of Failed Prophecy? 102

Did Cyrus Lead a New Exodus? 106
Exegesis of Isaiah 57:14–21 114
Exegesis of Isaiah 62:10–12 123
Chapter 5
THE “WAY OF THE LORD” IN ISAIAH 34–35 131
Chapters 34–35 as a Diptych 131
Chapters 34–35 as a Conclusion to Isaiah 1–33 134
The “Way of the LORD” in Chapter 34 149
The “Way of the LORD” in Chapter 35 151
Summary and Conclusion 156
Chapter 6
THE “WAY OF THE LORD” IN THE NEW TESTAMENT 158
Shorter Treatments of the “Way of the LORD”
and the Isaianic New Exodus 159
Programmatic Treatments of the “Way of the LORD”
and the Isaianic New Exodus 162
Evaluation and Critique 172
Bibliography 175
Index of References 188
Index of Authors 199
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study is a revision of my Ph.D. dissertation, which was submitted

to Trinity Evangelical Divinity School in 2006. I am grateful for to Dr.
Willem VanGemeren and Dr. Richard Averbeck for supervising and
examining my work. Though Dr. VanGemeren does not share my views
on the composition of Isaiah, he has played a vital role in nurturing my
intellect and my soul, and for this I am tremendously thankful. I am
indebted to the other members of the TEDS faculty who, thanks to the
interdisciplinary Ph.D. program, played a signicant role in broadening
my theological education.
It has taken a village worth of people to complete my education and
this book. At the heart of this village are my wife Sarah, and our three
children: Micah, Hannah, and Aaron. Little did we know how long and
taxing my academic work would be when Sarah married me and when I
began doctoral work. Nevertheless, Sarah has weathered every challenge
and has supported me every step of the way. I dedicate this work to her,
acknowledging that in so many ways it is already hers.
My parents, Dong Ha and Kyong Ae, have sacriced for me in ways
too numerous to mention. Much of this study was written in an unused
bedroom in their house while they cared for my daughter, so that I could
dedicate myself to this book. Most of important of all, they have con-
tinued to be models of faithful obedience to Christ for me, as they have
done ever since I was a child. Numerous other individuals and ecclesial
communities have supported me and my family. Know that even though
your names are not mentioned here, you are in my thoughts.
It is a great privilege for me to teach in the School of Theology at
Seattle Pacic University. My colleagues embraced me as one of their
own from the outset, and for this I am most grateful. Certainly their inu-
ence will be found in this book, given that we never lack in stimulating
and enriching conversations. In particular, I wish to thank Dr. Rob Wall
and Dr. Doug Strong for their advice and encouragement to see this work
published. Dr. Sara Koenig read an earlier version of this work and
offered many helpful comments. My thanks are also due to Steve Perisho,
librarian of the School of Theology, for his valuable assistance.
1
viii The “Way of the LORD” in the Book of Isaiah
Unless otherwise noted, all English Bible quotations are from the New
Revised Standard Version. Biblical references correspond to the English
Bible, followed by Hebrew Bible versication in brackets when the
numbering differs. All German translations are my own unless otherwise
noted.
Unfortunately, I did not receive Østein Lund’s Way Metaphors and
Way Topics in Isaiah 40–55 (Forschungen zum Alten Testament 2/28;
Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2007) in time to include its contribution in this
study.
I wish to thank the editors of the LHBOTS series for accepting my
work into this series. While writing my dissertation, I observed that
many of my sources came from this series (or its predecessor, the JSOT
Supplement Series), so it is an honor for my work to be included in such
an important series. My hope is that my work will stimulate others,
biblical scholars and theologians alike, to further reect on the richness
of Isaiah’s vision.
1
ABBREVIATIONS
ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by D. N. Freedman. 6 vols. New

York, 1992
BDB Brown, F., S. R. Driver, and C. A. Briggs. A Hebrew and English
Lexicon of the Old Testament. Oxford, 1907
BHRG Van der Merwe, Christo H. J. A Biblical Hebrew Reference
Grammar. Sheffield: Sheffield Academic, 1999
BHS Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia. Edited by K. Elliger and W.
Rudolph. Stuttgart, 1983
GKC Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar. Edited by E. Kautzsch. Translated by
A. E. Cowley. 2d. ed. Oxford, 1910
HALOT Koehler, L., W. Baumgartner, and J. J. Stamm, The Hebrew and
Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament. Translated and edited under
the supervision of M. E. J. Richardson. 4 vols. Leiden, 1994–99
IBHS An Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax. B. K. Waltke and M.
O’Connor. Winona Lake, Indiana, 1990
LXX Septuagint
MT Masoretic text
NIB The New Interpreter’s Bible
NIV New International Version
NJPS Tanakh: The Holy Scriptures: The New JPS Translation according
to the Traditional Hebrew Text
NRSV New Revised Standard Version
RSV Revised Standard Version
TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Edited by G. J.
Botterweck and H. Ringgren. Translated by J. T. Willis, G. W.
Bromiley, and D. E. Green. 8 vols. Grand Rapids, 1974–
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Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
The Enduring Inuence of Isaiah’s “Way of the LORD”

Standing before the Lincoln Memorial on August 28, 1963, Martin
Luther King, Jr. delivered what has now become arguably the most
famous speech in American history. After declaring his dream that one
day little black boys and girls would be able to join with little white boys
and girls in Alabama, he proclaimed, “I have a dream that one day every
valley shall be exalted, every hill and mountain shall be made low, the
rough places shall be made plain, and the crooked places shall be made
straight and the glory of the Lord will be revealed and all esh shall see
it together.”1 For King, Isa 40:4–5 provides inspiration for the Civil
Rights Movement, with its vision for equity. The hills and mountains are
symbols of oppressive forces that need to be humbled and the crooked
places are injustices that need to be rectied. Conversely, the lowly and
oppressed of the earth will one day be exalted. Although he refers to this
text as his hope, King here is not merely dreaming of the afterlife.
Implied in this citation is the imperative to make this dream a present
reality. The “way” is then a metaphor for the conduct of a nation and the
glory of the Lord will only be revealed once the people have prepared a
“way” by living according to justice and equity. Isaiah 40:4–5, then,
provides for King not only an eschatology, but also an ethic.
Certainly King is not the rst to make use of Isaiah’s proclamation of
a way of the LORD. The Qumran community referred to their own
movement as “the Way” and on two occasions in the Community Rule
Isa 40:3 is quoted (1QS VIII 14; IX 19–20). The language and literature
of Isaiah possessed such a formative role that Isa 40:3 functioned as a
manifesto for this community.2 Early Christians similarly referred to
1. Martin Luther King, Jr., I Have a Dream: Writing and Speeches that Changed
the World (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), 105.
2. S. Vernon McCasland, “The Way,” JBL 78 (1958): 222–30; George J. Brooke,
“Isaiah 40:3 and the Wilderness Community,” in New Qumran Texts and Studies:
1
2 The “Way of the LORD” in the Book of Isaiah
themselves as followers of “the Way” (Acts 9:2; 18:25, 26; 19:9, 23;
22:4; 24:14, 22) and all four Gospel writers quote Isa 40:3 (Matt 3:3;
Mark 1:2–3; Luke 3:4; John 1:23) in reference to John the Baptizer.
Several New Testament scholars have argued that the Way of the LORD
(WOL)/New Exodus (NE) motif functions as the organizing theme of
Mark, Luke, and Acts.3 The programmatic role of this verse and the
WOL theme for Jews and Christians demonstrates the importance of
investigating its role within the book called Isaiah.
For half a century, the WOL/NE has been considered by scholars to be
not only a major motif within Isaiah, but the overarching theme of Isa
40–55.4 Several studies have traced the development of this theme in
Isaiah and there has been one devoted solely devoted to this topic.5
Unfortunately, these studies all precede the re-examination of Isaiah as a
composite book, which began in the 1980s. Given that the WOL theme
spans First Isaiah (FI, chs. 1–39), Second Isaiah (SI, chs. 40–55), and
Third Isaiah (TI, chs. 56–66),6 investigation of this motif requires the
Proceedings of the First Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran

Studies, Paris 1992 (ed. G. J. Brooke and F. G. Martínez; STDJ 15; Leiden: Brill,
1994), 117–32; Joseph Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book: Interpretations of
Isaiah in Late Antiquity (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2006), 178–85.
3. Joel Marcus, The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testa-
ment in the Gospel of Mark (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 1992); Rikki
E. Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus and Mark (WUNT 2/88; Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck,
1997); David W. Pao, Acts and the Isaianic New Exodus (WUNT 130; Tübingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 2000). The proposals by New Testament scholars regarding this
passage will be reviewed in Chapter 6.
4. N. H. Snaith, “Isaiah 40–66: A ‘Study’ of the Teaching of the Second Isaiah
and Its Consequences,” in Studies on the Second Part of Isaiah (ed. N. H. Snaith and
H. M. Orlinsky; VTSup 14; Leiden: Brill, 1967), 147; Muilenburg, “The Book of
Isaiah,” 602; Claus Westermann, Isaiah 40–66: A Commentary (trans. D. Stalker;
OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster, 1969), 22; Walther Zimmerli, “Der ‘Neue Exodus’
in der Verkündigung der beiden grossen Exilspropheten,” in Gottes Offenbarung:
Gesammelte Aufsatze zum Alten Testament. Fst. Ludwig Kohler (Munich: Kaiser,
1963), 198.
5. J. Fischer, “Das Problem des neuen Exodus in Is 40–55,” TübTQ 110 (1929):
111–30; Bernhard W. Anderson, “Exodus Typology in Second Isaiah,” in Israel’s
Prophetic Heritage: Essays in Honor of James Muilenburg (ed. B. W. Anderson and
W. J. Harrelson; New York: Harper & Row, 1962), 177–95; Zimmerli, “Der ‘Neue
Exodus’ ”; Carroll Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption in Deutero-Isaiah (AnBib 43;
Rome: Biblical Institute, 1970), 59–98; Klaus Kiesow, Exodustexte im Jesajabuch:
Literarkritische und Motivgeschichtliche Analysen (Freiburg, Schweiz: Universitäts-
verlag, 1979).
6. This study will use these terms merely as literary designations. Unless speci-
ed otherwise, no particular view of authorship is intended.
1
1. Introduction 3
scholar to be mindful of the dynamics of reading Isaiah as a composite

book. Odil Steck observes that this theme serves as a framing device in
the late stages of the formation of the book of Isaiah (BI),7 but his studies
have focused narrowly on redaction and paid less attention to historical
and theological concerns, as well as the exegesis of individual texts. The
present work has been written to address the need to re-examine the
various texts that contribute to this prominent theme in light of recent
research on the formation of BI.
Naturally, a number of questions arise: What does SI announce in Isa
40:3–5 when he calls for the preparation of a “way”? Is King correct to
interpret the passage eschatologically and ethically? Are the Qumran
Covenanters justied in identifying the “way” as the study and practice
of the Torah commanded by Moses? Or is the “way” an announcement
only of salvation, as often interpreted by Protestants? How can the Gospel
writers imagine Jesus as the fulllment of this prophecy?
The focus of this study will be to dene the WOL and to trace the
development of this theme in conjunction with the growth of BI. It is no
surprise that the same scholars who espouse different authors or redactors
to BI also believe the “way” carries different meanings throughout the
book. This theme appears to have played a crucial role in the formation
of BI, so an investigation into the “way” necessitates inquiry into the
composition of the book. In this introductory chapter I will review the
various interpretations of this theme within BI, and identify the key
interpretive issues that will need to addressed in the course of this study.
Different Authors, Different Ways

As with most modern inquiries into BI, this study too begins with
Bernhard Duhm. Although Walther Zimmerli is most often credited with
the view that TI reinterprets what was previously announced as a literal
trek from Babylon to Yehud by SI in a spiritual and ethical manner, this
interpretation originates from Duhm’s groundbreaking 1892 commentary.
It was his characterization of the author of TI as a personality in sharp
contrast to that of the prophet of SI that suggested TI reinterpreted SI’s
words. As a literary work, Duhm nds Isa 56–66 to be a more corrupt
7. Odil Hannes Steck, Bereite Heimkehr: Jesaja 35 als Redaktionelle Brucke

zwischen dem Ersten und dem Zweiten Jesaja (SBS 121; Stuttgart: Katholisches
Bibelwerk, 1985), and “Jes 62, 10–12 als Abschluß eines Großjesajabuches,” in
Studien zu Tritojesaja (ed. O. H. Steck; BZAW 203; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1991),
143–66.
1
text, full of glosses and additions, and less poetically rened, degenerat-
ing in a prosaic manner. For these chapters Duhm assumes a postexilic
setting in which Yahweh already resides in the temple. In regard to TI’s
concept of the “way,” he writes:
One can argue about whether Trito-Isaiah wants the clearing of the way
to be understood in a literal or gurative sense. Whether the saying refers
to the preparation of the roads on which the diaspora Jew travels to the
temple, or the removal of everything, particularly moral obstacles. For
those coming at that time in the way, in which all “the redeemed of
Yahweh” choose Jerusalem; 57:14 and the following verse rather speak
for the latter.8
For Duhm, the differences in language as well as geographical and

chronological provenance suggest the “way” of TI differs from that of SI.
Following the publication of Duhm’s commentary in 1892, J. Skinner
followed with a commentary of his own espousing the same interpreta-
tion. He attributes the transformation of SI’s original message by TI to
the disappointment of unfullled prophecy experienced by the postexilic
generation.9 Like Duhm, Skinner assumes SI’s prophecy announced
Yahweh’s triumphal march leading his people through the desert to
Yehud. Paul Volz, writing in 1932, would also embrace Duhm’s inter-
pretation of the “way” while positing a different redactional history to
TI.10 He labels TI’s quotation of other texts as an Umbiegung (“bending”)
of SI’s words. This term clearly carries negative connotations and thus
the quotation of SI’s texts by TI is viewed as a distortion of the author’s
original intent.
Walther Zimmerli serves as the key gure in formalizing a conception
of the WOL in TI since he sets forth an interpretation that dominates
Isaianic studies for the latter half of the twentieth century.11 Zimmerli’s
viewpoint has been disseminated through such notable gures as James
Muilenburg, Claus Westermann, R. N. Whybray, Paul Hanson, and more
recently Joseph Blenkinsopp and Antti Laato. These scholars follow
Zimmerli’s lead in their interpretation of the WOL in TI and cite his oft-
quoted article, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas.”
8. Bernhard Duhm, Das Buch Jesaia (HKAT 111/1; Göttingen: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, 1892), 462.
9. J. Skinner, The Book of the Prophet Isaiah Chapters XL–LXVI (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1898), 177.
10. Paul Volz, Jesaia II, Zweite Hälfte: Kapitel 40–66 (Leipzig: Deichert, 1932),
217–18.
11. Zimmerli acknowledges his indebtedness to Duhm, Volz, and Elliger. See
Walther Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” in Gottes Offenbarung, 218 n. 3.
1
1. Introduction 5
In this essay, Zimmerli recognizes that speech, whether human or

divine, is conditioned by, and representative of a particular historical
situation. He follows the critical consensus that TI stands in both a
different historical period and geographical location than that of SI. For
him, SI is a prophet to the exiles in Babylon and TI is a prophet in
Jerusalem speaking to a post-exilic generation. By stressing the fact that
language is always historically situated, Zimmerli emphasizes the
differences between SI and TI. He acknowledges TI’s heavy dependence
upon SI, yet for him TI lacks the creativity, originality, and authority SI
possessed. Verbal parallels between the two prophets are classied into
“quotations” (Zitate), “brief accidental similarities” (kleinere gelegent-
lichen Berührungen), and “freer imitations” (freiere Nachmungen) and
categorizes the reuse of 40:3 by 57:14 as the latter. For Zimmerli, TI
reinterprets SI’s announcement in a gurative sense, as “religiously
sancted vocabulary” (religiös geheiligte Vokabel) and “pious speech”
(frommen Rede). Thus the WOL proclaimed by SI as a physical and
spiritual deliverance from bondage in Babylon loses its original meaning
and TI redenes it as an ethical “way,” a pious manner of life. This “way”
no longer stretches from Babylon to Yehud, but rather exists on a spiri-
tual plane between Yahweh and his people. The people are no longer to
reconstruct the topography between Babylon and Zion in preparation for
this “way,” but rather expunge the cultic and social sins from within their
own community. In summary, Zimmerli writes:
What is the meaning, then, of the call to prepare the way for the people?
It is the removal of the inner obstacles of thought, unrepentance, and
trusting in other powers… The call to prepare the way, which Deutero-
Isaiah still understood in its literal sense, has become a part of the general
pious parenesis.12
The end result is that TI’s prophetic activity departs from SI in language
and concept. TI presents a new message yet utilizes SI’s speech only for
“improper formulaic use” (formelhaft-uneigentliche Verwendung).
Although in many ways Muilenburg’s commentary breaks from previ-
ous form-critical approaches to Isa 40–66, in regards to this topic he
upholds the distinctions between TI and SI in the manner of Zimmerli.
He views TI as homilies that are based upon SI, who more often departs
from SI’s message rather than coheres to it. For Muilenburg, the “way”
of 40:3 alludes to the Exodus road from Egypt, which functions as an
eschatological symbol determined in the heavenly council to be executed
in history as the departure from Babylon. According to him, a different
1
12. Ibid., 224.
historical context exists for the announcement of a “way” in TI. Muilen-

burg comments on 57:14:
The content of the poem suggests that the words are not used in the same
way as in 40:1–11. It is an inward preparation of the heart that is in the
writer’s mind (cf vs. 18a). It is precisely in this way that Second Isaiah’s
words are employed in the Gospels (Mark 1:3; Matt. 3:3; Luke 3:4; John
1:23). The people must remove every obstruction within themselves,
every stone of stumbling, every moral and spiritual offense.13
According to Muilenburg, SI’s words have been spiritualized and moral-

ized by TI. He also believes the eschatological outlook of TI differs from
SI in that chs. 56–66 are more apocalyptic, pessimistic, dualistic, and
cosmic. It is evident from his comments that the Gospels’ use of Isaiah
has inuenced Muilenburg’s interpretation.
Similar to the views of Muilenburg, Westermann writes, “In ch. 56–66
quotations from, or reminiscences of, Deutero-Isaiah consistently change
the meaning of what they found on 57.14 in relation to 40.3ff.,”14 and he
goes on to cite Zimmerli’s article, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” approv-
ingly. Westermann believes that even though TI utilizes the same
language, the semantic value differs from SI. The literal is transformed
into the gurative. He supports his conclusions by quoting Volz, “Here,
the way which is to be prepared is not the processional way home for
Yahweh and the returning exiles, but purely metaphorically and spiritu-
ally the ‘road’ for the salvation that is to come.”15 Volz distinguishes this
“way” from that announced by SI on the grounds that this new “way” is
no longer a highway extending from Babylon to Jerusalem but a new
salvation to come. The obstacles are no longer physical but rather
spiritual. Like Muilenburg, Westermann makes note that that the Gospels
refer to the “way” in the same manner.
Joseph Blenkinsopp believes enough evidence exists to warrant sepa-
rate treatments of chs. 1–39, chs. 40–55, and chs. 56–66 as distinct
literary units as in the tradition of Duhm. He acknowledges that FI, SI,
and TI possess linguistic continuity, yet this alone does not warrant
theological unity. Blenkinsopp recognizes that the language of the “way”
appears in FI, SI, and TI but believes that it describes different realities
in each respective corpus. In FI, the “way” refers to a “processional
13. James Muilenburg, “The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40–66,” in The Inter-
preter’s Bible, vol. 5 (ed. G. A. Buttrick; New York: Abingdon, 1956), 671.
14. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 327, emphasis added.
15. Ibid., 328, from Volz, Jesaia II, 217. Volz also refers to the New Testament
quotations of 40:3 as support for his interpretation.
1
1. Introduction 7
route, a via sacra (cf. 35).”16 SI uses the language of the “way” in literal
and physical terms—a way out of Babylon, through the wilderness, and
back to Jerusalem for the exile. TI, in conscious literary dependence on
SI, reuses the language of the “way” for a different purpose. The “way”
no longer refers to a physical road, but serves as a metaphor for a way of
life, a “way in the direction of redemption.”17 The “way” has now become
spiritualized and eschatologized by the writer of TI. Isaiah 57:14–21 and
62:10–12 now serve as eschatologized versions of processional hymns
for the purposes of cultic worship, much in the same fashion as Exod 15;
Pss 24:7–10; 100:4; 118:19–20.
To summarize, scholars who hold to three Isaiahs also tend to believe
that TI has reinterpreted SI’s concept of the WOL. Yet there is no con-
sensus as to what SI meant by the “way,” nor is there agreement regard-
ing how TI reuses this language. Most of the scholars surveyed above
do follow Zimmerli’s view that what was once a literal journey from
Babylon to Yehud has now been spiritualized by TI. The literal has
become the gurative. Yet for Muilenburg the way began as an eschato-
logical concept in SI and was later spiritualized by TI. Blenkinsopp
believes the way was initially literal in SI, but was later reinterpreted in a
cultic and eschatological manner by TI.
One Author, One Way

It is not surprising that those scholars who afrm the Isaianic authorship
of BI also deny that the “way” is reinterpreted throughout the book.
Franz Delitzsch believes Isa 40:3 refers primarily to the physical road
from Babylon to Judah.18 He envisions Yahweh not at the head of the
16. Joseph Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66: A New Translation with Introduction and
Commentary (AB 19B; New York: Doubleday, 2003), 31.
17. Ibid.
18. It ought to be noted that Delitzsch apparently changed from a one-author
position to a multiple author position as his career progressed. Edward Young traces
this progression in Studies in Isaiah (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1954), 18–22;
29–32. In an appendix to Dreschsler’s commentary on Isaiah published posthu-
mously in 1854, Delitzsch defends the traditional view of Isaianic authorship to the
book of Isaiah; see D. Moritz Dreschsler, Der Prophet Jesaja, Übersetz und Erklärt,
Zweiter Hälfte (ed. F. Delitzsch and A. Hahn; Berlin, 1854), 412. Later in his own
commentary, the fourth and last edition published in 1889, Delitzsch considers chs.
40–66 as a continuation of Isaianic tradition but does not provide a detailed descrip-
tion of how these chapters originated. What is noteworthy is that his agnostic
approach to authorship did little to inuence his interpretation. He concludes the
1
procession leading the people, but rather coming through the desert
towards Israel, which would place Yahweh initially at the opposite side
of the desert than Babylon. Israel’s responsibility is to clear a way in the
wilderness for Yahweh’s approach to Babylon. This removal of obstruc-
tions is to be understood both literally and spiritually, or as Delitzsch
puts it, “the literal meaning spiritualizes itself in an allegorical way.”19
Thus Israel is to prepare both spiritually and physically for the coming of
Yahweh. They are to clear the road of physical obstacles as well as their
hearts of moral stumbling blocks. Given this interpretation for 40:3,
Delitzsch nds the same exhortation repeated in 57:14 and 62:10. Thus
all three exhortations are addressed to an exilic audience and subsequent
generations. He writes:
Men everywhere, i.e. as far as the earth or the dispersion of Israel extends,
are to say to the daughter of Zion—that is to say, to the church which has
its home in Zion, but is now in foreign lands—that “its salvation cometh,”
i.e. that Jehovah, its Saviour, is coming to bestow a rich reward upon His
church, which has passed through severe punishment, but has been so
salutarily rened.20
In Delitzsch’s conception, Zion extends beyond Israel to include the

Church. Given his previous concession to allegorical interpretation,
Delitzsch can include the Church in Israel’s exile and restoration.
The success of Duhm’s commentary did not expunge one-author
positions regarding BI.21 For Edward Young, the “way” should posses a
single denition within chs. 40–66 unless explicitly indicated otherwise.
Commenting on Isa 40:3, he asks, “Why should msillah have a connota-
tion here different from that which it has in 11:16; 19:23; 33:8? Nor in
introduction to his third edition (Franz Delitzsch and Carl F. Keil, Biblical Commen-
tary on the Old Testament [trans. J. Martin; 10 vols.; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerd-
mans, 1949–50], 7/2:138, original emphasis) as follows: “And in relation to this, if
we only allow that the prophet really was a prophet, it is of no essential consequence
to what age he belonged.”
19. Ibid., 7/2:142.
20. Ibid., 7/2:441, emphasis added.
21. The most rigorous defense of Isaianic authorship in the nineteenth century
was set forth by Joseph A. Alexander, The Earlier Prophecies of Isaiah (New York:
Wiley & Putnam, 1846), and The Later Prophecies of Isaiah (New York: Wiley &
Putnam, 1847). Alexander, writing fty years before Duhm, would defend Isaianic
authorship against the likes of Eichhorn and Gesenius, who knew of no TI, yet did
espouse a SI who authored chs. 40–66. Alexander (The Later Prophecies, 410–12)
believes 40:3; 57:14; 62:10–12 all refer to the same message and are addressed not
to exiles in Babylon, but rather Zion or the Church.
1
1. Introduction 9
49:11; 59:7 or 62:10 is the reference necessarily different.”22 Young

believes that the book assumes a unied theological message unless
evidence to the contrary exists. He goes on to reject interpretations that
speak of a literal, historical return of exiles from Babylon. For Young,
the proleptic perspective of the prophecy is primary and therefore inter-
pretation involves foremost the gurative and theological rather than the
literal and historical. Jerusalem then represents the people of God span-
ning every age. is a gure of speech that describes the tragic condi-
tion of the people. Taken together, and communicate that the
way for God is to be prepared in a hostile, uninhabited, and uninviting
region. In his comments on 62:10, Young does entertain the possibility
for a reference to the return from Babylonian captivity, though he
quickly adds that such a historical reference serves only as an example of
the great eschatological exaltation of Zion. Like Delitzsch, he includes
the Church within the “reward and recompense” (
, 40:10).
Given that Young believes this way to be primarily eschatological, he
draws the connection to the New Testament’s references to 40:3 with
great ease. The comfort provided the people (in this case an eighth-
century audience) is an eschatological hope fullled in Jesus Christ.
John Oswalt rejects the interpretation of Zimmerli and any others who
posit that TI has reinterpreted SI’s original prophecy in spiritual and
ethical terms. He recognizes that chs. 40–66 are unique in the Scriptures
in that they address an audience centuries later than when they were rst
proclaimed. Oswalt emphasizes the theological continuity of chs. 40–66
rather than the historical particularity of various oracles such that the
theological overshadows the historical. He writes, “That these chapters
[56–66] may have been addressed especially to conditions that would
prevail after the return from exile in the years after 538 is less important
than that they are written to show how the theology of ch. 40–55 ts into
that of ch. 1–39.”23 For Oswalt, the chief difculty with Zimmerli’s
interpretation is the assumption that 40:3 refers solely to the return from
22. Edward J. Young, The Book of Isaiah (3 vols.; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerd-
mans, 1965–72), 3:28 n. 14.
23. John N. Oswalt, The Book of Isaiah: Chapters 40–66 (NICOT; Grand
Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1998), 11, emphasis added. In n. 24 Oswalt goes on to cite
Otto Eissfeldt’s Introduction as support for the impossibility of recreating the setting
for chs. 40–55 and chs. 56–66, yet this is not completely accurate. Eissfeldt (The Old
Testament: An Introduction [trans. P. R. Ackroyd; New York: Harper & Row, 1965],
337) does state, “It is hardly possible to determine exactly the moment to which the
poems belong which give expression to such a hope.” Yet Eissfeldt goes on to date
chs. 40–55 between 550 and 538 B.C.E.
1
exile. According to him, the way of 40:3 cannot possibility refer to the
road traversed by the exiles returning home, and he denies any allusion
to the exodus in this passage. The language used to describe the return in
SI was intended to be gurative, and it speaks of a return of Israel to God
rather than God’s return to Israel. Thus Oswalt believes that Isaiah ben
Amoz announced both a physical and spiritual way, in varying degrees,
in Isa 40:1–11 as well as 57:14–21. He recognizes three legitimate inter-
pretations for the image in 62:10,24 and ponders why the book contains
seemingly conicting views. Oswalt concludes that all three views are
correct since they bring several themes to a climax within the book.
To summarize, scholars who hold to single authorship assume a unied
message to BI, and by doing so rule out the possibility that the “way”
could be reinterpreted by TI. The “way” is primarily to be understood as
gurative, eschatological, theological, or allegorical. Some allow for a
literal interpretation of the “way” as a road out of Babylon, while others
are completely opposed to such a notion. The theological message of BI
is emphasized and the historical context is minimized. Multiple inter-
pretations of the “way” are considered consistent or even intended when
they cannot be harmonized. Some acknowledge that BI addresses audi-
ences that span from pre- to post-exilic ages, yet they would deny that
the book necessitated various authors to accomplish this phenomenon.25
Composite Book, One Message

The following scholars do not afrm the unied authorship of the book
of Isaiah, yet still insist that TI’s message is consistent with that of SI.
Charles C. Torrey was the rst to challenge the Duhmian hypothesis
from a critical standpoint. He argues that chs. 34–66 (minus chs. 36–39,
which are original to the Deuteronomistic Historian) form a homogene-
ous text written by a single author in Yehud, presumably in Jerusalem,
near the end of the fth century. For Torrey, SI is the Prophet of the
Dispersion, not of the Exile. He believes SI dwells on the wilderness
motif for two reasons. First, it serves as a metaphor to represent the
24. Oswalt (Chapters 40–66, 588) provides the following options for the
interpretation of the image: (1) it could speak of preparing the way for Yahweh to
come and begin to realize his promises among his people (Young); (2) it refers to
the highway over which the redeemed walk to enter the New Jerusalem (Delitzsch);
(3) it could describe the highway over which the nations will ow to Zion as they
come to worship (Alexander).
25. J. Alec Motyer, The Prophecy of Isaiah: An Introduction & Commentary
(Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity, 1993), 31.
1
1. Introduction 11
hindrances and difculties the Jews of the Dispersion faced as they

sought to return home. Second, it reminded Israelites of God’s loving
care and guidance for his people through evoking the ancient traditions
of the Exodus from Egypt (cf. Deut 2:7; 8:2–4, 15–16; Amos 3:1–2; Hos
13:5). Torrey claims that SI continually refers to a return from the four
corners of the earth, arguing that the ve references to Cyrus and Baby-
lon/Chaldea (43:14; 44:28; 45:1; 48:14, 20) are not to be taken literally,
but as reective of a person who was inuenced by the Chronicler’s
pattern of destruction, exile, and restoration under the Persian king.26
When the wilderness/exodus imagery is viewed in this manner, the
exhortation to ee Babylon is not be taken literally, but serves rather as a
reminder of the supreme redemptive work of Yahweh in history, the
rescue from Egypt. Since the prophet is a poet, it is unclear exactly what
and who he is referring to. Torrey comments on 48:20:
In the present passage it may be questioned whether the imaginary hearers
whom he is addressing are the Jews who are soon to be saved, or the
Hebrews of the time of Moses, about to y from Egypt. The dramatic habit
of the writer, and the extraordinary vividness of his imagination, make the
latter supposition quite possible.27
Torrey even includes the exhortations of SI, considered by most to be a

direct address by SI to an exilic audience, as illustrative of the imagina-
tive rhetoric of the poet. Likewise the mention of Jerusalem’s walls or
gates in 62:6–11 do not describe actual historical conditions but rather
the ideal city of Zion. All talk of a “way” is symbolic and possesses no
historical referent. For Torrey, no transformation of meaning for SI to TI
exists, since the language was symbolic from the start and penned by the
same author.
James Smart follows Torrey’s lead and considers chs. 35, 40–66 as the
work of a single prophet and theologian in Yehud whose ministry ended
by 538 B.C.E. According to him, the fundamental aw of those who posit
a TI is their failure properly to identify the genre of SI’s writings. They
interpret SI’s language as a kind of poetic hyperbole intended to describe
prosaic historical circumstances, but in doing so they fail to recognize
the eschatological character of the writings. Smart acknowledges that
35:8 and 49:11 describe the road the exiles traverse back to Yehud, but
he believes 40:1–11 refer to a completely different setting. For him, these
26. Brooks Schramm, The Opponents of Third Isaiah: Reconstructing the Cultic
History of the Restoration (JSOTSup 193; Shefeld: JSOT, 1995), 25.
27. Charles C. Torrey, The Second Isaiah: A New Interpretation (New York:
Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1928), 379.
1
verses describe a theophany and the language is not hyperbolic but

eschatological in character. The desert is a not a geographical region but
rather the spiritual state of the people prior to the advent of Yahweh.
Smart comments on those who claim the “way” in 57:14 differs from
that of 40:3:
Those who deny these chapters to Second Isaiah and assert that the author
of ch. 57 was imitating Second Isaiah must explain how such a second-rate
prophet could speak with incisiveness and fearlessness for God into the
desperate situation of his society, and if he was not Second Isaiah, show
himself quite the equal of Second Isaiah in integrity and courage?28
Smart, then, nds no reason to suggest that the “way” in TI differed from
that of SI.
Even though Michael Fishbane employs an exegetical method similar
to that of Zimmerli, he differs in his conclusions regarding the relation-
ship between SI and TI. His goal is to isolate and identify the traditum,
the content of tradition of biblical texts, from the traditio, the process of
transmission. Whereas interpreters previously sought to uncover the
early stages of this process, Fishbane attempts to understand the dynamic
relationship between the traditum and traditio up to the nal process of
canon formation. He agrees with Zimmerli that TI reused the vocabulary
of SI, but rather than viewing these citations as reinterpretations of the
xed traditum of SI, he believes these quotations merely reect shared
phraseology of a school tradition. He writes, “Rather, a learned vocabu-
lary may simply have been reapplied by later prophetic tradents in
accordance with new tastes and circumstances; so that nothing would be
proved with respect to the existence of deliberate exegetical revision in
the cases in question.”29 At this point Fishbane does not claim whether TI
interprets the “way” spiritually and whether SI does so literally, or vice
versa. He merely states that the reuse of similar vocabulary need not
indicate that TI reinterpreted SI’s prophecy.
The recent prolicacy of scholarship surrounding the complex unity of
BI has spurred several commentators to re-evaluate Zimmerli’s proposal.
Jan Koole makes the unusual assertion that TI originated shortly after the
catastrophe of 587/586 B.C.E. in Judah. In this view TI is composed
before SI. Koole writes:
28. James D. Smart, History and Theology in Second Isaiah: A Commentary on

Isaiah 35, 40–66 (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1965), 244.
29. Michael Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Claren-
don, 1985), 289, original emphasis.
1
1. Introduction 13
Yahweh’s (!) way in 40:3 must mean more than remigration from Babylon
and in 57:14 the removal of the obstacles in the life of the people ushers in
the return of the exiles (the way of the people!), who will then be ‘led and
comforted’ (57:18) by their God, and 62:10 can be taken to mean that the
people still living in destroyed Jerusalem should literally go out through
the ruins of the gates to clear away the rubble from the roads to the city, so
that the returning exiles can re-enter and repopulate Zion (62:12). 30
Koole reverses Zimmerli’s argument and asserts that the later passage,
40:3, refers to a spiritual way and 57:14 and 62:10 speak of literal, his-
torical circumstances. For Koole, the “way” was always ethical, and
always demanded a response of faith and repentance. Koole follows
Delitzsch, Smart, and Young by interpreting this way as a return of Yah-
weh to his people in a theophany. This “way” leads to the holy mountain
of Zion spoken of in 57:13 and those who traverse this highway include
foreigners who maintain justice and do what is right (56:3, 6–7). Thus TI
calls attention to the literal, physical road that leads to Jerusalem, yet the
obstacles and response required by the people are ethical and spiritual in
nature.
The nal three proposals to be reviewed were all published in 2001
and demonstrate the wide variety of opinion still existing in regard to
interpreting the book of Isaiah. Klaus Baltzer correctly identies a key
issue in the interpretation of Isa 40:3–4:
In interpretations of the passage, scholars have continually discussed
whether these utterances are to be taken literally. Is this about the building
of a real road connecting Babylon and Jerusalem, or are the statements
meant to be understood metaphorically? I believe that these two possibili-
ties are not necessarily mutually exclusive, if we take into account the
function of the prologue as a summing up of the action of the whole
drama.31
Although Baltzer has correctly identied the key interpretive issue, his
solution to account for the multivalent language of SI, that it ought to
be read as a drama, may not be as convincing.32 Even if one disagrees
with Baltzer’s overall thesis, there still may be much to learn from his
30. Jan L. Koole, Isaiah Part 3, Volume 1: Chapters 40–48 (trans. A. P. Runia;
HCOT; Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1997), 24.
31. Klaus Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah: A Commentary on Isaiah 40–55 (trans. M.
Kohl; Hermeneia; Minneapolis: Fortress, 2001), 54.
32. John Watts’s earlier proposal that BI be read as a drama has met with little
acceptance. See John D. W. Watts, Isaiah 1–33 (WBC 24; Waco, Tex.: Word,
1985), and Isaiah 34–66 (WBC 25; Waco, Tex.: Word, 1987). Baltzer’s commentary
has received a similar response from reviewers.
1
treatment of individual texts. He argues that the prologue of SI, 40:1–11,

essentially reects an inaugurated eschatology. That is, it announces
“what is going to happen in the future and what is already underway.”33
This pronouncement made in the heavenly sphere evokes the exodus
tradition of Num 20:17, 19, the path Moses sought to lead the exodus
generation through Edom. The topographical language within its own
context may then be read ethically and spiritually rather than literally.
Given this interpretation for 40:3–4, Baltzer traces a line of exegetical
continuity between this ethical and eschatological notion of “preparing
Yahweh’s way” with that of TI, Mal 3:1, and the New Testament (Mark
1:2–3 and parallel texts). For Baltzer, neither TI, nor the Gospel writers
for that matter, appears to reinterpret SI. They only make explicit what
was implicit in SI’s message.
Brevard Childs rejects Zimmerli’s notion that TI is a spiritualizing
Forschreibung of SI. He accuses Zimmerli of overinterpretation by read-
ing SI within a reconstructed, “original” historical setting. For Childs,
SI’s authority and message are assumed in TI and conjoined in a relation-
ship of theological elaboration and continuity rather than one of correc-
tion or spiritualizing. Childs believes the deictic rather than midrashic is
the primary relationship between TI and SI. Childs views the highway of
40:3 as part of a larger matrix of images: the transformation of the
wilderness into a garden (41:18–19; 42:15–16) and a new exodus (11:16;
51:9–11; 52:11–12), which are fused into one single all-encompassing
paradigm of divine deliverance. In addition, the strongest intertextual
connection to 40:3 is ch. 35. Here the “highway is not just a means of
improving the route home, but now is portrayed as a holy path reserved
for the pure of heart”34 that “projects the divine plan beyond both these
historical periods and focuses on the nal eschatological exaltation of
Zion and the entrance into the ultimate joy of the kingdom of God
(v. 10).”35 Childs believes that, from the very beginning, this “way” was
never primarily a historical route; it possessed an ethical as well as an
eschatological dimension all along. The one difference between SI and
TI is a change in content and focus. Isaiah 40:3 describes a “way” for
Yahweh and 57:14 speaks of a “way” of the people. Isaiah 62:10 con-
tributes to this message by adding that the heavenly hosts are to make
advance preparation for the people to enter Jerusalem.
33. K. Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 63.

34. Brevard S. Childs, Isaiah (OTL; Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox,
2001), 256.
1
35. Ibid.
1. Introduction 15
Like Childs, Christopher Seitz believes the primary intertextual link

to ch. 40 is ch. 35. Chapter 35 plays a pivotal role in the book as it
announces a reversal of the judgment declared in FI. Chapter 1 and chs.
24–27 provide the details of Israel’s punishment: desolation of the earth
and its concomitant reduction to a desert. Seitz observes that the “wilder-
ness tradition in BI was closely associated with God’s judgment and was
distinctive over against the old exodus-wilderness tradition.”36 The
primary signicance of the wilderness in BI is theological, and therefore
to ask whether the wilderness is literal or metaphorical misses the point.
Seitz believes the WOL signies a reversal of judgment and the trans-
formation of all creation signaled by the appearance of God’s glory. He
writes, “The way that leads to Zion does not stretch from Babylon; it is,
rather, the way that erupts in the desert Zion had become but it is no
longer, that gives right-of-way to all Israel wherever she had been cast
forth in judgment.”37 Viewed in this manner, the “way” is neither pri-
marily literal nor metaphorical but rather theological. Chapter 40 differs
from ch. 35 in that in ch. 40 the theophanic “way” does not become the
way via which the ransomed enter Zion. What ch. 40 does announce is
the inception of Yahweh’s salvic plan. Seitz faults Zimmerli for naïvely
assuming 40:3 was to be understood literally as a road for the exiles,
rather than as a theophany of the LORD. For Seitz, the literal sense refers
to the theophany. Given his interpretation of 40:3, the “way” of 57:14
refers to the same as that of 40:3, varying only due to different circum-
stances in light of the work of the servant.38
Conclusion
What is the WOL in the book of Isaiah? This survey has identied
several key issues that must be addressed in order properly to answer
this question. Questions regarding the unity of BI as well as the nature of
prophetic quotation must be addressed in order to determine the rela-
tionship between the various references to the “way.” Proper exegesis
will need to account for the dynamics of prophetic speech and prophetic
literature. Simplistic notions of literal vs. gurative fail to account for the
complexities of language. Many of the interpretive differences stem from
differences regarding the use of metaphor, guration and typology, and
views regarding canonical literature. The relationship between biblical
36. Christopher R. Seitz, “The Book of Isaiah 40–66: Introduction, Commentary,

and Reections,” in Keck, ed., The New Interpreter’s Bible, 6:378.
37. Ibid., 6:335.
1
38. Ibid., 6:492.
myth, history, and eschatology will be examined so as to account for the

multiplicity of genres and perspectives within the same book. Lastly, a
theological perspective internal to BI will be sought after as a means to
comprehend the diverse texts within one book.
This work will attempt to dene to the “way” in Isaiah as well as to
provide a coherent interpretation of this theme’s signicance within BI.
Certainly Zimmerli’s proposal will be contested, but the critique will
extend to his detractors as well. Much has been written to refute
Zimmerli’s thesis, so why the need for another investigation into this
topic? Zimmerli’s view continues to receive support. More importantly,
Zimmerli’s detractors have not been able to form a consensus for an
alternate interpretation. The proposals are wide ranging and inconsistent
in their appeals for evidence. What is still required is a sustained exami-
nation of the WOL motif from the vantage point of the whole book.
Following this introductory chapter, key interpretive issues will be
dened and addressed in Chapter 2, along with an explanation of inter-
pretative method. Since this work investigates whether TI has reinter-
preted the message of SI, it addresses Isa 40–66 before Isa 1–39. Isaiah
34–35 are considered among the nal additions to BI and culminate the
“way” theme within Isa 1–35, as well as within BI. Since the nal
redaction of the following sections of BI developed in the chronological
order SI, TI, and then FI, they will be addressed in this sequence within
the present work.
Chapter 3 is a treatment of the “way” theme in SI; Chapter 4 does with
same in TI; and Chapter 5 investigates this theme within FI, focusing
primarily on Isa 34–35. Chapter 6 is a review of various interpretations
of the WOL or NE theme by New Testament scholars as they examine
New Testament quotations of Isaiah.
This study attempts to trace the development of the concept of the
“way,” beginning with SI to the nal form of the book. Isaiah 40
announces that this way has been inaugurated. In this chapter the focus is
upon Yahweh’s coming in a theophany, not the return of the people. SI
combines Israel’s traditions of creation and exodus to produce a message
of hope as well as repentance. This march of Yahweh can be transhistori-
cal since it is rooted in Israel’s ancient Sinai traditions and has yet to be
fully consummated. SI’s message is overtly ethical and eschatological.
To the exilic generation, Cyrus fullls this “way” in history by allowing
Israel to return home as long as the people are willing to ee Babylon
and reject its idols. Since the “way” never completely materialized in the
restoration under Cyrus, TI emphasizes the ethical and cultic demands of
1
1. Introduction 17
this way, as well as its eschatological goal. In Isa 56–66, the “way”
provides a means for all nations to draw near to Yahweh and Zion. With
the addition of chs. 34–35, the “way” theme spans all of BI. In FI, the
cultic and eschatological aspects of the way are emphasized and it is
envisioned as a highway leading to Zion for both dispersed Israelites as
well as the nations. In the nal form of BI, the vision of Isaiah ben Amoz
nds its fulllment in the WOL that began with the end of exile and
leads to the eschatological Zion, known also as the New Jerusalem.
Various redactions of BI emphasize different manifestations of the
“way” throughout Israel’s history, yet this theme maintains a level of
theological unity throughout all major phases of BI’s development.
1
Chapter 2
METHODOLOGY
I proceed on the assumption, as observed by Antti Laato, that “Biblical

exegesis (of the Old Testament prophetic literature) is not a simple
matter of interpreting texts, but is also a process in which the logical
models or possible worlds are constructed to accommodate the validity
of particular interpretations.”1 Interpreters, in order to justify any exegeti-
cal decision, assume a view of history, religion, composition, language
and literature that supports their interpretation. Critical scholars set forth
interpretations that cohere with the worldview of the text as well as the
worldview of the modern world. Interpretations that address only one
aspect of this view of reality are decient no matter how many argu-
ments they can amass in their favor. What is required by scholars is a
methodology that functions to bridge the modern with the ancient world.
Each aspect of the possible worlds is not constructed in a vacuum.
Rather, the view one holds in regard to one aspect of this reality fre-
quently determines one’s view in regard to other aspects.
Antti Laato believes the semiotic models of Charles Peirce provide the
means to contrast differing theoretical models that undergird varying
interpretations. The distinctive contribution of Peirce’s semiotics is its
triadic nature, consisting of sign, object, and interpretant. As in Saus-
surean linguistics, a sign does not function without relation to an object,
but in this case it does not function solely in relation to the object.
Applying this semiotic model to the task of interpretation, a prophetic
text (sign) can be connected to a particular socio-historical situation
(object), and this connection produces an interpretation (interpretant).
This interpretant then serves as a model to assess whether the interpreta-
tion is valid. Other interpreters may have a different rhetorical situation
(object) in mind, as well as a different model (interpretant) undergirding
1. Antti Laato, History and Ideology in the Old Testament Prophetic Literature:
A Semiotic Approach to the Reconstruction of the Proclamation of the Historical
Prophets (ConBOT 41; Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 1996), 392.
1
2. Methodology 19
their exegetical conclusions. Differences in interpretations cannot be

evaluated merely on one aspect of the assumed reality that stands behind
an interpretation. Laato advises, “Real discussion between scholars can
be achieved only when scholars have realized that it is not the interpreta-
tions themselves but the models behind these interpretations that are the
real objects of disagreement.”2
This study attempts to employ Laato’s meta-theoretical analysis to the
discussion regarding the WOL in Isaiah to compare and contrast the
models that underlie the varying interpretations. Assumptions regard-
ing the composition of the book, Israel’s religious history, the nature of
language and literature, and the relationship between myth, history, and
eschatology will be explored. The theological imagination will be used
as the means to integrate the various concepts into a cohesive and plausi-
ble explanation of the text and reality.
Isaiah as a Prophetic Book

Amid the surge in unied readings of Isaiah, Blenkinsopp continues
to maintain, in the tradition of Duhm, FI (chs. 1–39), SI (chs. 40–55),
and TI (chs. 56–66). BI was, in his view, redacted into its present form in
the second century B.C.E.3 Blenkinsopp’s objections to the canonical
approach are twofold: (1) he objects to the literary coherence ascribed to
the nal form of texts or the genre of a prophetic book; and (2) he objects
to any notion of a normative theological inuence of the canon.4 For
Blenkinsopp, there are biblical canons, and nal form need not imply
normative form. He believes the primary factor in the canonical process
was political and religious power, not a normative theology. Although he
acknowledges the presence of opposing views, Blenkinsopp believes a
“Zionist” movement determined the nal form of TI. For him, “A canon
represents a resolution of ideological conict either by imposition of a
particular dominant ideology or orthodoxy by force majeure or as a com-
promise between different ideologies.”5 Yet is it plausible that these
Zionists would have been content to arrange their texts in a manner that
2. Ibid.
Commentary (AB 19A; New York: Doubleday, 2002), 58.
4. Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The Prophetic Biography of Isaiah,” in Mincha:
Festgabe für Rolf Rendtorff zum 75. Geburtstag (ed. E. Blum; Neukirchen–Vluyn:
Neukirchener Verlag, 2000), 26, and Isaiah 40–55, 55, 58.
5. Joseph Blenkinsopp, “The Formation of the Hebrew Bible Canon: Isaiah as a
Test Case,” in The Canon Debate (ed. L. M. McDonald and J. A. Sanders; Peabody,
Mass.: Hendrickson, 2002), 62.
1
privileged their own rather than simply eliminating rival texts? Must a
theological/ideological work such as Isa 56–66 or BI necessarily be
partisan? Could it be possible that the authors of BI resisted total alle-
giance to particular religious-political movements within ancient Israel?
Would they not learn this lesson from reading the prophetic literature?
Perhaps instead the editors preserved prophecies that at times critiqued,
at other times supported, various movements within ancient Israel, all the
while never aligning themselves solely to any single one. Perhaps instead
of a normative theology the prophecies found their cohesion through
their association with Isaiah ben Amoz, albeit remote, involving several
degrees of separation. The lack of a singular portrait of the prophet Isaiah
within the book allows for a diverse set of texts to be associated with
him.
Odil Steck, in his provocative work, The Prophetic Books and Their
Theological Witness,6 promotes a historical-synchronic reading in which
the nal form of the text is prioritized such that the literary reading of the
whole book supersedes diachronic analysis. This reects a reversal of the
trend in historical-criticism which traditionally prioritized the isolation of
original speeches from later editorial updating. According to Steck, the
primary context in which to read individual pericopes is not a Sitz im
Leben external to the text, but rather the Sitz im Text, the literary frame-
work of the book itself. Any type of diachronic analysis must be done
with the entire book in mind since the text’s primary context may be a
network of internal literary references, not an external socio-historical
event.
Ehud Ben Zvi has recently provided a formidable argument for the
legitimacy of “prophetic book” as a literary genre in ancient Israel, espe-
cially prevalent within the Achaemenid period. He provides the follow-
ing denition for this genre:
A book that claims an association with a prophetic personage of the past
and that is presented to its readership as YHWH’s word. As such, the book
claims to communicate legitimate and authoritative knowledge about
YHWH… Prophetic books were not intended to be read only once, but to
be read, reread, and meditated upon.7
Ben Zvi stresses the signicance of a work whose primary reception is

through rereading rather than a one-time read. A text designed to be
reread may possess a complex unity and depth and ought to be treated as
6. Odil Hannes Steck, The Prophetic Books and Their Theological Witness
(trans. J. D. Nogalski; St. Louis: Chalice, 2000).
7. Ehud Ben Zvi, Micah (FOTL 21B; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2000),
187–88.
1
2. Methodology 21
such. Double entendre, ambiguity, and multidirectional intertextuality

are the intention of the authors of prophetic books. Too often scholars do
not allow for the possibility for prophetic books to possess these qualities
and therefore ascribe what may be literary sophistication as conicting
perspectives. According to Ben Zvi, prophetic books possess the follow-
ing qualities: (1) they call for their readers to ascribe the book’s divine
authority to the image of the prophet mentioned in the book; (2) individ-
ual pericopes have been “dehistoricized” through the process of being
incorporated into the logic of the nal form of the book; (3) the nal
form of the prophetic book within a xed canon would be ascribed a
theological normativity by the community. What one scholar views as
irreconcilable texts within one book, Ben Zvi sees multivalent texts
within a complex work intended for an educated elite to interpret
carefully for the purpose of instructing the wider community.
The question remains whether this denition of a prophetic book is
historically veriable or plausible. Various denitions of “prophetic
books” exist. Terence Collins believes Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the
Twelve each comprise a “prophetic book,” a distinct artistic and theo-
logical creation of the sixth century B.C.E. In this case BI is a dynamic
work permeated by the literary gure of Isaiah ben Amoz and unied
around exilic concerns with a later post-exilic modication. The creative
hand of the redactor/author dominates the book such that “they certainly
did not feel obligated to transmit the words intact as they found them.
‘The text was not sacrosanct, but was subjected to alterations in accor-
dance with the tastes and needs of later times.’ ”8 For Philip Davies,
prophetic books are the result of scribal archiving, commentary, or clari-
cation.9 He believes the motivations underlying the formation of books
may be haphazard, mere archival convenience, intentional political and
social critique, or even national historiography. Yet, as Michael Floyd
argues, “Davies seems to be projecting anachronistically onto ancient
writers the agnosticism of modern academics, in accord with the scribal
stereotype invented by Enlightenment theories of social development.”10
8. J. Lindblom, Prophecy in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Blackwell, 1962), 279, as

quoted in Terence Collins, The Mantle of Elijah: The Redaction Criticism of the
Prophetic Books (BS 20; Shefeld: JSOT, 1993) 28.
9. Philip R. Davies, “ ‘Pen of iron, point of diamond’ (Jer 17:1): Prophecy as
Writing,” in Writings and Speech in Israelite and Ancient Near Eastern Prophecy
(ed. E. Ben Zvi and M. H. Floyd; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000),
65–81.
10. Michael H. Floyd, “ ‘Write the revelation!’ (Hab 2:2): Re-imaging the Cul-
tural History of Prophecy,” in Ben Zvi and Floyd, eds., Writings and Speech, 140.
1
After surveying scribal culture in the ancient Near East, Karel van der
Torn casts a very different image of the ancient Israelite scribe. He
believes they were deeply religious, drawn from the priesthood, and
skilled in writing, speaking, interpreting, and teaching the Scriptures.11
From his analysis of Hab 2:1–5, Floyd demonstrates that in some cases
writing was not a secondary activity following oral prophecy, but rather
the principal means of disseminating the prophecy. He goes on to suggest
the possibility of mantic scribal academies committed to the study and
dissemination of prophecy.12 Given this portrait of scribes, it is difcult
to accept the amount of creative license Collins affords his redactor. For
Collins, BI lacks a pre-exilic message. All earlier material was reshaped
to serve exilic or post-exilic interests. While certainly I would agree that
earlier material was adapted to t the literary and theological concerns of
later redactors, I would add that the redactors did not obliterate refer-
ences to the past. If redactors exercised such a heavy editorial hand, one
wonders why the book even continues to possess a Babylonian focus.
Edgar Conrad provides a sustained argument that a prophetic “vision”
() is a semiotic code designating a book written for later audiences.
This vision is received in the temple through hearing and listening (e.g.
Isa 1:2). Conrad distinguishes the prophetic visions of Isaiah, Joel,
Obadiah, Nahum, Habakkuk, and Zephaniah from the “words” () of
Jeremiah and Amos, and the “visions” ( ) of Ezekiel. The former
are conventional prophets, announcing comfort and salvation, employing
the formula of salvation oracles (“fear not,”
, e.g. Isa 7:4) com-
monly spoken by prophets in the ancient Near East. The latter are uncon-
ventional in that they call for an end to Israel, do not originate from
temple prophecy, and speak only to their contemporaries. A vision is
written with a future intent, as demonstrated in Hab 2:2–3:
Then the LORD answered me and said: Write the vision () make it
plain on tablets, so that a runner may read it. For there is still a vision for
the appointed time; it speaks of the end, and does not lie. If it seems to
tarry, wait for it; it will surely come, it will not delay.
Visions contain not only speech addressed to the prophet’s contempo-

raries, but also words recorded in writing for later audiences. Because of
their futuristic aim, visions include the expectation of a period of wait-
ing. Whereas historical background is vital in understanding the “words”
() of Amos and Jeremiah, the signicance of a “vision” () does
11. Karel van der Toorn, Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew (Cam-
bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007), 75–108.
12. Michael H. Floyd, “Prophecy and Writing in Habakkuk 2,1–5,” ZAW 105
(1993): 477–80.
1
2. Methodology 23
not lie in the prophet’s historical circumstances. In this case, “the book
of Isaiah is more centrally focused on the Isaiah saw than on the
prophet himself.”13 In fact, BI makes clear that the contemporaries of
Isaiah ben Amoz cannot understand his prophecy (Isa 6:9–10). They are
blind and deaf and it is only a future community who will be able to see,
hear, and understand Isaiah’s “vision.” Joseph Blenkinsopp even sug-
gests that an early version of the BI once existed that contained a sealed
testimony that could only be revealed following the decreed destruction
(10:23; 28:22b). Evidence for this version can be found within FI:
The vision of all this has become for you like the words of a sealed
document. If it is given to those who can read, with the command, “Read
this,” they say, “We cannot, for it is sealed.” And if it is given to those
who cannot read, saying, “Read this,” they say, “We cannot read”… On
that day the deaf shall hear the words of a scroll, and out of their gloom
and darkness the eyes of the blind shall see. (Isa 29:11–12, 18)
The vision can only be understood at a later time in a manner similar to

the revelation of apocalyptic secrets in the book of Daniel. Blenkinsopp
believes that, in its nal form, BI is to be interpreted as an apocalyptic
eschatological prophecy.14 A vision is necessarily future oriented,
assumes deferred fulllment, and is possibly eschatological. To read BI
retrospectively rather than proleptically, as many redaction maximalists
do, is in essence to read a book back to front and violate its visionary
quality.
Reading Isaiah as a prophetic book need not bracket out historical
concerns altogether to produce merely a literary reading. For Brevard
Childs, history is still important yet “the hermeneutic point to emphasize
is that for Isaiah history is understood in the light of prophecy, not
prophecy in the light of history.”15 The book, then, possesses the pre-
rogative to dene history how it sees t. Prophetic books provide a
metahistorical perspective in which “events come into view that initially
occurred in the past and that potentially reappear as acts of God or human
behavior according to the measuring rod of corresponding constellations
13. Edgar W. Conrad, Reading the Latter Prophets: Toward a New Canonical
Criticism (JSOTSup 376; London: T&T Clark, 2003), 185. For a similar view, see
Childs, Isaiah, 297.
14. Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book, 1–27. Oddly, Blenkinsopp considers
apocalyptic to be at odds with a normative canonical theology because of its minor-
ity status. Yet here he confuses majority with normativeness. Throughout the canon,
“minority” voices, those on the margins of society, have been included so that they
are now normative.
15. Brevard S. Childs, “Retrospective Reading of the Old Testament Prophets,”
ZAW 108 (1996): 373.
1
of experience.”16 For Christopher Seitz, the version of history the pro-

phetic canon provides is inherently gural. In this view, the past is seen
as past, though it is preserved in such a manner that is provides a
hermeneutical lens through which to view God’s present acts in history,
as well as envision the future. Rather than produce a reconstructed
history of the prophetic literature that may only mirror the ideologies of
the scholar, interpretation should abide by the presentation of history
outlined in the prophetic canon. Certainly the prophetic books lack
historical markers to date every oracle, but, as Seitz observes, “One can
see a rough movement from Syro-Ephraimite to Assyrian to Babylonian
to Persian periods of international upheaval reected in the nal form of
the prophetic collections.”17 Since a future orientation and delayed fulll-
ment is embedded within early material, a proto-apocalyptic perspective
need not be considered a modication or reinterpretation of prophecy,
but rather a natural development of it.
Walter Brueggemann observes that BI displays a purposeful design
that corresponds with Yahweh’s “plan” in (meta)history. Central to this
understanding are two key texts, Isa 14:24–27 and 55:6–9, that serve as
transition points within BI and enclose the main Babylonian sections of
BI.18 These texts are concerned with internal calamity within Judah in
response to Yahweh’s plan for the nations. Notably absent in Bruegge-
mann’s structure is an explicitly Persian or Greek redaction to the book,
whereas the Babylonian inuence is demonstrably evident. Viewed in this
manner, chs. 56–66 function in a role parallel to chs. 1–12. Brueggemann
writes:
Then we may suggest that 1–12 at the beginning and 56–66 at the end
bracket the imperial agenda of the book with tasks and disputes that more
directly concern the internal life of Judah (1–12) and nally of emerging
Judaism (56–66). Thus the book has Judah characterized as an envelope
around the trans-Judean imperial issues.19
The change in TI from SI may be understood as primarily one of focus

and topic, rather than geography or historical circumstances. Literary
afnities between SI and TI are to be expected, given that the servants
are the “offspring” of the servant of SI.
16. Steck, The Prophetic Books, 55.

17. Christopher R. Seitz, Prophecy and Hermeneutics: Toward a New Intro-
duction to the Prophets (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 2007), 201.
18. Walter Brueggemann, “Planned People/Planned Book?,” in Writing and
Reading the Scroll of Isaiah (ed. C. C. Broyles and C. A. Evans; VTSup 70/1;
Leiden: Brill, 1997), 35.
1
19. Ibid.
2. Methodology 25
The Composition of Isaiah 40–66

The focus of the present study will be on the reading of a particular
theme within three prophetic books. One of these books, consisting of Isa
1–52,* was composed late in the sixth century; another, consisting of
chs. 1–66* minus chs. 34–35, can be dated to the middle of the fth
century; and the third book, consisting of chs. 1–66 in their entirety, can
be dated to the late fth century. I believe SI is essentially an exilic
composition written intentionally to supplement portions of chs. 1–39. TI
was then added to this prophetic book, followed later by additions within
FI to create what is known today as the Vision of Isaiah ben Amoz. This
study acknowledges that not all texts within FI possess pre-exilic origins,
and that not all texts within TI originate from the postexilic period. Also
recognized is the fact that FI and TI developed over stages. Rather than
an investigation into the origins of individual texts or literary strata, the
focus of this study will be on reading three distinct prophetic books. The
objective of the present work is to attend to the differences in the “way”
theme from SI to TI and BI, and to attempt to comprehend the theo-
logical forces at work in the formation of BI. If biblical prophecy is a
“ ‘theology in the making’ in which images, ideas, and convictions about
the relationship between Israel and God were tested in the res of
historical reality,”20 then BI in its formation and nal form ought to
reect the theologies of the exilic and post-exilic eras.
Hugh Williamson, building upon the contributions of others,21 pro-
vides the most sustained argument that SI never circulated independently
of FI. In addition to writing Isa 40–55 intentionally to supplement the
prophecies of Isaiah ben Amoz, he believes SI wrote portions of FI and
redacted this material. This compositional view accords with Nissinen’s
observations that prophetic oracles in the ancient Near East were often
preserved, stored in an archive or reinscribed, later copied, and compiled
into collections of prophetic oracles to be often quoted, paraphrased, and
reinterpreted according to the needs of interpreters.22 Contrary to
Benjamin Sommer, who believes “Deutero-Isaiah displays no preference
20. Ronald E. Clements, Old Testament Prophecy: From Oracles to Canon

(Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 1996), 13.
21. H. G. M. Williamson, The Book Called Isaiah: Deutero-Isaiah’s Role in
Composition and Redaction (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 1–18.
22. Martti Nissinen, “Spoken, Written, Quoted, and Invented: Orality and Writ-
tenness in Ancient Near Eastern Prophecy,” in Ben Zvi and Floyd, eds., Writings
and Speech, 268.
1
for Isaianic texts; indeed, he borrows more frequently from Jeremiah,”23

Risto Nurmela counts fourteen allusions in Isa 40–55 to Isa 1–39 and
only three to Jeremiah. He concludes, “the invocation of the authority of
earlier parts [of Isaiah], was a more central issue for the author(s) than a
dialogue with other prophets.”24 TI also shares many afnities with FI,
such that when read as a book the “post-exilic” Israel resembles the “pre-
exilic” Israel. This study will follow a modied form of Williamson’s
basic thesis and interpret chs. 1–52* as a prophetic book written and
edited by an anonymous individual composed to address the exilic crisis
at the time of the dawn of a Persian hope.
Whereas the majority of American and British scholars consider SI a
unied work, such is not the case in German scholarship.25 This study
follows Seitz’s suggestion that the disciples of the servant of Isa 52:13–
53:12 authored chs. 53–66.26 In this model, SI is technically 40:1–52:12
and TI is 53:12–66:24. Given that the fourth Servant Song is narrated in
the third person, for Seitz, the Servant’s death results in the multiplica-
tion of servants, the servants theme unies TI, and chs. 53–66 are the
work of these servants. Important to note here is that a time gap is not
necessitated between the composition of SI and TI. Rather than a change
in perspective from Babylonian to Yehudite soil between chs. 55 and 56,
this geographical transition appears to take place between chs. 48 and
49.27 The audience of Isa 40–48 experienced the return from Babylon and
23. Benjamin D. Sommer, A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40–66

(Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), 180.
24. Risto Nurmela, The Mouth of the LORD has Spoken: Inner Biblical Allusions
in Second and Third Isaiah (Studies in Judaism; Lanham, Md.: University Press of
America, 2006), 81.
25. For a summary of the various proposals regarding the composition of SI, see
Rainer Albertz, Israel in Exile: The History and Literature of the Sixth Century
B.C.E. (trans. D. Green; Studies in Biblical Literature 3; Atlanta: Society of Biblical
Literature, 2003), 376–433.
26. Seitz, “Isaiah 40–66,” 6:316–23, 472–74. Earlier, Karl Elliger had argued
that Isa 56–66 was authored by one individual, a disciple of SI who edited Isa 40–55.
See Karl Elliger, Die Einheit Des Tritojesaia (Jes 56–66) (BWANT 3/9; Stuttgart:
Kohlhammer, 1928), and Deuterojesaja in seinem Verhältnis zu Tritojesaja
(BWANT 63; Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1933). Elliger developed the thesis of Abra-
ham Kuenen, who was the rst to suggest that Isa 50–51 and 54–66 were not the
work of SI, but rather a group of SI’s disciples. See Abraham Kuenen, Historisch-
Kritische Einleitung in die Bücher des alten Testaments hinsichtlich ihrer Entste-
hung und Sammlung: Zweiter Teil: Die prophtishcen Bücher (trans. C. Müller;
Leipzig: Reisland, 1892).
27. In 49:12 the prophet speaks from the perspective of being in Zion, watching
pilgrims descend upon her. After ch. 48 Babylon is no longer mentioned.
1
2. Methodology 27
this change in circumstances led to a change in focus or emphasis of the

message, but not an alteration or a transformation of it. This continuity
receives support if chs. 40–52 are to be understood as an address from
the heavenly counsel.28 A message from the heavenly court provides a
theological constraint to the prophecy such that the latter additions are
not to depart from the original message.
Rainer Albertz believes the rst edition of Deutero-Isaiah (DtIE1),
consisting of 40:1–52:12* was written in 521 B.C.E. to encourage
Judeans to embrace the rule of Darius and return to Jerusalem to rebuild
the temple. This edition was then revised with the addition of 52:13–
66:24 at the end of the sixth, or early in the fth century. The second
edition of Deutero-Isaiah (DtIE2) also involved several additions, includ-
ing 40:6–8, which then provided the efcacy of God’s word as a new
framework for the book. Isaiah 1–32* was joined to DtIE2 at this time,
only to be revised again with the addition of TI in the mid-fth century.
I agree with Albertz that Isa 40:1–52:12 is an exilic document, but I do
not accept his argument for a two stage-redaction to SI. As mentioned
above, Williamson has provided a strong case that the author of SI added
chs. 40–55 to chs. 1–39*. Seitz observes the metaphors of the people as a
ower of the eld, withering grass, and a fading ower (
) in 40:6–
7 are a deliberate reference to the depiction of Ephraim as a fading
ower in 28:1 (
) and 28:4 (
).29 Viewed in this manner, Isa
40:6–8 need not be assigned to a late redaction, and 40:1–11 ought to be
read as a unied composition.
Another issue of concern is the apparent incongruity between the
announcement of a new exodus in which creation will be transformed,
and the conquests of Cyrus within the same prophecy. Some scholars
have sought to explain this dissonance through assigning the Cyrus texts
to a later redactional stratum. For Torrey the agent of Yahweh was either
Israel or Cyrus and for Smart the prophecy was either eschatological or
historical; yet both agreed that the references to Cyrus were later
glosses.30 Since the Cyrus material appears beyond 44:28–45:1 Kratz has
proposed the addition of a “supplementary Cyrus stratum” to an already
existing core of SI that consists of 41:1a (MT); 41:25 a (MT); 42:5–7;
44:28; 45:1*, 3*, 5*; 45:11a, 12–13b; 18, 22–23; 48:12–15; 51:4–5*;
28. See “The Divine Council in Isaiah 40:1–11” in Chapter 3.

29. Christopher R. Seitz, “The Divine Council: Temporal Transition and New
Prophecy in the Book of Isaiah,” JBL 109 (1990): 242. Williamson (The Book
Called Isaiah, 79) goes a step further and argues that 28:1–4 was written by SI him-
self.
1
30. Torrey, The Second Isaiah, 36; Smart, History and Theology, 105.
52:11–12; 55:3–5.31 Albertz builds upon Kratz’s study and assigns

Kratz’s “supplementary Cyrus stratum” to Darius rather than Cyrus.32
One questions whether Albertz’s assumption that “the book of Deutero-
Isaiah is the only prophetic book of the exilic period that contains nothing
but prophecy of salvation”33 ought to be determinative when assigning
texts to different layers. It appears the question of dating the Cyrus texts
remains open, judging by the fact that several recent commentators
ascribe these texts to an early or original edition of SI.34 What is certain
is that the Cyrus texts are not unrelated additions to SI, but rather
embedded into its overall argument. Certainly the Cyrus texts could later
apply to Darius as well, but within Isa 40–48 these texts clearly refer to
Cyrus, since the perspective is one that captures Cyrus’s rise to power.
Based primarily upon differences in style and vocabulary, as well as
the repetition of what he views as inclusio text complexes, Klaus Kiesow
postulates three redactional stages to SI: (1) 40:13–48:20 with 40:3–5 as
an introduction; (2) 49:1–52:10 with 40:1–2, 9–11 as an introduction;
(3) 52:13–55:13 with 40:6–7 as an introduction.35 Viewed in this manner,
the NE theme undergoes a transformation from the “Way theology” of the
Grundchicht (40:13–48:20) with the addition of the “Return theology” of
the Erweiterungsschicten (49:1–52:10; 52:13–55:13). Since chs. 40–48
focus on Jacob/Israel and chs. 49–52 focus on Zion/Jerusalem, Kiesow
believes chs. 40–48 originally contained a theology of the way out of
Babylon and only later was Zion added as the goal of this way. Kiesow’s
views have been challenged. Hans-Jürgen Hermisson questions whether
SI’s audience would have embraced a journey into the wilderness with
no destination. Moreover, Jacob and Zion are not incompatible, but rather
31. Reinhard G. Kratz, Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buch: Redaktionsgeschichtliche

Untersuchungen zu Entstehung und Theologie von Jes 40–55 (FAT 1; Tübingen:
Mohr Siebeck, 1991).
32. Rainer Albertz, “Darius in Place of Cyrus: The First Edition of Deutero-
Isaiah (Isaiah 40.1–52.12) in 521 BCE,” JSOT 27 (2003): 371–83.
33. Albertz, Israel in Exile, 380.
34. Childs, Isaiah; Seitz, “Isaiah 40–66”; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55; Milton
Eng, “What’s in a Name? Cyrus and the Dating of Deutero-Isaiah,” in Inspired
Speech: Prophecy in the Ancient Near East: Essays in Honor of Herbert B. Huffmon
(ed. J. Kaltner and L. Stulman; LHBOTS 378; London: T&T Clark International,
2004), 216–24; Lisbeth S. Fried, “Cyrus the Messiah? The Historical Background to
Isaiah 45:1,” HTR 95 (2002): 373–93.
35. Kiesow, Exodustexte, 165–68. For Kiesow, the major discrepancies between
the rst two complexes is the focus on Jacob/Israel in chs. 40–48 and Zion/Jeru-
salem in chs. 49–52.
1
2. Methodology 29
represent Israel from the perspective of departure and journey and the
perspective of arrival, respectively.36
Rather than differentiate between Jacob/Israel texts and Zion/Jerusa-
lem texts, Ulrich Berges believes SI is composed to two editions: (1) the
“Transformation of the Wilderness and Nature” version that signaled a
positive change in fortune for Zion and Jerusalem in the postexilic period
(40:3–5, 6–8; 41:17–20; 43:14–21; 44:1–5; 51:1–3); and (2) the “Way–
Departure–Exodus” redaction intended to encourage the homecoming of
the Diaspora exiles (48:20–21; 49:7–12; 51:9–11; 52:11–12; 55:12–13).37
Berges’s scheme results from his observation that many of the purported
NE texts do not describe a literal return to Zion from Babylon. He
believes ch. 35 was designed to bridge these two versions of SI and itself
went through a redaction from a “Transformation of Nature” edition
(35:1–9a) with the addition of a “Return to Zion” (35:9b–10) strata. The
transformation of the desert into paradise theme then became a formative
paradigm in Israel’s interpretation and proclamation.
Mark Smith believes that the traditions represented in Isa 40:1–11 do
not demand the positing of various redactions. He argues instead that one
motif, the pilgrimage paradigm,38 encompasses both a “Way theology”
and “Return theology,” or “Transformation of Nature” and “Departure
and Homecoming” motif. Jeremiah 31:1–14 captures the various com-
ponents of this pilgrimage pattern evident in Isa 40:1–11 and chs. 40–55.
It consists of travel through the wilderness (31:2), the revelation of
Yahweh (31:3), a way for God’s people (31:1, 14), rejoicing and sing-
ing (31:4, 7, 13), the blind and lame as pilgrims (31:8), Zion, the dwell-
ing place of Yahweh, as its destination (31:6), Israel called Jacob (31:7,
11), Yahweh as savior and redeemer (31:7, 11), Yahweh as shepherd and
gatherer of his dispersed people (31:8, 10), Yahweh leading this proces-
sion (31:9) the transformation from wilderness into a watered garden
(31:5, 12), and the announcement of comfort (31:13). It is noteworthy that
this announcement of salvation is referred to in Jer 31:9 as a (cf.
, Isa 40:3). The point to be made is that micro-themes
36. Hans-Jürgen Hermisson, “Einheit und Komplexität Deuterojejesajas. Problem

der Redaktionsgeschichte von Jes 40–55,” in The Book of Isaiah. Le Livre d’Isaïe
(ed. J. Vermeylen; Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989), 303.
37. Ulrich Berges, “Der zweite Exodus im Jesajabuch. Auszug oder Verwand-
ung?,” in Das Manna Fällt Auch Heute Noch. Beiträge zur Geschichte und Theolo-
gie des Alten, Ersten Testaments. Festschrift für Erich Zenger (ed. F.-L. Hossfeld
and L. Schwienhorst-Schönberger; Freiburg: Herder, 2004), 77–95.
38. Mark S. Smith, The Pilgrimage Pattern in Exodus (JSOTSup 239; Shefeld:
Shefeld Academic, 1997), 127–29.
1
such as wilderness, Jacob, and Zion need not compete with each other so
as to warrant different redactions for the texts that contain them.
Certainly, as in the case of Jer 31:1–14, these micro-themes may simply
serve a macro-theme representing a unied text.
Numerous scholars consider TI a disparate composition reecting the
remains of competing ideologies in the Second Temple period.39 Yet if
literary coherence can be observed within these chapters, then the need
for a redactional scheme to explain the supposed disparity between the
texts is not necessary. Willem Beuken and Marvin Sweeney have identi-
ed a unied, coherent message within chs. 56–66 that dispels the need
to posit various redactions because of competing perspectives within the
text.40 Likewise, if a coherent message between SI and TI can be demon-
strated, a redactional division between the two books may be unneces-
sary.41 The religiously divided community described in chs. 56–66 is not
unique to TI, since SI already reports of the conict between those who
obey the words of the servant and those who face judgment for their
refusal to do so:
Who among you fears the LORD and obeys the voice of his servant, who
walks in darkness and has no light, yet trusts in the name of the LORD and
relies upon his God? But all of you are kindlers of re, lighters of
rebrands. Walk in the ame of your re, and among the brands that you
have kindled! This is what you shall have from my hand: you shall lie
down in torment. (Isa 50:10–11)
39. Paul D. Hanson, The Dawn of Apocalyptic: The Historical and Sociological
Roots of Jewish Apocalyptic Eschatology (rev. ed.; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1979),
201; Schramm, The Opponents of Third Isaiah; P. A. Smith, Rhetoric and Redaction
in Trito-Isaiah: The Structure, Growth and Authorship of Isaiah 56–66 (VTSup 62;
Leiden: Brill, 1995).
40. Willem A. M. Beuken, “The Main Theme of Trito-Isaiah: ‘The Servants of
YHWH’,” JSOT 47 (1990): 68; Marvin A. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–4 and the Post-Exilic
Understanding of the Isaianic Tradition (BZAW 171; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1988), 88.
41. A signicant minority of scholars has rejected the need to posit a separate TI.
See, among others, Torrey, The Second Isaiah; Menahem Haran, “The Literary
Structure and Chronological Framework of the Prophecies in Is. XL–XLVIII,”
in Congress Volume: Bonn, 1962 (VTSup 9; Leiden: Brill, 1962), 127–55; Smart,
History and Theology in Second Isaiah in Second Isaiah; Fritz Maass, “Tritojesaja?,”
in Das ferne und nahe Wort: Fst. Leonhard Rost (ed. by F. Maass; BZAW 105;
Berlin: Töpelmann, 1967), 153–63; Yehezkel Kaufmann, The Babylonian Captivity
and Deutero-Isaiah (trans. C. W. Efroymson; New York: Union of American
Hebrew Congregations, 1970); William L. Holladay, “Was Trito-Isaiah Deutero-
Isaiah After All?,” in Broyles and Evans, eds., Writing and Reading the Scroll of
Isaiah, 194–217; Koole, Chapters 40–48; Sommer, A Prophet Reads Scripture.
1
2. Methodology 31
A fractured community is unfortunately an inevitable by-product of the

Servant’s preaching, and therefore it is no surprise that TI captures the
sentiments of those responsive and hostile to the Servant’s message. The
best explanation to account for the seeming differences between SI and
TI, as well as the purported disparate material within TI, is to acknowl-
edge the major shifts in setting for the Judean community. TI combines
both the idealism of the returning exiles from Babylon via Persian
deliverance, yet the painful realities of actualizing these promises during
the restoration in Yehud.
Certainly it is beyond the scope of this study to provide a detailed
analysis of the various proposals regarding the formation of TI. What
follows is a brief explanation of my reading strategy for these chapters.
The majority of commentators believe chs. 56–66 to be the work of
tradents of SI in which chs. 60–62 form the center of a chiastic structure
spanning this work. Chapters 60–62 are thought to be the work of a
prophet or a group of disciples referred to as “Third Isaiah” who contin-
ues the legacy of SI. Since chs. 56–59 and 63–66 differ from chs. 60–62,
these chapters are most often assigned to various redactions. What has
resulted is a plurality of redactional schemes from which no consensus
has been reached. The other result is that chs. 60–62 have been elevated
as the pinnacle of TI’s message. If these chapters are considered the
continuation of SI’s message, chapters which “contain a message of
salvation and nothing but salvation,”42 then chs. 56–59 and chs. 63–66,
which speak of adherence to Torah, condemnation of syncretistic wor-
ship and social injustice, divine judgment, communal lament, purication
of the community, and apocalyptic imagery, are viewed as a religious
downgrade. In this typology of the development of Israelite religion in
the Second Temple period, prophecy is replaced by law (Wellhausen), or
prophecy is replaced by (proto-)apocalyptic (Hanson). Chapters 56–66
are generally arranged according to the following structure:
61:1–3
60–61–62
59:15b–20 63:1–6
59:1–15a 63:7–64:11
56:9–58:14 65:1–16
56:1–8 66:18–2443
The end result of this redactional scheme is to privilege chs. 60–62 over
and against the remaining material, as shown in the works of Hanson and
Smith, who both interpret TI in a concentric manner beginning with
42. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 296.

1
43. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 61.
these chapters.44 What this structure fails to take into account is the
escalation of apocalyptic within the latter half of TI and the relationship
between TI and the rest of BI, namely chs. 63–66 and chs. 1–2.
Rather than assume a core TI collection, redactional maximalists such
as Vermeylen and Steck propose that TI consists of only a series of
layers.45 Unfortunately this view suffers from speculation regarding the
dates of redactions, the penchant to assume that the least amount of
discontinuity in a text indicates a different layer, and the assumption that
political and social forces dominate the transmission of the text. Brevard
Childs provides a critique of the theories of Fortschreibung as set forth
by Zimmerli, O. Kaiser, and Steck in his article, “Retrospective Reading
of the Old Testament Prophets,”46 in which he takes issue with what they
consider conceptual consistency and their understanding of prophetic
eschatology as a cipher for political empirical history. Nevertheless,
Steck does highlight the important exegetical task of reading TI as part
of BI. That is, chs. 56–66 originated as the extension of the prophecies of
FI and SI rather than as an independent work that was added to BI at a
later stage. Regarding the connection between SI and TI, Clements writes,
“Nevertheless, it is reasonably clear that these eleven chapters [56–66],
with their proto-apocalyptic character, were intended to be understood,
not as a fresh and entirely self-contained declaration from Yahweh to the
postexilic community, but rather as a carrying forward of the divine
word as it had been declared on the eve of the overthrow of Babylon by
the unnamed prophet of chapters 40–55.”47 Chapters 40–66 then provide
a unied message exhorting the people of Jerusalem and Judah to
embrace Yahweh’s eternal covenant with Zion.48
The fact that BI did not end with ch. 52 or ch. 55 demonstrates that its
message at that point was incomplete and therefore any movement
toward an apocalyptic eschatology ought to be viewed as an extension of
SI’s message rather than a divergence from it. What is clear is that FI
was redacted to foreshadow themes developed in SI and TI such that BI
44. Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 32–77; Smith, Rhetoric and Redaction, 22–
49. These two scholars depart from Blenkinsopp’s above scheme in that Hanson
considers 57:14–21 to be closely related to chs. 60–62 and Smith believes 63:1–6 to
be an integral part of chs. 60–62.
45. Jacques Vermeylen, Du Prophète Isaïe à l’Apocalyptique (Ebib; Paris:
Lecoffre, 1977); Odil Hannes Steck, Studien zu Tritojesaja (BZAW 203; Berlin: de
Gruyter, 1991).
46. Childs, “Retrospective Reading,” 362–77.
47. Clements, Old Testament Prophecy, 103.
1
48. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–4, 97.
2. Methodology 33
can be divided into rubrics of “Former Things” (chs. 1–39) and “New
Things” (chs. 40–66).49 Only when BI is assumed to be a collection of
three independent sources does the theology of TI appear to differ from
SI. If the redactor of TI arranged its material in conscious dependence
upon both FI and SI, then chs. 60–62 ought not be viewed as the nucleus
of TI’s message since he built upon a tradition of both salvation and
judgment rather than solely unconditional salvation. Oracles of judgment
would be consistent with his literary and theological inuences. Steck
offers the timely reminder that “texts appear to be composites because
one observes them in isolation, and because one does not take into
account a unied redactional text’s diversity of perspective over the
entire revised writing.”50 When TI is read only with SI in mind, then
certainly the non-salvic proportions of TI are going to be ascribed to a
different hand. But if TI is read within the overall context of chs. 1–55,
then the passages within TI usually assigned to later redactors do not
appear to diverge from the previous prophetic tradition.
Unlike SI, which makes historical references to Cyrus and Babylon, TI
lacks any markers to date the text.51 The absence of a clear historical
context and the intertextual connections between chs. 56–66 and 1–55
suggest the primary means of interpreting passages within TI is its Sitz
im Text rather than Sitz im Leben. According to Nurmela, of the 53 allu-
sions or quotations of other biblical material in Isa 56–66, eight of them
refer to Isa 1–39 and fourteen to Isa 40–55. This indicates that the best
means of understanding the message of TI is through its intertextual
connections with the rest of BI, rather than via a hypothetical redactional
scheme or reconstructed historical setting. Schramm concurs:
Many of the concerns that surface in Third Isaiah are the very same con-
cerns that shape the whole of Isaiah. This, in turn, implies that what is going
49. Brevard S. Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Phila-

delphia: Fortress, 1979), 325–34; C. R. Seitz, “Isaiah, Book of (First Isaiah),” ABD
3:477.
50. Odil Hannes Steck, Old Testament Exegesis: A Guide to the Methodology
(trans. J. D. Nogalski; Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 1998), 87.
51. Schramm (The Opponents of Third Isaiah, 51) considers the only concrete
historical reference in TI to be the mention of the destruction of the temple in 64:10.
Yet this reference would place TI in a period immediately following 586, which
would contradict the usual dating of TI to the postexilic period. Muilenburg
(“Chapters 40–66,” 5:653) cautions against using the reference to the temple as a
means of dating the text since TI is composed of poetic eschatology. Seitz (“Isaiah
40–66,” 6:474) expresses similar reservations and observes that the references to the
temple in TI do not form a coherent picture. In 56:5 the temple is presumably intact,
in 63:18 it is “trampled down,” and in 66:1 it is yet to be built.
1
on in Third Isaiah is an integral part of a process that eventually led to the

creation of the entire book of Isaiah. Any interpretation of Third Isaiah that
does not take this into account does not do justice to the material.52
With the rejection that chs. 60–62 form the nucleus of TI surrounded by
retrogressions from this ideal, chs. 56–66 ought to be read in a linear
fashion rather than according to a concentric structure. The fact that SI
was never a prophet of unconditional salvation further supports this
position. Based upon the arguments above, I will read chs. 56–66 in a
linear manner as a continuation of SI and as a conclusion to BI.
Innerbiblical Interpretation
Those who posit multiple “ways” in Isaiah assume that the author(s) of
TI quoted an existing text. This assumption ought to be scrutinized
through the exegesis of texts, to determine whether it is justiable.
Although they may differ on whether TI was written by a singular or
multiple authors, scholars following Duhm generally assumed the fol-
lowing view articulated by Odeberg: “But there is no intrinsic relation-
ship between Deut-Isa and Trito-Isa. Almost every term of Deut-Isa,
made use of in Trito-Isa, in the latter has a different shade of meaning.”53
For this reason Volz is compelled to separate SI from TI as he confesses,
“The frequent instances in which Deut-Isa is literally quoted, accompa-
nied by a shift in meaning, provides compelling and conclusive evidence
to separate these chapters, since Deut-Isa would certainly not have
repeated nor contradicted himself.”54 As noted in Chapter 1, Zimmerli
himself acknowledged that in some instances TI’s reuse of SI’s material
contained no shift in meaning, although in his conclusion he emphasized
TI’s freedom to reinterpret SI:
No xed system for using Deutero-Isaiah’s sayings could be observed.
In addition to the word-for-word quotation of entire phrases, we found
roughly equivalent free reminiscences within individual sayings. In addi-
tion to the faithful adoption and analogous reuse of images, whether
developed more fully or broken up from dramatic effect, we also found
completely new associations or merely formulaic-gurative uses.55
52. Schramm, The Opponents of Third Isaiah, 43.

53. Hugo Odeberg, Trito-Isaiah (Isaiah 56–66): A Literary and Linguistic Analy-
sis (Uppsala: A.-B. Lundequistska, 1931), 27.
54. Volz, Jesaia II, 198.
55. Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” 233, as cited in Richard L. Schultz,
The Search for Quotation: Verbal Parallels in the Prophets (JSOTSup 180; Shef-
eld: Shefeld Academic, 1999), 46 (Schultz’s translation).
1
2. Methodology 35
Yet it is precisely these claims, that TI dramatically changed the meaning

of SI, that have recently been called into question.
The question still remains whether TI is even quoting SI at all. In
Sommer’s opinion, “The disjunctions and contradictions that allegedly
establish the composite nature of prophetic texts often result from hyper-
sensitive reading rather than genuine critical acumen.”56 Richard Schultz
has demonstrated that the identication of prophetic quotation is an
extremely complex task with meager textual data to support theories.57
Introductory formulae are absent, and unlike the forecast of an exile in
ch. 39 to distinguish a new setting for ch. 40, no literary marker separates
ch. 55 from ch. 56. Since quotations ought to be recognizable by readers,
Schultz advocates restraint in postulating diachronic theories based upon
purported reinterpretations. Likewise, to postulate what SI or TI would
or would not write based upon a hypothetical reconstruction of their
prophetic persona is tenuous. What Schultz nds lacking in the views of
Duhm and his followers is the possibility of self-quotation, a legitimate
and powerful literary device. Schultz surveys the role of quotation in
Western literature and observes, “Self-quotation can result in an ‘allusive
resounding’ not only ‘across a gap’ of many lines of text but between
texts as well, often producing a ‘kind of dramatic and typological
irony.’ ”58 This internal reference or self-echo can have “a force of gura-
tion much deeper than that of mere decorative patterning.”59 The present
study will proceed to examine each purported occurrence of prophetic
quotation on a case-by-case basis with self-quotation as one among many
explanatory possibilities.
Israelite Religion
Whereas composition has been on the forefront of discussions regarding
the interpretation of Isaiah, Israelite religion plays just as important a
role. John Barton offers the timely reminder, “Most biblical historians
turn out to be theologians in disguise.”60 Laato correctly identies the
correlation between these two factors, and the difculty in properly
relating them to each other:
56. Sommer, A Prophet Reads Scripture, 5.

57. Schultz, The Search for Quotation, 231.
58. Schultz, The Search for Quotation, 197, quoting John Hollander, The Figure
of Echo (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981), 60.
59. Hollander, Figure of Echo, 60, as quoted in Schultz, The Search for
Quotation, 198.
60. John Barton, The Nature of Biblical Criticism (Louisville, Ky.: Westminster
John Knox, 2007), 38–39.
1
Any reconstruction of the proclamation of the historical prophets must be

related to the structure of Israelite religion. However, the origin and
development of Israelite religion is one of the most difcult problems of
Old Testament exegesis… Our picture of Israelite religion is at best based
on reconstructions which, in turn, generate different understandings of
Old Testament prophecy in its religious-historical context.61
This study will assert that the compositional separation of TI from SI

stems from a predisposition to a Wellhausenian view of Israelite religion
that pits their theologies against each other. Wellhausen’s famed maxim,
“the law is later than the prophets,” and its conjoined anti-cultic senti-
ment, was a view shared by German scholars at the time. These scholars
magnicently expounded the social and eschatological vision of the
prophets, but the cultic references in TI drew their ire. Bernhard Duhm’s
contribution to Isaianic studies, the separation of chs. 56–66 from SI,
stems from his romanticized conception of a prophet and a bias against
the law. Zimmerli summarizes Duhm’s view of the law and the prophets:
In the emphasis upon the personal experiences and individuality of the
prophets we can discern the inuence of Herder, whilst the stress upon
ethical spirituality betrays the inheritance of Idealism… Law is for Duhm
something statutory, institutional, and external, whilst for him the
prophets were men of freedom, spirituality, and a personal individualism
in direction communion with God.62
Duhm’s assertion that the “lawgiver is the antithesis of the prophet”63

appears to have motivated him to assign chs. 56–66 to a completely
different author than SI due to the numerous references to the cult in
these chapters. The Jewish scholar Yehezkel Kaufmann argues that the
separation of chs. 56–66 from chs. 40–55 reects the personal religious
attitudes of Protestant scholars in a chapter entitled, “The Liberal-
Protestant Severance of Chapters 56–66.”64 Caution must be exercised in
distinguishing literary layers based upon semantic dissonance, particu-
larly when these seams purportedly reect differing religious theologies.
It seems Zimmerli’s own theological views inuenced him to suggest
a multiplicity of perspectives within the same canonical book. Clearly, as
is evident in the following statement, Zimmerli doctrine of God
corresponds to his doctrine of Scripture:
61. Laato, History and Ideology, 207.

62. Walther Zimmerli, The Law and the Prophets: A Study of the Meaning of the
Old Testament (trans. R. E. Clements; Oxford: Blackwell, 1965), 28.
63. Bernhard Duhm, Israels Propheten (Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck],
1916), 39, as quoted in Zimmerli, The Law and the Prophets, 28.
1
64. Kaufmann, The Babylonian Captivity, 88.
2. Methodology 37
The prophet is never in control of Yahweh’s word; Yahweh remains free.

The prophet can only await each new receiving message. When this has
happened, then, of course, the message must be delivered with all cer-
tainty. The prophetic message is never xed.65
Zimmerli believes Yahweh is a Sovereign God, free to act out in new

ways in history, unbound to his previous words, and a transformer of
traditions.66 This view of God and his relationship to history corresponds
with his interpretation of Isaiah.
Scholars who argue in favor of the unity to BI frequently also do so
based upon their religious commitments. For Christopher Seitz, the
theological principle of canon provides parameters for his view of God.
He believes Yahweh must act in history in ways consistent to his prior
word genuinely to fulll previous prophecy. Even if a book exhibits
diachronic differentiation, a unied theological message is assumed.
Seitz does not believe that theological consistency necessitates the
singular authorship of BI. For him, canonicity functions as a hermeneuti-
cal principle that suggests a divine perspective to all 66 chapters. He
writes, “ ‘Unity’ is not a literary claim for a single, tightly constructed
uniformity of perspective. Rather, it is a concept meant to constrain
emphasis on multiplicity of perspectives in a single work.”67 I recognize
that theological unity with allowance for multiplicity of perspectives is a
vague principle prone to being subjectively dened, yet it remains a
factor to consider in interpretation due to the unavoidably religious and
complex nature of BI.
Literalism, Metaphor, and Typology

Whereas some scholars may argue for a fragmented text based upon pur-
ported discrepancies, contradictions, or tensions, others will interpret the
same data as exhibiting the richness, complexity, and equivocal nature of
poetry. Since the plain sense of Scripture may be the metaphorical,68 it is
65. Walther Zimmerli, “Promise and Fulllment,” in Essays on Old Testament

Hermeneutics (ed. C. Westermann; trans. J. L. Mays; Richmond, Va.: John Knox,
1963), 107.
66. Walther Zimmerli, “Prophetic Proclamation and Reinterpretation,” in The
Fiery Throne: The Prophets and Old Testament Theology (ed. K. C. Hanson;
Minneapolis: Fortress, 2003), 12.
67. Christopher R. Seitz, Word Without End: The Old Testament as Abiding
Theological Witness (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1998), 128.
68. Barton (Biblical Criticism, 101) denes the plain sense as “only indirectly
concerned with the original, the intended, the historical, or literal meaning.” In the
case of Dan 7–12, the allegorical is the plain sense of the Bible.
1
necessary to understand metaphor and its function in Scripture and

theology properly. Kevin Vanhoozer adopts the insights of Max Black
and Paul Ricoeur and denes metaphors as “indispensable cognitive
instruments that enable thought to perceive resemblances between things
that would not otherwise be observable.”69 Central to Ricoeur’s view of
metaphor is the need for diachronic analysis and the role of semantic
impertinence. Diachronic dimension involves assessing whether an
actual relationship between the vehicle and the subject exists. Semantic
impertinence involves determining what new meaning is created by this
conation of texts. In regards to this study, the diachronic element
involves determining whether inner-biblical allusions are in fact related,
and if so, dening the nature of this relationship.
According to Ricoeur, the imaginative association of previously
unrelated elements in metaphors forms “an instantaneous creation, a
semantic innovation”70 from which “a new vision of reality springs up,
one which is resisted by ordinary vision tied to the ordinary use of
words.”71 For Paul Grifths, “Metaphor ‘provokes a shift of the gaze’
and ‘intimates a train of thought whose ending is unclear.’ In other
words, it makes us look and move in a certain direction, provoking and
unfolding patterns of thought and action not yet determined.”72 Meta-
phors carry the potential for imaginative creativity and persuasive power
and therefore it is no accident that metaphor is the language of ethics and
eschatology. Janet Soskice afrms the realistic quality of metaphorical
speech yet species that this realism is not a naïve empiricism or posi-
tivism. She writes:
The language used to account for them [faith experiences] is metaphorical
and qualied, it stands within a tradition of use and is theory-laden, yet in
so far as it is grounded on experience it is referential, and it is the theo-
logical realist’s conviction that that to which it refers, the source of these
experiences, is God who is the source and cause of all that is.73
69. K. J. Vanhoozer, Is There a Meaning in This Text? The Bible, the Reader, and
the Morality of Literary Knowledge (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1998), 129.
70. Paul Ricoeur, “Biblical Hermeneutics,” Semeia 4 (1975): 79, original
emphasis.
71. Ibid., 84.
72. Brian D. Ingrafa and Todd E. Pickett, “Reviving the Power of Biblical
Language: The Bible, Literature and Literary Language,” in After Pentecost:
Language and Biblical Interpretation (ed. C. G. Bartholomew, C. Greene, and K.
Moller; SHS 2; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 2001) 260, quoting P. J. Grifths,
“Seeking Egyptian Gold,” The Cresset 63.7 (2000): 7.
73. Janet M. Soskice, Metaphor and Religious Language (Oxford: Clarendon,
1985), 159.
1
2. Methodology 39
The proper contexts for understanding biblical metaphors are their

literary and canonical ones. Because of the religious nature of these texts,
these metaphors may be referential both in history and eschatology.
Biblical metaphor is the vehicle for communicating typology in
Scripture, one which ascribes both a historical and eschatological signi-
cance to events and texts. Auerbach provides the classic denition for
the gural/typological interpretation of prophecy:
Figural prophecy implies the interpretation of one worldly event through
another; the rst signies the second, the second fullls the rst. Both
remain historical events; yet both, looked at in this way, have something
provisional and incomplete about them; they point to one another and
both point to something in the future, something still to come, which will
be the actual, real, and denite event.74
What is important to note in regard to biblical typology or gural inter-

pretation is that, as Goldingay observes, “The events, acts, and people
with which it concerns itself have a literal reference when they rst
appear but come to have an increasingly metaphorical signicance as
they reappear.”75 The “open” or indeterminate quality of Scripture pro-
vides the opportunity to expand the denition of the rst text through
linking it in a typological relationship to a second one. The meaning of
the rst text is later more fully dened through the addition of the second
text, although the original meaning of the rst text is never displaced.
Typology involves both constraint and creativity. As evidenced in the
growth of prophetic books, it is possible to expand the meaning of the
rst text as long as the second text is patterned after the rst. Fishbane
categorizes inner-biblical typologies into four categories: (1) cosmologi-
cal-historical correlations; (2) historical correlations; (3) spatial correla-
tions; and (4) biographical correlations.76 Within each of these categories
a literal, allegorical, spiritual, or moral typological application of an
earlier traditum may apply. The exegetical task involves determining the
manner of typology and typological correlation.
74. Erich Auerbach, “Figura,” in Scenes from the Drama of European Literature
(ed. E. Auerbach; trans. R. Manheim; Gloucester, Mass.: Meridian, 1959), 58.
75. John Goldingay, Models for Interpretation of Scripture (Grand Rapids,
Mich.: Eerdmans, 1995), 63–64. Yet in some cases the opposite is true. For example,
the language of “sonship” rst appears in the Old Testament in metaphorical lan-
guage denoting kingship (Ps 2) and later fulllment in Christ is increasingly literal
(Heb 1:5).
1
76. Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 352–79.
Imagination, Myth, and Eschatology

If the task of exegesis, as dened by Laato, requires the construction of
possible worlds, then the imagination is the means to construe a unied
concept of this view of reality. Why consider the imagination the unify-
ing principle? When interpreting a prophetic book containing mythic,
cosmic, and eschatological elements, the use of imagination is the subject
matter of the text extends beyond what can be immediately perceived.
Not only is the imagination necessary to comprehend the worldview of
the text, but it is the means of conceptualizing the text’s relevance to the
world of the interpreter. It functions to understand the text’s imagery and
metaphors, and is vital in the construction of meaning.
Given that this study involves an ancient text, one borne out of an
ancient Near Eastern cultural and historical setting, the imaginative study
of BI requires the interpreter to properly grasp the mythical, historical,
and eschatological dimensions of the text. In an essay on the theological
signicance of myth in the Old Testament, Anderson observes, “These
are precisely the theological dimensions found in the poetry of Second
Isaiah, whose proclamation draws upon all Israelite traditions and fuses
them in matchless synthesis.”77 Myth, history, and eschatology here are
not set in contrast, but operate on a continuum in which cosmology and
history coexist and extend from the beginning of creation to the recrea-
tion of a new heavens and earth. Viewed in this manner myths possess
truth-claims, credibility, as well as authority,78 and function to provide
meaning to the present. They do so by revealing the past, as well as
providing a snapshot of the future. Mark Shipp, following the studies of
Eliade and Lévi-Strauss, offers a succinct denition of myth:
A myth is a narration of events which occurred at some point in the past
or in the primordium in which the divine realm intrudes in such a way
into the human realm that human behavior, institutions, or beliefs are
forever altered. A myth is a story, but a story about the inbreaking of
Eternity into history with implications for the future.79
Popular notions of myth as “ction” or “falsehood” are to be rejected,
and instead myths are to be understood “largely of analogical thinking
77. Bernhard W. Anderson, “Mythopoeic and Theological Dimensions of

Biblical Creation Faith,” in From Creation to New Creation (ed. B. W. Anderson;
OBT; Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994), 95.
78. See Bruce Lincoln, Discourse and Construction of Society: Comparative
Studies of Myths, Ritual, and Classication (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1989), 24–25.
79. Mark R. Shipp, Of Dead Kings and Dirges: Myth and Meaning in Isaiah
14:4b–21 (Leiden: Brill, 2002), 31, emphasis added.
1
2. Methodology 41
about what is perceived by the writer(s) as reality, specically historical,

natural, geographical, cultural, economic, or social reality.”80
This study will utilize myth as a valid ancient Near Eastern histo-
riographic genre,81 as well as a religious and philosophical concept,82 to
help understand the eschatology of Isaiah. Certainly the use of the term
“myth” is not without its problems83 since scholars dene “myth,” “his-
tory,” and “ction” differently. Even though confusion exists regarding
the use of “myth,” the term does provide a link between the cosmic with
the historical, and the Urzeit and Endzeit. Myth frequently describes
divine action in the past, present, and the future. Viewed in this manner,
myth contributes to the grand narrative of the Bible. The “mythic”
elements in the Scriptures reveal that causality in history and reality is
not bound merely to the forces of politics and nature. History’s events
and goal are not merely determined by the will of humans or by natural
processes, but according to the will and plan of Yahweh who acts in the
present and the future in a similar manner as he has in the past.
Following the suggestions of Richard Clifford,84 I propose that the
WOL is an event that draws upon Israel’s mythic traditions to commu-
nicate that the salvation announced by SI is foremost a cosmic victory
80. Richard E. Averbeck, “Ancient Near Eastern Mythography as It Relates to

Historiography in the Hebrew Bible: Genesis 3 and the Cosmic Battle,” in The
Future of Biblical Archaeology: Reassessing Methodologies and Assumptions (ed.
J. K. Hoffmeier and A. Millard; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2004), 332,
original emphasis.
81. See Richard E. Averbeck, “Sumer, the Bible, and Comparative Method:
Historiography and Temple Building,” in Sumer, the Bible, and Comparative
Method: Historiography and Temple Building (ed. M. Chavalas and K. L. Younger,
Jr.; JSOTSup 341; London: Shefeld Academic, 2002), 88–125, and “Ancient Near
Eastern Mythography.” Kenton L. Sparks, “The Problem of Myth in Ancient
Historiography,” in Rethinking the Foundations: Historiography in the Ancient
World and the Bible: Essays in Honour of John Van Seters (ed. S. L. McKenzie and
T. Römer; BZAW 294; Berlin: de Gruyter, 2000), 269–80.
82. See Kevin Schilbrack, ed., Thinking Through Myths: Philosophical Perspec-
tives (London: Routledge, 2002), 1–17.
83. John W. Rogerson, in Myth in Old Testament Interpretation (BZAW 134;
Berlin: de Gruyter, 1974), 174, provides twelve different denitions of “myth.”
G. B. Caird offers seven denitions of the term divided into two categories
(phenomenological and symbolic) in The Language and Imagery of the Bible (Grand
Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1997). William Doty’s comprehensive denition involves
seventeen components; see his Mythography: The Study of Myths and Rituals
(Alabama University: University of Alabama Press, 1986), 11.
84. Richard J. Clifford, “The Unity of the Book of Isaiah and Its Cosmogonic
Language,” CBQ 55 (1993): 1–17.
1
over primordial forces experienced by Israel in history. This event is not

exhausted in the return from exile and therefore the salvation announce-
ment initiates the consummation of God’s redemptive plan for Israel, the
nations, and the entire cosmos. Israel’s eschatology is forged within this
dialectic between mythology and history.85 The means by which this
eschatology is communicated is through biblical typology or guration,
which is often derived through myths. The WOL in Isaiah originates in
Israel’s mythic traditions and possesses a cosmological, historical, and
eschatological dimension.
85. Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 17; Michael Fishbane, Biblical Myth and
Rabbinic Mythmaking (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 56–57.
1
Chapter 3
THE “WAY OF THE LORD” IN ISAIAH 40:1–52:12
This chapter begins with introductory matters so as to provide the proper

context in which to interpret Isa 40:1–52:12. It addresses the semantics
of “way,” the genre of these chapters, the extent of the NE motif in SI, 1
and whether a divine council provides the backdrop to 40:1–11. From
there the argument of Isa 40:1–52:12 will be presented, organized around
several prominent themes. The signicance of these motifs, especially
as they relate to the presentation of Cyrus, will be explored in order to
determine the rhetorical logic of the “way” within chs. 40–48. An exami-
nation of the development of the “way” motif within SI follows, along
with a discussion of how it relates to the Servant theme.
Denitions of “Way”
The difculty with interpreting the reference to in Isa 40:3, and all
other references to a “way” within BI, is the word’s uid semantic range,
its numerous synonyms, and determining the context of each usage.
Within BI, appears fty-eight times,
or

ten times,
eight times, four times, and
twice. Given that appears
most frequently and possesses the broadest semantic range of the “way”
lexemes, the present study will focus primarily on , along with

or

. HALOT provides the following denitions for with its
accompanying Isaianic reference under the following categories: (1) road
(8:23); (2) distance; (3) journey (58:13)—enterprise, business; (4) man-
ner, custom, behavior (55:7; 59:8); (5) divine ways—(a) God’s behavior,
action, (b) conduct required by God; (6) condition, situation (40:27);
(7) strength, power. Markus Zehnder has produced the most extensive
study of the “way” lexemes in the Old Testament to date.2 Of the 696
1. When I present my own views, SI will refer to 40:1–52:12 and TI will desig-
nate 52:13–66:24.
2. Markus Philipp Zehnder, Wegmetaphorik im Alten Testament (BZAW 268;
Berlin: de Gruyter, 1999).
1
clear references to the noun in the Old Testament, he observes sixty
different uses of the word, dividing them into four semantic groups. He
then assigns each denition a number that also indicates to which of the
following four semantic groups it belongs:
1. Concrete spatial uses—127 references (No. 100–).
2. Emphasis on the aspect of movement—57 references (No. 200–).
3. Emphasis on the moral evaluation of one’s lifestyle—244 refer-
ences (No. 300–).
4. References to the condition or direction of one’s life—34
references (No. 400–).
Zehnder then provides the following denitions for and categorizes
each use of the word in Isaiah accordingly:
101 A road in the spatial static sense with a map reference
(15:5).
110 “Eschatological Miracle Road” (35:8b, 8c; 40:3; 42:16;
43:19; 49:9, 11; 57:14a, 14b; 62:10).3
130 A way in the sea (43:16; 51:10).
150 A geographical area (8.23).
230 Course (58.13).
300 Undertaking/Enterprise (45:13; 48:15).
310 Conduct; course of action (55:8a; 55:9b).
312 Way and manner (10:24, 26).
320 Moral conduct (8:11; 55:7; 57:17, 18; 65:2; 66:3).
322 Life change (59:8).
323 Cultic religious activity (57:10).
330 Conduct commanded by God, explicit form (42:24; 58:2;
63:17; 64:4).
331 Conduct commanded by God, implicit form (30:11, 21;
48:17).
350 Life plan (53:6; 56:11).
360 Work of God (40:14; 55:8b; 55:9a).
362/363 God’s work of salvation; God’s work of work vengeance
(2:3; 58:2).
440 Fate/condition (40:27).
As in the case of the use of in Isa 2:3 and 58:2, Zehnder recognizes
that the word may possess several meanings, what he refers to as a
Bedeutungskonglomerat.

or

occur more times in Isaiah (9×) than any other book in
the Old Testament, thereby signifying its importance within BI. David
Dorsey believes
/

is the most distinct of the “way” words
3. Zehnder believes this use of the word is unique to Isaiah, except for Jer 31:9
and Mal 3:1.
1
3. The “Way of the LORD” in Isaiah 40:1–52:12 45
since it lacks a metaphorical denition and almost always refers to a

literal, physical road and rarely to a course or journey. According to him,
it is not just any road, but a prepared and constructed major public
thoroughfare.4 Tidwell recognizes that this word appears in every stratum
of BI, thus providing an element of continuity within the Isaianic tradi-
tion. He believes that what started off as “a word denoting a via sacra in
a ‘suburban’ location (Isa xxxv 8, vii 3) comes to denote an eschatologi-
cal international thoroughfare (Isa. xi 16).”5 Whereas Dorsey believes the
exhortation

refers to leveling and grading by clearing
away obstacles, Tidwell argues that these words refer to the construction
of a graded ascent. According to Tidwell, one never descends () a

/

—one only ascends (
) this highway, signifying that its
destination is always a city or temple. Certainly the relationship between
cult, city, and
/

are signicant, but Zehnder criticizes Tidwell
for overstating his case since the lexeme does not always appear in cultic
contexts (e.g. Prov 16:17). He goes on to categorize the uses of
/

in BI according to the following denitions:
101 A way in the spatial static sense with a map reference

(Isa 7:3; 36:2)
102 A way in the spatial static sense with an indenite locale
(Isa 33:8)
110 “Eschatological Miracle Road” (Isa 11:16; 19:23; 40:3;
49:11; 62:10)
320/420 Moral conduct/life change (Isa 59:7)
Zehnder classies the “way” words, and

/

, of Isa 11:16;
19:23; 35:8; 40:3; 42:16; 43:19; 49:9, 11; 57:14; 62:10 under the seman-
tic designation, “Eschatological Miracle Road” (Eschatologische Wunder-
strasse). By this he means a way in the spatial static sense that traverses
the desert with Zion as its destination, one that possesses eschatological
and miraculous elements. Certainly Babylon may serve as the starting
point for this road, but multiple origins may be in view. Zehnder recog-
nizes that these “way” words possess more than one sense since they
describe not only a road but also a course and journey for the people of
God, the redeemed people, or God leading his people. He acknowledges
that precise semantic certainty is impossible. The miraculous aspects of
the road are difcult to specify and a metaphoric element may be in view
in some cases. These texts cannot be dated with precision, so Zehnder
4. David A. Dorsey, The Roads and Highways of Ancient Israel (Baltimore: The
Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991), 228–29.
5. N. L. Tidwell, “No Highway! The Outline of a Semantic Description of
MESILLÂ,” VT 45 (1995): 256.
1
calls for a case by case examination of each occurrence. It ought to be

noted that Zehnder’s analysis is primarily synchronic and therefore his
designation “Eschatological Miracle Road” applies to the use of the
“way” lexemes in the nal form of the book, not an earlier recension.
Given the wide semantic range of the “way” words, simplistic notions
of “literal” or “gurative” fail to dene the word properly. For example,
is the “Eschatological Miracle Road” literal or gurative? Not only will
this study seek to dene each use of the “way” words in BI, it will also
attempt to identify the tradition or concept underlying various uses of the
word. In certain instances, may evoke an exodus tradition (51:10),
and other times a Wisdom/Torah motif (2:3). When appears with
Yahweh as a construct it can mean either God’s behavior or conduct
required by God. Koole observes that, “The words ‘way’ and ‘water’
function as signposts, they have surplus value,”6 and operate as catch-
words unifying BI’s argument. Therefore, each occurrence may be
dened not only by its immediate context, but also by the context of the
whole book.
The Genre of Second Isaiah

Whereas commentators viewed SI as a collection of short, independent
units for much of the twentieth century, I interpret SI as a unied literary
work composed of both speech forms and literary features. The author of
SI is both a poet and a prophet who is steeped in Israel’s psalmody and
uses stylistic devices for the purposes of persuasion in a public forum. SI
was designed to be heard for its kerygmatic content as well as carefully
read and studied as a literary work. Viewed in this manner, Isaiah is
composed of literary units of “prophetic readings”7 which are to be read
against the backdrop of the book as a whole rather than a hypothetical
Sitz im Leben. That is, each pericope ought to be read primarily within
what Roy Melugin refers to as the “textually portrayed setting.”8 As
poetry, the logic of SI need not proceed in a linear and prosaic manner,
since it may be communicating through images.
6. Koole, Chapters 40–48, 324.

7. Ehud Ben Zvi, “The Prophetic Book: A Key Form of Prophetic Literature,”
in The Changing Face of Form Criticism for the Twenty-First Century (ed. M. A.
Sweeney and E. Ben Zvi; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2003), 287.
8. Roy F. Melugin, “Recent Form Criticism Revisited in an Age of Reader
Response,” in Sweeney and Ben Zvi, eds., The Changing Face of Form Criticism,
57–58, original emphasis.
1
In sum, SI has proved to be a complex literary work functioning on a

number of levels for both the hearer and the reader. The proper approach
to such literature must then be multi-faceted. This view is dened by
Miscall: “For me, reading is a sequential and multiple process that strug-
gles with content and form, that moves both through and back and forth
in the poem with asides and digressions into other texts and matters.”9 If
SI is a rhetorical and kerygmatic work, then repetition need not necessi-
tate a later redaction. The very nature of a parenetic work is to express
the same exhortation in various creative manners in order to persuade the
intended audience. Repetition is well known to be an effective pedagogi-
cal device, and the reuse of the same phraseology in a homiletic context
frequently produces a powerful rhetorical effect.
A New Exodus in Second Isaiah?

The NE motif has been considered by scholars for nearly half a century
to be not only a major motif within SI, but the overarching motif of SI.
This has resulted in several studies devoted to cataloguing the various NE
texts within SI.10 Generally these studies have proceeded in the following
fashion: (1) delineating which texts in SI fall under the category of NE
texts; (2) synthesizing the results of exegesis by relating these texts to a
wider corpus of literature,11 a particular view of history/ eschatology,12
another theme within SI,13 or a compositional scheme for SI.14 Maximally,
the NE texts are as follows:
40:3–11 The highway in the wilderness
41:17–20 The transformation of the wilderness
42:14–17 Yahweh leads his people in a way they know not
43:1–7 Passing through the waters and the re
9. Peter D. Miscall, Isaiah 34–35: A Nightmare/A Dream (JSOTSup 281; Shef-

eld: Shefeld Academic, 1999), 9.
10. Fischer, “Das Problem des neuen Exodus,” 111–30; Anderson, “Exodus
Typology,” 177–95; Zimmerli, “Der ‘Neue Exodus,’ ” 192–204; Stuhlmueller,
Creative Redemption, 59–98; Kiesow, Exodustexte.
11. Zimmerli, “Der ‘Neue Exodus.’ ”
12. Anderson, “Exodus Typology.”
13. Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption; Bernhard W. Anderson, “Exodus and
Covenant in Second Isaiah and Prophetic Tradition,” in Magnalia Dei, the Mighty
Acts of God: Essays on the Bible and Archaeology in Memory of G. Ernest Wright
(ed. F. M. Cross, W. Lemke, and P. D. Miller Jr.; Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday,
1980), 339–60.
1
14. Kiesow, Exodustexte.
43:14–21 A way in the wilderness

44:1–5 Water on the thirsty land
44:27 Drying of the water deep
48:20–21 Exodus from Babylon
49:8–12 The new entry into the Promised Land
50:2 Power to deliver
51:9–10 New victory at sea
52:11–12 The new exodus
55:12–13 Israel shall go out in joy and peace15
The unfortunate result of approaching SI in this manner is that these texts

have frequently been abstracted from their rhetorical contexts. For
instance, Carroll Stuhlmueller begins his study of the NE theme by
arguing against Fischer’s assertion that chs. 40–55 ought to be divided
into the themes of “The Prophet of the release by Cyrus, the new exodus,
and the reestablishment of Zion.”16 Stuhlmueller instead protests that NE
is the dominant theme of SI, goes on to distinguish this motif over and
against others, and relates it to the motif of creative redemption in SI.
And yet, in his search for the main theme of SI, Stuhlmueller ignores
how the NE texts relate to the Cyrus and Zion theme/texts.
Klaus Kiesow recognizes that the NE motif is not as clearly denable
as previously assumed by most scholars. He writes, “The ‘new exodus’ is
not in a thematically closed complex of speech, but is scattered and often
only in scarce allusions; furthermore, it is not always clear when it is to
be interpreted.”17 Kiesow observes that the NE theme cannot be distilled
from the text but rather is intertwined with other motifs. He also recog-
nizes that certain purported NE motifs, such as “water” and “way,” may
not fall under the classication of the NE, but function to support other
themes. Motifs within SI hold complex relationships with one another,
so each text much be carefully examined to see how it relates to other
texts. The quest for a dominant theme in SI is unnecessary and may com-
promise the exegetical task. More important is to identify SI’s rhetori-
cal aims and determine how each text and motif contributes to this
purpose.
15. Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption, 66, 272; Kiesow, Exodustexte, 17 n. 35;

Anderson, “Exodus Typology,” 181–82. Although I do not include chs. 53–55
within SI, most commentators view SI as chs. 40–55.
16. Fischer, “Das Problem des neuen Exodus.”
17. Kiesow, Exodustexte, 17. It should be noted that much of Kiesow’s difculty
in dening the NE theme in SI lies in his own form-critical methods, which cannot
account for texts which are not in “einem thematisch geschlossenen Komplex die
Rede.”
1
The Divine Council in Isaiah 40:1–11

How one interprets the rst eleven verses has a dramatic effect on how
the rest of SI is viewed. In 1953 Frank Moore Cross set forth an inu-
ential proposal, suggesting that the prologue to SI (40:1–11) contains a
heavenly court setting.18 Although this interpretation has been adopted by
many, it continues to have its detractors. The objections to the divine
council setting for ch. 40 come in two forms. First, as Wilson objects,
“The idea that the group is the divine council, God’s advisory committee
made up of lesser deities that do God’s will, is unlikely, since Second
Isaiah devotes several oracles to arguing that these other deities are not
deities at all and in any case are totally ineffective and unable to do any-
thing in the cosmos.”19 Yet Min Suc Kee and Patrick Miller argue just the
opposite, demonstrating that the concept of the incomparable Yahweh
surrounded by a heavenly council consistently contributes to the Hebrew
Bible’s monotheistic outlook.20 Whybray afrms the existence of heav-
enly counselors in 40:13–14 yet considers such references a polemic
against Babylonian mythology.21 A clear distinction in genre ought to be
made between the heavenly court setting of the prologue (40:1–11) and
the idol polemic to follow, and thus different conventions may be
operative in each.
The more substantial objection to the concept of a divine court motif is
the question whether Isa 40:1–11 possesses the elements of a heavenly
court type-scene. Joseph Blenkinsopp and Kee argue that the prologue
lacks the visual imagery, deliberative nature of the council, and quest for
theodicy present in other heavenly court scenes (Isa 6:8; cf. 1 Kgs 22:20–
22; Job 1–2).22 Certainly they are correct to observe that in itself 40:1–11
18. Frank Moore Cross Jr., “The Council of Yahweh in Second Isaiah,” JNES 12
(1953): 274–77.
19. Robert R. Wilson, “The Community of Second Isaiah,” in Reading and
Preaching the Book of Isaiah (ed. C. R. Seitz; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), 54.
20. Min Suc Kee, “A Study of the Heavenly Council in the Ancient Near Eastern
Texts, and Its Employment as a Type-Scene in the Hebrew Bible” (Ph.D. diss.,
University of Manchester, 2003), 264–65; Patrick D. Miller Jr., “Cosmology and the
World Order in the Old Testament: The Divine Council as Cosmic-Political Sym-
bol,” in Israelite Religion and Biblical Theology: Collected Essays (JSOTSup 267;
Shefeld: Shefeld Academic, 2000), 422–44.
21. R. N. Whybray, The Heavenly Counsellor in Isaiah xl 13–14 (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1971), 80–81.
22. Kee, “A Study of the Heavenly Council,” 24–25; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55,
179. Kee has more recently acknowledges that “Isaiah 40 exhibits a kind of literarily
sophisticated allusion to the ‘heavenly council’ ”; see Min Suc Kee, “The Heavenly
Council and Its Type-scene,” JSOT 31 (2007): 270.
1
lacks the components of a heavenly court type-scene, yet they fail to

appreciate the full signicance of this passage’s relationship to the
undisputed divine court scene of Isa 6.23 Merely comparing individual
motifs in Isa 6 and 40 does not do justice to the intertextual relationship
between the two chapters. Brevard Childs observes, “In a conscious
dependency on chapter 6, chapter 40 does not offer a new independent
call narrative, but rather provides a reapplication of Isaiah’s call.”24 He
believes Isa 40:1–11 is not a different, separate call of a prophet, but
rather the extension of the same call that originated within the heavenly
court. Isaiah 40:1–11 begins with divine speech (vv. 1–2) followed by
the dialogue of heavenly attendants (vv. 3–6) in the manner of the
seraphim in Isa 6:3. Just as “one called to another and said” (

) among the heavenly host in 6:3, so once again in 40:6, from
the same court, “A voice says, ‘Call out!’ And I said, ‘What shall I
call?’ ” (
, author’s translation).25
If one accepts the divine court setting for the prologue, and if the pro-
logue functions as a summary of SI, then Seitz is correct to suggest that
all of chs. 40–48 is speech “from the divine council without need of
prophetic agency.”26 This interpretation will have a dramatic impact on
how the “way” is understood within SI. The primary context to under-
stand these chapters is not geographical (Babylon or Yehud), but rather
literary. That is, SI is an extension of the vision of Isaiah to changed
circumstances as dictated by BI. Chapters 40–55 are “post-exilic” in the
sense that they clearly signal that Yahweh’s judgment of exile has ended.
The previous divine court scene of ch. 6 announced that the exile was yet
to come. Within ancient Near Eastern literature, the divine council
23. See also the similarity between
(Isa 40:6) and
(1 Kgs 22:20).
24. Childs, Isaiah, 295, emphasis added. The point was made earlier by Peter R.
Ackroyd in his “Isaiah 36–39: Structure and Function,” in Von Kanaan bis Kerala:
FS fur Prof. Mag. Dr. J.P.M. van der Ploeg, O.P. zur Vollendung des siebzigsten
Lebensjahres am 4. Juli 1979 (ed. W. C. Delsman and J. T. Neilis; AOAT 211; Neu-
kirchen–Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1982), 6.
25. Following the translation of 1QIsaa, LXX, and Vulgate rather than the MT,
“and he said.” Petersen, following the suggestion of Dean McBride, has argued
be understood as a Qal feminine singular participle, “and she said,” and that the
speaker then is the feminine herald to Zion of v. 9 ( ); see David L. Petersen,
Late Israelite Prophecy: Studies in Deutero-Prophetic Literature and in Chronicles
(Missoula, Mont.: Scholars Press, 1977), 20. Petersen appeals to 1QIsaa for
support, yet within 1QIsaa this same form appears in 41:9, where it is clearly to be
understood as a rst person common singular form.
1
26. Seitz, “Isaiah 40–66,” 6:246.
“represents the most authoritative decision-making agent in the universe

and history.”27 Only another decision from within the divine council can
reverse the previous decree of judgment (Isa 6) and the proclamation of
SI functions in this manner, possessing the weight of enduring authority
(cf. Isa 40:8; 55:11). The divine council motif also highlights the vast
scope of SI’s message. In ancient Near Eastern literature the origins and
destiny of creation, the maintenance of justice and righteousness in the
cosmos, the moral and legal order of society, victory and defeat in war,
the fate of nations and kings, and the control of history all originate from
the divine council. If the message of SI originates from the heavenly
council, its concerns are not merely political or spiritual. Its message is
cosmic, historical, political, eschatological, and ethical in scope.
The question has also been raised whether the “way” in Isa 40:3 is
modeled after the Babylonian Akitu cultic procession of deities. In the
Akitu festival statues of Babylonian deities would be transported from
their native sanctuaries in a procession along a via sacra to the rural
temple, and returned to Babylon amid tumultuous joy. Stuhlmueller nds
congruence between SI and the Akitu festival, and concludes that SI
transforms a Babylonian cultic ritual into a historical redemptive act for
Israel. He believes a close relationship exists between the Akitu festival28
and the Enuma Elish. Viewed in this manner the announcement of a way,
like the renewal of Marduk’s kingship through a re-enactment of crea-
tion, announces a recreative act in which Yahweh is enthroned as king
and Israel’s kingdom is established through a new exodus.29 Westermann
also believes the Babylonian cultic festivals serve as the background for
40:3. According to him, the passage offers the following polemic: “His
[Yahweh’s] kbd, cannot possibly be manifested in the same way as
that of the gods of Babylon; for what created the impression of majesty
in the Babylonian processions—the images of the gods—is absent here.
What reveals Yahweh’s glory is his action in history.”30 Rather than trace
the similarity in language to common cultic origins, I believe both texts
draw from a common royal motif. It is important to realize that language
describing preparation for a road in the ancient Near East could be
understood in various ways,31 and it need not be understood literally.
27. Kee, “The Heavenly Council and Its Type-scene,” 259.

28. See ANET, 331–34.
29. Stuhlmueller, Creative Redemption, 78–82.
31. K. Baltzer (Deutero-Isaiah, 53) observes the royal motif in this passage, and
concludes that the language of empire-building, rather than that of the cult, is present.
1
The Way as the Reversal of Judgment

It is important to remember from the outset that Isa 40:1–11 serves as a
summation of the message of SI. The view that SI announced a complete
fulllment of Yahweh’s salvation promises, only to result in unfullled
prophecy, fails to account for the conict within SI as well as the theo-
logical implications of the theme of the fulllment of God’s word (40:8;
55:11). Therefore, as much as I argue that SI fullls the prophecies of FI,
this does not mean that the prophecies were intended to reach their
consummation within the rhetoric of these chapters. The prologue itself
anticipates the peoples’ opposition to follow: “All people are grass, their
constancy is like the ower of the eld. The grass withers, the ower
fades, when the breath of the LORD blows upon it; surely the people are
grass” (40:6b–7). As noted in Chapter 2, in prophetic books prophecies
are inscribed with the expectation that a waiting period is required before
they are fullled in the future. Chapters 40–66 of Isaiah announce an
inaugurated eschatology, the details of which will be explicated in the
lengthy dialogue following the prologue. Seitz speaks of a deployment
phase of communication in which “Comfort is not instantaneously experi-
enced, and while the term has been served, the penalty has been paid, and
the sins have been completely punished, it belongs to the mediation of
the discourse of Isaiah 40–66 to drive that fact home.”32
Clearly the prologue announces that the long-sought promise of sight
is being realized. Whereas previously in FI only the prophet Isaiah
was able to see (, 6:1) the glory (, 6:3) of the LORD within the
environs of the heavenly court, SI announces that this same glory will
now be revealed for all esh to see (, 40:5). In 42:16, Yahweh
announces, “And I will lead the blind in a way () that they do not
know (), in paths ( ) that they have not known () I will guide
them. I will turn the darkness before them into light, the rough places
into level ground ().” The people suffer for lack of knowledge of
the way and the paths of the LORD. Since this offer of guidance is set
within the larger promise of leveling (; cf. 40:4) a way through a
transformed wilderness (42:15), the very aid offered to the blind is the
promise of consolation in 40:1–11.
Israel as Yahweh’s servant has been charged with the task of opening
the eyes of the nations (42:6–7) and bringing back the blind and deaf
from the diaspora (43:8). Yet Israel suffers from this same malady:
1
32. Seitz, “Isaiah 40–66,” 334.
“Listen, you that are deaf; and you that are blind, look up and see! Who
is blind but my servant, or deaf like my messenger whom I send? Who is
blind like my dedicated one, or blind like the servant of the LORD?”
(42:18–19). The immediate context of these verses is idolatry (42:17),
and 44:18 makes explicit the connection between lack of sight and
knowledge with idolatry: “They do not know (), nor do they compre-
hend (); for their eyes are shut, so that they cannot see (), and their
minds (
) as well, so that they cannot understand.” Israel is unable to
recognize the emptiness of their idolatry, and therefore their blindness is
spiritual. Just as 44:18 invokes the language of 6:9–10, 42:20 describes
Israel’s condition using much of the same language:
6:9

42:20

33
Isaiah’s ministry of judgment in Isa 6:9–10 is to a degree still in effect

upon Israel. Even though forgiveness and the opportunity to see the glory
of the LORD are offered, as long as Israel trusts in idols (42:17; 43:22–
28) it remains under the judgment of 6:9–10. SI’s audience can genu-
inely hope because they can be freed of their judgment and blindness
through eeing Babylon along with its idols.
The Way as Transformation of the Wilderness

The rst explicit reference to the transformation of the wilderness theme
occurs in 41:17–20. Although there is no mention of a “way” or “high-
way,” the references to (40:3; 41:18, 19), (40:3; 41:19),
(41:18), and (40:4; 41:18) have close correspondence to the
prologue. The reuse of these lexemes in 41:17–20 are intended to signify
that the outpouring of water will take place along the “way” of 40:1–11.
The benefactors of Yahweh’s provision are the poor () and needy
() in 41:17. In FI the poor are the oppressed and disadvantaged by
elders and princes (3:14–15; 10:2) and in SI is synonymous with “my
people,” referring to the returning diaspora generation (cf. 49:12–13).
The “poor” and “needy” brings to mind 29:19, Isaiah’s prophecy of a
future day in which Lebanon will be transformed into a fruitful eld
(
) and forest, the deaf and the blind will be healed, and the poor
33. Here it is better to follow the Kethib than the Qere, . This is supported
by the second masculine singular form in 1QIsaa. The Qere seems to have arisen out
of a desire to form parallel innitive forms.
1
() and needy of humankind ( ) will rejoice ( ; cf.
51:11; 55:12). Since the wilderness transformation is collocated with the
restoration of the poor and needy, this desert may not be physical, but
rather a metaphor for the condition of God’s people.
The mention of thirst (, 41:17), wilderness (, 41:18), and dry
land ( , 41:18) recall the spiritual and political condition of exile
announced earlier in Hosea 2:3 (5): “I will strip her naked and expose her
as in the day she was born, and make her like a wilderness (), and
turn her into a parched land ( ), and kill her with thirst ().”
Wilderness, aridity, and thirst are much more than physical obstacles to
the people of God; they describe Israel’s spiritual condition. Whereas the
poor and needy suffer from thirst, Yahweh will go far and above offering
the mere provision of water. From the heights to the valley, rivers, foun-
tains, and a pool of water will transform the desert into a watery oasis
lled with trees native to Lebanon. According to 41:20, the result is that
the people will be able to do that which they were previously forbidden
in Isa 6:9–10. Now they will see (), know (), and understand the
creative acts of Yahweh. Given the similarities between ch. 29 and
41:17–20, which together elaborate on the announcement of the way in
40:1–11, the fulllment of these prophecies signies a reversal of the
judgment of 6:9–10.
Whereas water represents refreshment or symbolizes a mythic foe in
SI, in 43:1–7 water and re threaten Israel’s welfare. This use of water
and re as a threat appears rst in FI. As demonstrated by Beuken,
in ch. 30 the diplomatic mission to Egypt is likened to Israel’s captivity
in Egypt (vv. 1–17) resulting in a journey home (vv. 18–26) followed
by a theophany on the mountain of Yahweh (vv. 27–33).34 Unlike the
exodus traditions, this return of Yahweh takes place not at Sinai but in
Zion (vv. 19, 27). It is here that Yahweh will judge the nations (v. 28),
specically Assyria (v. 30) by ood (v. 28, 30) and consuming re
(v. 27, 30, 33), yet Israel will be kept safe (v. 29). Although water does
not appear in 33:10–14, here Yahweh rises to judge the nations (v. 12) as
well as sinners in Zion (v. 14) with consuming re and everlasting
burning (vv. 11–12, 14). As in 43:2, the people may pass through the re
unscathed if they die among the righteous inhabitants of Zion (33:15–
16). These prophecies of judgment incite fear among the people of Zion
(33:14), so it is tting that SI reassures Israel not to fear, and reminds her
34. See Willem A. M. Beuken, “Isaiah 30: A Prophetic Oracle Transmitted in

Two Successive Paradigms,” in Broyles and Evans, eds., Writing and Reading the
Scroll of Isaiah, 395, as well as his Isaiah Part II Volume 2: Isaiah Chapters 28–39
(trans. B. Doyle; HCOT; Leuven: Peeters, 2000), 145–47.
1
that she is among God’s redeemed and chosen (43:1). Israel will be
among those mentioned in 30:29 and 33:14–16 who will pass through the
ood and re but are spared from destruction. This event occurs in
conjunction with the ingathering of God’s elect from the far corners of
the earth (43:5–6). The “way” in 43:1–7, then, is exemption from Yah-
weh’s judgment of the nations and the sinners within Zion. This is a
judgment those on the “way” will witness, but not undergo themselves.
Although the exodus motif is not explicit, the mention of Egypt in v. 3
along with the passing through water evokes the Exodus tradition. The
references to water and re have been interpreted as representative of
dangers in general in Ps 66:12,35 yet Sarah Dille demonstrates the that the
context of Ps 66 is also one of exodus.36 Psalm 66 reads:
He turned the sea into dry land;
they passed through the river on foot.
There we rejoiced in him…
For you, O God, have tested us;
you have tried us as silver is tried.
You brought us into the net;
you laid burdens on our backs;
You let people ride over our heads;
we went through re and through water;
yet you have brought us out to a spacious place. (Ps 66:6, 10–12)
Given the shared motifs of water, re, and the passage through water, it
appears Isa 43:2 shares in the same exodus tradition as Ps 66. Conse-
quently, the references to water and re in Isa 43:2 function as images of
testing and purication (cf. Isa 48:10). Dille summarizes: “The reading
of Isa. 43.2 as a renement thus depicts the exile itself as a purifying
experience. The sins and impurities of Israel have been burned away and
washed away. YHWH now gathers his now-purged children.”37
Isaiah 43:16–20 clearly has the exodus in view. The reference to a
way through the sea and the destruction of chariot, horse, army, and
warrior, clearly evoke the victory at the Yam Suph (Exod 15:1–21). This
event, in conjunction with creation, would continue to serve as the para-
digm for Yahweh’s foremost cosmic, historical, creative, and redemptive
act for the people of Israel (e.g. Josh 2; Pss 78; 89; 106). The exodus is
tting to serve once again in this function for the exilic generation since
it again involves liberation from a foreign oppressor, deliverance for the

36. Sarah J. Dille, Mixing Metaphors: God as Mother and Father in Deutero-
Isaiah (JSOTSup 398; London: T&T Clark International, 2004), 91–96.
1
37. Ibid., 93.
purpose of worship, entry into a good land, and an act of divine warfare
to be celebrated in song. Yet whereas Israel was instructed to remember
continually the rst exodus as its dening moment, now Yahweh com-
mands Israel not to remember this event any more. The rst exodus is
among the former () and ancient () things, as opposed to the
new things springing forth.38 Israel is no longer to trust in the Yam Suph
event, but rather look to the new thing as the dening event for a new
people created from amid exile. This new thing has already been initiated
and ought to be observable by SI’s audience, as indicated in 43:19, “now
it springs forth, do you not perceive it?” In contrast to the rst exodus
where water threatened the existence of Israel at the Yam Suph, this
“way” is set in the wilderness where rivers ow to provide drink for
God’s elect people.39 Claire Mathews observes, “Thus two events—
the crossing of the sea and God’s provision for his people during the
wilderness wanderings—have here, in the new exodus, been conated
into one.”40 Viewed in this manner this description of the “way” is an
elaboration of the transformation of the wilderness in 41:17–20.
Like 43:17–20, Isa 44:3 describes the outpouring of water on a dry
and thirsty land. This imagery appears within the broader context of
Yahweh’s election of Jacob. Rather than provide an extended description
of a transformed wilderness, the motif functions as a metaphor for the
gift of the Spirit and Yahweh’s blessing upon the offspring of Jacob.
This is evident in the following parallelism:
For I will pour water on the and streams on the dry ground;
thirsty land,

I will pour my spirit upon your and my blessing on your offspring.

descendants,

38. Childs (Introduction, 328–29) has argued that the “former things” ( )
in SI refer to the prophecies of Isaiah ben Amoz. Yet, as demonstrated above, they
do not exclusively do so. Benjamin D. Sommer makes the case that the “former
things” refer to older prophecies in general in “Allusions and Illusions: The Unity of
the Book of Isaiah in Light of Deutero-Isaiah’s Use of Prophetic Tradition,” in New
Visions of Isaiah (ed. R. F. Melugin and M. A. Sweeney; JSOTSup 214; Shefeld:
Shefeld Academic, 1996), 184.
39. In SI the other two instances of describe the Servant (42:1; 45:4) and in
TI all three occurrences refer to the Servants (65:9, 15, 22).
40. Claire R. Mathews, Defending Zion: Edom’s Desolation and Jacob’s
Restoration (Isaiah 34–35) in Context (BZAW 236; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1995), 125.
1
Clearly the outpouring of water mirrors the outpouring of the Spirit and
the streams mirror the blessing. According to this imagery, water is to be
equated with the Spirit and the land, while dry ground represents the
descendants of Jacob. The blessing () and the reference to Jacob
allude to the patriarchal narratives, and signify that the blessing given to
Abraham (Gen 12:2–3) will continue to live on in the exilic generation.
This blessing to all the families of the earth correlates with the gift of the
Spirit, which earlier had been bestowed upon the Servant (42:1) so that
he might bring justice to the nations. The gift of the Spirit and the bless-
ing in 44:3 are to be understood as a fulllment of the initial Abrahamic
promise.
Klaus Baltzer may be correct in drawing a close comparison between
the activity of the Spirit in Isa 44:3 and Ezek 37.41 In Ezekiel, the valley
of dry bones represents the house of Israel, which has been cut off from
the land (37:11) and which gains new life through the of the LORD
(37:5). When the election of Jacob (, 44:1–2), Yahweh’s role as
creator (44:2), and the naming of the people (44:5) are taken into con-
sideration, it is clear that the outpouring of the Spirit in 44:3 signies the
regeneration of the people of God as Yahweh’s Servant.42 Earlier, SI
lamented the fact that the people wither and fade as in the manner of the
grass when the blows on it. The text makes clear that the
vegetation symbolizes the people (40:7). In 44:3 the LORD once more
extends his . This time it descends upon Jacob, resulting not in fading
and withering, but rather sprouting up (, 44:4) like willows near
owing streams. The two previous uses of in SI (42:9; 43:19) both
refer to the new things () Yahweh is doing in contrast to the former
things (). This revivication of Israel is among the new things and
therefore this prophecy coincides with the previously discussed prophe-
cies of a transformed wilderness in 41:17–20; 43:1–7, and 43:16–20.
Whereas the people remain as but withering grass (40:7), 44:4 indicates
that the offspring of Jacob, this new Israel created from amid exile, will
ourish like willows nourished by water though the outpouring of the
Spirit.43
41. K. Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 186. Baltzer attributes this insight to Kutsch, “Ich
will meinen Geist ausgiessen auf deine Kinder,” in Das Wort, das weiter wirkt. FS
K. Frör (1970): 124–25; R. Bartelmus, “Ez. 37,1–14, die Verbform weqatal und die
Anfänge der Auferstehungshoffnung,” ZAW 97 (1985): 366–89.
42. See Koole, Chapters 40–48, 361; Mathews, Defending Zion, 125–27.
43. Here it is better to follow the MT and read the unique compound preposition
as ! or simply : “Therefore the willows sprout up among the grass.”
1
Isaiah 51:3 makes explicit what has been previously argued. That is,
the wilderness separating Israel from Yahweh is not primarily the terra
intermedia between Babylon and Yehud, but it is the physical condition
of Jerusalem as well as the spiritual state of its former and present
inhabitants. The dual mention of comfort () in 51:3 recalls the pro-
logue ( , 40:1) and indicates that Yahweh’s actions described in
this verse fulll the announcement of 40:1–11. Contrary to Westermann,
this verse is not a misplaced fragment from a hymn,44 since it contributes
to the overall message of the larger pericope (51:1–52:12). Zion is the
object throughout 51:3 and described as possessing waste places (),
which are in turn described as a wilderness () and desert ().
Earlier, was used to described the ruins of Jerusalem (44:26;
49:19), yet in 48:21 the word recalls the place of the wilderness wander-
ings.45 Isaiah 51:3 evokes both senses of the word since it follows the
description of Zion’s ruins (49:19), and goes on to describe these ruins as
and —two words that when collocated appear only in the
context of the transformation of the wilderness (40:3; 41:19). Since the
same feminine possessive particle is attached to , , and
in 51:3, it is safe to assume these words are here used interchangeably.
In Isa 51:3 the joy, gladness, thanksgiving, and song are found in
Zion, sounding forth from a redeemed people. Isaiah 51:3 observes that
Zion, both as a city and as a people, in its desolation has become a
wilderness and announces its redemption through the comfort of Yah-
weh. As in 44:3, this passage connects the transformation of the wilder-
ness with the blessing of offspring rooted in the promises to Abraham
(51:2). Like Sarah, who received the blessing of many offspring even
though she was barren, so too Yahweh will revive and repopulate the
desolate city of Zion. An eschatological goal is explicit here since Yah-
weh’s intention is not merely to restore Zion to her former glory, but
to restore her to the glory of the garden in Eden. One need not turn to
so-called proto-apocalyptic passages in TI to nd a utopian vision of a
new creation paradise. Clearly SI had much more in view than a return
from Babylon by Cyrus.
In order for Zion to be redeemed, Yahweh must arise and defeat the
powers of chaos once again in order for the transformation of the wilder-
ness to take place. Cyrus is incapable of completing such a task. The
scope of this redemption is cosmic and therefore Yahweh the divine
warrior is called upon to arise in 51:9–10. In the manner of a communal
44. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 233, 237.

45. HALOT distinguishes between " " , “site of ruins” with " " # " , “the dry
land,” yet even then recognizes that the form in 51:3 is " " .
1
lament, he is called upon to rouse himself (, Pss 44:24; 80:3), don
clothing in preparation for war, and awaken his arm of salvation (33:2;
51:5), of strength (40:10), and of battle (48:14). This very arm of the
LORD had previously delivered his people out of Egypt (Deut 4:34).
Since the context in Isa 51:9 is the days of old and generations long ago,
Rahab (; cf. Job 26:12; Ps 89:11), the dragon ( ; cf. Ps 74:13–14;
Isa 27:1), the sea (; cf. Pss 74:13; 89:10), and the great deep (
; cf. Gen 1:2; 7:11) represent the primordial mythic creatures and
foes present at creation. Psalms 74 and 77 convey themes similar to Isa
51:9–10:
Yet God my King is from of old (; cf. 51:9),
working salvation in the earth.
You divided the sea (; cf. 51:10) by your might (; cf. 51:9);
you broke the heads of the dragons ( ; cf. 51:9) in the waters.
You crushed the heads of Leviathan;
you gave him as food for the creatures of the wilderness.
You cut openings for springs and torrents;
you dried up ever-owing streams…
Rise up, O God, plead your cause;
remember how the impious scoff at you all day long. (Ps 74:12–15, 22)
You are the God who works wonders;

you have displayed your might among the peoples.
With your strong arm (; cf. 51:9) you redeemed (
; cf. 51:10)
your people,
the descendants of Jacob and Joseph. Selah
When the waters saw you, O God, when the waters saw you,
they were afraid; the very deep ( ; cf. 51:10) trembled…
Your way (; cf. 51:10) was through the sea (; cf. 51:10),
your path, through the mighty waters ( ; cf. 51:10);
yet your footprints were unseen.
You led your people like a ock
by the hand of Moses and Aaron. (Ps 77:14–15, 19–20)
Not only were these forces of chaos defeated at creation and the ood,
but again at the Yam Suph Yahweh fought against the sea and Pharaoh’s
forces as a warrior (Exod 15:3) and defeated them in the manner he
conquered the forces of chaos at creation.46 Just as the defeat of chaos led
46. See Frank Moore Cross, Jr., Canaanite Myth and Hebrew Epic (Cambridge:
Harvard University Press, 1973), 112–44; Patrick D. Miller, Jr., The Divine Warrior
in Early Israel (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1973), 113–17;
Bernard F. Batto, Slaying the Dragon: Mythmaking in the Biblical Tradition (Louis-
ville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 1992), 102–27; Thomas B. Dozeman, God
at War: Power in the Exodus Tradition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996),
1
to the creation of Israel at the rst exodus, again Yahweh conquers chaos
to create a new Israel. Furthermore, this time he cares for his ock with
greater tenderness (Isa 40:10–11). Creation, the defeat of chaos, and
redemption are all intertwined.
SI does not merely repeat the exodus tradition. Clearly the exodus is in
view, but it is now applied in a new manner. The sea is no longer the
threat. Chaos now comes in the form of the wilderness. No longer is
Yahweh required to defeat the forces of chaos by a way through the sea,
now Yahweh defeats chaos by means of a way through the wilderness.
Richard Clifford writes:
In Second Isaiah, Yahweh creates by vanquishing Desert (embodying
death-dealing aridity and inertness) as he once did by vanquishing Sea.
Both Desert and Sea were seen as obstacles to human existence because
they blocked the entrance to Yahweh’s land, the only place where people
could truly live. Yahweh vanquished the forces by building a path through
them, so that the people could enter the land. Vanquishing or taming a
primordial foe by putting a road through it is a special Deutero-Isaian view
of creation.47
The establishment of a “way,” then, is an act of creation, divine warfare,

and redemption. The announcement of a “way in the wilderness” is
cosmic, historical, political, and spiritual in scope. SI combines notions
of cosmic warfare, the theme of NE, and the motif of the procession to
Zion into one multi-faceted root metaphor referred to as the WOL.
Childs chooses to synthesize these elements in the following manner:
“Because the content of God’s redemptive intervention, that is, its
substance, is the same, the three events [creation, exodus, release from
Babylon] have been fused together as a unied ontological witness to the
one purpose of God concerning his people.”48 The exile had reversed
everything the exodus had accomplished. Only a similar act by Yahweh
could redeem a people for himself once again. Clifford goes on to
153–59; Carola Kloos, Yhwh’s Combat with the Sea: A Canaanite Tradition in the
Religion of Ancient Israel (Leiden: Brill, 1986), 127–214. Jeremy Hutton argues that
51:9–10 expresses the exiles’ misguided expectation that Yahweh would enact salva-
tion through outmoded mythological combat and that SI’s intent is to chasten such
disbelief in God’s ability to redeem through more mundane means; see Jeremy M.
Hutton, “Isaiah 51:9–11 and the Rhetorical Appropriation and Subversion of Hostile
Theologies,” JBL 126 (2007): 271–303. Hutton does not address the re-emergence of
the cosmic warrior in TI (59:16–18; 63:1–6). There, a cosmic battle is not the request
of the community, nor is it considered necessary to accomplish Yahweh’s plan.
47. Clifford, “The Unity of the Book of Isaiah,” 8.
1
48. Childs, Isaiah, 403–4.
comment, “Cosmogony//journey through the Sea is the original founding

event for Israel. The new founding event is cosmogony//journey through
the Desert.”49 The WOL, described as a transformation of the wilderness,
recreates and liberates a new Israel to repopulate a new Jerusalem.
The Way as Eschatological and Ethical

In Isa 40:1–11 an anonymous voice from the divine council announces
the revelation of the glory of Yahweh for all esh to behold. In order to
experience God’s majesty preparations must be made. The must
be cleared of obstacles, and the

must be made straight.50
Isaiah 40:3 forms a chiasmus and parallelism that equates the “way of
the LORD” with the “highway of our God” and the with the :

¯ ¯

Many have supposed the reference to way and highway refer to a

physical road from Babylon to Yehud, yet this is not likely given the
verse to follow. Based upon the continuation of subject matter, speech
concerning terrain, and the paronomasia in vv. 3–4 (—), v. 4
clearly elaborates upon v. 3. It is signicant that the imperatives cease
with v. 3 and v. 4 follows with indicatives. That is, the audience is not
commanded to lift up valleys or lower mountains and hills. This phe-
nomena is not induced by the people, rather another unnamed agent
is responsible for the leveling of terrain. The fact that this type of topo-
graphical transformation is a common biblical response to a theophany
indicates that is not a literal highway.51 Just as the temple shook
and lled with smoke when Isaiah saw Yahweh’s glory (6:1–5), the
49. Clifford, “The Unity of the Book of Isaiah,” 9, emphasis added.

50. Dorsey (Roads and Highways, 31) considers this the language of road
building. The picture presented is the clearing and grading of a roadway and the
leveling or smoothing out of the roadbed in preparation for the arrival of a king. For
example, Nebuchadnezzar II (605–562) records regarding this expedition to
Lebanon, “I cut through steep mountains, I split rocks, opened passages and (thus)
I constructed a straight road for the (transport of the) cedars.” See ANET, 307.
51. As outlined by J. J. Niehaus (“Theophany, Theology of,” NIDOTTE 4:1247–
250), the text of SI contains many of the characteristics of biblical theophanies:
divine initiation, salvation and judgment, impartation of holiness, revelation and
concealment, human fear, natural upheaval, adumbrated eschatology, and theophanic
words.
1
rough and crooked terrain is leveled and straightened when all esh now
see the . A similar phenomenon occurs in Hab 3:3–6:
God came from Teman,
the Holy One from Mount Paran. Selah
His glory covered the heavens,
and the earth was full of his praise.
The brightness was like the sun;
rays came forth from his hand, where his power lay hidden.
Before him went pestilence,
and plague followed close behind.
He stopped and shook the earth;
he looked and made the nations tremble.
The eternal mountains () were shattered;
along his ancient pathways the everlasting hills () sank low.
The way of Isa 40:3 is rst and foremost Yahweh’s way, his manifesta-
tion of glory. Even though the people are commanded to clear a road, the
whole landscape is leveled and smoothened due to a theophany, and
therefore it is highly unlikely Yahweh requires a paved highway to
traverse.
If the is associated with an ancient Israelite theophanic
tradition, then 40:3–5 or 40:1–8 need not necessitate a postexilic and
Yehudite provenance. Rudolf Kilian, following the studies of Rosario
Merendino and Dieter Baltzer, argues that 40:1–8, particularly vv. 3–5,
must be postexilic since its concept of Yahweh’s glory revealed for all
esh is unrelated to the return of the Judean exiles in 40:9–11.52 Kilian
believes 40:1–11 follows the pattern in Ezekiel where the return of
Yahweh’s glory to Jerusalem is clearly differentiated from a return of the
people, and concludes that these verses must represent a later redaction.
Yet, as demonstrated above, this, is representative of the
ancient Israelite theophanic tradition of Yahweh’s march in the south.
Unlike Ezekiel, in Isaiah Yahweh’s glory does not depart from Jerusalem
to dwell in Babylon during the exile. SI need not correspond or mimic
the tradition history associated with other prophetic books. If the univers-
alism of SI is unique, why not other aspects of its message? In Isaiah,
52. Rudolf Kilian, “ ‘Baut eine Strasse für useren Gott!’ Überlegungen zu Jes
40,3–5,” in Künder des Wortes: Beiträge zur Theologie der Propheten (ed. L. Rup-
pert, P. Weimar, and E. Zenger; Würzburg: Echter, 1982), 53–60; Dieter Baltzer,
Ezechiel und Deuterojesaja: Berührungen in der Heilserwartung der beiden großen
Exilspropheten (BZAW 121; Berlin: de Gruyter, 1971); Rosario Pius Merendino,
Er Erste und der Letzte: Eine Untersuchung von Jes 40–48 (VTSup 31; Leiden:
Brill, 1981).
1
Yahweh’s glory emanates from his heavenly temple onto the earth (6:3),
is revealed in a via sacra (35:2), and will extend to the nations from Zion
in the eschatological age (4:5; 11:10; 60:1–2, 13; 61:6; 62:2; 66:11–12,
18–19). For SI, the initial announcement of the revelation of the
, coupled with the people’s return to Zion in 40:9–11, is part of his
rhetorical strategy to convince the exiles to embrace Cyrus’ decree.
Isaiah 40:9–11 elaborates on the military image of this theophany. A
messenger is called upon to go up to Zion and announce this parousia of
Yahweh.53 Heralds were commonly dispatched from the front lines of
warfare to bear the good news of victory (cf. 1 Sam 4:17; 2 Sam 18:19–
31). Yahweh is pictured as a warrior, returning from battle with the
spoils of war. “Might” (), “arm” (), and “rule” (
) in 40:10–11
represent the kingship of Yahweh as a warrior savior (Isa 33:2) who,
through the use of such means, redeems his people in the exodus (Deut
4:34), defeats the forces of chaos (Ps 89:9–10), and liberates his people
from Babylon (Jer 50:34). Although and
connote wages and
work done for wages, respectively, they can also be used in a more
general sense of recompense or reward (cf. Gen 15:1; Pss 109:20; 127:3;
Isa 61:8; Jer 31:16). Booty and the spoils of war may also serve as the
wages ( ) given to an army (Ezek 29:18–20).
What exactly is the reward and recompense that accompany Yahweh
in his procession to Zion? Isaiah 40:11 describes Yahweh’s booty as
none other than his own people. He is portrayed as a shepherd who has
rst gathered his ock, and now gently leads and carries them home to
Zion. Although the title “shepherd” was commonly used to designate
kings in the ancient Near East (2 Sam 5:2), here Yahweh is depicted as a
true shepherd (cf. Ps 23; Ezek 34) who cares intimately for his people.
He has accomplished the task of gathering his people, a motif mentioned
earlier in FI in the form of a new exodus (cf. 11:12). Psalm 78 recalls
how Yahweh in Israel’s past acted as both warrior and shepherd on
Israel’s behalf, leading the people to Zion, which receives this good
news:
53. Commentators are divided over whether and

ought to be taken as an appositional or epexegetical genitive, “O Zion, herald of good
tidings… O Jerusalem, herald of good tidings” (NRSV), or as an objective genitive,
“You who bring good things to Zion… You who bring good tidings to Jerusalem”
(NIV, NJPS). Even though both are grammatically possible, the latter is to be preferred
since, as Seitz observes, nowhere else in chs 40–66 is Zion/Jerusalem depicted as a
messenger. In addition, other similar passages (41:27; 52:7) speak of a message to
Zion.
1
He struck all the rstborn in Egypt,

the rst issue of their strength in the tents of Ham.
Then he led out his people like sheep,
and guided them in the wilderness like a ock.
He led them in safety, so that they were not afraid;
but the sea overwhelmed their enemies.
And he brought them to his holy hill,
to the mountain that his right hand had won. (Ps 78:51–54)
Just as Yahweh acted on behalf of the exodus generation, Isa 40:1–11

announces that Yahweh will do similarly for a people in exile. There was
been much discussion around the question whether 40:3 describes a way
of Yahweh to his people or a way of Yahweh with his people.54 The
evidence clearly points to the latter view, although this way leads to
Zion, who receives this good news.
If and
do not refer to an actual road or highway, how is the
command to prepare and clear the way to be understood? Clearly the
references to valleys, mountains, hills, and crooked places in v. 4 func-
tion primarily to describe a theophany. Yet these topographical features
may also signify much more. is associated with a place of death,
literally (Deut 34:6) as well as symbolically (Ps 23:4), and in FI this
word recalls the mysterious valley of vision ( ) of ch. 22. Since no
geographical valley with this name exists, Childs is correct to interpret
this reference symbolically.55 This valley is representative of Yahweh’s
judgment upon Jerusalem: “For the Lord GOD of hosts has a day of
tumult and trampling and confusion in the valley of vision, a battering
down of walls and a cry for help to the mountains” (22:5). The valley of
vision would be a place of death without the forgiveness of sins as
Yahweh declares, “Surely this iniquity will not atoned for until you die”
(
, 22:14). Since the text does not use the
more traditional word
to convey a lling up of the valley (cf. Ezek
32:5), Koole believes ought to be taken guratively.56 Since Jerusa-
lem has just been told that its iniquity () is expiated (40:2), it is very
possible that 40:4 reverses the judgment of the valley of vision. Whereas
previously the prophet requested only bitter tears and no comfort because
of the destruction of his people (

, 22:4),
now comfort is offered through the restoration of God’s people (

, 40:1). Here may have been used intentionally
54. For an extended description of the various views, see Koole, Chapters 40–48,
58–60.
55. Childs, Isaiah, 160. The poem appears to address the events following the
assaults on Jerusalem in both 701 and 586.
1
not only to convey the notion of “to lift up.” Given its context, may
also contain an echo of its alternative denition, “to forgive.” To Jerusa-
lem, the valley of vision to which Yahweh had previously pronounced
no forgiveness until death, 40:1–11 now announces that every valley is
(“lifted up”), all iniquity being (“forgiven”).
The phrase to follow,

, ought not to be taken
literally since and serve as symbols of pride in FI.57 The key
indication that the mountains and hills function in this manner lies in the
use of the verb
. Eighteen of the thirty occurrences of this verb in the
Old Testament appear in Isaiah, signifying its important function within
the book. Including 40:4, all but one usage of this verb in BI refers to
Yahweh’s threat or promise that the arrogant will be humbled, or func-
tions within the context of the proud brought low.58 Its use is notable in
ch. 2, which contrasts the mountain () of the LORD’s house, highest of
the mountains ( ), raised above the hills ( , 2:2), with the
idolatry of the house of Jacob (2:6–9). To this latter house Isaiah
declares:
For the LORD of Hosts has ready a day
against all that is proud and arrogant (),
against all that is lofty (
)—so that it is brought low (
)59
against all the cedars of Lebanon, Tall and stately,
and all the oaks of Bashan;
against all the high mountains ( )
and all the lofty hills ( ). (2:12–14, NJPS)
57. Cf. Zech 4:7: “What are you, O great mountain ()? Before Zerubbabel you
shall become a plain ($).”
58. Isa 57:9 is the exception which speaks of the envoys being sent away
(
). Besides 40:4, HALOT lists 10:33 and 32:19 under the literal denition “to
be (become) low, fall.” Isa 10:33 speaks of the lofty (; cf. 40:4) brought low,
which refer to trees, but the larger context is clearly one discussing the pride of
Jerusalem. In 32:19
is amplied by the use of the innitive construct
%' &! , a
hapax legomenon which together may be translated “utterly laid low” (NRSV) or
“leveled completely” (NIV). There the verb describes the downfall of a city, though
the context is clearly the establishment of Yahweh’s righteousness and justice as
king (32:1–20). In 25:12
describes the bringing down of secure fortications
within the greater context of humbling the pride of Moab (25:10–11).
59. This last adjectival phrase breaks up the parallel structure of the verse, and
BHS suggests deleting it. Other translations replace it with a synonym to “lifted up”
to retain the parallelism (e.g. NRSV reads: “For the LORD of hosts has a day against
all that is proud and lofty, against all that is lifted up and high”). The LXX appears to
follow this reading, although it retains the phrase, “against every one that is proud
and haughty, and upon every one that is high and towering, and they shall be brought
down.”
1
Clearly, one of Yahweh’s main concerns in Isaiah is to humble the proud,

who are frequently depicted as lofty mountains and hills. The primary
purpose of Yahweh’s leveling of mountainous terrain in 40:4 is not for
building an international highway. Bringing low every mountain and hill
is Yahweh’s way of communicating to Israel that the arrogant would be
humbled at the revelation of his glory. Viewed in this manner, vv. 6–8
are not an unrelated pericope added at a later stage. These verses contrast
the “power and permanence of the prophetic word with the imperma-
nence of political power and human pretensions”60 mentioned in v. 4.
Since is a hapax legomenon with a questionable etymology,
little signicance can be attached to this word,61 but such is not the case
with . Koole and Klaus Baltzer observe the possibility here of a
word-play between the word , which here primarily refers to
“uneven, bumpy terrain,” and the name Jacob (), which features so
prominently in chs. 40–49 (21×).62 Klaus Baltzer points out that in 44:2
Jacob is given the name Jeshurun (), signifying that Jacob is no
longer the cheat (cf. Hos 12:4–7). In SI, Yahweh transforms the character
of his Servant, who was formerly the “deceitful, sly” () Jacob, to the
“straight, right” () Jeshurun. In order for the nation to fulll its role as
Yahweh’s servant, the people, like their ancestor, must undergo disci-
pline and come face to face with their creator.
In contrast to the views of Zimmerli, Klaus Baltzer believes, “The
ethical understanding of the motif ‘prepare Yahweh’s way’, developed in
later interpretation from Trito-Isaiah (Isa 57:14–21; cf. 62:10–12) by
way of Malachi (3:1) down to the New Testament (Mark 1:2–3 and par.),
would then be already implicit in DtIsa’s poetry.”63 If Isa 40:3 refers
simply to a literal highway, then it would be the only mention of
in the Old Testament that does not possess an ethical meaning.
Genesis 18:19 demonstrates the ethical connotations of this phrase: “No,

61. Aelred Cody believes , “rough places,” ought to be emended to
“heads; mountaintops,” . By doing so a perfect palindrome with a central
pivotal waw is created:
$
and the occurrence of a hapax
legomenon is eliminated. This emendation provides a reading appropriate to the
context: “the rough land will become a smooth land and mountaintops will become a
valley.” See Aelred Cody, “A Palindrome in Isaiah 40:4b: Allowing Restoration of
an Original Reading,” CBQ 66 (2004): 551–60.
62. K. Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 54–55; Koole, Chapters 40–48, 61. Koole
attributes this view to Bacher in R. Levy, Deutero-Isaiah: A Commentary Together
with a Preliminary Essay on Deutero-Isaiah’s Inuence on Jewish Thought (London:
Humphrey Milford, 1925).
1
63. K. Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 55, emphasis added.
for I have chosen him, that he may charge his children and his household
after him to keep the way of the LORD ( ) by doing righteousness
and justice.”64 Similarly, Ps 5:8 (9) states, “Lead me, O LORD, in your
righteousness because of my enemies; make your way straight before me
(
).” Therefore, to “prepare the way of the LORD” is to
practice righteous and justice in response to Yahweh’s parousia. Klaus
Koch traces a linear development of the concept of the divine way that
begins with the patriarchs and continues through the exodus generation
into the Davidic kingdom. As demonstrated from Gen 18:19 and Exod
33:12–14, the physical route from Egypt to Canaan also involves divine
presence and righteous conduct. For Koch, exodus and ethics are con-
joined:
It [(* )* ] begins with the patriarchal period and ends perhaps with the rise
of David’s kingdom. As in Ex. 33, derekh denotes a historical develop-
ment from a fundamental promise to its nal accomplishment in external
reality—a development which is brought about by God and which spans
for centuries. It cannot be abstracted from the conduct of the group of
people concerned.65
This is ongoing since it is salvation-historical, ethical, and eschato-

logical. What is ultimately at stake is not whether the road is paved or
unpaved. Isaiah 40:1–11’s main concern is Yahweh’s presence among
his people (Exod 33:3, 12–14), which is conditional upon his people’s
demonstration of righteousness and justice (Gen 18:19). This concern for
Yahweh’s presence, in this case his (Isa 40:6), and the required
response of obedience (Isa 40:3–4) continue from SI into TI.
Isaiah 40:4 claries the commands of 40:3. Israel is to humble itself
and reform its crooked ways. Israel is to conform to the pattern of
righteousness set forth earlier by Isaiah:
64. See also Judg 2:22; Prov 10:29; Jer 5:4–5.

65. K. Koch, “derekh,” TDOT 3:284. John Goldingay and David F. Payne (A
Critical and Exegetical Commentary on Isaiah 40–55 [2 vols.; ICC; London: T&T
Clark International, 2006], 1:75) observe the multidimensional use of in the
Old Testament, recognize the supernatural description of 40:3–4, caution against
literalistic interpretations of poetry, and correctly conclude that a theophany is in
view here. They go on to exclude any possibility of an ethical interpretation: “In this
context ‘Yhwh’s way’ can hardly mean the way of life Yhwh approves. The road is
a metaphorical material one, not an ethical one.” Such a dogmatic conclusion is a
little odd given that earlier they assert that 40:1–11 likely originates from the same
author(s) who produced chs 56–66. If this is the case, then an ethical sense of
‘Yhwh’s way’ could certainly be on the near or far horizon of this expression given
that such a meaning clearly appears in TI.
1
The way of the righteous is level ();

O Just One (), you make smooth the path of the righteous.
In the path of your judgments, O LORD, we wait for you;
your name and your renown are the soul’s desire. (26:7–8)
In the same manner the Holy One of Israel requires those he encounters
to be holy (cf. 6:1–7), the Just One requires his people to be just and
righteous when he comes in glory. In Isa 2 Yahweh announced that he
would humble the proud and in particular bring low their idols (2:6–9,
17–18). Once again, Israel is called upon in chs. 40–48 to do exactly that.
Viewed in this manner Delitzsch’s own admission of an allegorical or
“spiritual” interpretation is the literal interpretation of the passage:
The command, according to its spiritual interpretation, points to the
encouragement of those that are cast down, the humiliation of the self-
righteous and self-secure, the changing of dishonesty into simplicity, and
of unapproachable haughtiness into submission. In general, the meaning is
that Israel is to take care, that the God who is coming to deliver it shall
nd it in such an inward and outward state as bets His exaltation and His
purpose.66
TI, as well as the New Testament writings, does not allegorize this pas-
sage. In Isaiah, the WOL is to be the way for Israel and the nations in
more ways than one.
The Way of Cyrus

After the announcement of the manifestation of the glory of the LORD
and the coming of a warrior-shepherd in the prologue, the rst actor to
appear on stage in the drama of SI is an unnamed conqueror from the
east in 41:2–3. Certainly the audience would wonder who this man is,
and, more importantly, who he represents. It is clear that Yahweh makes
the claim to raise this conqueror from the east, but what do these verses
communicate as to the identity of this victor?

is a
difcult phrase to translate since can be translated as “victory” or
“righteousness,” and may be the subject of (“righteousness called
him”) or its object (“he called him righteousness”).67 In keeping with
66. Delitzsch and Keil, Biblical Commentary, 7/2: 142, emphasis added.
67. Oddly, the NRSV and NJPS have included with the previous clause, “Who
has roused a victor from the east,” yet this reading is unwarranted given the dis-
junctive accent (zaqep qaton) above . However, Marjo Korpel and Johannes
de Moor argue that the Masoretic division seems to have been determined by
rabbinic exegesis which interpreted the conqueror as Abraham and therefore they
include with the rst colon. Korpel and de Moor point out that the disjunctive
1
the larger theme of +,68 “righteousness” or “order” is the preferable

reading which suggests that this one from the east will establish justice
and order within his rule: “righteousness meets him at every step.”
Certainly “victory” is a viable option since the following verses describe
a complete conquest of the nations and kings, so one cannot be dogmatic
here.69 Verse 2 clearly characterizes this one from the east as a successful
international military conqueror whose suppression of nations and kings
suggests he is an empire builder. His instruments of righteousness, the
sword and bow, are likened to threshing implements—signifying that he
is a man of war.70 In v. 3, another mention of this conqueror’s “feet” and
“path” are provided:

. Here a comparison to Baby-
lonian royal inscriptions is helpful. Here, Nebuchadnezzar recounts how,
on his way to defeat his enemies, he traversed “narrow ways, closed
paths, where the walking is hindered and where the foot cannot rest,
difcult paths.”71 Based upon this parallel, this phrase appears to describe
the ease of the victor’s conquests and may be translated, “a way—he
does not touch it with his feet.”72 What is notable is the emphasis placed
on the conqueror’s swift travel, military might, and righteousness. Given
the expectation of a highway of the LORD and the coming of a warrior in
the prologue, it is natural for the audience to assume that this victor
represents Yahweh as the mighty and gentle shepherd swiftly traversing
along the “way.”
accent is not supported by any of the ancient versions; see Marjo C.A. Korpel and
Johannes C. de Moor, The Structure of Classical Hebrew Poetry: Isaiah 40–55
(Leiden: Brill, 1998), 75.
68. Beuken provides convincing evidence that 40:12–42:17 revolve around the
common concern for +; see Willem A. M. Beuken, “Mišpat: The First Servant
Song and its Context,” VT 22 (1972): 1–30. Note that the repetition of the phrase

(40:31; 41:1) links chs. 40 and 41.
69. Even though possesses different meanings in SI—“order, salvation,
power”—I translate the word as “righteousness” since the word functions in a key
role within SI’s argument. Goldingay and Payne (Isaiah 40–55, 1:143) summarize
the use of the word in SI as “Yhwh’s doing the right thing in the exercise of power in
the world in a way that pays due recognition to Israel’s ‘rights’ as Yhwh’s people.”
70. Cf. “So Jehoahaz was left with an army of not more than fty horsemen, ten
chariots and ten thousand footmen; for the king of Aram had destroyed them and
made them like the dust (; cf. 41:2) at threshing” (2 Kgs 13:7). Note also Isa
29:5: “But the multitude of your foes shall be like small dust (), and the
multitude of tyrants like ying chaff (; cf. 41:15).”
71. Antti Laato, The Servant of YHWH and Cyrus: A Reinterpretation of the Exilic
Messianic Programme in Isaiah 40–55 (ConBOT 35; Stockholm: Almqvist &
Wiksell International, 1992), 57–58.
1
Earlier exegetes, as well as some modern ones have identied this

conqueror from the east to be Abraham.73 Abraham’s conquest of foreign
kings (Gen 14:1–16) would certainly t the conqueror’s description in
41:2, as well as the use of , since Abraham was known for his right-
eousness (Gen 15:6). Certainly too the mention of the seed of Abraham
in 41:8 would further bolster this interpretation. Israel, as the Servant,
can receive encouragement even though the people are dispersed,
oppressed, and helpless. Yahweh still considers the Israelites his elect
and therefore will strengthen and uphold them (41:8–13). In vv. 15–16,
Yahweh tells Israel that it will become a conqueror in a manner similar
to the conqueror from the East: “Now, I will make of you a threshing
sledge, sharp, new, and having teeth; you shall thresh the mountains
() and crush them, and you shall make the hills ( ) like chaff”
(Isa 41:15). The mention of mountain and hills recalls the announcement
of 40:3–4 and further supports the interpretation that these topographical
features ought not to be taken literally. The mountains and hills are those
powers that stand in opposition to Yahweh and his people, and in this
instance they are overcome with military force. This description of Israel
actively engaging in military force is unique to this brief, enigmatic
passage.
The trial scene genre reappears in Isa 41:21, employing judicial termi-
nology similar to the initial trial scene in 41:1–7: (41:1, 21) and
(41:1, 21, 22). This speech reproduces much of the argumentation used
in the rst scene. Yahweh alone has roused the conqueror (41:2, 25), he
is God to the exclusion of all others (41:4, 26), and he has foretold these
events from the beginning (41:4, 22, 26). Although this individual is
stirred up from the north, the subsequent mention of the rising of the sun
indicates that he can also arrive from the east like the unnamed con-
queror of 41:2. In Isa 14:31, the north is the origin of Judah’s deliver-
ance, yet in Jeremiah it is the direction from which a disaster would
befall Judah (Jer 1:14; 4:6). The north, then, signies this deliverance
rather than a xed geographical point of origin.74 Based upon the close
ties to 41:1–3, the conqueror is undoubtedly the same in both passages.
At this point in the discourse one would assume the author of SI
would reveal the identity of this conqueror; instead, however, he pro-
vides an elaborate description of the Servant’s mission and installation.
Whereas the Duhmian hypothesis interpreted 42:1–9 not within its
immediate literary context but collocated with purported Servant Songs,
73. This interpretation is well attested in the Rabbinic tradition. See Jacob
Neusner, The Talmud of Babylonia (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1996), 22:56.
1
74. Seitz, “Book of Isaiah 40–66,” 353.
Beuken has demonstrated that the most natural way to read this text is
within the context of chs. 40–42.75 Laato provides the following chiastic
arrangement for the rst discourse unit of SI.76
a 40:3–11 The new exodus and hymn
b 40:12–20 YHWH is the God of the universe
c 40:27–31 Israel will be restored
d 41:1–7 The chosen one of YHWH
e 41:8–20 Babylonia will be destroyed and the
people will be released
d 41:21–29 The chosen one of YHWH
c 42:1–4 Israel will be restored through the loyal servant
b 42:5–9 YHWH is the God of the universe who calls the loyal
servant to fulll his universal mission
a 42:10–17 Hymn and the new exodus
According to this structure, central to the redemptive plan of Yahweh is

Israel’s acceptance of the chosen one of Yahweh who will bring an end
to the oppression of Babylon. The Servant, then, is inextricably tied to
Cyrus and much overlap exists between their identity and roles. Some
commentators have gone on to identify the Servant of 42:1–9 as Cyrus.77
It is beyond the scope of this study to provide a full discussion regarding
the identity of the Servant. What is pertinent to this study is that because
the identities of the Servant and Cyrus at this point in the discourse are
undisclosed, the emphasis of SI’s instruction is on Yahweh’s actions
rather than his agents. The focus of this passage is on the word “justice”
not “servant.”78 That is, at this point it is more important for Israel to
know what Yahweh will do, rather than through whom he will accom-
plish it.
What is signicant to observe in 42:1–9 is the absence of military
imagery prevalent in the prior descriptions of the unnamed conqueror
(41:2–3, 25) and Israel (41:15–16). This imagery once again appears in
42:13–17 in dramatic fashion and here it is solely assigned to Yahweh.
Yet Yahweh and the Servant possess overlapping roles. Both Yahweh
and the Servant will liberate the blind (, 42:7, 16) and bring light
75. Beuken, “Mišpat.” Korpel and de Moor (Structure of Classical Hebrew

Poetry, 156) divide ch. 42 into three sub-cantos consisting of A (42:1–9), B (42:10–
17), and C (42:18–20). Blenkinsopp (Isaiah 40–55, 214) observes numerous links
between vv. 1–9 and 10–17: the glory and praise of Yahweh (vv. 8, 10), the motif of
blindness and darkness (vv. 7, 16), the islands and coastlands (vv. 4, 10, 12), the
abjuration of idols (vv. 8, 17), and the “new things” and “new song” (vv. 9–10).
76. Laato, Servant and Cyrus, 206.
77. See Watts, Isaiah 34–66, 210.
1
78. Goldingay and Payne, Isaiah 40–55, 1:213.
(, 42:6, 16) to those in darkness (, 42:7, 16). Both act in “leading/
going out” (, 42:1, 3, 7, 13), a term used to describe marching out into
battle. In the Hiphil form, as in the case of 42:1–9, is the most
frequent term used to describe the bringing out of Israelites from Egypt.
Although the explicit declaration of war in 42:13 recalls the conqueror
passages associated with Cyrus in ch. 41, the description evokes the
theophanic Sinai traditions introduced earlier in 40:4. Yahweh’s battle
as a warrior and a man of war is rst and foremost his ancient, mythic
march from Edom, an event which brings judgment through theophany.
Richard Clifford surveys all the “March in the South” passages (Deut
33:2–3; Judg 5:4–5; Ps 68:8; Hab 3:3–6) and concludes that all share
archaic meter, vocabulary, and ideas.79 From these common sources an
ancient Israelite tradition can be reconstructed. Yahweh begins a march
in the mountain country of Sinai, Seir, Paran, or Teman. He leads an
army of (Deut 33:2–3; Ps 68:18) through the desert and mountain-
ous area of Edom, and overturns nature in the process of trampling
nations (Hab 3:3–15). Axelson observes in the case of the theophany in
Hab 3:3, “Here the coming of Eloah is an ongoing phenomenon, that is,
unnished. The prophet is thinking and speaking in the future or the
present, but in doing so he makes use of ‘age-old conceptions of living
and the nature of the divinity’ as his means of expression.”80 Since this
march is on-going or unceasing, Yahweh may reappear in history in a
theophany that is consistent with his ancient march from Edom.
Yahweh’s actions in 42:15 appear to contradict his transformation of
the wilderness prevalent in Isaiah, since in this instance he dries up pools
rather than creates them (cf. 35:7; 41:18). Yet this phenomenon is
consistent with God’s acts of judgment against oppressors and blessing
for the oppressed in Ps 107:
He turns rivers into a desert,
springs of water into thirsty ground,
a fruitful land into a salty waste,
because of the wickedness of its inhabitants.
79. Richard J. Clifford, The Cosmic Mountain in Canaan and the Old Testament
(HSM 4; Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1972), 119. Lars Axelsson
attributes the origins of this tradition to the Sinai pericope. Lars Eric Axelsson,
The Lord Rose Up from Seir: Studies in the History and Traditions of the Negev
and Southern Judah (ConBOT 25; Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International,
1987), 64.
80. Axelsson, The Lord Rose Up from Seir, 53. Axelsson bases his interpretation
on the use of the Qal imperfect form used in Hab 3:3 (," ), which differs from the
Qal perfect form in Deut 33.2 (" ). Similar to Hab 3:3, the Qal imperfect form is
used in Isa 42:13 ( ).
1
He turns a desert into pools of water,

a parched land into springs of water. (Ps 107:33–35)
Viewed in this manner 42:15 need not be considered contradictory to

passages such as 41:17–20 or as a separate act of redemption. This inter-
pretation is supported by the fact that in both passages Yahweh declares
the exact same phrase, “I do not forsake them” (
, 41:17; 42:16).
Goldingay and Payne consider these “tensive” as opposed to “steno”
symbols.81 That is, SI’s imagery is exible and porous rather than precise
and bounded, so it ought not to be interpreted in a positivistic manner.
Including the links mentioned above, Ps 107:7 also recalls how in the
rst exodus “he led them () by a straight way ( ), until
they reached an inhabited town.” By the use of similar terminology, SI
announces that a second, new exodus is taking place.
This desiccation of the landscape is not a reversal of the Transforma-
tion of the Wilderness theme, but instead contributes to the larger image
of converting untraversable terrain into level ground for the purposes of
extending a road for travel. In order to accomplish this task in 42:15–16,
the mountains () and hills ( ) need to be laid waste and the
crooked places made into level ground () for a road () to be
established. Such language recalls vv. 3–4 of the prologue to SI. Since a
theophanic appearance is also depicted, 42:15–16 describe Yahweh’s
commitment to what was previously announced in the prologue. He is
willing to march out in battle and return to Zion with a redeemed people.
Blenkinsopp believes that the catastrophic effects of this upheaval of
nature in these verses—mountains, hills, rivers, pools—is reminiscent of
the anti-Babylonian oracle of ch. 13:
See, the day of the LORD comes,
cruel, with wrath and erce anger,
to make the earth a desolation,
and to destroy its sinners from it.
For the stars of the heavens and their constellations
will not give their light;
the sun will be dark at its rising,
and the moon will not shed its light.
I will punish the world for its evil,
and the wicked for their iniquity;
I will put an end to the pride of the arrogant,
and lay low the insolence of tyrants. (Isa 13:9–11)
Blenkinsopp concludes that 42:14–16 must point to the same histori-

cal referent as ch. 13, with God’s silence in v. 14 corresponding to the
1
period of Babylonian conquest.82 If Blenkinsopp is correct, the mythic

and cosmic language of 42:13–16 is fullled historically in Cyrus’s
overthrow of Babylonian powers and his release of Judean exiles.83 Klaus
Baltzer interprets 42:13 as the description of events in the heavenly
sphere which parallel the earthly realm similar to Judg 5:19–20 and Dan
10–11. He then concludes, “So if in the context of DtIsa’s book Yahweh
goes forth to battle, this will hardly be any battle other than the one that
Cyrus wages in the earthly sphere to bring about the downfall of Baby-
lon.”84 Cyrus, then, in this instance, represents Yahweh as a warrior and a
man of war who leads and guides the blind on a “way.” The Persian con-
queror is the means by which Yahweh returns to Zion leading his people
as a shepherd as announced previously in the prologue (40:10–11).
Isaiah 44:24–45:13 makes clear that the previously unnamed con-
queror is none other than the Persian king Cyrus. Yahweh asserts him-
self as the Sovereign Creator who possesses the prerogative to choose
whomever he wishes, in this case a pagan king, to carry out his plan. At
this point it is worth listing the linguistic afnities between the Cyrus
texts and the Servant texts within SI. Laato provides the following
observations regarding the shared phraseology in the Cyrus and Servant
passages:85
Cyrus Passages Servant Passages
41:2 Who has roused a victor 43:5 I will bring your offspring
from the east from the east
46:11 calling a bird of prey from
the east
41:2 calling him in righteousness 42:6 I have called you in
to his service? righteousness
45:13 I have aroused Cyrus in
righteousness

83. Hans Barstad (A Way in the Wilderness: The “Second Exodus” in the
Message of Second Isaiah [JSSM 12; Manchester: University of Manchester, 1989],
53) acknowledges the image of Yahweh as warrior-shepherd portrayed in 40:10 and
42:13, but objects to the notion that these verses describe the return of the Judeans
from Babylon in a New Exodus. Although Barstad’s criticisms of literal interpreta-
tions of a “way” is timely, his constructive proposals are not as helpful. In keeping
with his belief that the exile was a myth, he assumes that metaphorical language
cannot possess historical referents and must refer to a general message of salvation.
84. K. Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 141.
85. This is an abbreviated list from Laato, The Servant of YHWH and Cyrus,
45–46.
1
41:2 He delivers up nations to 49:6 I will give you as a light to

him, and tramples kings the nations
under foot
45:1 to subdue nations before 49:7 Kings shall see and stand up,
him and strip kings of their princes, and they shall
robes prostrate themselves
52:15 so he shall startle many
nations; kings shall shut
their mouths
41:25 one from the rising sun who 41:9 from its farthest corners I
calls on my name called you
45:3 who call you by your name 42:6 I have called you in
righteousness
45:4 I call you by your name 43:1 I have called you by name,
you are mine.
48:15 and I called him 43:7 everyone who is called by
my name
44:28 and he shall fulll all my 53:10 Yet it was the will of the
purpose LORD to crush him
46:10 I will do all I have purposed 53:10 the will of the LORD shall
prosper in his hand
48:14 he shall perform his purpose
on Babylon
45:1 whose right hand I have 41:10 I will uphold you with my
grasped victorious right hand
41:13 For I, the LORD your God,
grasp your right hand
42:6 I have grasped you by the
hand
48:14 The LORD loves him 41:8 the offspring of Abraham,
whom I have loved
48:15 and he will prosper in his 53:10 the will of the LORD shall
way prosper in his hand
Based upon the fact “that almost every concrete statement about Cyrus
has parallels in the servant passages,”86 it is fair to assume that Cyrus and
the Servant are related in some way within the argument of SI. Not only
are Cyrus and the Servant connected through common lexemes, but they
are tied together structurally as well:
1
86. Ibid., 37.
1. Both the introduction of Cyrus and the introduction of the

Servant begin with similar disputative speech:

(41:1);

(49:1).
2. Hymns or hymnic fragments conclude the presentation of the
Servant (42:10–13; 49:13) as well as presentation of Cyrus
(45:8).
3. 41:1–42:17 form a distinct pericope in which the introduction of
the Servant is intertwined with the introduction of Cyrus.
4. Both 42:5–8 (
) and 45:11–13 (

) begin with similar introductory formula.
Yahweh holds both the Servant Israel and Cyrus by their right hand, calls
upon them by name, and calls them in righteousness. The mission of the
Servant and the unnamed conqueror fullls the announcement of the end
of exile in the prologue. It is no surprise, then, to observe that the lan-
guage of the prologue is once again alluded to in this commissioning
speech of Cyrus.
Earlier the prologue demonstrated the concern to repopulate and
rebuild Jerusalem and the cities of Judah (40:2, 9–11), which are
assumed to be devastated and uninhabited. Cyrus’s mission is to return
the people to Jerusalem, rebuild the city, and restore the Temple (44:26,
28). It is for these reasons that Cyrus subdues nations and kings and the
mountains87 are leveled before him. In the same manner the prologue
spoke of leveling high or crooked terrain, Yahweh now makes level the
exalted places on behalf of Cyrus in 45:2. For Cyrus, the exalted places
clearly include the powers of Babylon, and their subjugation of Israel-
ites.88 In 45:13 Yahweh makes straight Cyrus’s ways (
).
The choice of and clearly evoke the announcement of a level
way in the prologue as well as the exodus tradition. As in 40:1–11, the
speech involving exalted places and a way may include the literal, but is
87. In 45:2 the hapax legomenon - !

. can be read as a passive participle of
, “to honor.” The difculty with this word is clearly its use with . Wester-
mann observes a link between this verse and 40:3 and therefore emends the text to
, “ways.” Laato and K. Baltzer believe the word is a cognate of the Akkadian
term dru, “inner wall,” which is supported by the immediate context. The LXX and
1QIsa read “hills” , which suggests the very plausible daleth–resh confusion.
Emanuel Tov believes this to be the original reading and the waw to be an addition;
see his Textual Criticism of the Hebrew Bible (rev. ed.; Minneapolis: Fortress,
2001), 254. Even if one adopts the lectio difcilior of the MT (“exalted places”), this
reading includes the notion of “hills” or “ways” because of the strong connection
with 40:3–4.
88. K. Baltzer (Deutero-Isaiah, 225) observes that the vivid details of v. 2 can be
viewed as a description of the capture of Babylon.
1
not restricted to it. What is noteworthy is that it is Yahweh himself who

prepares the “ways” and numbers the proud on Cyrus’s behalf. Within
the rhetorical argument of SI, Cyrus is initially portrayed as the shepherd
of 40:9–11 who returns to Jerusalem and its cities (44:26–28). If this is
the case, then the command to prepare a way in 40:3–4 for the arrival of
Yahweh is to be understood as a command to receive Cyrus as Israel’s
liberator, shepherd, and anointed one. Yahweh himself responds to the
command from the anonymous heavenly voice to prepare a way and
humbles the proud and exalted powers on Cyrus’ behalf. SI adamantly
insists that Cyrus’s victories are granted him not because of his military
prowess but because of Yahweh’s prerogative. What is shocking is that
the one to come initially to Israel is not Yahweh himself or a Judean
king, but instead Yahweh’s representative, the pagan king Cyrus. There-
fore the arrival of Cyrus immediately creates a tension in Israel’s
eschatological expectations. A way in the manner of 40:3–4 is prepared
for Cyrus and he returns the exiles in the manner of the warrior-shepherd
of 40:9–11. Yet what is quickly evident is that he certainly does not
fulll the prophecy of a theophanic revelation in 40:5. Therefore, even as
the faithful embrace Cyrus as Yahweh’s anointed, they know SI’s
pronouncement is yet to be completely fullled.89 In response to those
who may object to Yahweh’s methods, Yahweh makes clear that this
“stirring up” of Cyrus (cf. Isa 13:17; 41:2, 25; Ezra 1:1; 2 Chr 36:22) is in
continuity with righteousness (, 45:13). That is, Yahweh’s methods
of redemption, however outrageous they may initially appear, do not
violate his sense of order.90
89. Speculation upon the reception of SI’s message ought not to dominate the
exegesis of these chapters. Based upon the historical information that Cyrus re-estab-
lished the worship of Marduk, Blenkinsopp concludes that the golah community
grew disillusioned with the Persian king, who they initially viewed as a Messianic
gure (42:1–9). He believes chs. 49–55, with its focus on an individual prophet as
the Servant, results from this disappointment; see Joseph Blenkinsopp, “Second
Isaiah—Prophet of Universalism,” JSOT 41 (1988): 90–91. Rikki E. Watts assumes
that SI intended his prophecies to be completely realized by the golah community
and believes that chs. 40–55 have been written as an apologetic for the failure of the
return from exile. He believes the ambiguity of the Servant’s identity in 42:1–9
results from Israel’s rejection of Cyrus as an agent of Yahweh; see Rikki E. Watts,
“Consolation or Confrontation? Isaiah 40–55 and the Delay of the New Exodus,”
TynBul 41 (1990): 55–59. Blenkinsopp and Watts emphasize the discontinuity
between Cyrus and the Servant and base their interpretations of disappointment on
an argument from silence. Interpretations that suggest disappointment as the primary
motivation behind SI’s prophecy run against the theological grain of the work, since
according to 40:8 and 55:10–11 Yahweh’s plans do not fail.
1
90. See n. 69 for the use of in SI.
Following a brief mention in 46:11, Cyrus’s nal appearance in BI is

within the concluding exhortation to ee Babylon in 48:12–22. These
Cyrus texts occur within the context of the anti-Babylonian polemic (chs.
46–48). Once again, Yahweh prefaces his choice of Cyrus with his self-
assertion as Sovereign creator (48:12–13). In disputational speech directed
toward Israel (48:12, 14), Yahweh once again reafrms his choice of
Cyrus as his agent of redemption. Just as Yahweh declared his love for
Abraham (41:8) and Israel (43:4), in 48:14 he announces his love ()
for Cyrus.91 Rather than emending the text to clarify exactly whose love,
desire, and arm (or “seed”) the text refers to, the MT ought to be pre-
ferred and the ambiguity maintained. In 48:15 the election of Cyrus is
once again afrmed as a manifestation of Yahweh’s enduring word (;
cf. 40:8; 44:26; 45:19, 23; 46:11) and therefore Cyrus will succeed (
;
cf. 55:11) in his way (). Since Yahweh’s enduring word cannot fail
(cf. 40:8; 55:10–11) Cyrus is guaranteed success because it is Yahweh
who makes level Cyrus’s way (cf. 45:13). What, then, is Cyrus’s “way”?
Is it ethical, cultic, or eschatological?
Cyrus’s “way” differs from that of Israel and the Servant. Cyrus’s way
is clearly his victory over the Babylonians (v. 14). Therefore the leveling
of Cyrus’s ways (45:13) has nothing to do with his pride or a straight
highway. Instead, it refers to his military conquest of other powers which
are explicitly identied as the Babylonians. Cyrus serves no other pur-
pose in SI than this: to rid Israel of Babylon and initiate the restoration of
Zion and the Temple. No apology needs to be made on his behalf for any
purported failures because, as SI eventually makes clear, his is a limited
role in the redemption of Israel. After ch. 48, all talk of Cyrus and the
“former things” and “new things” comes to an end.
After speaking about the success of Cyrus’s way (48:15), Yahweh
reminds Israel that he instructs the people for their own welfare, the
purpose being for them to walk in the way he has prepared for them (

, 48:17). Westermann is
correct to observe that “this is the same preparing of the way as is spoken
of in the prologue (40.3f.),”92 but he incorrectly interprets as a literal
highway stretching from Babylon to Yehud. The “way” that Israel is
diligently to pursue is an ethical manner of life, the practice of justice
and righteousness. This interpretation is supported by the fact that in the
91. The variants—“loves me” (1QIsaa), “because he loves Israel” (Targ.), “out of
love for you” (minus the divine name) (LXX), and “he brings him” (BHS)—all reect
a penchant to preserve orthodoxy, and therefore ought to be considered the emen-
dations of subsequent tradents.
1
very next verse, in 48:18, Yahweh expresses his longing for Israel to
heed his commands (

)93 so that they might receive his
blessings. In this vein Koch writes, “The derekh on which Yahweh will
lead Israel means much more, of course, than the actual road on which
the exiles will return to Palestine. It includes divine commandments
(misvoth) which come from afar and into which salvation comes to be
integrated (48:17–19).”94 Preparation for the parousia of the LORD
requires Torah obedience.
The resulting blessing from obedience includes the Abrahamic prom-
ise of proliferation of descendants (Gen 22:17). The description of a river
and waves of the sea in 48:18 suggests an overowing abundance, a
reversal of Yahweh’s judgment on Egypt to dry up the river and sea
(19:15; 50:2). The association of righteousness with water in 48:18
recalls Yahweh’s moral expectation for his kingdom prior to the exile:
“But let justice roll down like waters, and righteousness like an ever-
owing stream” (Amos 5:24). Although the imagery differs here, the
blessing of peace and righteousness recalls the eschatological promise of
32:15–18, which tells of the Spirit being poured out:
Until a spirit from on high is poured out on us,
and the wilderness becomes a fruitful eld,
and the fruitful eld is deemed a forest.
Then justice will dwell in the wilderness,
and righteousness abide in the fruitful eld.
The effect of righteousness will be peace,
and the result of righteousness, quietness and trust forever.
My people will abide in a peaceful habitation,
in secure dwellings, and in quiet resting places. (Isa 32:15–18)
In 48:16b Yahweh commissions his Servant along with his Spirit so that
Israel might keep Yahweh’s commandments and in doing so practice
justice and righteousness. Because this emphasis on Torah obedience is
inconsistent with a Wellhausenian form of Israelite religion and the
Duhmian hypothesis, commentators have considered these verses a
93. Whether or not &" ' ! should be understood in the past tense, “O that you
had paid attention to my commandments!” (NRSV, NIV), or the present tense, “If only
you would heed My commands!” (NJPS), the following clause indicates that the
yiqtol expresses “a wish that something expected in the future may have already
happened” (GKC §151e, 477; also Waltke and O’Connor 40.2.2d, 680). Or as
Christopher R. North paraphrases the sentence (The Suffering Servant in Deutero-
Isaiah [2d ed.; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956], 182), “Would that you had
(but you did not), and yet you still may.”
1
94. K. Koch, “derekh,” TDOT 3:290.
post-exilic addition.95 Such a view is unnecessary since Yahweh’s con-

cern in SI is for the establishment of justice and righteousness through
his law (42:4, 21; 51:4, 7). Also, 48:16b–22 functions as a transitional
text bringing an end to the “exilic age” and initiating the “post-exilic
age.” That is, the exhortation to ee Babylon in vv. 21–22 assumes that
Babylon will soon be no more, Cyrus will be able to fulll his mission,
and Israel will be free to return to Jerusalem. It is this coming event that
now prompts the Servant-prophet to come forward and prepare the
people to act rightly as they restore Jerusalem.
The urgent exhortation to depart from Babylon in 48:20–21 is pat-
terned after the command to ee Egypt in the exodus. The verb
functions as a key-word associated with the exodus narratives (e.g. Exod
11:8; 12:41; 13:3–4; 16:1).96 The mention of thirsting in a desert and the
provision of water from a rock undoubtedly recall the test in the wilder-
ness (Exod 17:1–7) and Moses and Aaron’s failure to trust (Num 20:1–
13; see also Ps 78:15–20). This memory provides a sober expectation for
the exiles in their plight. Certainly 48:17–19 indicate that redemption
from Babylon is not entirely unconditional. Yahweh expects this genera-
tion to keep his commandments, unlike past generations that failed to do
so. Yet this memory is not intended to be ominous in tone but rather
reassuring. Yahweh reminds Israel that the exodus generation did not
thirst and the mention of the cessation of thirst signies once again that
the exile is over. Isaiah earlier dened the exile as a state of hunger and
thirst: “Therefore my people go into exile without knowledge; their
nobles are dying of hunger, and their multitude is parched with thirst”
(5:13). By mentioning thirsting in the desert and the subsequent provi-
sion of water, the previous promises to transform the desert are once
again evoked (41:17; 44:3). This generation need not fear the desert
because SI makes clear that Yahweh overcomes the forces of chaos
embodied in the wilderness. Israel can now ee Babylon not in fear, but
with shouts of joy (48:21).
Laato argues that the parallels between the Servant and Cyrus passages
originate traditio-historically from the same royal tradition as evidenced
in Akkadian royal inscriptions.97 Richard Schultz also observes a royal
95. E.g. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 204.

96. See H. D. Preuss, “,” TDOT 6:233–49.
97. Laato nds the following motifs or themes present within the Servant and
Cyrus passages of Isa 40–55 and Akkadian royal texts: (1) the king’s name is called
or proclaimed by the gods; (2) the king is loved and favored by the gods; (3) the king
is chosen by the gods; (4) the king is shepherd; (5) the king is servant; (6) the
creation and destiny of the king; (7) the divine predestination and election of the
1
motif common to Cyrus and the Servant. However, rather than originat-
ing from an Akkadian tradition, he believes “the ‘Servant’ of Isaiah 40–
55 can be understood as a complementary portrait to the King of Isaiah
1–39.”98 Gwilym Jones believes that SI draws a typological connection
between Abraham and the Persian king.99 For him, Isa 41:2–4, along with
41:25, contain a double allusion to both Abraham and Cyrus. He believes
the “former things” of SI refer to Israel’s past and ch. 41 is linked typo-
logically with the sacred history of the patriarchs. In a similar manner
Graham Ogden argues that the literary afnities between the Cyrus Song
of 44:24–45:13 and the presentation of Moses in Exod 6–13 demonstrates
that Cyrus functions in a role analogous to Moses.100 Viewed in this
manner the transformation of the wilderness described in Isa 41:17–20
initially refers to the military victories of Cyrus. Craig Broyles suggests
Isa 44:27–28 contain an echo of Ps 77:16–20 (17–21), which then creates
a Moses–Cyrus nexus:101
When the waters saw you, O God,
when the waters saw you, they were afraid;
The very deep trembled.
The clouds poured out water;
the skies thundered;
your arrows ashed on every side.
The crash of your thunder was in the whirlwind;
your lightnings lit up the world;
the earth trembled and shook.
king in the womb of his mother; (8) the king is the one to whom gods stretched out
their hands; (9) the king walks safely on treacherous ways with the aid of deity; (10)
the deity will be with or walk with the king. See Laato, Servant of YHWH and Cyrus,
47–68.
98. Richard Schultz, “The King in the Book of Isaiah,” in The Lord’s Anointed:
Interpretation of Old Testament Messianic Texts (ed. P. E. Satterthwaite, R. S. Hess,
and G. J. Wenham; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 1995), 159.
99. Gwilym H. Jones, “Abraham and Cyrus: Type and Anti-type?,” VT 22
(1972): 316.
100. Graham S. Ogden, “Moses and Cyrus,” VT 28 (1978): 195–203. Gordon
Hugenberger views the Servant as a Second Moses and Cyrus as a Pharaoh gure
in “The Servant of the Lord in the ‘Servant Songs’ of Isaiah,” in Satterthwaite,
Hess, and Wenham, eds., The Lord’s Anointed, 105–40. While the Servant may be
a Second Moses gure, Cyrus cannot be equated with Pharaoh in any way. Unlike
Pharaoh, Cyrus does not prevent a new exodus. Rather, he is the initial agent to
bring it to pass.
101. Craig C. Broyles, “The Citations of Yahweh in Isaiah 44:26–28,” in Broyles
and Evans, eds., Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah, 409–10.
1
Your way was through the sea,

your path, through the mighty waters;
yet your footprints were unseen.
You led your people like a ock
by the hand of Moses and Aaron. (Ps 77:16–20 [17–21])
Klaus Baltzer has gone on to identify the Servant of 42:1–9 as Moses.102

Even though great overlap exists between Cyrus and the Servant, as
the discourse progresses the roles of these agents are clearly distin-
guished. The Cyrus speech functions in a central role within chs. 40–48,
yet after ch. 48 the Persian conqueror is displaced by the Servant as the
focal gure. SI distinguishes the identity and role of Cyrus and the
Servant beginning with ch. 44. In 44:22c Yahweh exhorts Israel, “Return
() to me, for I have redeemed you.” Laato correctly observes that
communicates that the “disloyal Israel must turn to YHWH and
believe the proclamation of his loyal servant and return to Judah where
YHWH will establish the new marvelous era for his people (51:4–
52:6).”103 The redemptive work of YHWH proclaimed to Israel in SI
contains two facets: a geographical and a spiritual . This same
idea is captured in Jer 31:21: “Set up road markers for yourself, make
yourself guideposts; consider well the highway (
), the road () by
which you went. Return (), O virgin Israel, return () to these your
cities.” Here Markus Zehnder classies
and as concrete spatial
uses of the word referring to the road from Babylon to Yehud. Yet he
recognizes that it also includes an eschatological and moral meaning
given its close proximity to what he considered an Eschatologische
Wunderstrasse use of in Jer 31:9, as well as the moral connotations
of the phrase, “the road/way by which you went.”104 Israel is to return
both to Yahweh and to Judah.
Previously the Davidic king of Israel led the nation both spiritually
and politically. In Isa 40–52 these roles have been divided between the
pagan king Cyrus and the Servant. Whereas Cyrus’s task is merely
political, the Servant’s task embraces both (cf. 42:1, 49:5–13). The
transference from Cyrus to the Servant within the discourse of SI is on a
political–spiritual continuum rather than a disappointment–fulllment
one. Moreover, whereas Israel is to place its trust in the rule of Cyrus, it
is actively to take on the role of the Servant. Hermisson summarizes the
relationship between Israel, Cyrus, and the Servant as follows:
102. K. Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 124–37.

103. Laato, Servant and Cyrus, 104.
1
104. Zehnder, Wegmetaphorik, 298–99.
Each of these three entities is given a function in the eschatological turn-

ing point of salvation, and each in its own way plays a part in effecting
universal salvation: Cyrus in world conquest and the subjection of the
nations, and therefore in a temporally limited kingdom; Israel as Yah-
weh’s passive witness, the object of his saving activity; and the Servant
as his active witness, who through his proclamation establishes Yahweh’s
salutary order to the ends of the earth.105
Since the nature of their tasks varies, the means by which these agents of
Yahweh accomplish their goals differ dramatically. Whereas Cyrus
carries out the will of Yahweh through military conquest, the Servant
accomplishes Yahweh’s will through suffering and death.
The reason for initially withholding the identity of the unnamed
conqueror and the conation of the descriptions of the Servant and Cyrus
is to demonstrate the sovereign will of Yahweh. The repeated refrain,
“I am Yahweh, I am he” throughout the Servant and Cyrus passages
reiterates this fact: Yahweh as creator is free to choose who he so desires
to carry out his redemptive plan. Yahweh’s agents are dispensable. The
similarity between the Servant and Cyrus communicates to Israel that it
does not possess the sole claim as Yahweh’s instrument. Even though
Yahweh in a brief moment announces to Israel that it will be a military
force (41:15–16), quickly this role is reassigned solely to Cyrus rather
than to the Servant. The very task Israel assumed to be uniquely its own,
Yahweh has transferred to another agent. The exile conrms the fact that
Israel has forfeited its privileged status in Yahweh’s plan. In his “new
things,” Yahweh is free to choose new agents for his service. Given that
mention of the “former things” and “new things” end with ch. 48, it is
clear that Cyrus is inextricably linked to the “new things.” For this reason
Cyrus is not a parenthesis in the economy of salvation. The election of
Cyrus is an eschatological event. In a real, yet incomplete sense, Cyrus’s
deliverance is the NE, the transformation of the wilderness.
Why delay the name? Yahweh knew Israel would have difculty
accepting Cyrus as his “servant” so he initially kept him unnamed. By
associating him with such legendary gures as Abraham, Moses, and
David, Israel would have no choice but to accept him once his identity
was revealed. Cyrus embodies the best of patriarchal, Mosaic, and royal
ideals. As a righteous conqueror Cyrus demonstrates a correspondence
with Abraham; as the liberator of a new exodus Cyrus resembles Moses;
105. Hans-Jürgen Hermisson, “The Fourth Servant Song in the Context of

Second Isaiah,” in The Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 In Jewish and Christian Sources
(ed. B. Janowski and P. Stuhlmacher; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 2004), 45,
original emphasis.
1
and as a temple builder Cyrus follows the pattern of the Davidic king.106
SI in effect is telling Israel that they are being recreated through a New
Abraham, New Moses, and New David/Solomon. A new history has
begun with the astonishing news that the pagan king Cyrus will found
this new Israel. Carol Myers observes that the construction of the First
Temple was linked to creation: “The foundation of the Temple thus
becomes a protological event, going back to the beginnings of time and
established by God, not by either David or Solomon (see Ps 78:69–
70).”107 So too the commission of Cyrus as a temple builder in SI is
prefaced and concluded by Yahweh’s self-assertion as creator (44:24;
45:8, 12, 18). The election of Cyrus is a moment of Urzeit in which he
functions as an agent of creation in forming a new people and new
temple through a new exodus. Yet like David, Cyrus does not complete
the task of temple construction (cf. 1 Kgs 5:1–5). That project is
completed by the faithful servants of the post-exilic generation (cf. Neh
1:4–11) led by Sheshbazzar, Zerubbabel, and Nehemiah.
The announcement of Cyrus as a messianic gure is received with
shock and disbelief as evidenced in SI’s rebuke of a stubborn people
(46:8–11; 48:12–16) who hear the conqueror’s name, yet still choose to
disbelieve. This doubt is understandable, as Schoors points out:
To Ezekiel, the expected ‘good’ shepherd is a David redivivus. Thus the
utterance of Dt.-Is. is more shocking. He gives the epithet to a pagan
king, who obtains a place, appointed by God, in his salvic order. The
expected liberator will not be a scion of the Davidic house but the pagan
Cyrus.108
Although much overlap exists between the Servant and Cyrus, and Cyrus
and David, SI makes clear that they are dissimilar as well. SI’s discourse
demonstrates that Yahweh will accomplish his act of redemption ulti-
mately through his Servant, although in an unexpected manner. Not only
will his Servant suffer and die vicariously, but in doing so generate
offspring who will complete Yahweh’s plans.
106. As a temple builder, David/Solomon and Cyrus follow the general pattern
of ancient Near Eastern royal expectations, as noted by Keith Whitelam: “One of the
major responsibilities of ancient Near Eastern kingship was the provision of a temple
for the god of the state. This act of temple building provided the symbolic expression
of the god as the guarantor of the state and the dynasty (2 Sam 5:12)… It [the
temple] was, thereby, a symbolic statement of the king’s relationship with the god
and his divine right to rule.” K. Whitelam, “King and Kingship,” ABD 4:46–47.
107. C. Myers, “Temple, Jerusalem,” ABD 6:360.
108. Antoon Schoors, I am God Your Saviour: A Form-Critical Study of the
Main Genres in Isa XL–LV (VTSup 24; Leiden: Brill, 1973), 270.
1
The Way of the Servant

Given the shared language regarding the Servant of 42:1–9 and the Cyrus
passages, it is no wonder that several scholars have identied the Servant
of 42:1–9 as Cyrus.109 Yet, as noted above, signicant differences exist
between the description of the Servant in ch. 42 and the overall portrayal
of Cyrus. As ch. 48 draws to a close the identity of the Servant remains
open. Immediately after the nal remarks regarding Cyrus, an anony-
mous individual prophet is commissioned as the Servant in ch. 49. This
prophet will speak in 49:1–52:12, and be spoken of in 52:13–53:12. By
granting this prophet the title “Servant,” a continuity is created between
the ministry of the Servant of chs. 49–53, and the Servant and Cyrus of
chs. 40–48. The voice of the prophet Servant of chs. 49–53 speaks for
the rst time when he states, “And now the Lord GOD has sent me and
his spirit” (48:16b). It may be possible that this short fragment of the
prophet’s speech may have been added to the end of ch. 48 to strengthen
the continuity between chs. 40–48 and 49–52. This Servant is endowed
with the Spirit and appointed the task of reminding Israel to walk in the
“way.” The rhetorical function of ch. 49 is to clarify that though Cyrus
may have played a role as a servant of Yahweh, it is the Servant-prophet
of chs. 49–53 who truly fullls the role of the Servant of chs. 40–48. As
much as semantic overlap exists between 42:1–6 and the Cyrus texts,
the verbal similarities between 42:1–6 and 49:1–12 are much more
pronounced:
Isaiah 42 Isaiah 49
v. 1 he will bring forth justice to the v. 6 I will give you as a light to the
nations nations
v. 1 he will bring forth justice to the v. 4 yet surely my justice is with the
nations LORD
v. 3 he will faithfully bring forth
justice
v. 4 until he has established justice
in the earth
v. 4 and the coastlands wait for his v. 1 Listen to me, O coastlands
teaching
109. Watts, Isaiah 34–66, 186–19; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 40–55, 300–301; Philip
R. Davies, “God of Cyrus, God of Israel: Some Religio-Historical Reections on
Isaiah 40–55,” in Words Remembered, Texts Renewed: Essays in Honour of John
F.A. Sawyer (ed. J. Davies, G. Harvey, and W. Watson; JSOTSup 195; Shefeld:
Shefeld Academic Press, 1995), 219; Fried, “Cyrus the Messiah?”
1
v. 6 I have given you as a covenant v. 6 I will give you as a light to the

to the people, a light to the nations
nations
v. 6 I have given you as a covenant v. 8 and given you as a covenant to

to the people the people
The individual prophet who speaks in 48:16 and 49:1–52:12 now func-
tions as the faithful embodiment of the nation of Israel (49:3) that failed
to fulll its role (cf. 48:1–2). Yahweh’s intention to bring forth justice to
the nations will now be realized through an individual. Because of
Israel’s failure and Cyrus’s inadequacies, this prophet is given the addi-
tional task of restoring Israel. Whereas Cyrus’s means of accomplishing
righteousness are the sword and the bow, these weapons are merely
metaphors to describe the prophet’s tools—his speech: “He made my
mouth like a sharp sword (; cf. 41:2), in the shadow of his hand he
hid me; he made me a polished arrow, in his quiver he hid me away”
(49:2). This verse highlights the difference between the two agents of
Yahweh. Both seek political goals (42:1, 6–7; 49:5–6), but whereas
Cyrus accomplishes this feat through military conquest, the prophet does
so through preaching and suffering.
Many have recognized that a signicant transition occurs between
chs. 48 and 49 in the discourse of SI. I believe a change in rhetorical
perspective or setting takes place with the start of ch. 49. Like Cyrus, this
Servant is called upon to bring back Israel. Yet he is also to “apportion
the desolate heritages” (49:8), a role never assigned to the Persian king.
This prophet like Moses leads his people in a new exodus (49:9–11), and
like Joshua divides the land among the tribes (49:8; cf. Josh 13–19).
Given his similarity to Joshua, he stands in a later stage of redemptive
activity than the Servant of ch. 42 who was not assigned this role. The
undertaking of the new exodus still stands, yet it no longer involves
Babylon and is now focused solely on Zion. Kiesow observes a change
in perspective in 49:7–12 from chs. 40–48, and posits a separate redac-
tion for chs. 49–52. He recognizes that 49:7–12 lacks the extent to which
Yahweh miraculously provided for his people in the wilderness and the
radically transformed topography contained in chs. 40–48. Kiesow nds
it signicant that the word “desert” does not appear in 49:7–12, and since
the scope of the return is the diaspora (49:12), he concludes that these
verses function to introduce the “return” texts of chs. 49–52, over against
the “way” texts of chs. 40–48.110 Clearly the focus of chs. 49–52 is no
1
110. Kiesow, Exodustexte, 183–84.
longer on Babylon but on the resettlement of Judah. In order to maximize

the potential to repopulate, appeal is made to north and west, as far as the
land of , which is likely Aswan on the southern boundary of Egypt
(49:12). The returnees, in response to Cyrus’ decree, have initiated a
return of the diaspora that fullls the earlier promise of 43:5–6 that
Yahweh will gather his people from the remotest parts of the world.
Even though chs. 49–52 were added to chs. 40–48, they ought not to
be read as disparate sources. Isaiah 49:7–12 includes NE language, sig-
nifying that the WOL of chs. 40–48 remains in effect even after the rst
wave of returnees to Jerusalem. As the Servant of ch. 42 sought the
release of prisoners and those who sit in darkness (42:7), the prophet-
Servant of ch. 49 is called upon to complete this mission (49:9). The
command to ee Babylon () in 48:20 is once again repeated, yet with
no reference to any specic location (49:9). Earlier Yahweh declared that
he would provide food and drink for the returnees (41:17–18; 43:20;
48:21) by means of irrigating the bare heights (, 41:18). The
prophet-Servant likewise promises food along the way home because
now the bare heights are a place of pasture (
, 49:9).
The returnees are no longer prisoners; they are now a ock, led and
guided by a shepherd (cf. 40:11).
Whereas it is difcult to determine whether in 49:9 is a delib-
erate reference to in the prologue, it is clear that 49:11 alludes to
40:3–4 since , , and
all reappear: “And I will turn all my
mountains into a road, and my highways shall be raised up.” This
imagery differs slightly from chs. 40–48 in that, rather than mountains
being made low, now they will be transformed into the way; and whereas
the highway was not elaborated upon in 40:3, it is now described as
being raised up. Overall, the image and message is consistent with 40:3–
4, and therefore in 49:11 the prophet once again announces a way in the
wilderness. Here the emphasis is placed on Yahweh’s initiative to
establish this way. Since the rhetorical situation is one in which the
prophet stands in Zion or on the verge of entering the city, obviously
cannot refer to a literal road extending from Babylon to Yehud. Isaiah
49:12 makes this clear as travelers from opposing directions may travel
on this “way” to Zion. Cyrus is now in the past, as well as the downfall
of Babylon. From now on, the Servant will focus primarily on the ethical
and eschatological implications of this way of the LORD along with an
exhortation to return from the ends of the earth. Because the people are
on the verge of returning and repopulating Zion, a hymn declaring that
Yahweh has comforted his people ( , 49:13) in fulllment
of the prologue (
, 40:1) can be now sung.
1
Isaiah 52:1–12 brings closure to the announcement of comfort and

redemption begun in 40:1–11. Roy Melugin views 51:9–52:12, on the
basis of its form and content, as a genre unit that is capable of standing
alone, and it is this unit that concludes chs. 49–52, as well as chs. 40–
52.111 Just as hymns brought to a close earlier sections of SI (cf. 42:10–
12; 44:23; 49:13), once again a hymn in 52:7–10 concludes this pericope.
The following is a list of allusions in 51:9–52:12 to the opening prologue
in 40:1–11:
1. 51:10–11 and 52:9–12 contain language associated with the
Exodus (cf. 40:3–4);
2. 51:12 and 52:9 employ the verb (cf. 40:1);
3. 52:7–10 is a vision of messengers announcing Yahweh’s victori-
ous return to Zion (cf. 40:9–11);
4. 51:9 and 52:10 speak of the might of Yahweh’s arm () (cf.
40:10–11);
5. 52:10 envisions a time when all esh or nations will see the glory
or salvation of Yahweh (cf. 40:5).
By deliberately recalling the prologue, it can be assumed that 51:9–52:12
seek to address the same dilemma in chs. 40–48. That is, even though a
change in geographical perspective or setting may have taken place
between the initial proclamation of a way in ch. 40 and the announce-
ment in ch. 52, there is no change in the spiritual problem plaguing
Israel. Fleeing Babylon is not the fulllment of the salvation promises of
40:1–11, and neither is the physical return to Jerusalem. As will be
elaborated on below, the creation of a holy people in Zion coupled with
Yahweh’s return is the ultimate goal of the WOL.
As mentioned previously, 51:9–52:12 bring to a nale the argument of
chs. 49–52. The hymn of 49:13 earlier announced that Yahweh has com-
forted his people ( ), whose home had become a waste,
desolation, and devastated land ( , 49:19).
To this people 51:3 reiterates Yahweh’s comfort () upon the desola-
tions ( ) of Zion; 51:12, 19 identies Yahweh as comforter ();
and 52:9 once again proclaims in hymn Yahweh’s comfort () to the
desolations of Jerusalem (
). The expression in 52:10, “all
the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of our God,” builds upon the
phrase in 49:7, “Kings shall see and stand up, princes, and they shall
prostrate themselves.”
111. Roy F. Melugin, The Formation of Isaiah 40–55 (BZAW 141; Berlin: de
Gruyter, 1976), 164.
1
Earlier, in 51:9–11, Zion had cried out in a communal lament, urging

Yahweh to wake and transform the wilderness so that the redeemed
could return to Zion. Chapter 52 assumes that this redemption has taken
place. Whereas Yahweh was called upon to put on strength for divine
warfare (
, 51:9), now Zion is exhorted to put on
strength (
, 52:1) through donning beautiful garments.
According to Melugin, “The reference to the putting on of clean garments
may be viewed as a reference to the end of a period of mourning.”112 The
period of exile is over, the era of eschatological joy is about to begin.
Exactly who are the uncircumcised and unclean of Isa 52:1? Duhm is
certain that, “The uncircumcised, who are never again to enter again into
the ‘holy city,’ are naturally the ‘destroyers’ in general from 49:17. They
are the Chaldeans (cf. Nah 2:1) and not the Jews, because DI knows
nothing of the cultic purity of later Judaism.”113 For him, 52:1 cannot
refer to cultic purity since that would be anachronistic. Fohrer, follow-
ing Duhm’s critical theory, also observes the dilemma caused by the
language, but resolves it by dating the text in the post-exilic era.114
Westermann believes that later, when 52:11 speaks again of cultic
matters—“Depart, depart, go out from there! Touch no unclean thing; go
out from the midst of it, purify yourselves, you who carry the vessels of
the LORD”—such is not literally true. He writes, “Instead, his [SI’s]
intention is to make clear that this miraculous departure is distinctive in
its holiness. Separation from all that is unclean is therefore to be taken as
meaning the nal and complete severance from the unclean land of the
foreign gods.”115 Westermann takes specic, detailed exhortations by SI
and interprets them as, in the words of Zimmerli, “allgemeinen frommen
Paränese.”116
Besides identifying oneself within a “father’s house” ( ), the
primary means of distinguishing oneself as a Judean were circumcision,
dietary laws, and Sabbath observance.117 Not only were these cultic
practices in existence during in exile, but they were vital to the Judean
community prior to the restoration of Jerusalem. Therefore, it is certainly
112. Ibid., 162.

113. Duhm, Jesaja, 389.
114. Georg Fohrer, Das Buch Jesaja. Kap. 40–66 (ZBK; Zurich: Zwingli, 1964).
115. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 252–53.
116. Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” 224.
117. Nick Wyatt labels these three cultic practices as “Symbols of Exile.” See
Nick Wyatt, The Mythic Mind: Essays on Cosmology and Religion in Ugaritic and
Old Testament Literature (London: Equinox, 2005), 55–71.
1
within the bounds of SI to raise these religious concerns as the people

returned to Jerusalem. Circumcision, dietary laws, and Sabbath obser-
vance are not the inventions of the post-exilic community; they were the
concerns of the exilic community. Contrary to the view of Duhm, the
Servant-prophet did not only know about, but cared deeply for the cultic
purity of the returnees as well as the reconstituted Jerusalem. The ban on
the uncircumcised and unclean in Zion in 52:1 and the exhortation to
touch no unclean thing and to purify oneself in 52:11 can be understood
as cultic in nature. This concern is also reected in the reference to
carrying the vessels of the LORD (
, 52:11). These utensils
are likely a reference to the sacred vessels of the Temple conscated by
the Babylonians. The vessels of the LORD function as a means of sus-
taining Israelite religion through an event as disruptive as the exile.118
The introduction of cultic elements in ch. 52 is therefore not a preview of
their future, as argued by Fohrer. Rather, it is an attempt on the part of SI
to reconnect Israel with its past. It is unclear whether the people charged
with carrying these vessels are the priests or the people in general, yet
what is clear is that a cultic procession is envisaged.
Cultic holiness has been a subject absent in the prior discourse of SI,
yet now that the redeemed have reached their destination and are about
to enter the holy city, the topic is introduced. Rainer Albertz argues that
due to the dissolution of the state, absence of a king, and the destruction
of the Temple, “membership in the Judean community was no longer a
given; it had to be demonstrated repeatedly by individual decisions.”119
After conducting a sociological analysis of several exilic communities,
Daniel Smith concludes, “The survival of a minority as a group depends
on their success in creating a solid community with social boundaries.”120
It is therefore unsurprising that the Judean exiles would set strict guide-
lines, ethical and religious, to dene membership within their own
community.
Westermann observes that the oracle of 52:7–10 describes “not the
event itself but the coming tidings of it… He [SI] proclaims the hour of
fulllment by giving a picture of the moment when the messenger
announcing the triumph arrives.”121 The image is of a runner returning
from the eld of battle to announce the good news of victory in the
118. Peter R. Ackroyd, “The Temple Vessels—A Continuity Theme,” in Studies

in the Religion of Ancient Israel (VTSup 23; Leiden: Brill, 1972), 181.
119. Albertz, Israel in Exile, 137.
120. Daniel L. Smith, The Religion of the Landless: The Social Context of the
Babylonian Exile (Bloomington, Ind.: Meyer-Stone, 1989), 64.
1
121. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 249–50, original emphasis.
manner David awaited news of Absalom’s defeat in 2 Sam 18. Wester-

mann distinguishes between a future time in which this vision of Yah-
weh’s return to Zion is actually fullled, and the present in which
it currently is not taking place. The oracle does not offer any chronologi-
cal markers to indicate whether the vision is to be understood as future,
yet the fact that SI describes the event in the third person does distance
his initial audience from the event. The prophet does not directly address
Zion saying, “Your God reigns.” Rather, a description is given of that
event taking place. Viewed in this manner it appears that the exhortation
to the messenger to announce the advent of Yahweh in 40:9–11 is left
unfullled. SI recognizes that the vision of 40:9–11 and 52:7–10 is
eschatological and remains to be completely fullled. The repetition of
(51:12; 52:9) and
(51:10; 52:9), the movement from lament
(51:9–11) to comfort (52:1–2, 9), and the use of the perfect tense in vv.
7–10 suggest that this prophecy is already accomplished.122 Blenkinsopp
makes the same observations but concludes, “What is announced lies in
the future even though stated as a fait accompli in the prophetic past
tense.”123 Muilenburg believes the ancient conception of the day of the
LORD stands behind the oracle of 52:7–10124 and this view is strength-
ened by the fact that v. 6 speaks of “that day” ( ). Isaiah 52:3–6
need not be viewed as a later insertion, as suggested by most commenta-
tors, since it harmonizes with the eschatological outlook of 52:1–12.
Clearly Israel is called upon to respond to the reality of the vision
(52:1–2, 11–12). So, even though the prophecy may possess eschato-
logical implications, the announcement itself is clearly intended for the
prophet’s contemporaries. The heart of SI’s proclamation, that Yahweh
reigns, is both a historical and mythical reality. Blenkinsopp observes
that the reign of Yahweh within the Enthronement psalms (Pss 93–99) is
set in mythic patterns: the primordial victory over the forces of Chaos
(93:1), the placing of the earth on its foundations (96:10), and the
theophany in thunder and lightning (97:1).125 Also well known are the
mythic traditions of Yahweh’s commitment to Zion (Pss 46; 48; 76).
This passage ought not to be reduced to a liturgical function within the
cult since Israel is called upon to respond in a concrete way to its
proclamation (52:11–12). The return of the exiles to Jerusalem conrms
that the vision of Yahweh’s return to reign in Zion (40:9–11) has been
122. Melugin, Formation, 165.

124. Muilenburg, “Isaiah: Chapters 40–66,” 5:610.
1
fullled in the restoration initiated by Cyrus.126 Yet, given that the extent
of the vision in 52:10 (“all the ends of the earth shall see the salvation of
our God”) resembles the theophany of 40:5 (“Then the glory of the LORD
shall be revealed, and all people shall see it together”), its fulllment is
extended into the future since the return of the Babylonian exiles did not
produce such far-reaching results. The fact that “every eye shall behold”
(52:8, NJPS) demonstrates that the period of judgment announced in 6:9–
10 has ended, as evidenced by the removal of blindness. Viewed in this
manner, God’s reign has come but yet is also to come in totality. It is
both a historical and an eschatological reality.
Rather than end on the celebratory note of 52:10, this section closes
with an exhortation to ee. The urgency of the commands indicates that
the reign of God depicted earlier in vv. 7–10 has not been fully consum-
mated. Clearly 52:11–12 makes an intentional allusion to 48:20–21:
Go out () from Babylon, ee from Chaldea,
declare this with a shout of joy, proclaim it,
send it forth () to the end of the earth;
say, “The LORD has redeemed his servant Jacob!”
They did not thirst when he led them through the deserts;
he made water ow for them from the rock;
he split open the rock and the water gushed out. (Isa 48:20–21)
Depart, depart, go out () from there!
Touch no unclean thing;
go out () from the midst of it, purify yourselves,
you who carry the vessels of the LORD.
For you shall not go out in haste,
and you shall not go in ight;
for the LORD will go before you,
and the God of Israel will be your rear guard. (Isa 52:11–12)
Both passages conclude a pericope by ushering a command to ee, and

both recall the exodus traditions of Yahweh’s provision and protection
for his people. Many have assumed that 52:11–12 in essence repeats the
message of 48:20–22, but such is not the case due to several differences.
Babylon is noticeably absent in 52:11–12. From where Israel is to depart
in 52:11 is not specied; it is merely referred to as “from there” ()
and “from her midst” ( ). Now that all the nations and the ends of
the earth have witnessed the return of the rst wave of exiles, an invi-
tation is extended for all Israel scattered among the diaspora to do the
126. Even though on grammatical grounds 52:8d can be translated, “When the
LORD restores Zion,” the context implies Yahweh’s return to Zion as observed by
virtually all other translations and commentators.
1
same (cf. 43:5–7). The NE consists of both the returnees from captivity
as well as a worldwide conversion. The return under Cyrus serves as an
object lesson for those living at the ends of the earth that the eschato-
logical ingathering has begun. Exodus imagery is evoked in 52:11–12 by
the use of the imperative form of , coupled with Yahweh’s promise to
act as both vanguard and rearguard in the manner of the pillar of cloud
and re in the rst exodus (Exod 14:19). Yet in this new exodus haste is
not required, and rather than plundering Babylon, Israel is only to carry
away the vessels of the LORD. Is the exhortation of 52:11–12 to be
understood as literal or metaphorical? The answer is both. The dispersed
are called to return and safe passage is promised to them. However, the
emphasis on purity and holiness indicates that a particular ethical and
cultic manner of life is required. Viewed in this manner, 52:1–12 can be
seen as both a fulllment and continuation of the “way” announced in
40:1–11.
Summary and Conclusion

In SI the transformation of the wilderness, couched in the mythic lan-
guage of creation and exodus, describes much more than merely a return
from Babylon. The cosmic and universal scope of the salvation extends
far beyond the political concerns of the Judean community in exile. The
difculty interpreting 40:1–52:12 is that an eschatological promise is
fullled for a particular community in history. This group of people is
called genuinely to receive these promises through responding to the
message of the Servant. In concrete terms, they are asked to leave
Babylon and forsake Babylonian idols; in return they will receive not
merely passage to Yehud, but instead participate in Yahweh’s cosmo-
logical victory.
The announcement of the way originates in the divine council and
therefore it refers primarily to the theophanic revelation of the glory of
God which by its very nature transforms the topography. The primary
purpose of the WOL within FI and SI is to humble the arrogant of the
earth, and exalt Yahweh as divine king. The human response of pre-
paring the way is not a reference to highway construction, but rather the
humility and uprightness required in the presence of the divine warrior
and shepherd. The WOL is both a historical and eschatological reality,
and participation in this an act of salvation requires moral and cultic
purity.
SI announces that the Persian conqueror Cyrus is the agent of Yahweh
who will fulll the promise of the “way” on behalf of the Jews in exile.
Cyrus functions as the servant of the LORD by bringing righteousness
1
to the nations through his military conquests. He is portrayed acting as

Yahweh’s representative in liberating the people of Israel from their
Babylonian oppressors, battling Israel’s enemies on its behalf, and
leading the Israelites back to Zion. Cyrus creates a tension in Israel’s
eschatological expectations since he only partially fullls the redemptive
promises of chs. 40–52. He initiates the NE but does not consummate it.
After ch. 48 Cyrus disappears from SI’s speech, never to reappear. It is
the prophet Servant of chs. 49–53 who fullls the role of the Servant
announced in ch. 42. Even after Israel has return to Jerusalem from
Babylon, the announcement of a “way” continues to be proclaimed. This
indicates that the return to Yehud, while consistent with the WOL, does
not consummate it. The eschatological promises of the “way” remain
unfullled and its ethical and cultic expectations remain in effect.
1
Chapter 4
THE “WAY OF THE LORD” IN ISAIAH 52:13–66:24
The Death of the Servant as the Beginning of Third Isaiah

Although the WOL and the NE have been presented as a redemptive act
in the form of a theophany and divine warfare, amazingly SI lacks any
concrete description of a battle. Cyrus’s military prowess is acknowl-
edged, yet for the Servant, the key agent of this NE, suffering and death
become his most distinguishing marks. The symbol of divine strength,
the (40:10; 48:14; 51:5, 9; 52:10) now reveals shocking details
of a man suffering rejection, torture, and death (53:1). Within the rhetori-
cal scheme of SI, it is these very actions which accomplish the escha-
tological promises contained in chs. 40–52. It is the suffering and death
of the Servant-prophet that establishes the WOL. The placement of the
fourth so-called Suffering Servant Song (52:13–53:12) demonstrates this
fact: it follows the concluding announcement regarding the good news of
the NE (52:1–12) and precedes the betrothal of Zion and establishment
of the heritage of the servants of the Lord (54:1–17).
Viewed in this manner, the identity of the Servant of 52:13–53:12 is
primarily literary, rather than historical. That is, the Servant is to be
understood by his role within the rhetorical argument of chs. 40–66,
rather than in a hypothetical Sitz im Leben. Based on its placement, the
Servant Song of 52:13–53:12 embodies and culminates the Servant
discourse of chs. 40–52. Christopher North observes that “the Anonymity
of the Servant in the Songs is accompanied by heightened individualiza-
tion in the portrait of the Servant.”1 The Servant of 52:13–53:12 ulti-
mately fullls the role of the Servant (42:1–9; 49:1–6; 50:4–9) such that
all other “servants” (i.e. Israel or Cyrus) are superseded by this gure.
The striking feature of this Servant is that he remains unnamed and
lacks historical specicity. Brevard Childs observes similarity in language
between this text and texts describing the suffering of the righteous in the
1
1. North, The Suffering Servant of Deutero-Isaiah, 180, original emphasis.
Psalms (cf. 22:6–7; 88:8) and the suffering experienced by the prophet
Jeremiah (cf. 15:17; 20:7, 10). He concludes that the text may function
not in a literal or historical manner, but rather in a typical one.2 The over-
all discourse of SI is eschatological in orientation, such that an idealized
event described in the past tense is now transformed into a prophecy of
the future. The very fact that this Suffering Servant cannot be completely
identied with any person in history3 suggests that the WOL/NE is yet to
come. In Chapter 6 I will discuss how the New Testament authors
understood this gure to be Jesus and how he inaugurates the WOL.
Isaiah 55 as Conclusion and Continuation of the New Exodus

Even though it was previously argued that 52:7–10 functions as a conclu-
sion to chs. 40–52, it can also be argued that Isa 55:6–13 provides yet
another conclusion to SI. This text recapitulates the argument of chs. 40–
54, and many of the themes or images within 40:1–11 reappear in ch. 55.
The use of is clustered together within this short passage (55:7, 8
[2×], 9 [2×]; cf. 40:3, 27). Isaiah 55:7 describes Yahweh’s compassion
and his abundant forgiveness (cf. 40:2). The reference to the efcacy of
the word of Yahweh (55:10–11) most certainly reafrms the message of
40:8. Although there is no mention of a “way” or “highway” in 55:12–
13, this passage evokes the transformation of nature theme so prominent
throughout chs. 40–52. The mention of mountains and hills (
, 55:12) recalls the announcement in the prologue that Yahweh
would bring low mountains and hills (40:4), that Israel itself would be
the very threshing sledge to thresh and crush the mountains and hills
(41:15), and Yahweh’s promise to lay waste mountains and hills (42:15).
Likewise the topographical transformation of thorns and briers to cypress
and myrtle trees in 55:13 contribute to the image of “Paradise Regained,”4
a theme present earlier in FI. Christopher Seitz believes 55:12–13 is the
fulllment of the vision of a rejuvenated “pleasant vineyard” in 27:2–4.5
2. Childs, Isaiah, 414.

3. Here theories abound. Most popular among them is to identify the Suffering
Servant as the prophet SI himself. For a full discussion, see North, The Suffering
Servant of Deutero-Isaiah, 6–120, 220–39; and more recently Henning Graf
Reventlow, “Basic Issues in the Interpretation of Isaiah 53,” in Jesus and the
Suffering Servant: Isaiah 53 and Christian Origins (ed. W. H. Bellinger and W. R.
Farmer; Harrisburg: Trinity Press International, 1998), 23–38.
4. R. N. Whybray, Isaiah 40–66 (NCBC; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans,
1975), 195.
1
5. Seitz, “Isaiah 40–66,” 6:482.
Within SI, Yahweh promises to hydrate the wilderness and transform it

into a forest where cypress and myrtle grow (41:19).
As is the pattern of SI (42:10–12; 44:23; 49:13; 52:7–10), another
hymn (55:12–13) concludes a pericope within the prophecy. Even
though there is no mention of a highway in this passage, the connections
between this passage and the rhetoric of SI, as well as the use of the verb
, indicate the presence of the WOL and NE themes. Earlier, Israel was
exhorted to go forth from Babylon (48:20) and from “there” (52:11).
Now, because of the efcacy of Yahweh’s word (55:11), Yahweh
declares that this exodus will become a reality: “For you shall go out in
joy, and be led back in peace” (55:12). Whereas previously no peace was
extended toward the wicked (48:22), now the wicked are granted the
opportunity to repent and receive Yahweh’s pardon (55:7) and peace
(55:12). Isaiah 55:6–13 possesses several traits similar to both 48:20–22
and 52:7–10, two passages that conclude major sections of the
announcement of the WOL in SI. The passage appears to function in a
similar manner to conclude the WOL theme in chs. 40–55.
Susan Niditch observes many of the elements of the ritual conquest or
victory enthronement pattern common in ancient Near Eastern literature
within SI. At its fullest extent this motif contains: (1) a challenge to a
male warrior; (2) the preparation of weapons; (3) the battle; (4) the
victory of the hero; (5) a victory shout; (6) a procession; (7) house build-
ing; (8) a banquet or gathering the house; and (9) the young warrior’s
enthronement.6 Since SI possesses many of these elements, it is likely
chs. 40–55 follows this pattern, with ch. 55 serving in a penultimate
position. The announcement of a banquet in ch. 55 signals the end of this
ritual conquest motif. Since the warrior’s enthronement concludes the
pattern, the banquet motif anticipates the exaltation of the divine warrior,
Yahweh himself.
The two conclusions to the WOL sections within SI (48:20–22; 52:11–
12) consist of commands to prepare the way, ee Babylon, and go forth.
Yet in the case of 55:6–13, the command to seek Yahweh serves as the
nal imperative. Wagner observes that the phrase is a technical
expression for cultic worship which later acquired a spiritual or moral
sense.7 Klaus Baltzer believes the invitation to a free feast in 55:1, as
6. Susan Niditch, Oral World and Written World: Ancient Israelite Literature
(Louisville, Ky.: Westminster John Knox, 1996), 21–22; Cross, Canaanite Myth and
Hebrew Epic, 91–111, 144. Cross observes that this pattern mirrors that of Baal’s
victory over Yam in Canaanite religion, as well as Marduk’s triumph over Tiamat in
Babylonian religion.
1

7. S. Wagner, “' )" drash,” TDOT 3:298.
well as the exhortation to seek Yahweh in 55:6, are both commands to

come worship at the sanctuary. He supports this claim by appealing the
use of in texts such as Deut 12:5: “But you shall seek () the
place that the LORD your God will choose out of all your tribes as his
habitation to put his name there. You shall go there.” In Amos 5:4–15
Israel is exhorted to reject the sanctuaries of Bethel and Gilgal and to
seek Yahweh by making Jerusalem the goal of pilgrimage: “Seek good
(+) and not evil, that you may live” (Amos 5:14). Baltzer appeals
to the use of this word in entrance liturgies such as Ps 24:6: “Such is the
company of those who seek him (), who seek the face of the God of
Jacob.” Hans-Joachim Kraus believes the expression “to seek God” refers
to the pilgrims in the sanctuary that comprise the true cultic community.8
Seeking Yahweh, then, functions as a technical term for the worthy to
engage in cultic worship. Wagner observes that within Chronicles
is broadened to dene the true community of Israel.9
Many have observed the intertextual connections between Isa 55:6;
Deut 4:29, and Jer 29:10–14:
Seek () the LORD while he may be found (),
call upon () him while he is near. (Isa 55:6)
From there you will seek the LORD your God, and you will nd ()
him if you search after () him with all your heart and soul. (Deut
4:29)
Then when you call upon () me and come and pray to me, I will hear
you. When you search for me, you will nd () me; if you seek ()
me with all your heart, I will let you nd me (), says the LORD… (Jer
29:12–14a)
It is likely that SI drew upon these texts, and based upon these connec-
tions, it appears that the prophet of SI believes that these texts nd their
fulllment in his ministry (Isa 49:8). Deuteronomy 4:29 and Jer 29:10–
14 indicate that Israel can seek Yahweh from exile. Seeking Yahweh can
be done from Babylon or wherever an Israelite would nd him/herself,
and the reward for doing so is return from exile. The verses that follow
55:6 obviously provide the best means of dening what it means to “seek
Yahweh.” Throughout vv. 7–9, ways () and thoughts () parallel
each other:
8. Hans-Joachim Kraus, Psalms 1–59 (trans. H. C. Oswald; CC; Minneapolis:

Fortress, 1988), 197.
1

9. Wagner, “' )" drash,” 3:300.
Let the wicked forsake their way,

and the unrighteous their thoughts…
For my thoughts are not your thoughts,
nor are your ways my ways…
so are my ways higher than your ways
and my thoughts than your thoughts. (Isa 55:7a–b, 8, 9b–c)
The wicked and righteous do not seek Yahweh because they reject the
ways and thoughts of Yahweh. The ways and thoughts of Israel are not
those of God because they do not originate from the heavenly council.
Only the ways and thoughts of Yahweh that are announced from the
heavenly council will go forth and succeed (55:10–11). The remaining
verses make clear that the word of God effectually accomplishes divine
ways and thoughts (55:7–11). HALOT denes in 55:7 as “manner,
custom, behavior.” Zehnder denes the word in 55:7 as “a way of life”
and in 55:8a as a “way of acting or course of action.” Although the
“ways of the LORD” in 55:6–13 are clearly not roads or highways, never-
theless they are still related to the theme of the WOL in SI. In 40:27,
Jacob’s complaint is reiterated, “My way is hidden from Yahweh and my
justice ignored by my God” (author’s translation). To Israel’s predica-
ment, Yahweh’s responds with the proclamation of the WOL in SI. The
wicked and unrighteous are characterized by their lack of trust in the
word of Yahweh and their rejection of the way of the LORD (48:22). A
return to Yahweh is called for in 55:7, and since the verb is featured
prominently in the argument of SI (44:22; 49:5–6; 51:11), this return can
be associated with the theme of the WOL. When read in the context of
the prophetic book, the command to seek Yahweh in 55:6 ultimately
calls upon Israel to trust in the message of the WOL in SI.
The collocation of the two divine names, Yahweh and “our God,”
within such close proximity in 55:7 occurs elsewhere in Isaiah only in
40:3 and 52:10, two passages which announce the NE. Based upon this
connection, especially to 40:3, it can be assumed that the command to
seek Yahweh in 55:6–7 is in essence the same command of 40:3 to
prepare for the way of the LORD. Whybray’s interpretation of 55:7,
namely, that the verse is to be seen “as a call to the exiles to prepare
themselves through personal repentance for the awesome approach of the
holy God,”10 could also be said of 40:3. Because Isa 55:7 appears to set
conditions on what some assume to be a message of unconditional salva-
tion, several commentators consider it to be the interpolation of a pious
reader. Bernhard Duhm’s belief that v. 7 cannot be harmonized with its
1
10. Whybray, Isaiah 40–66, 193.
immediate context, as well as the artistry and theology of SI, is the result
of his belief that law and gospel do not mix.11 Oddly, Muilenburg, using
a similar modus operandi, makes the opposite claim, concluding that
“religious experience supports its retention.”12 It appears that appealing
to constructs of Israelite religion, which is well recognized to be a highly
speculative endeavor, may result in specious interpretations.
Isaiah 55:6–13 provide a more detailed description of the command
given earlier in 55:1: “Ho, everyone who thirsts, come to the waters; and
you that have no money, come, buy and eat! Come, buy wine and milk
without money and without price.” H. Spykerboer believes these impera-
tives “are most appropriately understood as an invitation to come to the
new Jerusalem where Yahweh reigns and to share in its wealth.”13 If he
is correct, then Baltzer is correct to interpret this exhortation as a call
to embark on a cultic pilgrimage. Nevertheless, the notions of ethical
exhortation (cf. Amos 5:14) are not lost since the use of carries the
idea of repentance.14 SI has already announced that Yahweh will reveal
his presence to his people in the form of a theophany and therefore a
response of repentance is required. Spykerboer recognizes that if “to
come to Jerusalem or to God is one and the same thing,”15 then cultic and
moral purity is required of God’s people. The references to moral and
cultic obedience in 55:6–13, themes prominent in TI, reect the fact that
ch. 55 functions as a transitional text linking SI with TI.
Klaus Kiesow believes 55:12–13 introduces for the rst time an escha-
tological quality to the NE motif.16 He observes that there is no longer
any mention of a way, a wilderness, the need for protection, or a people
for that matter. According to him, the NE motif no longer refers to ight
from Babylon but beginning here extends to the return of the diaspora.
Claus Westermann considers the return from exile to be still in view and
concludes that vv. 12–13 are an exaggeration of the deliverance under
Cyrus.17 I believe the NE all along possessed an eschatological quality,
and therefore 55:12–13 only highlight its consummation. Viewed in this
manner, vv. 12–13 are not a complete break from previous passages and
11. Duhm, Jesaia, 416.

12. Muilenburg, “Isaiah: Chapters 40–66,” 5:647.
13. H. C. Spykerboer, “Isaiah 55:1–5: The Climax of Deutero-Isaiah,” in
Vermeylen, ed., The Book of Isaiah. Le Livre d’Isaïe, 358.
14. K. Baltzer (Deutero-Isaiah, 478) agrees, “At this point I must once more
stress that the text of vv. 6–7 can be understood even if ‘seek Yahweh’ does not only
mean the seeking of the sanctuary and covers the whole range of terms.”
15. Ibid., 359.
16. Kiesow, Exodustexte, 186.
1
they make a distinctive contribution to the argument of the chapter. This

new element is a vision of consummate joy experienced by those who
are led on the “way.” No longer is Israel exhorted to prepare the way, go
forth, or ee Babylon. Verses 12–13 only picture those who have
decided to depart from their present situation, repent, and return to Zion.
According to SI the fulllment of the NE was never in doubt because
from its initial announcement it was based upon the word of God that
never fades (40:8). Isaiah 55:11 reafrms this truth, evidenced by the
fact that the eschatological goal of the WOL is described as a reality in
vv. 12–13.
Since Zion was previously described as a wilderness and a desolate
place (51:3; 52:9), the transformation in 55:12 of thorns into a forest may
be a description of Zion itself. Earlier, in 44:23, the forest, along with
other elements of creation, celebrate the return and redemption of Israel.
Yet in 55:12 trees are personied with the ability to clap their hands.
Later in TI the eunuch, who refers to himself as a “dry tree” (56:3), will
be able to rejoice because he will gain entrance into the mountain and
temple of Yahweh. Jan Koole observes that “trees of the eld” ( ,
55:12) usually refers to fruit trees. Since fruit trees are not typically
associated with a desert, he believes this motif “has an eschatological
tone, so this line also refers back beyond the liberation of the exiles to
the eschaton of ‘new heavens and a new earth.’ ”18 Since Eden, thorns and
thistles have overgrown the earth and turned it into a wilderness. The
announcement of fruit trees signies a return to paradise. The scope of
the WOL extends much further than a return from Babylon; the goal of
the NE is a new creation. Chapter 55 concludes with its message open,
unfullled, and oriented towards the future. Viewed in this manner,
ch. 55 does not merely serve as a “conclusion” to chs. 40–55, but rather
it offers an “introduction” to the message of chs. 56–66.
The verb “to be led back” (
, 55:12) is frequently used to describe
those escorted in a procession.19 The use of this verb, coupled with
descriptions of hymnic praise in v. 12, forms an image of a pilgrimage
to a sanctuary. Since this pericope began with this motif in v. 6, it is
appropriate that this same image concludes this section. Just as a proces-
sion concludes the prologue to SI in 40:10–11, the image of Yahweh’s
return to Zion leading his people in triumph concludes ch. 55. The
wicked lack peace because they have not put their trust in the salvation
18. Jan L. Koole, Isaiah Part 3, Volume 3: Chapters 56–66 (trans. A. P. Runia;
HCOT; Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1998), 445.
19. Cf. Pss 45:14–15 (15–16); 60:9 (11); 108:10 (11). See H. A. Hoffner, “

ybl,” TDOT 5:364–67.
1
plan announced by SI (48:22). But those who have abandoned their own
way and instead placed their faith in the “way of the LORD” (55:7) will
be led forth in peace (55:12).
Isaiah 55 recapitulates many themes mentioned in SI. Even though
there is no mention of a “way” in this chapter, the transformation from
thorns to forests, the peoples’ joy and singing, and the efcacy of the
word of the LORD carry the net effect of signifying the WOL of SI. The
banquet motif reinforces the image of Yahweh as divine warrior and
signies the climax of his victory as in accordance with the pattern of
other ancient Near Eastern ritual-conquest texts. The post-exilic genera-
tion that has witnessed the death of the Servant-prophet participates in
both the blessings and challenges associated with this eschatological act
of God. The death of the Servant-prophet serves as the means by which
the WOL extends beyond the return from exile to subsequent generations
of returnees. Chapter 55 once again reinforces the fact that the eschato-
logical promises of the WOL will be fullled in the future. The emphasis
on seeking Yahweh demonstrates that the goal of this “way” is not merely
the physical city of Jerusalem. The new creation themes in ch. 55 drawn
from Isa 40–52 anticipate the eschatological orientation of chs. 56–66.
When read as both a conclusion to chs. 40–55 and an introduction to
chs. 56–66, ch. 55 alerts the reader that TI is to be read as the conclusion
to SI.
Is Isaiah 56–66 the Result of Failed Prophecy?

Because the historical reality of the return from exile did not match the
glorious description announced by SI, two explanations for SI’s exalted
language have been proposed. The traditional Christian interpretation is
that SI’s prophecies are fullled in the advent of Christ. The second is to
politicize SI’s message and reduce his exalted language to hyperbolic
rhetoric. Richard Clifford believes SI’s words were intended only to
persuade, meaning that the substance of his speech ought not be taken
too seriously. He writes, “His is a program, not a theology; ideas are
arranged to persuade, not to make a system.”20 Similarly Carroll is doubt-
ful “whether he envisaged such an actual return or only attempted to
encourage the exiles to seize their opportunity by turning to the events of
their time into the great act of salvation cannot now be determined.”21 He
20. R. J. Clifford, “Isaiah, Book of (Second Isaiah),” ABD 3:498, emphasis added.
21. Robert P. Carroll, When Prophecy Failed: Reactions and Responses to
Failure in the Old Testament Prophetic Traditions (London: SCM, 1979), 151.
1
believes that the elaborate descriptions of the earth trembling at the

approach of Cyrus (41:5), Israel’s crushing of the mountains (41:15), the
transformation of the desert into a pool of water (41:18; 43:19–20), Israel
as covenant to the nations (42:6), and the transformation of nature
(55:12–13) were nothing more than inated language signifying the end
of captivity and the possibility for repatriation. Carroll concludes, “These
extravagant metaphors add up to very little: no more than ‘your time of
exile is over, you may return home if you wish.’ ”22 Viewed in this
fashion, the prophecy of SI is ultimately empty kerygma since it failed to
actualize a salvation program in history. For Whybray, the dissonance
created by SI’s proclamation and the historical reality of the return
results in a politicization of the salvation pronouncements.23 For Carroll,
this disappointment represents a time when prophecy failed.
The reinterpretation of failed prophecy is nothing new in biblical
studies. Although he denies any experience of disappointment or dis-
illusionment, Zimmerli holds to a view similar to that of Carroll. He
believes prophecy lacks a predictive element, possesses an indeterminate
meaning, is beyond the control of the prophet himself, and is full of
contradictions.24 Nevertheless, Zimmerli afrms a genuine fulllment of
SI’s message due to the freedom of Yahweh to bring about a prophecy’s
fulllment in whatever manner he wishes within history. He observes a
change from eschatological promises to a historical fulllment within
chs. 40–45: “Deutero-Isaiah’s message apparently changed from the
announcement of the eschatological coming of Yahweh, who miracu-
lously leads his people back through the desert, to the concrete historical
assertion of the liberation through Cyrus.”25 For Zimmerli, the initial
pronouncement in the prologue to SI possessed an eschatological pur-
view, yet its fulllment would essentially be historical and political in
scope. In this model, prophecy is only fullled when later tradents recall
and readapt older traditions. These tradents determine whether or not a
previous prophecy has been fullled, and if so, they determine the nature
of its fulllment. Von Rad takes Zimmerli’s position one step further and
believes the inability of SI’s proclamation to be actualized in history
resulted in its reassignment to the eschaton.26
22. Ibid., 65.

23. R. N. Whybray, The Second Isaiah (OTG; Shefeld: JSOT, 1983).
24. Zimmerli, “Promise and Fulllment,” 106–7.
25. Ibid., 106.
26. Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology (trans. D. M. G. Stalker; 2 vols.;
New York: Harper & Row, 1962–65), 2:285.
1
Contrary to the views of Zimmerli and von Rad, Steck argues that the
additions to previous prophecy are not creative reinterpretations but
rather the continuation of transmitted writings (Fortschreibung). Viewed
in this manner, existing material remains essentially unaffected through
the transmission process and tradents never intend to correct the text.
Within the purview of the prophetic book, a text originally addressed to a
particular historical situation in the past now functions on a metahistori-
cal level. Contrary to Zimmerli, who believed that speech is limited to its
original context,27 Steck asserts that the tradents knew prophetic words
are not bound by chronology. Steck describes the manner in which
prophecy operates within BI:
For example, for them [the scribes], YHWH speaks the book of Isaiah
through Isaiah in its entirety. For them, Isaiah is not contradictory. He
only continues to speak with respect to different times and aspects. For
them, the entire developing book is a single, continuous self-explication
and self-actualization of Isaiah, or more precisely, a self-actualization of
YHWH through Isaiah.28
Whereas other scholars may only consider human factors in the process
of transmission, Steck believes the prophetic book ultimately coheres
because “God institutes the higher unity of the textual relationships!”29
Yet this last point appears quite deistic since he never elaborates upon
how God institutes this textual unity. Also, his notion of learned scribal
prophecy (Schriftgelehrte Prophetie) is an anachronism from later rab-
binical practice. Yet his observation that individual prophecies primarily
function on a metahistorical level within the context of the prophetic
book, rather than against the backdrop of a reconstructed history of
Israelite religion, is a helpful insight that needs to be explored.
Childs forges a via media between the view that chs. 56–66 are the
product of learned scribes (Steck) and the view that they are the result of
an individual historical personality (Duhm). He believes “it is essential
to maintain them [chs. 56–66] as genuine prophecy that responds to the
divine word.”30 With this in mind, TI need not be viewed as mere scribal
literature, but as prophetic testimony. Furthermore, the primary context
in which to interpret these chapters is within the literary context of
BI. Viewed in this manner, TI is a continuation of SI, which is to be

28. Steck, The Prophetic Books, 157, original emphasis.
29. Ibid., 148.
1
understood as a divine word spoken from the heavenly counsel (40:3, 6)

that is enduring and effective (40:8; 55:11). An amount of constraint is
placed upon the authors of TI such that they lack the authority to
reinterpret SI in a creative manner. According to Childs, the relationship
between TI and SI ought to be considered as deictic—pointing, identi-
fying, and focusing—rather than midrashic.31 That is, TI functions to
clarify and expand upon the message of SI, rather than revise or reinter-
pret it.
Christopher Seitz faults von Rad for imposing a hermeneutical grid of
evolving tradition history that fails to acknowledge that the “presentation
of the Major and Minor Prophets is its own kind of theological and
historical statement.”32 He believes that the kind of historical and theo-
logical statement made by BI is a gural one.
Historical interpretation must take into consideration the mode of
history as presented in the prophetic literature. Certainly gural inter-
pretations are open to the charge of deism or being confessionally moti-
vated, but one must ask whether interpreters today possess access to the
psychological state of the prophets or original historical situation so as
to verify whether prophecies were actually fullled or not. What the
interpreter can account for is the prophetic literature, which in its nal
form provides gural interpretations of its own prophecy. A gural
interpretation allows for a broader sense of prophetic fulllment than a
simplistic punctilious model and respects both the historical and theo-
logical dimensions of the text. Seitz writes, “Appeal to the gural sense
does not rely as heavily on human prediction and a one-to-one literal
fulllment, and because of this its view of providence and divine sov-
ereignty allows for a more central place for retrospective accordance and
typological t.”33
Even modern literary theorists have demonstrated that a “text’s career
escapes the nite horizon lived by its author.”34 It is no surprise, then, that
prophetic literature may possess the ability not only to speak relevantly
to audiences beyond the original, but also to nd fulllment in a sub-
sequent era since the very nature of such writings to instruct subsequent
generations. By its inclusion within a prophetic book, a prophecy spoken
31. Ibid., 445.

32. Seitz, Prophecy and Hermeneutics, 90, emphasis added.
33. Seitz, Prophecy and Hermeneutics, 69.
34. Paul Ricoeur, A Ricoeur Reader (ed. Mario J. Valdés; New York and
London: Harvester Wheatseaf, 1991), 325, as quoted by Vanhoozer, Is There a
Meaning in This Text?, 215.
1
or written at one particular time and place possesses the ability to

transcend its original setting through its new role within the prophetic
book. By its inclusion within BI, the message of SI cannot be the mere
wishful thinking of an exilic poet, but is rather part of “the word of God
[which] will stand forever” (Isa 40:8). Later redactors are not required
creatively to reactualize a past prophecy in order to speak afresh to a new
situation since this phenomena of multiple applications of a single
prophecy is itself part of the very nature of prophetic books.
Did Cyrus Lead a New Exodus?

Before turning to late Second Temple Jews or New Testament writers,
one must ask whether the post-exilic writers viewed the return from exile
and resettlement of Jerusalem as the fulllment of SI’s prophecy. As
noted above, many Christian scholars assume that SI’s prophecies were
not fullled following the exile, and believe that either they were
deferred until the advent of Christ or reinterpreted by TI. The question
often neglected is whether Cyrus did in fact lead a NE to any degree.
Frequently it is simply assumed that Cyrus could in no way be the
genuine fulllment of SI’s prophecies.
Klaus Koch argues that the biblical authors believed SI’s prophecies
were fullled in the resettlement of Judah following and exile. He writes,
“Ezra’s march from Babylonia to Jerusalem was a cultic procession
which Ezra understood as a second Exodus and a partial fulllment of
prophetic expectation.”35 He justies this thesis by means of the follow-
ing arguments:
1. Ezra’s refusal to leave Babylon without the company of Levites
is in agreement with the exhortation of SI, “Depart, depart, go
out from there! Touch no unclean thing; go out from the midst of
it, purify yourselves, you who carry the vessels of the LORD” (Isa
52:9).
2. The guiding force in Ezra’s return march, “the good hand of his
God” (Ezra 7:6, 28; 8:22, 31), is a demythologization of Yah-
weh’s promise to lead the procession from Babylon to Yehud
according to SI (Isa 40:9–11; 51:9–11; 52:12).
3. Koch believes Ezra’s prayer, “But now for a brief moment favor
has been shown by the LORD our God, who has left us a remnant,
and given us a stake in his holy place, in order that he may
1
35. Klaus Koch, “Ezra and the Origins of Judaism,” JSS 19 (1974): 184.
brighten our eyes and grant us a little sustenance in our slavery”

(Ezra 9:8), reveals that Ezra has in mind a great renewal in the
future.36
Koch believes that only ve thousand of the estimated twenty thousand
exiles in Babylon resettled Yehud, and so he recognizes that the pro-
phetic expectation of a second Exodus far surpassed the historical reality.
Nevertheless, he believes Ezra’s march to be a genuine fulllment of the
prophetic word in the category of Heilsgeschichte rather than geschichte.
He writes:
So the return could not be the perfection of the eschaton, but only one
pre-eschatological step, a sign of a coming fullment and not the eschato-
logical fullment itself. It seems to be that Ezra was thinking of just this
state between the abandoned past and the outstanding salvation in the
future when he prayed.37
What is signicant to note in Koch’s argument is his assertion that the

text indicates both a genuine fulllment as well as an incomplete, partial
one.38 Viewed in this manner, Ezra need not observe the fulllment of the
sweeping social, political, and cosmological transformations in order for
there to be an actual fulllment of SI’s prophecies. Contrary to Hanson’s
belief that within this period “eschatological expectations have dis-
appeared,”39 Koch argues that the writer of Ezra continued to hold out
hope for the consummation of prophetic expectations. The period in
which Ezra and Nehemiah ministered is then to be understood within a
continuum of an inaugurated prophetic eschatology.
J. G. McConville and H. G. M. Williamson have expanded on Koch’s
thesis, although differing on various points. According to McConville,
the prayers of Ezra 9 and Neh 9 demonstrate that Persian occupation was
incompatible with the full realization of the community’s hopes.40 As
36. Ibid., 184–89.

37. Ibid., 189.
38. Certainly Koch has his detractors. Childs believes Koch’s argument for a
reuse of the “spoiling the Egyptians” theme lacks evidence from the literature itself.
Childs, Introduction, 634. Yet it appears the text does support the validity of such a
theme (see Ezra 1:4, 6). Childs’s comments appear to stem from his doubts regard-
ing the historicity of the Ezra–Nehemiah narratives.
39. Paul D. Hanson, “Israelite Religion in the Early Postexilic Period,” in Ancient
Israelite Religion: Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross (ed. P. D. Miller Jr., P. D.
Hanson, and S. D. McBride; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987), 499.
40. J. G. McConville, “Ezra–Nehemiah and the Fullment of Prophecy,” VT 36
(1986): 208.
1
long as the Persians ruled Yehud, the Israelites knew that the eschaton
had not arrived. He likens the role of Persia in Ezra–Nehemiah to that of
Assyria in Isaiah. In both cases a foreign power is an enemy of, and an
instrument for, the people of Yahweh. For McConville, the seemingly
misplaced reference to the king of Assyria in Ezra 6:22 may be explained
as a reference to Isa 10. He observes numerous similarities in theme and
vocabulary between Ezra 7–9 and Jer 31, and concludes that a relation-
ship of prophecy and fulllment exists between them. Jeremiah 31
predicts the return of a remnant from a distant land, and Ezra leads such
a return. The fact that both Jer 31 and Ezra make explicit that repentance
is required in order for restoration to take place indicates, for McCon-
ville, that the fulllment of prophecy “is in the process of happening,
rather than that it has happened once and for all.”41 He goes on and lists
the lexical similarities between Ezra and Isaiah:
Isaiah Ezra
1. 2:3 (
)
7:9
()
2. 11:1242 8:15
3. 40:3 … 8:21
4. 6:13 9:2
5. 10:20 +
9:8, 13 +

6. 49:19; 51:3; 52:9; 9:9
58:12; 61:4
Of these, McConville believes items 1, 4, and 6 demonstrate that Isaiah’s

prophecy is in the process of fulllment in Ezra. He also views the use of
in Ezra 8:21 as a deliberate reference to the prophecy of a
straight way both in Jeremiah and Isaiah. He believes Jeremiah’s refer-
ence to a (Jer 31:9), a way that was originally understood to be
metaphorical, has now become the route Ezra traveled from Babylon to
Jerusalem. According to McConville, this same manner of inner-biblical
reading takes place with Isa 40:3:
Indeed, the use of " " (* )* in Ezra viii 21, in the sense of a safe journey,
gives a meaning to " " which is unique and which is probably explicable
only in terms of the desire in Ezra to relate the return to prophecy. Ezra’s
prayer is not simply that the returned exiles should have a safe journey,
but that their return should in fact be that “making straight a highway” of
which the prophet speaks.43
41. Ibid., 217.

42. McConville lists 10:11, but it appears he meant 11:12.
1
43. Ibid., 219.
Rather than interpret 40:3 as a literal highway which is later to be under-

stood metaphorically in the manner of Zimmerli, McConville argues the
opposite is the case. For the post-exilic community, SI’s WOL is a call to
depart from Babylon with Ezra and return to Yehud.
Williamson also believes that the author of Ezra views the restora-
tion under Cyrus as a NE in fulllment of the prophecies of Jeremiah and
Isaiah. Rather than associate the edict of 1:2–4 with passages in Jeremiah
that predict the fall of Babylon and end of exile in general terms (25:11–
12; 29:10), Williamson observes the following parallels between Ezra
1:1, “the LORD stirred up () the spirit of King Cyrus of Persia,” and
passages in SI:44
Who has roused () a victor from the east,
summoned him to his service?… (41:2)
I stirred up ( ) one from the north, and he has come… (41:25)
Who says of Cyrus, “He is my shepherd,
and he shall carry out all my purpose”;
and who says of Jerusalem, “It shall be rebuilt,”
and of the temple, “Your foundation shall be laid.” (44:28)
Thus says the LORD to his anointed, to Cyrus… (45:1)
I have aroused ( ) Cyrus in righteousness,
and I will make all his paths straight. (45:13)
Based upon these connections, Williamson concludes that author of Ezra
had SI’s prophecies at the forefront of his mind when he wrote the intro-
duction to Cyrus’s edict. As to why he named Jeremiah as the source of
the prophecy, Williamson observes that Jer 51:1, “Thus says the LORD: I
am going to stir up () a destructive wind against Babylon,” is similar
to Isa 13:17, “See, I am stirring up () the Medes against them
[Babylon].” Based upon these linguistic links and the close ties between
the prophecy of Jeremiah and Isaiah, Williamson concludes that in the
author’s mind Jer 51; Isa 41, and Isa 44–45 function as one and the same
prophecy. He concludes, “The rescript [Ezra 1:1–4] marks therefore a
very special moment of grace, the historical realization of a new dis-
pensation brought about by divine agency in fulllment of the prophe-
cies.”45 The return under Cyrus marks the dawn of a new era of divine
activity in Israel.
44. H. G. M. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah (WBC 16; Waco, Tex.: Word, 1985),
9–10.
45. Joseph Blenkinsopp, Ezra–Nehemiah (OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster,
1988), 74–75, emphasis added. Blenkinsopp on the whole agrees with Williamson’s
thesis, but differs by conating the Isaianic prophecies with Jer 25:11–14; 29:10–14.
1
In addition to the observations by McConville and Williamson, several

other connections between Ezra and Isaiah are important. In fulllment
of Yahweh’s promise to go before Israel and be their rearguard in Isa
52:12, Ezra in all his journeys lacked any other escort, armed or unarmed,
except Yahweh alone. As will be explained in Chapter 5, the WOL in BI
is a via sacra ( , 35:8; 52:1) reserved only for the holy, and
excluding the unclean and uncircumcised. This concern for religious
purity is reected among the returnees in Ezra. In Ezra 2:61–63, those
not found among the genealogies were excluded from the priesthood,
deemed unclean, and forbidden from eating the most holy food (
). Ezra 6:21 recounts how the Passover feast was only observed
by the returnees who separated themselves from the uncleanness of the
peoples of the land. In 9:11, Ezra recalls explicit instruction from the
servants, the prophets ( ), commanding the returnees to
seize possession of land lled with the uncleanness of the peoples of the
lands. Goldingay and Payne go as far as to say, “The authors [of Ezra–
Nehemiah] believe that the Second Temple community’s life began as a
fulllment of this prophecy. Isaiah 40–55 thus constituted part of the
charter of the Jerusalem community in that period in a fashion analo-
gous to the role played by the narrative in the Torah.”46
Not only does Ezra–Nehemiah demonstrate an afnity to SI, it also in
many instances presupposes the message of Isa 56–66. McConville
observes that the lingering presence of iniquity in Ezra (9:6, 7, 13)
matches the tensions represented within a struggling community of
“servants” in Isa 56–66. He believes Ezra deliberately appeals to the last
chapters of Isaiah in order to cast the hope of a brighter future for a
community that is in the midst of a conict over proper righteousness.47
The objection to the mixing of “holy seed” ( ), the marrying the
peoples of the lands in Ezra 9:2, may be a result of the inuence of Isa
60–62. This passage envisions the subordination of foreigners and
strangers under the “holy people” (, 62:12) who resettle Jerusa-
lem. Kenton Sparks offers a sustained argument that the authors of the
Old Testament considered religious identity rather than ethnic identity as
the most important issue for determining acceptance into the Israelite
community.48 Viewed in this way, Sparks sees no contradiction between
46. Goldingay and Payne, Commentary on Isaiah 40–55, 1:26, emphasis added. It
appears that they meant to say, “…to the role played by the Torah in the narrative.”
47. McConville, “Ezra–Nehemiah,” 221–22.
48. Kenton L. Sparks, Ethnicity and Identity in Ancient Israel: Prolegomena to
the Study of Ethnic Sentiments and their Expression in the Hebrew Bible (Winona
1
the passages such as Isa 56:3–7, which encourage inclusion of the

foreigner within the worshipping community, and passages such as Ezra
9:1–2, which call for the expulsion of foreigners, even including the
wives of mixed marriages. Whereas most modern commentators consider
Ezra’s treatment of foreigners to be “among the least attractive parts of
Ezra–Nehemiah, if not of the whole Old Testament,”49 Sparks considers
interpretations that assume Ezra displays racist attitudes are overly sim-
plistic. He points out that Ezra also testies to the inclusion of the
foreigner in Israelite worship:
It [the Passover feast] was eaten by the people of Israel who had returned
from exile, and also by all who had joined them and separated themselves
from the pollutions of the nations of the land to worship the LORD, the
God of Israel. With joy ( ) they celebrated the festival of unleav-
ened bread seven days; for the LORD had made them joyful ( ), and
had turned the heart of the king of Assyria to them, so that he aided them
in the work on the house of God, the God of Israel. (Ezra 6:21–22,
emphasis added)
The joy of this feast, which was celebrated by both Israelites and foreign-
ers, mirrors the joy offered to foreign proselytes in Isa 56:6–7:
And the foreigners who join themselves to the LORD, to minister to him,
to love the name of the LORD, and to be his servants, all who keep the
sabbath, and do not profane it, and hold fast my covenant—these I will
bring to my holy mountain, and make them joyful ( ) in my house
of prayer; their burnt offerings and their sacrices will be accepted on my
altar; for my house shall be called a house of prayer for all peoples.
Sparks credits SI for this inclusive attitude (cf. Isa 42:6–7; 44:5;
49:1–6), and concludes that this intra-community conict regarding the
inclusion/exclusion of foreigners stemmed from a conict between those
who embraced the message of SI and those who rejected or ignored it.
He writes, “In my view, the core of this debate was the theology of
Deutero-Isaiah and his followers, which was so xed on the religious
Lake, Ind.: Eisenbrauns, 1998). See Blenkinsopp, Ezra–Nehemiah, 176; Rainer

Albertz, A History of Israelite Religion in the Old Testament Period (trans. J. Bow-
den; 2 vols.; OTL; Louisville, Ky.; Westminster John Knox, 1994), 2:449; and
Schramm, The Opponents of Third Isaiah, 61.
49. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, 159. David J. A. Clines (Ezra, Nehemiah,
Esther (NCBC; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1984), 116) says he is “appalled
by the personal misery brought into so many families by the compulsory divorce of
foreign wives [and] outraged at Ezra’s insistence on racial purity, so uncongenial to
modern liberal thoughts.”
1
status of one’s heart toward Yahweh that a preoccupation with one’s

ethnic origins seemed unimportant.”50
Baltzer argues that the comfort SI offers ought not to be understood
simply as a poetic metaphor, but as a political and economic reality.
According to him, the words used to describe Yahweh as master and
Israel as servant are more than just sociomorphemes, language which
draws on societal models to express the nature of the relationship
between God and human beings. Israel’s service (40:2) and captivity
(52:2) do not merely describe the spiritual and political conditions experi-
enced in Babylon, but also accurately portray the oppression within
Judah upon resettlement. “Ransom” () in 51:11—“So the ransomed
of the LORD shall return, and come to Zion with singing”—is to be
understood as “a terminus technicus for freeing in the context of the
institution of debt slavery.”51 Just as the redemption experienced in the
rst exodus served as an ethical model for Israel upon entrance into the
land (Exod 22:21; 23:9; Deut 5:14–15; 10:19; 23:7; 24:17–22), Baltzer
believes that the inuence of SI’s teaching led Nehemiah to urge the
nobles and ofcials to release the poor of their debts (Neh 5:1–13).
Baltzer goes on to suggest that the Servant of Isa 42:1–9 and 49:1–12 in
a literary and theological sense is identied with Moses,52 while the
historical person SI has in mind is Nehemiah. In the same prayer that
Nehemiah refers to Moses as “your servant” (, 1:7, 8), he assigns
himself the same title (1:6, 11) and describes the people he represents as
“your servants” (, 1:6, 10, 11). Based upon the signicance of this
lexeme, Baltzer concludes:
The important role played by the sociomorpheme Lord-Servant in
Nehemiah also reveals a link to Deutero-Isaiah. The connection between
“servant” (sg.) and “servants” (pl.) in the Prayer of Nehemiah corresponds
to the theological stance of Deutero-Isaiah. With the aid of the familiar
sociomorpheme Lord-servant, the community is able to articular [sic] its
self-understanding in a fresh way and to achieve a better conception of the
relationship to God and neighbor.53
50. Sparks, Ethnicity and Identity, 318.

51. Klaus Baltzer, “Liberation from Debt Slavery After the Exile in Second
Isaiah and Nehemiah,” in Miller, Hanson, and McBride, eds., Ancient Israelite
Religion, 481.
52. K. Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 305–17.
53. Klaus Baltzer, “Moses Servant of God and the Servants: Text and Tradition
in the Prayer of Nehemiah (Neh 1:5–11),” in The Future of Early Christianity:
Essays in Honor of Helmut Koester (ed. B. A. Pearson et al.; Minneapolis: Fortress,
1991), 129. Baltzer also doubts it is coincidental that the root , which plays such
a signicant role in SI (40:1; 49:13; 51:3; 52:9), forms the basis of the name
1
Although I disagree with Baltzer that Nehemiah is to be equated with the

Servant of SI, it does appear that Nehemiah and the faithful Israelites
considered themselves the “servants” of SI, that is, the followers of SI’s
teaching (cf. Isa 50:10–11; 54:17).
The above survey of the impact of SI upon Ezra–Nehemiah, as well as
TI’s close relationship with this literature, suggests that in many ways
the restoration of Jerusalem under Persian sponsorship fullled the
prophecies of a NE in SI. This fulllment was only partial and therefore
this period experienced only an inaugurated eschatology. The pronounce-
ment of the WOL by SI, a NE of cosmic proportions, manifested itself in
history as the restoration of a relatively small number of exiles to their
homeland in Jerusalem through the decree of a pagan ruler. Ezra 1:1–4
clearly demonstrates that the writer of Ezra considered the decree of
Cyrus to be a fulllment of the prophecies of SI. Whereas some scholars
contend that SI’s prophecies failed to materialize, the witness of Ezra–
Nehemiah testies that these prophecies were fullled in part and that the
post-exilic community knew that the consummation of the prophetic
vision was yet to come. Goldingay and Payne believe that this dual
aspect of the prophecy led to its preservation as part of Israel’s canonical
literature: “The fact that their vision was partly fullled provided
grounds for holding onto it. The fact that it was not wholly fullled also
provided reasons for holding onto it.”54 That is, Israel’s prophetic books
are inherently historical and eschatological, and the texts that met both
criteria were preserved.
PeterAckroyd recognizes that Ezra 1 deliberately alludes to the exodus.
Since, however, the actual return from Babylon was small in scale,
Ackroyd concludes that Ezra 1:1–4 must be a pious aggrandizement of
the actual facts.55 I nd myself in agreement with Ackroyd that the return
was relatively small in scale,56 yet nevertheless I believe this unim-
pressive return fullled the word of the prophets according to Israel’s
canonical testimony. Perhaps the difference in ideological/theological
Nehemiah (). He wonders, “Is the name a reection of the program represented
in Second Isaiah, or does Second Isaiah play on the name for programmatic
reasons?” K. Baltzer, “Liberation from Debt Slavery,” 484 n. 27. The evidence
seems to suggest the former to be the case.
55. Peter R. Ackroyd, Exile and Restoration (OTL; Philadelphia: Westminster,
1968), 144–45 n. 29. Smith (Religion of the Landless) also holds this view based on
his application of sociological models of forced migration.
56. Ezra–Nehemiah reports that the whole assembly numbered 42,360 (Ezra
2:64; Neh 7:66). Albertz (Israel in Exile, 127–28) estimates that no more than ten
thousand returned between 538 and 520.
1
perspective regarding the same historical events lies in the interpreter’s

faith orientation. Williamson recognizes that this Second Exodus ought
to be understood typologically. Concerning Ezra’s portrayal of this NE,
he writes:
There may have been a temptation to play down what had happened, and
from a historical point of view it was probably a slow, drawn-out process.
Yet typology opens the eye of faith to the hand of God behind the histori-
cal process, inviting an appreciation of his action in bringing his people
to a point of rebirth no less wonderful than that which had been accom-
plished in the deliverance of Israel from the slavery of Egypt.57
When viewed as canonical literature, Ezra does not contain mythological

projections of a non-existent reality,58 but rather a theological perspective
on historical events. For the returnees following Cyrus’s decree, their
experience of traveling home, rebuilding the Temple, and reconstructing
the walls was a type of the nal exodus, the nal temple, and the nal
Jerusalem.
Exegesis of Isaiah 57:14–21

A linear reading of chs. 56–66 will obviously treat 57:14 prior to 62:10,
an exegetical decision contrary to most treatments of TI, which prioritize
chs. 60–62 over against the rest of chs. 56–66. While it is probable that
62:10–12 was written prior to 57:14–21, I will still treat the latter text
rst in this study. Even if the author of 57:14–21 possessed knowledge of
62:10–12, the nal redaction of TI provides little evidence to demon-
strate in what manner 57:14–21 reinterprets 62:10–12, if at all. As these
texts stand, they both undoubtedly draw from 40:3, but demonstrate little
dependence upon each other. Thus they are both to be read as a com-
mentary upon SI, and as part of the same prophetic book. Interpretations
that assert that 57:14–21 provided a realistic corrective to the idealism of
62:10–12 may historically be true, but the redaction at the level of the
prophetic book lacks such an understanding. As discussed in Chapter 2,
the focus of this study is on the scale of prophetic books, so these texts
57. Williamson, Ezra, Nehemiah, 20, emphasis added. See the discussion regard-
ing typology in Chapter 2. Blenkinsopp also observes a typological portrayal of
events by the author yet he believes typology to be incongruent with the literal, his-
torical meaning of the events. He recognizes an intentional canonical shaping to the
text but he believes this reading may not be compatible with the historical-critical
reconstruction of the events. See Blenkinsopp, Ezra–Nehemiah, 41–42.
1
58. See Smith, Religion of the Landless, 63–64.
will be read according to how they function once a complete version of

TI was added to SI.
Commentators are unanimous in distinguishing 57:14–21 as a distinct
pericope within chs. 56–66. Several scholars consider this text to be of a
composite nature because they follow the redactional proposal of Wester-
mann and rule out the possibility that oracles of salvation and judgment
could have originated from the same hand.59 These interpretations assume
the following religious development in Yehud from exilic to post-exilic
period: the unconditional message of salvation by Second Isaiah a
prophet deemed “Third Isaiah” who revives the message of SI a frac-
ture in the community between the pious and apostates. I have argued in
Chapter 3 that SI’s message was not unconditional and that opposition
existed within the community during the time of SI, so these criteria
ought not to be used to date texts that possess these elements to a later
period. This passage can be read as a unity and as the natural continu-
ation of 56:9–57:13.
In 57:14 the command to prepare a way () is repeated verbatim
from 40:3, and rather than mention a highway (
), the verbal form is
repeated,

, with no object. Instead of the idea of building or
heaping up, as most translations suggest (NRSV, NIV, NJPS: “Build up,
build up a highway!”), David Dorsey suggests that the verb connotes the
action of leveling by clearing away obstacles and stones by grading.60
Richard Schultz is likely correct to see in the double imperative an
imitation of in 40:1.61 Since 40:1–11 serves as a microcosm of
chs. 40–55,62 when the author of TI alludes to 40:3 he not only repeats
one verse but invokes the whole message of SI regarding the WOL.
N. Tidwell offers the reminder that “words do not have simply a lexical
value or ‘dictionary’ meaning; they have associations which are often
difcult to dene in dictionary terms and they have emotive value. They
have power not only to ‘refer’ but also to evoke.”63 Susan Niditch argues
that repetition serves to unify a literary work and to reiterate essential
messages or themes. She follows the argument by Foley that these for-
mulaic phrases function as a “metonymy” such that the formula, in this
59. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 330–31; Smith, Rhetoric and Redaction, 87–88.
Even though Smith accepts the notion of a core TI nucleus (in his case 60:1–63:6)
surrounded by redactional additions, he believes 57:14–21 to be a coherent and
carefully constructed whole. See Smith, Rhetoric and Redaction, 89–90.
60. Dorsey, Roads and Highways, 231.
61. Schultz, Search for Quotation, 274.
62. Melugin, Isaiah 40–55, 85.
1
63. Tidwell, “No Highway!,” 61.
case the command “prepare the way” (, 40:3; 57:14; 62:10), is a
signier of a rich tradition.64 Therefore the repetition of the phrase
“prepare the way” in TI calls to mind the whole prophecy of SI since this
theme functions as a root metaphor within chs. 40–52.
Whereas some commentators omit ' " (“and he said”) from 57:14
altogether,65 or else emend it to ' / (“and I said”),66 the MT is to be
maintained since this phrase plays a vital role within the text. The reuse
of ' " recalls the previous voices from within the heavenly council in
6:3 and 40:6 and indicates that the words to follow, like the prophecy of
SI, possess divine authority and efcacy. The reference to “my people”
in 57:14 and the introductory formula to follow, ,
indicate that a heavenly host is speaking on Yahweh’s behalf in 57:14
and beginning in 57:15b Yahweh directly speaks. More difcult to
determine is the audience of this address. Childs, following the proposal
by Klaus Koenen, believes the imperatives are addressed to the heavenly
host of ch. 40, and that therefore the “focus is completely theocentric and
God is at work in removing all obstacles that block his salvation.”67 This
interpretation refutes Zimmerli’s proposal that 57:14 is an exhortation
directed to the people. Jan Koole interprets the audience in 40:1–11 as
prophets and believes this same group of people is addressed here.68
Because of the introductory formula, “And he said” (' " , 57:14), I
agree with Koenen and Childs that the voice originates from the divine
council and that therefore the emphasis of this text is on Yahweh’s act of
salvation. Nevertheless, as in 40:3–4, an ethical response from the com-
munity is implied.69 The people, like Isaiah in ch. 6, are invited to listen
in on the conversation within the heavenly council. That is, as much as
this speech takes place within the divine council, it is by no means secret
deliberation. It is disclosed to the community so that they might respond
to Yahweh’s words of comfort and warning.
Although clear reference is made to 40:3, this verse is not repeated
verbatim. Signicant differences exist between the two texts. Whereas
the preparation for the way in 40:3–4 required the transformation of
uneven terrain, in 57:14 specic obstacles are blocking the establishment
64. Niditch, Oral World and Written World, 10–11.

65. Duhm, Das Buch Jesaja, 432.
66. Klaus Koenen, Ethik und Eschatologie im Tritojesjabuch (Neukirchen–
Vluyn: Neukirchener Verlag, 1990), 48. Koenen follows the Vulgate.
67. Childs, Isaiah, 470; Koenen, Ethik und Eschatologie, 54. Koenen concedes
TI reinterprets 40:3, but not in the manner suggested by Zimmerli.
1
69. See Chapter 3.
of this way. “Stumbling block” (

) appears only once within Isaiah
in 8:14 and there it refers to an obstacle or a trap: “He will become a
sanctuary, a stone one strikes against; for both houses of Israel he will
become a rock one stumbles over (
)—a trap and a snare for the
inhabitants of Jerusalem.” C. Barth goes to great lengths to refute any
notion of dening the word in categories of literal vs. metaphorical, or
according to a hierarchical scale differentiated by proper and improper
usages. He prefers to dene the word broadly as signifying “drastic
disaster on the way,” while suggesting that it has a “narrower” usage
(“disaster on the road”) and a “wider” usage (“disaster in life”).70 Inter-
estingly, Barth nds a similar lexical phenomenon occurring with the
root . Since Zimmerli characterized TI’s reinterpretation of SI’s
material as an “improper formulaic use,” one wonders if Zimmerli
employed the very naïve understanding of metaphor Barth criticizes.71
What, then, does the stumbling block in 57:14 refer to? Isaiah 57:3–13
describes how Israel, in the same manner of their ancestors in pre-exilic
times, continued to indulge in idolatrous practices. Isaiah 57:15 presup-
poses the sin of hubris among God’s people and 57:17 the sin of avarice.
Whybray is likely correct when he observes that the word
is “most
frequently used in the Old Testament not in the literal sense but, espe-
cially in Ezekiel, of sin (especially idolatry) or guilt leading to divine
punishment.”72 Within the larger context 57:14 can in many ways
reiterate the exhortation of Ezek 18:30, “Repent and turn back from your
transgressions; let them not be a stumbling block of guilt (
) for
you” (NJPS). Lena-Soa Tiemeyer observes that the root
is frequently
associated with idolatry (Ps 119:165; Ezek 3:20; 7:19; 14:4; 44:12; Jer
6:21), and in the case of Jer 18:15 it is also conjoined with the roots
and
: “But my people have forgotten me, they burn offerings to a

delusion; they have stumbled in their ways (
), in the
ancient roads, and have gone into bypaths, not the highway (

).”73 To stray from the “way” and “highway” can serve as a meta-
phor for the sin of idolatry.
The verbal form
occurs eleven times in Isaiah and on several
occasions it clearly describes Israel’s failures:
70. C. Barth, “
' 0" kšl,” TDOT 7:358.
71. See Chapter 2 for a discussion on literalism and metaphor.
72. Whybray, Isaiah 40–66, 209.
appears eight times in the book of
Ezekiel (3:20; 7:19; 14:3, 4, 7; 18:30; 21:20; 44:12), frequently as a synonym for
.
73. Lena-Soa Tiemeyer, “The Watchman Metaphor in Isaiah LVI–LXVI,” VT
55 (2005): 388–89.
1
For Jerusalem has stumbled (

)
and Judah has fallen,
because their speech and their deeds are against the LORD,
defying his glorious presence. (3:8)
Strengthen the weak hands,
and make rm the feeble (
) knees. (35:3)
Even youths will faint and be weary,
and the young will fall exhausted (

). (40:30)
We grope like the blind along a wall,
groping like those who have no eyes;
we stumble (
) at noon as in the twilight,
among the vigorous as though we were dead. (59:10)
To a people who are prone to stumble because they are feeble and weary,
Yahweh orders the removal of the obstacles that are the root of the prob-
lem. Based upon the larger context of Isaiah and the immediate context
of ch. 57,
refers to the sins of the people, particularly idolatry,
injustice, and pride, but also their inability to overcome their sin as
demonstrated in the above uses of
within Isaiah. In order to turn his
people from their iniquity and the backsliding of their hearts, Yahweh in
his anger chastised his people, removed his presence from them, and even
struck them (57:16–17). Although the language probably originates from
cultic lamentations,74 within the context of BI, these words are likely a
reference to the exile since echoes of 54:8 reverberate in 57:16–17:
In overowing wrath (1) for a moment
I hid ( ) my face from you… (54:8)
Because of their wicked covetousness I was angry ( );
I struck them, I hid ( ) and was angry (1)… (57:17)
For those who returned to Jerusalem following the exile, this verse
indicates that Yahweh continues to contend with his people in the same
manner that rst brought about the catastrophe. The idolatry described in
57:3–13 is of a form that rst brought on the exile, and it is these
practices which bar Yahweh from fully dwelling among his people.
Yet more than discipline is required to remedy the people’s problem;
they require revival. The spirit of men grow faint (1+
,
57:16), and their hearts are prone to backsliding (

,
57:17). It is no wonder, then, that Yahweh reveals himself as the one
who comes “to revive the spirit () of the humble, and to revive the
74. Cf. Pss 44:23–24; 74:1; 79:5; 85. Following the suggestion of Whybray,
Isaiah 40–66, 208, and Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 171.
1
heart (
) of the contrite” (57:15). God’s people are wounded and di-
sabled and therefore God declares, “But I will heal them; I will lead them
and repay them with comfort” (57:18). The mention of “comfort” ()
certainly invokes the message of SI in which this theme plays a major
role (40:1; 49:13; 51:3, 12, 19; 52:9; 54:11), most notably in its opening
lines:
(40:1). Through comfort and healing
Yahweh seeks once and for all to remedy the people’s proneness to sin,
and their helplessness and transience like grass (40:7). All of Yahweh’s
actions here collectively serve to bring about the promise of 6:10 that the
people would “understand with their hearts (
), and turn and be healed
()” (NIV). Koenen is rightly observes, “The demand to clear the way
for the people corresponds to the message in v. 15ff. that Yahweh will
revive, heal, and lead the suffering.”75 In other words, the “way of the
people” in v. 14 is rst and foremost the “way of the LORD” as it primar-
ily refers to Yahweh bringing redemption to his people.
Still, the change from the “way of the LORD” ( ) in 40:3 to the
“way of my people” ( ) in 57:14 is signicant. This alteration
does not signify that the way of TI is of a different sort, since 40:9–11
indicates that Yahweh will lead his people back to Zion along the way.
As mentioned earlier, functions as a metonymy invoking earlier
passages regarding the theme of the WOL. The change to “way of my
people” is rather one of theological and rhetorical emphasis. The very
denition of “my people” has both expanded and contracted since Isa
40:1. In SI, God’s people comprised all of Israel, including those of the
diaspora.76 TI broadens this denition such that the foreigner and eunuch
are now considered part of God’s people who may worship within a
house of prayer for all nations (56:1–8). At the same, time the demands
for entrance into the community of God’s people have become more
restrictive as well. Not any Jew or returnee, but only the righteous who
observes justice can worship at God’s holy mountain (56:1; 57:13) and
the wicked who practices idolatry will be cut off (57:13). As Koole
observes, “The ‘people’ comprises less and at the same time more than
the nation of Israel. This is not irrelevant to the question whether ‘the
way of my people’ refers only to the return from exile and diaspora, or to
the way of salvation leading to full fellowship with God.”77
Within chs. 56–59 appears a signicant number of times (10×),
and in each instance it possesses an ethical denition, as exemplied in
59:8: “The way () of peace they do not know, and there is no justice
75. Koenen, Ethik und Eschatologie, 54.

76. “Jacob” appears 23 times and “Abraham” twice in chs. 40–52.
1
77. Koole, Isaiah 56–66, 94.
in their paths. Their roads they have made crooked; no one who walks
(( )/ ) in them knows peace.” It is this denition (“course of one’s life”)
that is used in 57:17b–18a: “But he went on backsliding in the way
() of his own heart. I have seen his ways (), but I will heal
him” (RSV). In Isa 40–66, the verb occurs in 40:3; 45:22; 53:6;
56:11; 57:14; 62:10. In 53:6, the people’s problem is that, like sheep,
they go astray and they confess that each turns to his/her own way (

). This problem continues to plague the leaders of Israel in TI,
and in their drunken idolatry and greed they each persist in turning to
his/her own way (

, 56:11). Israel is not to “turn to its own
way”; rather, the way needs to be cleared of obstructions in the manner
announced in 57:14. Isaiah 40:3; 57:14, and 62:10 all contain the same
Piel imperative -2%' , “to prepare,” yet in 45:22 the verb occurs in the Qal
imperative -% , “to turn.” In this case, the turning is not to a way or high-
way, but to Yahweh himself, resulting in salvation: “Turn to me and be
saved (
), all the ends of the earth! For I am God, and there
is no other.” The “way” is to be understood as the manner in which the
salvation of Yahweh is received.
Viewed within their larger context, vv. 20–21 need not be considered
a later addition. Since Isa 57:14 already quoted 40:3, it is not surprising
to nd another quotation of SI, in this case a verbatim quotation of 48:22
in 57:21. Just as 48:22 was set in a context in which Yahweh exhorted
his people to live according to the ethical demands of his “way” (48:17),
so too 57:21 appears in a context that speaks of a moral response to the
way of God’s people. In both cases the wicked are granted no peace with
the understanding that they are excluded from Yahweh’s “way.”
The third major difference between 57:14 and 40:3 is that no longer is
there any mention of a desert, sea, or any mythical enemy as was present
in the WOL or NE passages in SI. Usually this change is ascribed to a
change in geographical location: TI is set in Yehud and therefore the
desert no longer poses the threat to God’s people that it did to an audi-
ence about to depart Babylon. In Chapter 3 I argued that the wilderness
primarily symbolizes the spiritual and physical state of Jerusalem and its
inhabitants. Its absence now need not imply that TI possesses a different
theology, but rather a different emphasis. The focus of chs. 56–59 is not
Yahweh’s mighty acts within history and beyond, as in chs. 40–55; these
chapters are concerned about the conduct of God’s people. As argued
above, the exhortation of 57:14 is not a command directed to the people
to repent. Instead, the verses to follow describe what Yahweh will do for
the people, rather than what the people must do for God. While repeating
the language of SI, 57:14–21 revives certain themes within SI but not
others. In this instance the ethical dimension of the WOL is elaborated
1
upon but the NE theme is ignored. This need not imply that the “way”
has been reinterpreted, but rather that the NE theme may already be
assumed as common knowledge to the author and his audience.
Certainly the theme of repentance is present in 57:14–21, yet it is
implied rather than directly commanded. What is to be the response of
God’s people to the way announced in 57:14? Isaiah 57:15 describes
Yahweh as high and lifted up ( ), which should naturally elicit
humility and contrition. These exact words, , describe Yahweh in
Isaiah’s vision in the temple (6:1). The reference to Yahweh’s name as
holy in 57:15 recalls the refrain, “Holy, holy, holy is the LORD of hosts;
the whole earth is full of his glory” (6:3). There is no need for the temple
to be mentioned in 57:15 to link the passage to Isa 6 since Yahweh’s
declaration that he inhabits eternity and dwells in the high and holy place
supersedes any earthly temple (cf. 66:1–2). In fact, in Isaiah’s vision the
earthly temple is so overshadowed by the exalted position of Yahweh’s
abode that it only contains the hem of his robe (6:1). By evoking images
of Isa 6 in 57:15, TI links the “way of the people” to the eternal dwelling
place of Yahweh. That is, the nal destination of the WOL is not an
earthly Jerusalem nor an earthly temple. Rather, the goal of this way is to
dwell in the midst of the Holy One of Israel.
Yet, for all the emphasis on Yahweh’s transcendence, S. Flynn is
correct to recognize that in chs. 56–57 the earthly temple is in view. In
contrast to idolatrous oppressors, Yahweh grants entry to his sacred
mount and house of prayer to the foreigner, the eunuch, the lowly, and
the contrite. Given that the sacred mount () is mentioned in
57:13, the “way” of 57:14 is clearly the road to this temple. The idola-
trous actions described in 57:3–13 are akin to those that brought on the
exile, and such practices now prevent Yahweh from fully dwelling
among his people in the restoration. These chapters then function to
uplift the marginalized and condemn the present leaders in the post-exilic
community. Flynn concludes:
In the context of Trito-Isaiah the road could lead to the temple and
conrm the access granted in Isaiah 56. Also the road can simultaneously
refer to the moral actions of those who are on their way to the temple and
of the community before they can build their temple. The point is that
both the literal and gurative readings can assume that an earthly temple
could be in the mind of the composer of 57,14–15 or in the mind of the
redactor who gave it its place in the text.78
78. S. W. Flynn, “Where is YHWH in Isaiah 57,14–15?,” Biblica 87 (2006):

368–69.
1
Flynn is correct to recognize that this way is physical and ethical. Yet I
would add that this way is also eschatological given the placement of
chs. 56–57 in BI.79 As argued above, by quoting 40:3 TI appropriates the
whole Wegtheologie of SI, which is eschatological in character. Flynn
correctly observes that the author of 57:14–15 had the earthly temple in
view. Yet the nal form of the prophetic book acknowledges the pro-
visional nature of the earthly temple and recognizes that the WOL is
ultimately eschatological since the imperative to prepare the way
reappears in 62:10–12 and there an eschatological city is clearly in view.
Childs observes, “The historical event of the end of exile serves for Third
Isaiah as only an instance of God’s mercy. However, true salvation is to
enter into the holy presence of God. It is the path to his holy mountain
offered only to those who take refuge in him.”80
Rather than viewing the way of 57:14 as having a nature different
from that of 40:3, the way in 57:14 is a more advanced stage towards
attaining the goal of the way announced earlier in SI. Isaiah 40:1–11
announced the Sovereign Lord coming in glory and power to dwell with
his people in Zion. In 57:14–21, Yahweh as the Holy One draws
extremely near, such that contrition and humility is required lest one be
cut off from his presence along with the wicked. This response to Yah-
weh’s coming is the same one announced by SI in 40:3–4. As described
in Chapter 3, the “mountains and hills” in 40:4 serve as symbols of
arrogance. Similarly, when 57:14 and 57:15 are read together one can
conclude that to prepare the way means to remove the stumbling block of
pride from one’s heart. Since the “way” never primarily referred to a
road from Babylon to Yehud for the exiles, any so-called “spiritualized”
depiction of the way in TI is consistent with that of SI.
Blenkinsopp observes that this course of life is “not just a way of life
in general but a way of life in conformity with prophetic example and
teaching and, in the context of Isa 40–66, the example and teaching of
the Servant-prophet of ch. 53.”81 To be contrite (, 57:15), one then
needs to embrace the example of the Servant who was crushed for our
iniquities ( , 53:5) and who Yahweh chose to crush (
, 53:10). Yet, in doing so there is the hope of being, like the
Servant, high, lifted up, and exalted ( , 52:13).
79. Zehnder (Wegmetaphorik, 470) acknowledges that this use of in 57:14
falls under his ethical semantic categories “life way” or “life change.” Nevertheless,
he recognizes that the use of in 40:3; 57:14; 62:10 ought to be grouped together
under Eschatologische Wunderstrasse texts.
1
Exegesis of Isaiah 62:10–12

Although 57:14 and 62:10 do not begin with the anonymous ' " , as
in 40:3, the connection between these texts is obvious given the exhor-
tation to prepare a way ( ) and clear a highway (

). As will be demonstrated below, 62:10–12 contains a “catena of
quotations from Second Isaiah,”82 as well as many connections with FI.
Steck has expanded on the proposal set forth by Vermeylen that 62:10–
12 was never intended to conclude chs. 60–62, but was later added as
part of the Heimkehrredaktion to the Großjesajabuch, which consisted of
1:1–62:12* in the Hellenistic period.83 He nds a stronger connection
between 62:10–12 and 11:11–16; 27:12–13; 35:8–10; 40:1–11 than the
preceding verses in ch. 62. Steck’s proposal has not received much
support, and most commentators continue to view chs. 60–62 as a unity,
with 62:10–12 the conclusion to this text.84 Smith criticizes Steck for
imposing a criterion of logical consistency and progression that cannot
be maintained even within his own reading of chs. 60–62, and for
seeking a precision in thought unknown to the poet himself. TI clearly is
comprised of poetry and therefore a level of uidity and multivalence in
imagery and thought should be expected. The absence of ' " and any
other indications of a divine council scene suggests that, though these
verses are an extension of the announcement of a way in ch. 40, in this
case the proclamation appears directed to the inhabitants of Zion rather
than to the heavenly host. That is, it is the people of Zion who are to
prepare the way so that those intending to inhabit the city may pass
through the gates. Those speaking are not the watchmen of v. 6. As
Zion’s protectors they announce the coming of Yahweh in vengeance in
63:1–6.85 Instead, it is the Servant-prophet of ch. 61 who in 62:10–12
announces both to Zion and to the ends of the earth the preparation
necessary for the advent of Yahweh and the repopulation of Zion by the
nations.
Isaiah 62:10–12 is difcult to interpret because it is unclear whether
aspects of the prophecy should be taken literally or guratively. Steck
points out that every instance of
in the Old Testament refers to death
by stoning except the two instances in Isaiah.86 Besides 62:10, this verb
82. Muilenburg, “Book of Isaiah,” 5:722.

83. Vermeylen, Du Prophète Isaïe, 2:489; Steck, Bereite Heimkehr, 60–64, and
“Jes 62, 10–12 als Abschluß eines Großjesajabuches,” 143–66.
84. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 378; Smith, Rhetoric and Redaction, 26–38;
Koenen, Ethik und Eschatologie, 136; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 241–42.
85. Seitz, “The Book of Isaiah 40–66,” 515.
1
86. Steck, “Jes 62, 10–12 als Abschluß eines Großjesajabuches,” 147.
appears in 5:2 in which it describes Yahweh’s cultivation of a vineyard:

“He dug it and cleared it of stones (
), and planted it with choice
vines.” Here the verb clearly refers to the removal of rocks from a
garden, but the poem as a whole describes Yahweh’s cultivation of
Israel’s moral and spiritual state. Within the imagery of the poem

refers to the removal of literal stones, especially since in 62:10 it is
coupled with rather than the more loosely dened
. In this
instance it appears that the verb simply refers to the clearing of stones,
and its denition within Isaiah is determined more by its Piel verbal form
rather than anything else. This “way” is to be the actual road followed by
the people to return to God’s presence.87
Zimmerli, on the basis of the identication of redeemed people with
Yahweh’s recompense and reward in vv. 11–12, believes TI diverges
from the message of SI. He writes:
Here too…the concrete discourse regarding Yahweh accompanying the
procession is spiritualized into discourse regarding the coming help. The
gurative language regarding the “reward” and “recompense” which he
has brought along…has been removed from the original complete image in
40.10 to become mere gurative expressions within the religious speech.88
However, if Yahweh’s “reward” ( ) and “recompense” (

) in
40:10 refers to those whom he leads as a ock in his march towards
Zion, then the “way” is not a “spiritualized” version of the way of 40:1–
11. It is the same way. The only difference between TI and SI in regard
to this way is one of perspective. Whereas in SI the people were
encouraged to embark on the journey along the way (48:20; 52:11), now
in 62:10–12 the prophet speaks from within Zion, the nal destination of
this trek. And while previously the exhortation was to “Go out from
Babylon, ee from Chaldea” or “Depart, depart, go out from there!”
(48:22), now the command is to “Go through, go through the gates”
(62:10). Even though this command may be understood as a command to
the inhabitants of Zion to leave the city so that they may facilitate travel
for pilgrims seeking entrance,89 every indication is that the command
refers to entrance into the city rather than exit out of it.
appears twelve times within BI, and never does it signify a means of
exit.90 In chs. 60–62, every indication is that the gates of Zion are the
87. Koole, Isaiah 56–66, 322.

88. Zimmerli, “Zur Sprache Tritojesajas,” 221–22 (trans. R. Schultz, The Search
for Quotation, 287).
89. Koole, Isaiah 56–66, 320–22.
90. Isa 14:31; 22:7; 24:12; 26:2; 28:6; 29:21; 38:10; 45:1; 54:12; 60:11, 18;
62:10.
1
entry point for the nations to come and dwell in Jerusalem: “Your gates
() shall always be open; day and night they shall not be shut, so
that nations shall bring you their wealth, with their kings led in proces-
sion” (60:11). Blenkinsopp writes, “The city gate has a religious signi-
cance as the point of entry for the procession that will end in the temple
(62:10), through which ‘the King of glory’ will pass (Psa 24:7–10).”91
If the nations are exhorted to enter into the city, who then are to
prepare the way? This command may be directed to travelers heading
toward Zion or even to the heavenly host. This proclamation is certainly
for the present inhabitants in Zion, yet this proclamation extends “to the
end of the earth” (
, 62:11). The wide scope of the procla-
mation is not unique since earlier SI commanded those eeing Babylon
to proclaim “The LORD has redeemed his servant Jacob!” to the end of
the earth ( , 48:20).
It has been widely observed by commentators that chs. 60–62 conrm
and expand upon previous Isaianic prophecy and biblical material
regarding the fate of Zion. Since the intertextual development between
these chapters, chs. 1–55, and the Zion psalms have been covered else-
where,92 only those passages that directly pertain to the theme of the
WOL will be addressed here. Earlier, Isa 40:5 announced that the revela-
tion of the glory of the LORD would be manifest for all esh to see, now
the reveals itself as light to attract all the nations to Zion (60:1,
3). Such an image recalls the exaltation of Mt. Zion in 2:2–5, in which
the nations stream into Zion to learn of God’s “ways” () and “paths”
() and to “walk in the light of the Lord” ( ). Later, the
Servant is endowed with the role as (42:6, 49:6), and the deliver-
ance offered to Israel in the NE is one in which Yahweh turns the “dark-
ness before them into light” (

, 42:16). In ch. 60, the
glory of God, manifested as light, will be seen within the inhabitants of
Zion (60:2) such that the nations will not only bring tribute but also
return the Israelites to Jerusalem (60:3–9). This is in fulllment of the
prophecy of SI:
91. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 214, emphasis added.

92. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 356–71; Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 60–61;
Willem A. M. Beuken, “Servant and Herald of Good Tidings: Isaiah 61 as an Inter-
pretation of Isaiah 40–55,” in Vermeylen, ed., The Book of Isaiah. Le Livre d’Isaïe,
411–42; Ronald E. Clements, “Arise, Shine; For Your Light has Come,” in Broyles
and Evans, eds., Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah, 441–54; Childs, Isaiah,
496–506; Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 207–31.
1
Do not fear, for I am with you;

I will bring your offspring from the east,
and from the west I will gather you;
I will say to the north, “Give them up,”
and to the south, “Do not withhold;
bring my sons from far away
and my daughters from the end of the earth. (Isa 43:5–6)
Lo, these shall come from far away,
and lo, these from the north and from the west,
and these from the land of Syene…
Lift up your eyes all around and see;
they all gather, they come to you…
…I will soon lift up my hand to the nations,
and raise my signal to the peoples;
and they shall bring your sons in their bosom,
and your daughters shall be carried on their shoulders. (Isa 49:12, 18, 22)
Isaiah 60:17–22 makes clear that this city is no earthly city since the
language becomes increasing hyperbolic. As Childs observes, “In vv.
19ff. a new dimension is reached in the eschatological portrayal of Zion
that enters into the realm of the apocalyptic. Zion is not puried and
restored, but takes on the features of the heavenly city.”93 Later this city
is revealed as the “new heavens and earth” (65:17–25) to which people
of all nations and tongues will come to see the glory of God (66:18–22).
In chs. 60–62 the goal or end of the WOL is revealed in greater detail.
The Zion of chs. 60–62 is then not merely the rebuilt Jerusalem follow-
ing the exile, but rather the new heavens and the new earth.
Although I do not accept Steck’s proposal that 62:10–12 is the result
of a Heimkehrredaktion to the Großjesajabuch, he is correct to highlight
the manner in which the theme of the way unies chs. 1–62. Steck
categorizes the following passages as “homecoming” texts: 11:11–16;
27:12–13; 35:8–10; 40:1–11; 62:10–12. Even though a “standard” ()
frequently served as a signal for warfare and judgment (5:26; 13:2; 31:9),
it also can announce victory, or represent a focal point (Num 21:8).94
Clearly the standard raised over the peoples in 62:10 is not of warfare
since its context in 62:10–12, and the context of its other uses in 11:12
and 49:22, contains no elements of such a motif. The signal clearly
announces the start of a great ingathering of the dispersed Jews, and in
some cases assisted by Gentiles:
93. Childs, Isaiah, 498–99.

1
94. E. A. Martens, “,” NIDOTTE 3:110–11.
He will raise a signal () for the nations,

and will assemble the outcasts of Israel,
and gather the dispersed of Judah
from the four corners of the earth. (11:12)
Thus says the Lord GOD:
I will soon lift up my hand to the nations,
and raise my signal () to the peoples;
and they shall bring your sons in their bosom,
and your daughters shall be carried on their shoulders. (49:22)
Go through, go through the gates,
prepare the way for the people;
build up, build up the highway (
),
clear it of stones,
lift up an ensign () over the peoples. (62:10)
Isaiah 11:11–16 possesses a NE theme since it speaks of Yahweh extend-

ing “his hand yet a second time to recover the remnant that is left of his
people” (11:11), a highway (
, 11:16), the conquest and crossing of
the sea of Egypt (11:15), and the rst exodus (11:16). Yet it is noteworthy
that this highway does not extend out of Egypt or Babylon, as in SI. The
return begins in Assyria and consists of a worldwide repatriation (11:11–
12, 16).
Because of its diaspora motif, this passage is usually dated to either
the time of Ezra or the Maccabees. Yet Geo Widengren points out that
the notion of the king as gatherer of dispersed peoples from the far
reaches of the earth was a common royal ideology of Mesopotamian
kings going back to the time of Hammurabi.95 Blenkinsopp observes that
within its immediate context the hymn of thanksgiving in 12:1–6 cele-
brates the NE (11:12–16) over the defeat of Assyria, but within the logic
of BI it gives thanks for the downfall of Babylon (ch. 13).96 In its present
position this hymn celebrates both an exodus from Assyria as well as
from Babylon. Since these motifs of a highway, a standard, the gathering
of the dispersed, and the NE resurface in 49:22 and 62:10, a typology of
exodus from Assyria, then from Babylon, and then from the ends of the
95. Geo Widengren, “Yahweh’s Gathering of the Dispersed,” in In the Shelter of

Elyon: Essays on Ancient Palestinian Life and Literature in Honour of G. W. Ahl-
ström (ed. W. B. Barrick, J. R. Spencer, and G. W. Ahlström; JSOTSup 31; Shef-
eld: JSOT, 1984), 325. Sweeney dates the passage to the time of Josiah; see Marvin
A. Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39 With an Introduction to Prophetic Literature (FOTL 16;
Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1996), 211.
Commentary (AB 19; New York: Doubleday, 2000), 270.
1
earth to the New Jerusalem is formed. That is, the initial NE and high-
way in Isaiah extends out of Assyria (11:16), and later provides escape
from Babylon (48:20; 49:22), while in 62:10 no earthly place or foe is
mentioned. Given that 60:17–22 already described the destination of the
way in eschatological terms, and since 62:10–12 serve as a conclusion
for chs. 60–62, “the signal now indicates the beginning of the great
eschatological procession to the city and the temple.”97 The commands
to enter through the gates and to build a highway are now clearly invi-
tations to enter into Yahweh’s eschatological city. SI earlier announced
that the deliverance from Babylon by Cyrus would initiate a worldwide
ingathering of the dispersed (43:5–6); TI is now envisioning its con-
summation.
The fact that 62:10–11 directly quote from 40:9–10 further supports
the idea that the “way” functions as a metonymy. Notably, ch. 62 draws
from not just one verse, but from several throughout the prologue. The
following chart demonstrates the verbal links between the two passages:
40:9–10 62:10–11
9
10
10 11 98
10

11

Based upon the similarities, the quotation of 40:9–10 by 62:11 is

undeniable and signies to the reader of BI that 40:9–11 nds its ful-
llment in 62:10–12. That is, the Jerusalem of 40:9 is not the earthly city
and the high mountain of 40:9 is not the physical Mt. Zion. The Jerusa-
lem of 40:9 ultimately points to the eschatological city described in
60:17–22; 65:17–25; and 66:18–22; and the “high mountain” () of
40:9 is the eschatological holy mountain of God (65:25; 66:20). Viewed
in this way, the “reward” and “recompense” may include the exiles
returning from Babylon, but in 62:11 they now represent the nations
streaming into Jerusalem bringing their wealth as well as diaspora Jews
with them. Isaiah 62:10–12, within the context of BI, can be understood
as fullling the enigmatic prophecy of 27:12–13:
97. Blenkinsopp, Isaiah 56–66, 242–43.

98. Rather than placing these two clauses in a parallel relationship, Steck
(Bereitete Heimkehr, 66) believes 40:10a, “See the Sovereign Lord comes with
power and his arm rules for him,” corresponds to 62:11a, “See the Lord has made
himself heard to the ends of the earth,” while 40:10a, “Say to the towns of Judah,
‘See here is your God!’ ” corresponds to 62:11a, “See your salvation comes.” I
choose to have 40:10a correspond with 62:11a because of the common verb ,
and because in each instance both phrases precede the exact same line, “his reward is
with him, and his recompense before him.”
1
On that day the LORD will thresh from the channel of the Euphrates to the
Wadi of Egypt, and you will be gathered one by one, O people of Israel.
And on that day a great trumpet will be blown, and those who were lost in
the land of Assyria and those who were driven out to the land of Egypt will
come and worship the LORD on the holy mountain ( ) at Jerusalem.
Although critical commentators speculate as to which diaspora the author

of this text referred to, Childs offers the following corrective: “Nor can
the fact of a Jewish diaspora provide any real historical specicity. The
hope of the nal return to Zion of all Israel, one by one, remains the
enduring goal of every Jew in every generation whose identity is still
shaped by the promise of scripture.”99 Ingathering of dispersed peoples is
an eschatological motif and therefore should not be subjected to the
criteria of social-scientic historiography, nor assumed to be a cipher
for Jewish political aspirations. The ingathering theme concludes the
so-called Isaiah Apocalypse of chs. 24–27, the eschatological vision of
chs. 60–62, and the last chapter of BI (66:18–22), and therefore ought to
be understood as representing an eschatological hope.
The shared motifs found within the WOL texts (primarily 40:3; 57:14;
62:10–12) are summarized in the eschatological psalm of 26:1–7. The
command to “open the gates” ( ) in 26:2 is essentially the
same exhortation of 62:10, “Go through, go through the gates” (
), and corresponds to the description of Jerusalem in 60:11,
“Your gates shall always be open” ( ). Clearly this is the
eschatological city, since not just any people, but only a righteous and
faithful nation, is allowed entrance (26:2). This idea is consistent with
the requirement of justice and righteousness for God’s servants, as well
as the inclusion of the foreigner among those who worship at the holy
mountain within TI. Yahweh’s action to humble the proud in 26:5 recalls
the prophecy in 2:11–12 of a day in which Yahweh of hosts will debase
the arrogant. As demonstrated in Chapter 3, a common phenomenon of a
theophany is the attening of hills and mountains, which function as
symbols of pride. In 57:15 it is Yahweh who alone is exalted, yet he
chooses to dwell among the lowly. The lexemes of “high” and “low”
function in an inverse relationship throughout BI depending upon
whether they describe God or humankind:
The haughty eyes of people shall be brought low (
),
and the pride () of everyone shall be humbled ();
and the LORD alone will be exalted ( ) in that day.
For the LORD of hosts has a day against all that is proud and lofty (),
against all that is lifted up ( ) and high (
). (2:11–12)
1
For he has brought low ()

the inhabitants of the height ();
the lofty ( ) city he lays low (
).
He lays it low (
) to the ground,
casts it to the dust. (26:5)
Every valley shall be lifted up,
and every mountain and hill be made low (
). (40:4a)
For thus says the high () and lofty one ( )
who inhabits eternity, whose name is Holy:
I dwell in the high () and holy place,
and also with those who are contrite and humble in spirit (
),
to revive the spirit of the humble (
),
and to revive the heart of the contrite. (57:15)
The humbling of the proud and the exaltation of the humble are then an
integral part of the WOL. The depiction of the righteous in 26:7, “The
way of the righteous is level; O Just One, you make smooth the path of
the righteous,” is not merely a general description of Israelite piety or
simply a Wisdom saying. This way and path are certainly ethical, requir-
ing deep humility. But this way is eschatological as well, since humility
provides access to the gates of Zion and entrance to the holy mountain
where the righteous can dwell with the exalted Yahweh. Only when
Israel and the nations invert the posture of their relationship to Yahweh
can they gain access to the Holy One of Israel.
Isaiah 62:12 concludes the description of the eschatological city in
chs. 60–62, brings a nale to the theme of the WOL within chs. 1–62,
and anticipates the New Heavens and Earth (chs. 65–66). The immediate
context (v. 10), as well as intertextual references (40:10), suggest that the
procession comprised of both Jews and Gentiles traveling to Zion. It is
this people who are redeemed, holy, sought out, and not forsaken. SI
acknowledges for a short time Israel was forsaken and abandoned as a
bride (49:14; cf. 54:6–7), all the while reminding her that Yahweh would
never truly forsake her (41:17; 42:16). TI announces an eschatological
reversal, so whereas Israel was forsaken in the past (60:15), now Zion
will be called “A City Not Forsaken” (62:12; cf. 62:4). Since within
62:10–12 one verse places an emphasis upon the coming of Yahweh
(v. 11) and another upon the coming of the people (v. 12), a sharp
distinction ought not to be made between the “way of the LORD” and the
“way of my people,” especially since 62:10–12 concludes the “way”
texts of chs. 1–62. In other words, the way of the LORD is the way of the
people.
1
Chapter 5
THE “WAY OF THE LORD” IN ISAIAH 34–35
Within Isaiah 1–39 the theme of the WOL is featured most prominently
in Isa 34–35. The present chapter will be devoted to the interpretation of
chs. 34–35 and how they relate to BI. I have chosen to treat chs. 34–35
after SI and TI because, as stated in Chapter 2, these texts are among the
latest additions to BI. Since this study approaches texts at the level of
how they function within prophetic books, the focus of this chapter will
be upon how chs. 34–35 contribute to the “way” theme within FI and BI
rather than examine the origins of every single “way” text in FI. Isaiah
34–35 serve a strategic role within BI as it both concludes the argument
of chs. 1–33 and introduces the latter half of the book. Therefore ch. 35
cannot be interpreted in isolation from FI or BI, and chs. 34–35 must be
interpreted as a unit since these two chapters are so closely interrelated.
In this chapter I will examine the relationship between ch. 34 and ch. 35,
how they both relate to Isa 1–33, and the manner in which chs. 34–35
anticipate the message of chs. 36–66. In doing so, I argue that the WOL
serves as a metaphor for the reversal of the judgment announced in
earlier in FI. These chapters play a vital role in highlighting the cultic
and eschatological elements of the WOL and help unify BI.
Chapters 34–35 as a Diptych

Certainly a full-scale evaluation of the various redactional schemes for
chs. 34–35 is beyond the scope of this study, yet a survey of the major
proposals is important in determining how these chapters relate to the
rest of BI. Before the role of Isa 34–35 within the book can be examined,
it must rst be determined whether they are even to be read in tandem.
Because of the apocalyptic character of these texts, Bernhard Duhm
considered them to be among the latest additions to BI. Soon scholars
began to observe the afnities between ch. 35 and SI, and argued that
1
ch. 35 was a displaced work of SI and that ch. 34 was post-exilic addi-
tion.1 Since the graphic destruction of Edom in ch. 34 did not match the
tone, vocabulary, and message of SI, by default it was relegated to a later
period.
Charles Torrey’s study challenged this hypothesis and initiated a
debate that led to a complete re-evaluation of the book as a whole.2 He
considered chs. 34–35 inseparable and believed that they serve as the
beginning of the prophecy of SI, a book that always existed in the form
of an independent work comprising of chs. 34–35 and 40–66 written in c.
400 B.C.E. Unlike SI, FI never circulated as a unied, independent work,
but was conjoined to SI in the third century. When chs. 1–33 were added
to SI, chs. 36–39 were inserted in between chs. 35 and 40 such that the
historical narratives would serve as a bridge for two blocks of material.
What is signicant in Torrey’s proposal is his emphasis upon the unity of
chs. 34 and 35, and his decision to assign them to SI, rather than TI. He
not only considered chs. 34 and 35 indivisible, but he observed a con-
sistent message in chs. 34–35 and 40–66.
In his intricate work, Bereitete Heimkehr,3 Odil Steck denies the unity
of chs. 34–35 and argues that ch. 35 was written as a redactional bridge
to ease the tensions between FI and SI. In contrast to Duhm and early
twentieth-century proposals, in Steck’s schema ch. 34 precedes ch. 35.
He includes ch. 34 (minus vv. 2–4) in the exilic redaction of FI and
assigns ch. 35 to the Persian period. By doing so he breaks from mid-
twentieth-century proposals that argue ch. 35 was the work of SI.4
According to Steck, the correspondence between these two chapters
results not from the same author, but the fact that the author/redactor of
ch. 35 drew upon the material in ch. 32–34 and ch. 40 when he inserted
the chapter. The large time gap between the insertion of these two chap-
ters results in many inconsistencies between the two texts. For example,
he observes that ch. 34 depicts the eternal desolation of creation and
ch. 35 describes its renewal. Thus the similarity and dissimilarity between
these two chapters reveals ch. 35’s redactional origins and purpose.
According to Steck, the conjoining of FI and SI resulted in tensions or
contradictions embedded within the nal form of the text. Chapter 33
speaks of Yahweh’s presence already in Zion, whereas 40:1–11 announce
1. H. Grätz, “Isaiah xxxiv and xxxv,” JQR 4 (1891): 1–8; A. T. Olmstead, “The
Earliest Book of Kings,” AJSL 31 (1915): 169–214; R. B. Y. Scott, “The Relation of
Isaiah, Chapter 35, to Deutero-Isaiah,” AJSL 52 (1935): 178–91.
2. Torrey, Second Isaiah.
3. Steck, Bereite Heimkehr.
4. Smart, History and Theology, and J. L. McKenzie, Second Isaiah (AB 20;
Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1968).
1
5. The “Way of the LORD” in Isaiah 34–35 133
his return to Jerusalem along with those in exile. Chapters 40–55 envi-
sion an eschatological salvation extending to all nations, whereas 34:2–4
speak of the nal destruction of foreign nations. Isaiah 33:24 describes a
guiltless people in Zion, whereas 40:1–2 proclaim forgiveness and an
end to judgment. Chapter 34 describes the devastation of the world’s
mountains, yet 40:1–11 proclaim the leveling of these mountains.
According to Steck ch. 35 and SI possess similarities because ch. 35 was
intended to bridge two xed texts, FI and SI, with each possessing quite
different theological perspectives. What becomes evident from Steck’s
argument is the importance of properly reading metaphors and inter-
textual links within BI since “the ‘little Apocalypse’ was not written for
its own sake, but for its function in the rest of the book.”5
Decisions regarding the composition of the BI frequently dictate how
scholars approach chs. 34–35. Torrey observes that interpretations which
separate ch. 34 from ch. 35 result from a prior decision to detach TI from
SI. This is exemplied in John Barton’s characterization of SI and TI as
distinct personalities, which in turn inuence him to assign ch. 34 to a
later date than ch. 35. He writes, “What is more, whereas Isaiah 35 is so
like Deutero-Isaiah that it could even be by him, Isaiah 34 seems to me
not like him at all, nor like Trito-Isaiah.”6 Redactions are postulated to
solve problems of literary dissonance. Yet if it can be demonstrated that
“Chs. 34 and 35 therefore form a coherent unit that juxtaposes the fate of
hostile powers with the ultimate salvation of Zion, a juxtaposition found
elsewhere in the book, especially in the last eleven chapters (e.g. 59:15b–
20; 62:1–63:6),”7 then the need to assign these chapters to different
redactions evaporates.
I believe chs. 34–35 are a unied work dating to the last stage of the
composition of BI. This view is based upon the literary connections
between ch. 34 and chs. 1; 13; 30; and 63; the links between ch. 35 and
FI, SI, and TI; and the cohesiveness between these two chapters. The
purpose of these chapters is not merely to offer a general conclusion to
the book (Vermelyen) or ease tensions between FI and SI (Steck); rather,
their purpose is to extend the prophecies of chs. 1–33 into chs. 36–66 and
beyond. By their placement within the nal form of BI, they serve as a
conclusion to the prophecies of Isaiah ben Amoz, prophecies understood
by the redactors to have found fulllment in the ministry of SI and TI.
Chapters 34–35 were written to conclude Isa 1–33 and in doing so
5. Vermeylen, Du Prophète Isaïe, 1:446.

6. John Barton, Isaiah 1–39 (OTG; Shefeld: Shefeld Academic, 1995), 94,
emphasis added.
1
project Isaiah’s vision into the rest of the book. These chapters, then, are
intended to serve as both a conclusion to chs. 1–33 as well as provide a
proleptic vision for chs. 36–66. Because of chs. 34–35, Isa 40–66 can be
viewed as the fulllment of the prophecies of Isaiah ben Amoz and
considered among the “new things” to pass (42:9; 43:19). Jeffrey Kuan,
who assigns these chapters to Isaiah ben Amoz, asks, “If indeed the
function of chs. 34–35 was to articulate in futuristic terms how YHWH
will deal with Israel’s enemies, with its implied sense of nality, would
not the chapters be more appropriately inserted at the end of the Isaianic
collection?”8 Yet, if these chapters concluded BI, then they might not be
closely identied with Isaiah ben Amoz. In their present position they are
read as the prophecies of the eighth-century prophet, stamping the second
half of the book with Isaianic authority since they introduce chs. 36–66.
Chapters 34–35, with their focus on the abiding and nal comfort-
ing and vindication of Zion, are related to the Hezekiah narratives that
immediately follow. Isaiah 36–39 then function as a “type’ that fore-
shadows God’s nal restoration of Zion and comforting of Jerusalem
spoken of in chapters 40–66.”9 This juxtaposition between a mythologi-
cal vision in chs. 34–35 and a historical interlude in chs. 36–39 provides
the impetus for reading SI as both historical and eschatological. Viewed
in this manner, the fulllment of chs. 34–35 may take place within his-
tory but need not be restricted to it.
Chapters 34–35 as a Conclusion to Isaiah 1–33

Chapter 34 displays a host of literary links to FI, as well as TI. C. A.
Evans develops William Brownlee’s thesis that BI was consciously
edited and arranged as a two-volume work consisting of chs. 1–33 (vol.
1) and 34–66 (vol. 2).10 This proposal is supported by the observation of
a three line gap between chs. 33 and 34 in the Great Isaiah Scroll. Marvin
Sweeney observes that “when the book of Isaiah is considered as a lit-
erary whole, there is no evidence that Duhm’s divisions of First, Second,
and Third Isaiah constitute the structure of the book.”11 According to
Sweeney, the structure of the book falls into two parts: chs. 1–33, which
anticipate the judgment of Jerusalem and a subsequent restoration with
8. Jeffrey K. Kuan, “The Authorship and Historical Background of Isaiah 35,”

Jian Dao (1996): 8.
9. Christopher R. Seitz, Isaiah 1–39 (IBC; Louisville, Ky.: John Knox, 1993),
236.
10. Craig A. Evans, “On the Unity and Parallel Structure of Isaiah,” VT 38
(1988): 129–47.
1
the establishment of Yahweh’s worldwide sovereignty, and chs. 34–66,

which focus on the realization of this prophecy. Viewed in this manner
these two volumes interpret each other and present a dialectic of “ruin
and future blessedness.”12
If BI possesses a bid structure, chs. 1–5, with their theme of ruin and
the restoration of Judah, nd their counterpart in chs. 34–35 and their
theme of paradise lost and regained. As Evans points out, both sections
begin with a call for the heavens and the earth to hear (, 1:2; 34:1),
the Lord threatens vengeance (, 1:24; 34:8; 35:4), and promises to
ransom (, 1:27; 35:10) Zion with unquenchable burning (/,
1:31; 34:10). In ch. 1 the LORD is weary of the blood (, 1:11; 34:6, 7)
and fat (
, 1:11; 34:6–7) of the bulls (, 1:11; 34:7), lambs, rams
(
, 1:11; 34:6), and goats ( , 1:11; 34:6) and in ch. 34 his sword
is lled with the blood and fat of rams, goats, and bulls such that the
mountains ow with blood (34:3) and the land is saturated with blood
and fat (34:6–7). Bert Dicou observes the connections between ch. 1 and
ch. 34 and concludes, “Chapter 34 can also be looked upon as a new
beginning. The message in the rst part of the book is the condemnation
of Israel. The chapters 34–35 give a picture of Israel’s restoration—and
its consequences for ‘the nations.’ ”13
Not only does ch. 34 share links with chs. 1–5, but it also recapitulates
the judgment against Babylon in ch. 13, though now it is directed toward
Edom. Jacques Vermeylen lists the following similarities between the
passages:14
Common Themes or Words Chapter 13 Chapter 34
preparation for combat 2–4 1
carnage of the nations 5–9, 14–16 2–3
cosmic upheaval 10–13 4–5a
taking of the city and the massacre of its 17–19 5b–8
inhabitants
country turned to desert 20 9–10
savage animals 21–22 11–15
divine sword 15 5–6
“from generation to generation” 20 10
“Day of YHWH”15 8 6
12. William H. Brownlee, The Meaning of the Qumran Scrolls for the Bible
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1964), 255.
13. Bert Dicou, “Literary Function and Literary History of Isaiah 34,” BN 58
(1991): 32.
14. Vermeylen, Du Prophète Isaïe, 1:440.
1
15. Observation by Sweeney, Isaiah 1–39, 443.
These connections between the two chapters represent a typological

relationship between Babylon and Edom. Given this typological relation-
ship and the verbal ties between chs. 13 and 34, when 34:16 exhorts,
“Seek and read from the book of the LORD,” this book refers to none
other than BI. Within FI, Assyria (ch. 10) is displaced by Babylon (chs.
13–14) as the arch-enemy of Israel. FI concludes with Babylon being
displaced by Edom in this role, a pattern that takes place again within
chs. 40–63.
Christopher Seitz observes the strong correlation between ch. 34 and
the Song of the Vineyard in 27:1–6, and concludes, “we have in chap-
ter 34 a fairly clear instance of inner-biblical exegesis, where a prior
text (27:1–6) is interpreted as being fullled in a new situation.”16 Like
chs. 24–27, ch. 34’s proclamation is cosmic in scope, involving the
nations (, 25:3, 7; 26:2; 34:1, 2), the earth (, twenty-nine times in
chs. 24–27; four times in ch. 34), and the world (
, 24:4; 26:9, 18;
27:6; 34:1). Whereas in 27:1 the sword () punishes Leviathan, in
34:5–7 it slaughters the people and beasts of Edom. In 27:4, thorns and
briers are set in opposition to Yahweh, and in 34:13 Edom’s fortresses
are overgrown with thorns, nettles, and briers. In 27:4, Yahweh threatens
to burn this overgrowth, and in 34:9 Edom’s streams are turned into
pitch, its soil into sulfur, and its land burning pitch. Whereas the song
ends with a promise of agricultural prosperity—“In days to come Jacob
shall strike root, Israel shall sprout and blossom (), and the face of
the world shall be covered with fruit” (27:6, NJPS)—ch. 34 ends with
Edom as a wilderness full of thorns, wild beasts, and shadowy creatures
(34:13–15). Seitz believes an intertextual reading of these texts suggests
“Edom is being depicted as representative of any nation that might
choose to violate God’s restored vineyard, over which God now stands
watch ‘night and day so that no one can harm it’ (27:3).”17 The promise
of 27:6 is fullled in 35:1–2 with the wilderness and dry land set to
rejoice and blossom (, 27:6; 35:1, 2). Just as the LORD promised to
water his vineyard at every moment (27:3), waters break forth in the
wilderness and streams ow in the desert (35:6, 7). This intertextual
reading between ch. 27 and chs. 34–35 once again supports the theory of
a unied composition for chs. 34–35.
Whereas commentators previously only noted the manner in which ch.
35 introduced the argument of SI, Steck observes how ch. 35 summarizes
themes present in FI. The homecoming for the dispersed and banished
16. Seitz, Isaiah 1–39, 238.

1
17. Ibid.
returning via a highway (

, 11:16) “on that day” ( , 11:10–
11; 34:8) rst appears in 11:10–16. In 11:15 exodus imagery is applied to
the Euphrates () with the result that it is broken into seven wadis
(
, 34:9; 35:6). Although nor
appear in 27:12–13, this
passage describes a situation similar to the one in 11:10–16. Here the
banished (, 11:12; 27:13) and the abandoned will be gleaned from
Egypt (11:11, 16; 27:13) and Assyria (11:11, 16; 27:13), and together
they will come and worship the LORD at Mt. Zion. Because of the simi-
larities in theme and their strategic placement within FI, Steck assigns
these homecoming passages to the same editorial strata as ch. 35. He
believes Isa 11:11–16 and 27:13 conclude three divisions of a prophetic
book where 11:11–16 complete 1:1–11:10, 27:13 concludes 13:1–27:12,
and ch. 35 brings to a close chs. 28–34. Steck nds it remarkable that the
author of ch. 35 utilized words and idioms from chs. 32–34 and ch. 40 to
compose ch. 35. He observes the following connections between chs.
34–35 and chs. 32–33:18
Commonalities Chapters 32–33 Chapters 34–35
Hasty heart 32:4
35:4

Wilderness, 32:15

35:1
fruitful eld/ 35:2

Carmel
Highway(s) 33:8
35:8

Passing by 33:8 34:10
35:8
LebanÎon, Sharon, 33:9

35:2

Carmel
Desert/Arabah 33:9 35:1
35:6
Rivers/streams 33:21 34:9

35:6

Yahweh’s 33:22 35:4
Deliverance
The Lame 33:23 35:6
Not only do lexical and thematic links exist between chs. 32–33 and
ch. 34, but also between chs. 32–33 and ch. 35. These connections may
indicate that chs. 34–35 are a unied composition written in conscious
dependence on chs. 32–33. Willem Beuken recognizes that “ch. 35
appears in a number of ways, terminology included, to bring closure to
1
18. Steck, Bereite Heimkehr, 24–26.
PI,”19 and interprets the mention of fools (

) in 35:8 as a reminder of
the “foolish” (
, 19:11) princes of Egypt who led Judah astray ( ,
19:13; 35:8) through political alliances (30:1–7; 31:1–3). Chapter 35
once again afrms that, “for those whose ultimate destination is Egypt,
the road to Zion is clearly the wrong road.”20 Whereas the people of
Israel in their stupidity (1:3) possessed a penchant for going astray, on
the highway to Zion such foolishness will be eliminated (35:8).
From Blindness and Deafness to Seeing and Hearing

Isaiah 6:9–10 provides a summary of anticipatory themes to be more
fully explored in FI and SI. As a call narrative, Isaiah’s commission to
cast judgment upon Israel by goading it into further spiritual indifference
encapsulates the challenge of Isaiah ben Amoz:
And he said, “Go and say to this people:
‘Keep listening (), but do not comprehend ();
keep looking (), but do not understand ().’
Make the mind (
) of this people dull,
and stop their ears,
and shut their eyes (),
so that they may not look () with their eyes (),
and listen () with their ears,
and comprehend () with their minds (
),
and turn and be healed.” (Isa 6:9–10)
Ronald Clements observes, “Clearly the imagery of blindness and

deafness in this context is intended metaphorically to describe the
situation of people who fail to sense the urgency and truth that lies in the
prophetic message.”21 This interpretation is clear from the fact that the
result of the blindness and deafness is the heart/mind’s inability to know,
repent, and be healed. Isaiah 29:10–12 describe how this judgment con-
tinues to blind Israel’s prophets and seers such that they are unable to
comprehend the book of the LORD:
For the LORD has poured out upon you
a spirit of deep sleep;
he has closed your eyes (), you prophets,
and covered your heads, you seers.
19. Beuken, Isaiah Chapters 28–39, 324.

20. Ibid.
21. Ronald E. Clements, “Patterns in the Prophetic Canon: Healing the Blind
and the Lame,” in Canon, Theology, and Old Testament Interpretation (ed. G. M.
Tucker, D. L. Petersen, and R. R. Wilson; Philadelphia: Fortress, 1988), 193.
1
The vision of all this has become for you like the words of a sealed docu-
ment. If it is given to one who knows () how to read, with the command,
“Read this,” they he says, “I cannot, for it is sealed.” And if it is given to
one who does not know () how to read, saying, “Read this,” then he
says, “I do not know () how to read.” (Isa 29:10–12, author’s translation)
Like the judgment of 6:9–10, the seers and prophets are placed in a no
win situation. If they know how to read, the book is sealed to them; and
if it is unsealed, it is given to others who do not know how to read. Yet
the oracle to follow proclaims a reversal of fortune. Isaiah 29:18
announces, “On that day () the deaf () shall hear () the
words of a scroll, and out of their gloom and darkness the eyes of the
blind () shall see ().” This blindness and darkness is not physical
but spiritual in nature. Isaiah announces that a future time will come
when the judgment of spiritual dullness will be removed.
As demonstrated by the table above, chs. 32–33 and 34–35 are linked
through shared vocabulary and images. Isaiah 32:3 connects the reversal
of blindness and deafness with the advent of the righteous king and
princes (32:1–2): “Then the eyes of those who have sight () will not
be closed,22 and the ears of those who have hearing () will listen.”
Gary Stansell observes that here the eyes and ears are opened to allow
for the people to see the king (33:17) and Zion (33:20). Isaiah 32:4 goes
on to describe how the advent of the king will also allow the hasty of
heart (
; cf. 35:4,

) to now understand () and know
(). This king will save (, 33:22) his people and therefore “sight
thus means salvation.”23
More important than determining whether the blindness and deafness
is literal or gurative in Isa 35 is to grasp properly how this theme func-
tions theologically within BI. Clements observes, “Isaiah’s commission
to render Israel blind and deaf have provided a convenient image with
which to describe Israel living under judgment. Only when the judgment
is past will the blindness and deafness come to an end.”24 Blindness and
22. Commentators have long observed that the MT reading “will not see,” the Qal
form of , cannot be correct given that v. 3b speaks of the ears now being able to
listen. Given that the Vulgate (caligabunt, “They will be dark”) and Symmachus
(BNBVSXRITPOUBJ, “they will be in darkness”) both support the reading (BDB:
“be smeared over, blinded”; HALOT: “be sealed tight, pasted together, blinded”).
BHS, HALOT, Wildberger, and Beuken all suggest reading either in the Qal
form "
* ! or the Hophal form
" *
" &! . Viewed in this manner the judgment of
6:10, “shut their eyes,” is reversed.
23. Gary Stansell, “Isaiah 28–33: Blest Be the Tie that Binds (Isaiah Together),”
in Melugin and Sweeney, eds., New Visions of Isaiah, 77.
1
24. Clements, “Patterns in the Prophetic Canon,” 194.
deafness function as theological markers within BI to indicate a dis-

pensation of judgment. Since 35:6 continues with a description of the
healing of the lame and mute, most commentators correctly interpret the
blindness and deafness in v. 5 as literal inrmities. Yet since ch. 35 was
intentionally written to conclude chs. 1–33, one cannot help read 35:5 in
light of 6:9–10; 29:18; and 33:23, which all equate sight and hearing
with knowing and understanding. What all these passages have in com-
mon is that sight and hearing signify the advent of Yahweh’s salvation
and the end of judgment. Isa 35:5 differs from the other passages in that
it elaborates on the description of the day of salvation: “The dawning of
the age of salvation will be a time when even the lame and the blind will
enjoy the fruits of full physical health.”25 Sight will be restored so that
they will be able to see the glory of the LORD (35:2) and come to know
him.
From No Roads to a Highway to Zion

This judgment of spiritual blindness is manifested later in the peoples’
request for their seers and prophets to speak falsehoods and delusions
intentionally (30:10). They want only to depart from the way () and
path (), that is, the knowledge of the Holy one of Israel (30:11). The
word pair and 26 clearly refers to ethical behaviour, as exempli-
ed in the following passages:
…“Come, let us go up to the mountain of the LORD,
to the house of the God of Jacob;
that he may teach us his ways ()
and that we may walk in his paths ( ).” (2:3)
The way () of the righteous is level;
O Just One, you make smooth the path of the righteous. (26:7)
Other Wisdom terminology is present, such as the reference to rebellious

and lying sons (, 30:9) who are unwilling to hear Yahweh’s instruc-
tion ( , 30:9) and instead trust in oppression and perverseness
(
, 30:12). Sweeney summarizes the net effect of this speech:
“Altogether, this language points to the people’s refusal to hear YHWH’s
word and thereby establishes the cause for YHWH’s decision to delay
deliverance.”27 Viewed in the scope of FI, the judgment of spiritual
dullness in Isaiah’s commission (6:9–10) continues to plague Israel as
25. Ibid., 198.

26. Isa 2:3; 3:12; 26:7–8; 30:11; 40:14; Mic 4:2; Pss 25:4; 27:11; 139:13; Job
22:15; Prov 2:8, 13, 20; 3:6; 4:14; 9:15; 12:28; 15:19.
1
demonstrated by the people’s request to be deceived (30:10) and depart

from the “way” of the Holy One of Israel (30:11).
Hope exists since ch. 30 contains both the genres of Prophetic
Judgment Speech and the Prophecy of Salvation (30:18–26). As much as
ch. 30 demonstrates the judgment of 6:9–10 is still valid, the passage
goes on to proclaim a future salvation in which this condemnation will
be revoked. Isaiah 30:20–21 announce a time in which their eyes will no
longer be shut so that they may see their teacher, and their ears opened so
that they may hear his instruction. Isaiah 30:20 has perplexed interpreters
since the LORD’s provision of “bread of adversity and water of afiction”
(

) seems misplaced within an oracle of salvation, and the
dual mention of “your Teacher” () may indicate the singular or
plural.28 Genre here ought to provide guidance in interpreting this
enigmatic phrase. Since this verse is part of an oracle of salvation, “the
promise of ‘the bread of adversity and the water of afiction’ (v. 20a)
does not constitute a punishment but describes, rather, God’s concern for
the vital needs of oppressed people.”29 Given that 130 is singular, the
better option is to translate as “your Teacher,” that is, Yahweh. Yet
even if the plural is correct, from the context it is clear that Yahweh is
speaking.31 Therefore the verse announces a future time in which the
blindness will be removed so that the people will be able to behold their
God (cf. 35:4; 40:9; 62:11).
The oracle also promises that their ears will be able to hear Yahweh’s
instruction, “This is the way (), walk in it” (30:21). Virtually all
commentators interpret this phrase as a moral exhortation in the Wisdom/
Torah tradition. Zehnder classies the use of as an implicit form of
Von Gott gebotener Lebenswandel.32 Yet may also be understood as
28. Fohrer solves this difculty by interpreting ' " as a preterit, “and he gave,”
but this goes against normal Biblical Hebrew grammar (see IBHS 32.1; BHRG 21.3).
BHS and Hans Wildberger (Isaiah 28–39 [trans. T. H. Trapp; CC; Minneapolis:
Fortress, 2002], 167) emend the text to read “bread without adversity and water
without afiction” (haplography of ) and Kaiser considers as and
as
glosses—yet this is not necessary. Neither is there need to read the clause as con-
cessive, “though the LORD give you” (RSV).
30. The verb 1 is a hapax legomenon. BDB translates it as “thrust into a
corner,” which Beuken follows with “shall not be pushed aside any more.” Virtually
all other commentators and HALOT translate the Niphal form as “hide oneself.”
31. 1QIsa reads , which requires to be interpreted as “teachers.” The
LXX similarly understood the plural to be in view.
32. Blenkinsopp interprets the verse in this manner and believes “way” here can
also refer to the specic teaching of a school of prophetic disciples. He observes that
in the Second Temple period great emphasis was placed on the teaching role of the
1
a reference to a journey, in both a physical and spiritual sense. Beuken

explains:
In a schematic and undetailed fashion we are confronted with the image
of a journey, a journey, moreover, which nds its roots in the will of
YHWH and not in Israel’s former stubbornness. The context invites us to
interpret this journey as a return to Zion… In the Scriptures, the concept
of “way” () encompasses both Israel’s salvation history from the
exodus out of Egypt to the entry into the land, and the lifestyle which
YHWH holds up to his people as a guarantee to happiness in the land. This
dual horizon of meaning is also present in v. 21.33
The way is the salvation-historical exodus which occurred in the past and
continues on in the present, leading to Zion. Out of Egypt this was a
literal trek through a desert, but once in the land this way became a
lifestyle. The “bread of adversity and water of afiction” (30:20) is
therefore an act of grace and the very means of survival (cf. 1 Kgs 22:27;
2 Chr 18:26) for this journey. Since the eyes of the people are xed on
the Teacher (30:20), he is portrayed as a shepherd guiding his ock on
the road. In this instance he leads from behind in the same manner
Yahweh is later portrayed: “For you shall not go out in haste, and you
shall not go in ight; for the LORD will go before you, and the God of
Israel will be your rear guard” (52:12; cf. 58:8). The language of turning
to the right or to the left (
, 30:21) carries a literal
meaning in the context of Israel’s encounter with Edom in their exodus
from Egypt (Num 20:17; Deut 2:27), as well as a metaphorical mean-
ing to convey strict obedience to Torah (Deut 5:32; 17:20; 28:14; Josh
1:7; 2 Kgs 22:2; 1 Macc 2:22). Isaiah 30:22 adds that obedience to the
WOL requires the removal of foreign gods and idols, as previously
mentioned in Josh 23:6–7: “Therefore be very steadfast to observe and
do all that is written in the book of the law of Moses, turning aside from
it neither to the right nor to the left (
), so that you may not be
mixed with these nations left here among you, or make mention of the
names of their gods, or swear by them, or serve them, or bow yourselves
down to them.” This imagery of Yahweh as a shepherd (v. 11) about to
embark on a journey (, v. 3), with the eyes of the people beholding
him (vv. 5, 9–10), reappears in 40:1–11. In addition, the removal of idols
serves as a dominant theme throughout chs. 40–48 and resurfaces in TI
as well.
prophet modeled after Moses, the proto-prophet. He believes this sense of the “way”
came into use in early Christianity (PEP K, Acts 9:2; 18:25–26 etc.), Blenkinsopp,
Isaiah 1–39, 421.
1
33. Beuken, Isaiah Chapters 28–39, 142, emphasis added.
Chapter 33 provides a description of the land of Israel prior to the

advent of Yahweh and its subsequent transformation. Isaiah 33:8 states
that “The highways (
) are deserted (), travelers () have quit
the road.” Although the reference to highways is not directly linked to
the salvation-historical way of 30:21 or the international thoroughfare
of 11:16 or 19:23, this does not mean that this verse is completely
unrelated. Beuken observes that the focus of v. 8 is not depopulation, but
rather broken lines of communication. He conceives that “it is possible
that the verse is implying that the city is no longer being visited (the
contrast of 2:2–5?).”34 With the highways desolate and travel halted,
none visit Zion, including Yahweh himself.
Eugene Merrill observes that the prophets view travel not solely
within the framework of an exodus motif but also in relation to pilgrim-
ages.35 This pilgrimage theme appears often in the Psalms, as exemplied
in Ps 84:6–7 (5–6): “Happy are those whose strength is in you, in whose
heart are the highways (
) to Zion. As they go through the valley of
Baca they make it a place of springs (, cf. 41:18); the early rain also
covers it with pools.” Here the highways are the pilgrimage routes and
the provision of water symbolizes the LORD’s blessing upon the journey.
Isaiah 33:8–9 describe a helpless situation. Pilgrimage is impossible and
the depressed “state of the earth reects the state of the human commu-
nity.”36 As travel ceases, so too does worship, which means the cessation
of instruction. In ch. 34 Edom too will experience a similar devastation,
one in which all travel (, 34:10) ceases, resulting in the desolation of
the land.
Chapter 35 announces that in the midst of the transformed desert lled
with water, streams, pools, and springs of water (vv. 6–7) will be a high-
way (

) called the “way of holiness” ( ) along which
pilgrims will travel (), unimpeded, to Zion (v. 8). Whereas 33:8
announced the end of all travel (), 35:8 proclaims that the holy will
be allowed safe passage (). The difcult phrase in 35:8, “it is for
those who walk on the way” (

), may be a reference to
the way in 30:21, “this is the way, walk in it” (
). If this is
so, as argued by Beuken, then the way announced in 35:8 is both ethical
and salvation-historical. The holy are literally to travel to Zion, but also
34. Ibid., 261.

35. Eugene H. Merrill, “Pilgrimage and Procession: Motifs of Israel’s Return,”
in Israel’s Apostasy and Restoration: Essays in Honor of Roland K. Harrison (ed.
Avraham Gilead; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker, 1988), 261–72.
36. Katherine M. Hayes, The Earth Mourns: Prophetic Metaphor and Oral
Aesthetic (Boston: Brill, 2002), 169.
1
are to live according to the word of the LORD proclaimed from Zion
(2:3). Just as the Israelites were called continually to keep from the “right
or to the left” on their journey to Canaan, as well as when they lived in
the land, so too the WOL signies both a journey and a lifestyle for
Israel within BI.
From a Wilderness to a Garden

In addition to the juxtaposed motifs of blindness/sight, deafness/hearing,
not understanding/knowing, we also nd the theme of desolation/restora-
tion. In ch. 1 Yahweh indicts Israel for its lack of knowledge—“But
Israel does not know (), my people do not understand ()” (1:3)—
and for this reason the land is desolate and burnt (1:7) and the people
likewise are reduced to a desert experience: “For you shall be like an oak
whose leaf withers, and like a garden without water” (1:30). In ch. 5
Yahweh makes clear that the people of Israel and Judah are his vineyard
(5:7), and yet, because of their inability to see Yahweh’s works (5:12)
and know him (5:13), he sends them into exile (5:13). The exilic experi-
ence is a state of desolation involving the overgrowth of briers and
thorns ( , 5:6), a lack of rain and water (5:6), and the onset of
hunger and thirst (5:13).
This motif of Israel as a parched wasteland overgrown with thorns is
later reversed within FI. Isaiah 27:1–6 has long been recognized as a
reversal of the judgment in 5:1–7. Yahweh declares that he will water his
vineyard (27:3) and burn briers and thorns ( , 27:4) so that Israel
will blossom and put forth shoots () and ll the whole world (
)
with fruit (27:6). John Watts observes that the reversal of judgment is not
simply a return to a replenished land. He writes, “He promises to plant
and cultivate his vineyard but there is no reference to the land. A return
to live in the land of Canaan is not included here. The omission is not an
oversight. Rather, they will ll the world’s surface (v. 6). Israel’s destiny,
still under God’s watchcare, has changed.”37 Whereas judgment involved
the destruction of the land of Israel and Judah, salvation involves the
renewal of all creation. In a passage aptly entitled “Perversion Reverted”
by Beuken,38 Yahweh announces the restoration of Lebanon: “Shall not
Lebanon in a very little while become a fruitful eld, and the fruitful
eld (

) be regarded as a forest?” (29:17). Beuken wonders
whether the verb “turn back” () in 29:17 ought to be taken in a literal
37. Watts, Isaiah 1–33, 350, original emphasis.

38. Willem A. M. Beuken, “Isa 29, 15–24: Perversion Reverted,” in The Scrip-
tures and the Scrolls (ed. F. García Martínez, A. Hilhorst, and C. J. Labuschagne;
VTSup 49; Leiden: Brill, 1992), 51–52.
1
or metaphorical manner. He observes that a number of Old Testament

texts build on the Mesopotamian and Canaanite mythologoumenon of an
endangered divine garden on Mt. Lebanon. In Israel, Jerusalem could be
conceived of as Lebanon and her inhabitants as trees, with Yahweh as
her owner (cf. Ezek 31). Beuken argues that this same mythological and
metaphorical notion appears in Isaiah, such that means both the
recovery of the ideal proto-creation and the recovery of a correct attitude
and behavior by the people. Both the land and the people of Israel are to
be restored into
.39
Chapters 32 and 33 are to be read in tandem since 33:17–24 culmi-
nates the initial announcement of a coming king in 32:1–5. Whereas the
land was previously an arid desert (33:9), because of Yahweh’s presence
the land will be a place of broad rivers and streams ( ,
33:21). The lame (), who are normally excluded from acquiring
booty (cf. Deut 15:21), are now given their share of the spoils (Isa 33:23;
cf. 35:6). The nal verse of Isa 33, “And no inhabitant will say, ‘I am
sick’; the people who live there will be forgiven ( ) their iniquity
()” (33:24), serves both a retrospective and prospective function. From
the outset of Isaiah’s vision, it is the people’s iniquity that has separated
Israel from Yahweh (1:4; 22:14; 26:21) as well as their uncleanness
(1:16). Isaiah the prophet confesses that his own lips are unclean (
+, 6:5), and that he lives amid an unclean people (+
, 6:5). K. Aitken observes that embedded within Isaiah’s call nar-
rative lies the solution to his problem, as well as that of his people. He
writes, “Just as Isaiah’s vision led to the atonement (, 6:7) of his
iniquity (, 6:7), so too Israel’s iniquity (, 33:24) will now be for-
given ( , 33:24).”40 Isaiah 33:24 also points forward to the pronounce-
ment of the forgiveness of sins in the prologue to SI: “Speak tenderly to
Jerusalem, and cry to her that her warfare is ended, that her iniquity ()
is pardoned, that she has received from the LORD’s hand double for all
her sins” (40:2).
Just as the healing of blindness and deafness signies that judgment
is replaced with salvation, similarly the transformation of the desert
represents the new dispensation of salvation. The judgment on Edom
recapitulates the judgment upon Israel in chs. 1 and 5, as well as the state
of the whole world prior to its recreation in ch. 27. Whereas the vineyard

40. K. T. Aitken, “Hearing and Seeing: Metamorphoses of a Motif in Isaiah
1–39,” in Among the Prophets: Language, Image and Structure in the Prophetic
Writings (ed. P. R. Davies and D. J. A. Clines; JSOTSup 144; Shefeld: Shefeld
Academic, 1993), 36.
1
representing the house of Israel is overrun with briers () and thorns
( ) (5:6; 27:4), so too is Edom under the judgment of Yahweh (34:13).
Prior to ch. 35 the land is in a state of mourning. No travel exists because
“the land mourns and languishes; Lebanon is confounded and withers
away; Sharon is like a desert (); and Bashan and Carmel (
)
shake off their leaves” (33:9). In ch. 35 travel to Zion is restored because
of the transformation of the land. The prophecy in 29:17 of a future
restoration of Lebanon—“Shall not Lebanon in a very little while
become a fruitful eld (
), and the fruitful eld (
) be regarded
as a forest?”—nds its fulllment in ch. 35. The land’s period of mourn-
ing is replaced by joy, singing, and gladness (35:1–2). The glorious
fruitfulness of Lebanon, once disgraced and withered, is now not only
restored but its glory extends to the wilderness, dry land, and desert
(, 35:1, 6). Likewise the majesty of Carmel is renewed not only in
Lebanon but also distributed throughout the wilderness (35:2). The trans-
formation of the wilderness, the extension of healing to the inrm, and
the highway re-established all demonstrate that the period of judgment is
over and salvation has come.
Isaiah 34–35 as a Reversal of Judgment

Frequently neglected in the discussion of the role of chs. 34–35 within
BI, is a close reading of the chapters themselves. Certainly it is beyond
the scope of this study to provide an exhaustive examination of all the
exegetical features of this text; thus, particular attention will be paid only
to the theme of the WOL. Claire Mathews and Peter Miscall are correct to
identify chs. 34–35 as a poetic vision.41 In poetry, greater attention is paid
to every textual detail, conventional rules of literality and chronology are
disabled, narrative is unnecessary, and images communicate. When read
as poetry, inconsistencies within the text need not require positing a
different literary source or editorial layer. Miscall describes how imagery
functions within BI:
Imagery is another ne illustration of the poet’s drive to be all-inclusive.
Isaiah does not offer just individual images, since he develops an image
by looking at its different aspects and relations to other images, by giving
many examples of it and by using an image or imagery in a variety of
settings and with a variety of themes so that it can have different and even
opposed meanings.42
41. Mathews, Defending Zion, 52–53; Miscall, Isaiah 34–35, 9–27.

1
42. Miscall, Isaiah 34–35, 42.
Imagery allows seemingly contradictory or unrelated passages to com-

municate different nuances of the same message. Miscall describes the
poetry of chs. 34–35 as “impressionistic since the poet proceeds by put-
ting together scenes and images that both complement and clash with
each other; his landscape is not deployed in a tight logical or narrative
mode.”43 This literary phenomenon can be seen in the texts containing
the themes of blindness, deafness, wilderness, and way/highway in FI. In
a number of passages, such as 29:17–18; 30:20–21; 33:8–9, 20–23, these
motifs are conated, as is the case with chs. 34–35.
Despite their differing redactional views, commentators are virtually
unanimously agreed that ch. 35 provides a reversal of the judgment in
ch. 34. Mathews believes chs. 34 and 35 function as a diptych because of
the contrast brought about through the common use of imagery, lan-
guage, literary technique, and the juxtaposition of judgment and salva-
tion themes found in prophetic literature. The following lexemes are
common to both chapters: (34:8; 35:4),
(34:9; 35:6),
(34:13; 35:7), (34:13; 35:7), (34:10; 35:8); / (34:12, 14,
15; 35:8, 9). H. Peels outlines the contrast between judgment in ch. 34
and salvation in ch. 35:44
Chapter 34 Chapter 35
Wrath/judgment (vv. 2–8) Joy/deliverance (vv. 1–4)
Fall of Nature (vv. 4, 9–15) Blossoming of nature (vv. 1, 7)
Sword upon Edom (vv. 5–6) Way to Zion (vv. 8–10)
Fall of the strong (v. 7) Restoration of the weak (vv. 3–6)
Water disappears (v. 9) Water appears (vv. 6–)
Thorns, nettles, thistles, jackals (v. 13) Reeds, papyrus, no jackals (v. 7)
Land unclean and dangerous Way without uncleanness and danger
(vv. 10–15) (vv. 8–9)
No travel through Edom (v. 10) Open travel to Zion (v. 8)
Enduring destruction (vv. 10, 17) Enduring joy (v. 10)
As Peels observes, a transformation takes place from life to death in ch.

34 and from death to life in ch. 35. In ch. 34 the world degenerates into a
wilderness overrun by hostile creatures, and in ch. 35 the world is trans-
formed into a garden suitable for the habitation of God’s redeemed
people. Given the sharp contrasts and strong connections between these
two chapters, Miscall entitles this text “A Nightmare/A Dream.”
43. Ibid., 86.

44. H. G. L. Peels, The Vengeance of God: The Meaning of the Root NQM and
the Function of the NQM-Texts in the Context of the Divine Revelation in the Old
Testament (OTS 31; Leiden: Brill, 1995), 149.
1
The question remains how 34:1–4, a passage directed at the nations,

relates to the following verses, which concentrate on Edom alone. Hans
Wildberger rightly rejects the interpretation that asserts that Edom serves
only to designate Israel’s enemies symbolically. Yet his proposal that vv.
1–4 solely function to provide a “rhetorical background for that which is
actually going to take place specically against Edom alone”45 does not
explain the wider role Edom plays within BI (cf. 63:1–6). Beuken astutely
observes, “The execution of judgment against Edom is not conceived
from the perspective of ethnic contrast (Israel verses Edom) but from the
theological perspective of the composition of the book as a whole.”46
Within BI, Edom is both symbolic and concrete. Just as Assyria (ch. 10),
Babylon (chs. 13–14), and other nations (chs. 14–23) experience the
wrath of Yahweh, so too will Edom. Yahweh’s judgment (+, v. 5)
and vengeance (, v. 8) upon Edom is displayed for the whole world
to witness (v. 1). His wrath and anger extend to it and it has already been
devoted to destruction (, v. 2). Edom then serves as an example to
the world of what will surely happen to them should they resist or
forsake the cause of Zion.
Just as it is improper to draw a stark contrast between Edom (34:5–17)
and the nations (34:1–4), it is also unjustiable to restrict the prophecy
of ch. 34 to Edom alone and ch. 35 to Israel alone. In both chapters
Yahweh’s motivation for his actions is the same: vengeance () for the
sake of Zion (
, 34:8; cf. 35:10). Peels believes the most natural
understanding of ,3! !
is to view ! in the construct state coupled
with the
preposition, “concerning the lawsuit of Zion.” Viewed in this
manner, “The description behind vs. 8 is that of God as Judge, who
concerns himself with injustice and takes up the case of helpless Zion.
The sword descending from (vs. 5f.) in this case is more the sword of the
judge or executioner rather than the sword of war.”47 It is for Zion’s
cause that Yahweh slaughters Edom in ch. 34 and it is for Zion’s cause
that he redeems Zion in ch. 35.
Only as one reads ch. 34 retrospectively after reading ch. 35 can the
day of vengeance ( , 34:8) and God’s coming in vengeance
(
, 35:4) be seen as two manifestations of the same .
Only through the means of Yahweh reversing the judgment upon Edom
within Zion can the redeemed experience salvation. When BI is read as a
book, the reader makes the inference that he/she presently exists in the
desolate state ascribed to Edom in ch. 34. As he/she reects upon the
45. Wildberger, Isaiah 28–39, 318.

46. Beuken, Isaiah Chapters 28–39, 285, emphasis added.
1
47. Peels, The Vengeance of God, 153.
larger context of BI, he/she realizes that the devastation of Edom describes
Jerusalem’s present existence set forth in the opening chapter of the
vision. Both ch. 1 and ch. 34 begin with a call for the heavens and the
earth to hear (, 1:2; 34:1), as well as references to the LORD threatens
vengeance ( 1:24; 34:8; 35:4), and promises to ransom (, 1:27;
35:10) Zion with unquenchable burning (/, 1:31; 34:10). In ch. 1
Yahweh is weary of the blood (, 1:11; 34:6, 7) and the fat (
, 1:11;
34:6, 7) of the bulls (, 11:11; 34:7), lambs, rams (
, 1:11; 34:6),
and goats ( , 1:11; 34:6), and in ch. 34 his sword is lled with the
blood and fat of rams, goats, and bulls such that the mountains ow with
blood (34:3) and the land is saturated with blood and fat (34:6, 7). Dicou
describes the effect of the literary connections: “The desert that will
blossom in ch. 35 is the desert that Israel’s land has become. Secondly,
the changes in the stricken land from ch. 34 reect the devastation of
Israel’s land. ‘The nations’ suffer the same fate as Israel.”48 Israel is not
allowed to gloat over the destruction of Edom in the same manner Edom
did when Jerusalem fell (cf. Ps 137:7). Instead, it needs Yahweh to
deliver them from a judgment similar to that which will befall Edom.
Nevertheless, Edom and Zion are distinct entities. That is, ch. 34 and ch.
35 are not the same vision. A narrative progression does take place
between the two texts in which Edom stands as an obstacle for the deliv-
erance of Zion. Peels writes, “The ‘way to Zion’ (Isa. 35:8ff.) is blocked
as long as the ‘sword over Edom’ (Isa. 34:5ff.) has not cleared the
impediments from the way.”49 In order from the redeemed to walk on
the highway to Zion, Yahweh must remove the obstacle Edom from the
path.
The “Way of the LORD” in Chapter 34

The reason most scholars date ch. 34 to a post-exilic era is simple: the
focus on Edom as the arch-enemy of Israel, as reiterated in 63:1–6,
would reect the historical situation that immediately followed the exile.
Obadiah, Jer 49:7–22; Ezek 25:12–17, and Ps 137:7 all record how the
Edomites assisted in, and gloated over, the destruction of their Israelite
neighbors. Chapter 34 poses chronological problems because the
eschatological judgment is announced rst to the nations (vv. 1–4) and
second to Edom (vv. 5–17). Mathews examines various form-critical
proposals and considers vv. 1–4 unclassiable as to form, and believes
the suggestion that a redactor added an Edomite emphasis to what was
48. Dicou, “Literary Function,” 36.

1
49. Peels, The Vengeance of God, 155.
originally a universalistic announcement of judgment is unwarranted.

She aptly observes “the question to be asked is not, ‘How can a judgment
against Edom follow a judgment of worldwide, even cosmic propor-
tions?’ but, ‘Why has this judgment against Edom been set in a broader
context, and why does it appear here?’”50 It is this question that will be
explored in conjunction with Yahweh’s reappearance as conqueror from
Edom in 63:1–6.
Rather than assume Edom’s purported taunts following the exile
provided the primary motivation for the judgment oracles against it in
chs. 34 and 63, Edom as a perpetual antagonist throughout Israel’s his-
tory may instead be the primary motivation for these pronouncements.
Unlike Obadiah, Jer 49:7–22; Ezek 25:12–17, and Ps 137:7, Isa 34 and
63 do not make any reference to the historical situation that followed the
destruction of Jerusalem. Instead, the ancient traditions that view Edom
as a brother and enemy throughout Israel’s history are appealed to.51 The
“March in the South” passages of Deut 33:2–3; Judg 5:4–5; Pss 68:8, 18,
and Hab 3:3–6 draw from a similar ancient Israelite tradition that speaks
of Yahweh marching through Sinai, Seir, Paran, and Teman. These texts
describe Yahweh leading an army of “holy ones” through the desert and
mountainous area of Edom, overturning nature and overthrowing nations
in the process.
Richard Clifford is quick to point out that this march begins and ends
in the south, not in Canaan.52 Numbers 20:14–21 recalls the historical
incidence when Edom refused to allow Israel to pass through Edom on
their march toward Canaan. The mention of the in Isa 35:1 may
simply be translated “dry land,” but it can also refer geographically to the
dry, desolate portion of the Jordan rift that extends from the southern end
of the Dead Sea to the Gulf of Aqaba. This runs parallel to the
Edom’s territory described in ch. 34. If this is the case, 34 envisions
Yahweh marching in military might through the South, and ch. 35
describes the transformation of a southern road that leads to Zion (vv. 8–
10). Given the return to Zion in chs. 35 and 62, Isaiah’s mention of a
march through Edom may evoke both the mythological traditions of
Yahweh’s march in the South and the wilderness traditions of Edom’s
refusal to allow Israel to march through the South on the way toward
Canaan. Therefore Edom in Isa 34 and 63 does not serve as a representa-
tive of all nations. What surfaces in chs. 34–35 is a vision of Yahweh’s
50. Mathews, Defending Zion, 53.

51. Edom as an ancient foe of Israel was discussed earlier, in Chapter 3.
1
52. Clifford, The Cosmic Mountain, 119.
march to Zion as a Divine Warrior, accompanied by a transformation

of the wilderness that follows a sequence: rst, nations, then Edom, and
nally Zion.53
In its present location in the book this ancient myth regarding Edom is
projected forward into the future as a necessary step in Yahweh’s plan to
redeem Zion. Edom’s abuse of Judeans eeing Jerusalem conrms the
ancient myth regarding Edom, and provides a historical reference point
from which to view the nal judgment of the nations. Cyrus comes onto
the scene of history marching in military might toward Zion (41:2–3,
25), yet lacks the ability to complete this march of Yahweh to Zion.
Therefore in ch. 63 Yahweh marches in vengeance again to consummate
the vision of ch. 34 and vindicate Zion. In the nal shape of BI the
message of the WOL (40:1–62:12) is bracketed on both ends with the
announcement of a march to/from Edom. BI itself reects the pattern of
desolation of Edom/exaltation of Zion found in chs. 34–35. Only
following Yahweh’s march from Edom in 63:1–6 does TI announce the
hope for a new heaven and new earth. The eschatological expectations
regarding the WOL are then tempered by the need for the divine warrior
to enact vengeance in order to bring this “way” about.
The “Way of the LORD” in Chapter 35

Since ch. 35 is not a historical narrative, but rather a poetic vision, the
wilderness mentioned in the poem need not be a reference to Judah’s
desolate topography in 701. Also, the threefold repetition of “there” ()
in vv. 8–9 signies that the highway is to be found within the trans-
formed wilderness. The poem conates the images of wilderness and
pilgrims with the net effect that the wilderness is the spiritual condition
of the inhabitants of Zion.54 Within the poem the people respond to Yah-
weh in the same manner as the topography. Just as the wilderness, dry
land, and desert will be glad ( ), rejoice, and sing (, vv. 1–2), so too
the mute sing for joy (, v. 6), and the ransomed of the LORD will
return to Zion with singing (), everlasting joy ( ), and gladness
(v. 10). As Mathews observes, it does strain the imagination to conceive
of a desert with vision, so the “they” who will see the glory of the LORD
in v. 2 most likely serves to link the metaphor of the wilderness to the
people themselves in v. 3. Zion then functions as a metaphor for both the
people as well as the goal of their hopes. In its current placement within
53. Mathews, Defending Zion, 118.

1
54. Ibid., 137.
BI, ch. 35 sets the expectation for the WOL to be both a transformation
of the people as well as a transformation of creation.
The revivication of the desert into a swamp, described in 35:6–7, is
portrayed as a recreative act. This creation theme rst appears in 34:11b
when Yahweh stretches a line of confusion ( ; cf. Gen 1:2) and
plummet of chaos (; cf. Gen 1:2) over Edom. As Beuken observes,
such language “implies that YHWH intends to return Edom to the state of
disorder and hostility which existed on earth prior to his creative
intervention.”55 Chapter 35 once again alludes to the Genesis creation
event by recalling the breaking forth of water from the ground. The
Niphal form of in 35:6 appears in the Old Testament in only three
other occasions, two of which refer to how the waters of the great deep
( ) broke forth (cf. Gen 7:11; Prov 3:20). Since Prov 3:20 describes
how the ancient waters broke forth at the time of creation (cf. Gen 2:6), it
appears ch. 35 announces another protological event. The creation motif
does not rule out the presence of an exodus tradition, since the reeds
() and rushes () mentioned in 35:7 are typically plants that grow in
the Nile delta. The reversal of judgment, the wilderness rejoicing, and the
desert rehydrated all function in a metaphorical manner to describe the
people’s return to Zion. The poetic images of chs. 34–35 function to
describe the removal of Israel’s arch-enemy Edom and the glorious
return to Zion as another act by which Yahweh takes that which is
“unformed and unlled” and makes it “good.”
What is the highway of 35:8? In the context of the vision, a road is
imagined that extends through the renewed wilderness leading to Zion.
This is a path set apart only for the redeemed to traverse. The unclean are
not allowed access and every traveler, once on the path, will never stray
from it again. The travelers are kept safe from hostile beasts and their
disposition is one of joy, gladness, and song. Any notion of sorrow has
dissipated. The image presented is one of pilgrimage, one in which the
inrm can now travel because the wasteland has been renewed and a
highway (

) makes travel to Zion possible. Although

is a
hapax legomenon, it almost certainly is another form of the more
common
, signifying a sacred procession since it is immediately
designated the “holy way” ( ).
Chapter 35 emphasizes that this road is for the people, the pilgrims,
and the travellers, whereas other passages in BI place the emphasis on
Yahweh’s passage (cf. 40:3). No preparation is required for the people;

55. Beuken, Isaiah Chapters 28–39, 301. and only appear together in
Gen 1:2 and Jer 4:23.
1
the highway will simply be “there.” The procession is holy because the
pilgrims are set apart in their religious and ethical behavior. The fact that
the unclean (+) are barred from the way indicates the procession’s
cultic holiness. The blind and the lame who were formerly excluded from
the cult because of their deformities (Lev 21:18) are now healed so that
they can enter into the presence of the glory of Yahweh. The enigmatic
phrase in 35:8, “it is for those who walk on the way” (

,
author’s translation),56 signies the strict requirements for travelers on
this road. Even though the primary motif is one of holy pilgrimage, the
mention of a holy way and those who walk on the way leading to Zion
(v. 8) recalls the formative image in FI of the international pilgrimage to
Zion in which Israel and the nations are called to walk in the ways of
Yahweh. In Isa 2:3 the people are committed to the ethical way of life
proclaimed from Zion (
, 2:3), communicated
through the Torah and the word of Yahweh. Whereas previously the
people departed from the “way” (30:11), now they will be dedicated to it
(cf. 30:21). If this is the same way of 30:21, then this way began in Egypt
and perpetually leads to Zion. One must literally travel on this way to
Jerusalem yet once there continually live according to the ways of
Yahweh.
The travelers’ holiness is dependent upon the redemptive work of
Yahweh. Only because Yahweh has come to save (, v. 4) and because
the pilgrims are redeemed (, v. 10) has the transformation of the
wilderness taken place. Immediately following the announcement of
Yahweh’s salvation (v. 4), the next two verses begin with “then” (,
vv. 5–6), signifying the conditional nature of the transformation. The
need for salvation in ch. 35 sets up an expectation for Yahweh rst to
bring salvation to his people before the holy procession can take place
in BI. That is, only after the “way of the LORD” has taken place is the
“way of the people” a possibility. BI follows this pattern rst with an
announcement of the “way of the LORD” in 40:3 and then with the “way
of my people” in 57:14 and 62:10.
56. This phrase has caused much difculty for translators. BHS proposes replac-
ing this phrase and the one to follow,

, with (
)

(“and the fool going on his way”). Yet the phrase

parallels

+ and forms a chiastic line, meaning that the BHS emendation is unnecessary.
Duhm, Wildberger, and RSV propose deleting

altogether. Alex-
ander, Motyer, NRSV, and NJPS believe the athnach functions to create an antithesis:
“The unclean will not pass over it but it shall be for them. No traveler, not even fools
shall go astray.” The best option is to keep the phrase and ignore the athnach. The
phrase emphasizes the exclusive nature of this road (cf. “But it shall be for them,”
NJPS).
1
Clearly, ch. 35 has been intentionally composed to correspond to SI,

as demonstrated by the common lexemes between 35:4 and 40:9–11:
/ (35:4; 40:9), (35:4; 40:10),
(35:4; 40:9),

(35:4; 40:9), (35:4; 40:10). The following table provides
a list of the common lexemes, phrases, or motifs between ch. 35 and chs.
40–55:57
Chapter 35 Chapters 40–55
Transformation of the Wilderness 41:17–20; 43:14–21; 44:1–5; 48:20–
(vv. 1–2, 6–7, 9) 21; 51:1–3; 55:12–13
Rejoicing of the Wilderness (v. 1) 42:11; 51:3; 52:9
The Glory of the LORD manifest (v. 2) 40:1–11
“Be strong! Do not fear!” (vv. 3–4) 41:10, 13; 43:1, 5; 44:2–5; 51:7; 54:4,
54:14
Healing of inrmities (vv. 5–6) 42:7, 16–19; 43:8; 44:18
The Holy Way (v. 8) 40:1–3, 11; 49:11; 51:1–3, 9–11
Yahweh come to save (v. 4) 43:3, 11–12; 45:8, 15–22; 49:25–26;
51:5
When read within the context of BI, the fearful of heart (

, 35:4)
are the inhabitants of Jerusalem and the cities of Judah to whom tender
words of comfort are spoken (

) in 40:2. The relation-
ship between the texts is one of prophecy and fulllment since in 35:4
God’s coming is still future, while in SI Yahweh’s return to Zion (40:9–
11) is a present reality. Isaiah 40:8 reassures God’s people that the bless-
ings of ch. 35 will come to pass despite the inertness of the people
(vv. 6–8) because the “word of our God is always fullled!” (NJPS).
Commentators have observed that the “way” of ch. 35 differs from
that of both FI and SI. Unlike FI, the “way” of ch. 35 is not an inter-
national thoroughfare, as in 11:16; 19:23; 27:13; and it differs from SI in
that it lacks the Exodus motif prevalent throughout SI. Yet, even so, by
virtue of its placement within the book ch. 35, it culminates the “way”
motif in FI. This is evident due to its close relationship to 30:21, a
passage that contains the salvation-historical exodus motif. The con-
nection between ch. 35 and chs. 40–66 is not the exodus motif, but the
shared eschatological expectations and the commitment to cultic and
moral purity.
57. The following connections are listed in Scott, “The Relation of Isaiah,
Chapter 35,” 178–91, and Mathews, Defending Zion, 120–56. In addition to com-
mon themes, Scott lists common vocabulary, word-forms, style, and usage between
the two texts.
1
When read in the context of a prophetic book, Isa 51 creates an

intertextual connection to ch. 35. Isaiah 51:3 and 35:1–2 both describe
how the and break forth in song and rejoicing because they
are transformed into a lush garden in the presence of Yahweh. The fact
that the compound expression occurs only once outside these
two chapters (22:13; in addition to 35:10; 51:3; 51:11) demonstrates the
likelihood of a literary dependence between the texts. Isaiah 35:10 is
virtually a verbatim quote of 51:11. Yet when read within the natural
ow of BI, 51:11 conrms that the WOL in 40:1–51:11 is the eschato-
logical via sacra of ch. 35. The exilic generation can be considered
among the redeemed of the LORD ( , 35:10; 51:11;
, 35:9;
51:10) who travel along the way (, 35:8; 51:9) to Zion. The estab-
lishment of the way implies an eschatological nale with the description
of everlasting joy and the disappearance of sorrow and sighing.
Chapter 35 also creates the anticipation for the “way” to be portrayed
as a cultic processional in SI. Isaiah 35 identies the highway as a via
sacra ( , 35:8) requiring holiness of its travelers, and along
the same lines 52:1 emphasizes that purity is a prerequisite for the
inhabitants of the holy city ( ). In the context of BI, the holy city
Zion of ch. 52 is the destination of the holy way of ch. 35 that was
inaugurated with the proclamation in 40:1–11. Just as the unclean (+,
35:8) are barred from the holy way, so too the uncircumcised and the
unclean (+
, 52:1) are refused entry into the holy city. The inser-
tion of ch. 35 strengthens the cultic motif of the “way” in a manner
consistent with not only SI, but also TI. Eschatology, ethics, and cult do
not conict with each other in BI, but rather they complement one
another.
As discussed in Chapter 4, Isa 60–62 describe the “way” from the per-
spective of the inhabitants of Zion who experience it at as a completed
reality. Because these chapters provide a view of the “way” from this
perspective, they display similarity and dissimilarity with ch. 35. Isaiah
35:2 describes a future time in which the will be given the glory of
Lebanon (
) and the majesty of Carmel and Sharon. This glory
of Lebanon can certainly be viewed as synonymous with the glory of the
LORD because of the parallel expressions in 35:2:
The glory () of Lebanon the majesty () of Carmel and Sharon.
The glory () of the LORD the majesty () of our God.
The glory of Lebanon will be given to the , resulting in the

manifestation of the glory and majesty of God. Mention of the glory of
Lebanon occurs again in 60:13, yet clearly here it refers to the tribute of
1
lumber dedicated to the beautication of the sanctuary. Like 35:2, this

glory is a means to magnify the glory of Yahweh, since 60:13 testies, “I
will glorify () where my feet rest.” Isaiah 60:13, then, provides
more detail about how the glory of Lebanon will lead to the glory of the
LORD. In the glory of a rebuilt Zion, Yahweh will be gloried.
As discussed in Chapters 3 and 4, the WOL within BI serves as a trope
for humbling the proud and exalting the lowly. Within BI, Zion has been
humiliated and forsaken, yet by chs. 60–62 it is redeemed, restored, and
once again exalted among the nations. In accordance with the pattern of
the WOL in BI, this “high” point for Zion serves as a “low” point for its
oppressors. In BI, the fate of the proud and haughty is to be brought low
(, 2:9, 11, 17; 5:15; 25:12; 26:5) and the nations are to prostrate (,
27:13; 45:14; 49:7, 23; 66:23) themselves before Yahweh in Zion. This
phenomenon of the WOL comes to a climax in 60:14: “The descendants
of those who oppressed you shall come bending low () to you, and
all who despised you shall bow down () at your feet; they shall call
you the City of the LORD, the Zion of the Holy One of Israel.”
When Isaiah is read as a book, the “way” of ch. 35 nds its fulllment
in the “way” of ch. 62. The holy procession leads to a rebuilt Zion that is
exalted among the nations. As indicated above, this Zion is the New
Jerusalem, the New Heavens, and New Earth, and therefore the promise
that “sorrow and sighing shall ee away” (35:8; 51:11) is fullled in the
establishment of a city in which “no more shall the sound of weeping be
heard in it, or the cry of distress” (65:19).
Summary and Conclusion

Since the WOL involves both chs. 34 and 35, it entails both judgment
and salvation. Within FI Edom culminates the judgment of Yahweh on
the nations following BI’s pattern of rst the Assyrians, then the Baby-
lonians, and nally the Edomites as the arch-enemy of God. Yet Israel
identies itself with the destruction of Edom since in ch. 1 Jerusalem is
described in the same language as the desolation of Edom in ch. 34. To
this city, Isaiah ben Amoz announces that the people of God undergo a
wilderness experience in the form of exile. A desolate desert overgrown
with thorns and briers serves as a symbol to describe the spiritual state of
the people of God in exile as well as the judgment that is to befall
Israel’s enemies.
The “way” or “highway” within FI functions as a root metaphor to
signify the reversal of this judgment. Included in this “way” is the offer
of sight to the blind, hearing to the deaf, and understanding to the dumb.
Whereas previously no roads existed and travel ceased because the land
1
had become a wilderness, ch. 35 signals the end of this era of judgment
due to the creation of a highway. Whereas before the landscape had
become parched and overrun with thorns and briers, now this “way”
overows with water, resulting in the growth of lush vegetation and
forests. The “way” transforms Israel into persons who will rejoice and
sing for joy because they have been redeemed by Yahweh (35:1, 10).
This transformation involves the recreation of the earth and therefore the
vision of chs. 34–35 is to be understood eschatologically.
The “way” in FI is not merely symbolic, it also refers to the actual
pilgrimage to Zion and the reinstitution of cultic worship in Jerusalem.
Throughout FI the language of “way” is used to signify moral instruction
in the Wisdom/Torah tradition. Therefore the “way” signies obedience
to Torah, the rejection of idolatry, and proper cultic observance. This
“way of holiness” (35:8) is only possible through the redemptive act of
Yahweh who takes a sinful and unclean people and redeems them such
that they can once again return to Jerusalem to worship properly. Those
who were previously excluded from cultic worship—the blind, lame,
deaf, and dumb—are healed so that they too can embark on this journey.
This “way” will take place in a new exodus, an ingathering of God’s
people dispersed among the four corners of the earth. Depicted in this
manner, the WOL summarizes the eschatological vision of FI in which
people from the ends of the earth (11:10–16; 19:23–25; 27:12–13)
stream to Zion in order to learn and live according to the instruction of
Yahweh (2:2–5).
Chapter 34 announces that Yahweh will once again reveal himself in a
theophany as the divine warrior. Edom then serves as a reference to the
origin of Yahweh’s mythical “March in the South” in which he travels
through the toward Zion and in so doing overturns nature and
tramples nations. Within the argument of BI, this prophecy of the coming
of Yahweh as the divine warrior is fullled in chs. 40–66. Cyrus to a
degree fullls this “way” by trampling nations in his conquests. However,
due to Israel’s inability to respond faithfully to the word of the LORD, the
fulllment of the WOL requires Yahweh to march out in vengeance from
Edom in ch. 63. Only through the actions of Yahweh as the divine
warrior will the WOL be fullled.
1
Chapter 6
THE “WAY OF THE LORD” IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
As noted in the introductory chapter, in the past several decades numer-

ous New Testament scholars have given serious attention to the signi-
cance of the motif of the WOL or the “Isaianic/Isaiah’s New Exodus”
(INE) in the New Testament. Because of the widespread inuence of the
Isaiah upon Second Temple Judaism and the Early Church,1 for a full
appreciation of BI it is incumbent to engage both Old Testament and
New Testament scholarship on this matter, particularly for those who
consider both testaments as Christian Scripture.2 Whereas New Testa-
ment scholars have employed the work of Old Testament scholars, few
Old Testament scholars have ventured beyond the Old Testament and
engaged New Testament interpretations of Isaiah.3 Given that Old Testa-
ment scholars appeal to New Testament understandings of Isaiah within
their own writings,4 not only will New Testament scholars benet from
1. Broyles and Evans, eds., Writing and Reading the Scroll of Isaiah; Steve
Moyise and Maarten J. J. Menken, eds., Isaiah in the New Testament (The New
Testament and the Scriptures of Israel; London: T&T Clark International, 2005);
Claire Mathews McGinnis and Patricia K. Tull, eds., “As Those Who Are Taught”:
The Interpretation of Isaiah from the LXX to the SBL (SBLSymS 27; Atlanta:
Society of Biblical Literature, 2006).
2. Brevard S. Childs (Biblical Theology of the Old and New Testaments: Theolo-
gical Reection on the Christian Bible [Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993], 85) recognizes
that when viewed as canon, it is not “adequate to understand interpretation as
moving only in the one direction of Old Testament to New.”
3. Exceptions to this would be John F. A. Sawyer, The Fifth Gospel: Isaiah in
the History of Christianity (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Brevard
S. Childs, The Struggle to Understand Isaiah as Christian Scripture (Grand Rapids,
Mich.: Eerdmans, 2004); Blenkinsopp, Opening the Sealed Book.
4. For example, Volz, Jesaia II, 217; Muilenburg, “Isaiah 40–66,” 5:671;
K. Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 63. All three of these scholars appeal to the New Testa-
ment in support of their interpretation of 40:3, yet they hold different interpretations
of the “way.”
1
6. The “Way of the LORD” in the New Testament 159
an informed reading of Isaiah, but Old Testament scholars will benet

from an informed reading of the New Testament use of Isaiah. This chap-
ter will focus on the manner in which New Testament authors read the
WOL motif in Isaiah. I will summarize the arguments of several studies
devoted to this topic, examine their exegesis of Isaiah, and critique their
interpretation of the “way” texts in BI.
Shorter Treatments of the “Way of the LORD”

and the Isaianic New Exodus
S. McCasland, writing in 1958, provides the rst sustained attempt to
determine the origins of the title of “the way,” used to describe the early
Christian movement in the book of Acts (9:2; 19:9, 23; 22:4; 24:14, 22).5
Others had linked this title to the prophetic announcement of a way in Isa
40:3 and Mal 3:1, and their fulllment in the ministry of John the Baptist
and Jesus. But this view lacked supporting evidence. The discovery of
the Dead Sea Scrolls provided McCasland the means to gain a fuller
understanding of “the way.” He observed references to “the way” in the
following quote from the Community Rule:
When these things come to pass for the community in Israel, by these
regulations shall they be separated from the midst of the men of error to go
to the wilderness to prepare there the way of the LORD; as it is written, “In
the wilderness prepare the way of the LORD; make straight in the desert a
highway for our God.” This is the study of the law as he commanded
through Moses, to do all that has been revealed from time to time, and as
the prophets revealed by his Holy Spirit. (1QS VIII 13–16)6
In fulllment of Isa 40:3, the Qumran community envisions a time when

the righteous will separate themselves from those in error, go into the
wilderness, prepare there the “way of the LORD,” and observe Mosaic
Torah. In a similar manner, early Christians appealed to Isa 40:3, believ-
ing that they were preparing the “way of the LORD” in the wilderness.
They viewed their piety as the “way,” and shortened the title “Way of the
LORD” to simply “the Way.” Besides their different approaches to Torah,
1QS differs from the New Testament in that the former lacks the phrase,
“the voice of one crying.” McCasland believes this omission in 1QS
implies that the whole community is in the wilderness, whereas in the
Gospels the focus is on John the Baptizer. McCasland observes that
5. McCasland, “The Way,” 222–30.

6. McCasland cites the translation by Millar Burrows, The Dead Sea Scrolls
(New York, Viking, 1955), 382.
1
Acts 18:25 describes the ministry of Apollos, who only knew the bap-
tism of John, as one who was instructed in “the way of the LORD” (UI=O
PEP=O UPV LVSJPV). He believes Apollos’ understanding of the “way” was
in the manner of Qumran and that he required the instruction of Priscilla
and Aquila to grasp fully the Christian understanding of it.
Klyne Snodgrass traces the various streams of tradition emanating
from Isa 40:1–5 into Judaism and Christianity and concludes that these
groups share a midrashic interpretation of this text. He analyzes the trans-
lation and interpretation of Isa 40:1–5 in the LXX, the Targum, the Dead
Sea Scrolls, the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, Rabbinic literature, and
the Gospels of Mark and Luke. Based upon his examination of these
texts, Snodgrass nds a midrashic interpretation of Isa 40:1–5 common
among these writings. In regards to the Qumran community, Snodgrass
agrees with others that Isa 40:3 serves as a dening text for their whole
movement.7 Concerning this Jewish sect he writes, “It is clear in both
these texts that the Qumran community viewed their right living in the
wilderness as the means of preparation for the soon coming of God.”8
According to Snodgrass, the Synoptics similarly possess this ethical
interpretation of the WOL by emphasizing the theme of repentance,
especially the necessity of good works (cf. Matt 3:8–10; Luke 8–14). The
conation of Exod 23:20; Mal 3:1, and Isa 40:3 in Mark 1:2–3 results
from a common stream of tradition within Old Testament and pre-
Christian Judaism. Thus for Mark the “way” (PEP K) functions as an
important redactional motif to dene discipleship. Jesus not only teaches
the “way of God” (12:14) but his disciples “follow in the way” (10:52).
Snodgrass observes that the use of Isa 40:3–5 is much more subtle as
well as widespread in the Gospel of Luke. He cites the following texts as
owing at least part of their wording to Isa 40:3–5: Luke 1:17, 76–79;
2:30–31; 3:3–6; and 9:52. In addition, the use of “the consolation of
Israel” (QBSBLMITJO UPV ’*TSBIM, 2:25) and “other exhortations” (FUFSB
QBSBLBMXO, 3:18) may be derived from Isa 40:1–11 and its understand-
ing in Judaism. For Snodgrass, Luke’s quotation of Isa 40:4 in Luke 3:5
ought to be understood metaphorically as the humbling of the proud and
crooked men. Viewed in this manner, the preparations for Jesus’ way in
Luke 9:52 and 10:1 have in view the eschatological appearing of Jesus.
7. In addition to McCasland, “The Way,” Snodgrass cites Eero Repo, Der “Weg”
als Selbstbezeichnung des Urchristentums (Helsinki: Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia,
1964), in Klyne R. Snodgrass, “Streams of Tradition Emerging from Isaiah 40:1–5
and Their Adaptation in the New Testament,” JSNT 8 (1980): 28.
1
8. Snodgrass, “Streams of Tradition,” 30.
In summary, Snodgrass concludes that Isa 40:1–5 was cited in Jewish

and Christian texts for the following reasons:
1) it was a classic statement of the consolation that comes from God and
was understood specically in the context of God’s eschatological
comfort; 2) the focus on the preparation of the way gave specic focus to
the eschatological orientation by being interpreted of the return of the
exiles or by being understood specically of a group that viewed them-
selves eschatologically and expected their ethical behavior to prepare the
way of God’s coming.9
Mark Strauss, in his examination of the fulllment of prophecies

concerning the Davidic Messiah within Luke–Acts, surveys the signi-
cance of the theme of the INE. He believes Luke presents Jesus as the
eschatological deliverer who through his miracles and preaching defeats
the forces of sin and Satan, and leads God’s people in an eschatological
new exodus. This eschatological new exodus in reality is a new period of
salvation-history. Strauss follows the interpretation of Watts10 and
believes that the INE was never fullled in the return under Cyrus and
was subsequently postponed with the Servant replacing Cyrus as the true
agent of deliverance. He goes on to stress the Davidic identity of this
deliver based upon Jer 23:5–6 and Isa 11:11–16 and 55:3. He recognizes
that if Isaiah is read as a unity, the leader of this NE may be viewed as
the Davidic king. For Strauss, Isa 40–55’s emphasis is on the kingship of
Yahweh rather than on a messianic envoy, and Luke’s claim is that it is
Jesus who is enthroned following this exodus. Therefore the indirect
claim made is that Jesus is Yahweh.11 The quotation of Isa 40:3–5 in
Luke 3:4–6 indicates that the time of salvation commences with Jesus’
public ministry. Jesus’ approach to Jerusalem completes this exodus
(cf. 9:31), yet it continues in Acts as the disciples follow the “way” of
Jesus.
In a similar manner to Strauss, Carl Davis approaches the text of
Isa 40:3 and the theme of the WOL in relation to New Testament
Christology. Like Snodgrass, Davis provides a thorough examination of
how this text is understood within the LXX, Apocrypha and Pseudepi-
grapha, Qumran literature, Targums, and New Testament. Unlike Snod-
grass and Strauss, Davis provides a sustained interpretation of Isa 40:3
9. Ibid., 31.
10. Watts, “Consolation or Confrontation?,” 31–59.
11. Mark L. Strauss, The Davidic Messiah in Luke–Acts: The Promise and Its
Fulllment in Lukan Christology (JSNTSup 110; Shefeld: Shefeld Academic,
1995), 301.
1
within the context of the MT. In doing so he observes, “The basic issue is
whether these words point to a highway straight from Babylon, one
traversing the normal Babylonian roads to Jerusalem, or one unrelated to
Babylon.”12 He concludes that Isa 40:3–5 describes a theophany which
takes place at a future time when “God’s glory would appear at the head
of his people and lead them to victory over their enemies.”13 According
to the Gospels, the coming of Jesus is the theophanic presence of God in
a new exodus. This interpretation is supported by his belief that the
“sunrise” (BOBUPMI=) of Luke 1:78 refers to the eschatological visitation
of God in Isa 60:1–2. Davis concedes the possibility that Isa 40:3
referred to a Babylonian captivity, but believes that in the minds of New
Testament writers its ultimate fulllment lay in the ministry of Jesus.
This WOL continues on after Christ’s ascension since the conquest of
nations associated with this new exodus is fullled as Christianity
spreads to Jerusalem, Judea and Samaria, and to the ends of the earth
(cf. Acts 1:8).
Programmatic Treatments of the “Way of the LORD”

and the Isaianic New Exodus
The next four studies by Marcus, Watts, Pao, and Litwak differ from the
previous studies in that they do not merely address the WOL/INE theme
within the Gospels and Acts. Instead, they examine how these New
Testament books themselves are shaped by this motif. According to Joel
Marcus, the WOL is the locus classicus for the concept of the gospel and
functions as not only the double theme of Mark’s Gospel, but also as the
controlling paradigm for his view of life in the community. The function
of the quotation at the beginning of Mark’s Gospel signals to readers that
they cannot understand Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection without the
knowledge of Isaiah.14 Not only is Isa 40:3 linked to the prologue of
12. Carl Judson Davis, The Name and Way of the LORD: Old Testament Themes,
New Testament Christology (JSNTSup 129; Shefeld: Shefeld Academic, 1996),
63.
13. Ibid., 70. Davis connects the “way of the LORD” with the way of Cyrus (45:2,
13) and concludes, “The idea, then, according to the MT is that God will prepare
Cyrus’s way who in turn is preparing a way and leading Israel along this way.” Ibid.,
82. Unfortunately, Davis does not go one step further and relate this way of Cyrus
and the people to the eschatological “way of the LORD.”
14. Joel Marcus, “Mark and Isaiah,” in Fortunate the Eyes That See: Essays in
Honor of David Noel Freedman in Celebration of His Seventieth Birthday (ed. A. B.
Beck et al.; Grand Rapids, Mich.: Eerdmans, 1995), 450.
1
Mark’s Gospel, but Isa 40:9–10 as well. Marcus agrees with Guelich15
that the whole story of “the beginning of the gospel” is to be understood
against the backdrop of Isaian themes.16 Mauser is correct to recognize
that the mention of “the green grass” upon which the people sit at the
feeding of ve thousand signies the eschatological transformation of the
wilderness as part of the INE.17 Mark’s use of SI’s prophecy of an
eschatological manifestation in the wilderness appears against the
backdrop of Jewish hopes for an apocalyptic holy war that begins in the
Judean desert and climaxes in the liberation of Zion. In support of this
view, Marcus adopts Frank Cross’ reading of Isa 40:3–6 as the descrip-
tion of the Divine Warrior engaged in proto-apocalyptic cosmic battle.
Ultimately, the WOL represents “his CBTJMFB, his own extension of
kingly power.”18 The attening of mountains and raising of valleys is the
reaction of creation to the revelation of Yahweh’s glory. John the
Baptizer and Jesus are thus eschatological gures signifying the ful-
llment of eschatological events.
Whereas Snodgrass emphasizes the human response to the WOL,
Marcus prioritizes the LORD’s own creation of his “way,” with only a
secondary emphasis on any human “way.” He agrees with Lohmeyer
that John’s baptism of repentance is not primarily a human action, but
rather an act of divine grace.19 In this view, baptism serves as an eschato-
logical sacrament signifying the forgiveness of sin which leads to repen-
tance. The ethnical response is seen as derivative upon the eschatological
gift of forgiveness of sin. Marcus recognizes that the WOL includes the
healing of the blind (Isa 35:1–7; 42:10–16) and therefore the healing of
Bartimaeus is not an unrelated miracle but an extension of the WOL.
Crucial to Mark’s argument is that Jesus’ journey with his disciples to
Jerusalem in 8:22–10:52 is the WOL of SI. Yet, it results in a strange
reversal of the triumphal entry due to its intersection with Mark’s
theology of the cross. Mark 10:32–34 illustrates this point:
15. R. A. Guelich, “‘The Beginning of the Gospel’: Mark 1–15,” BR 27 (1982):

5–15, and Mark 1–8:26 (WBC 34A; Dallas: Word, 1989), 3–46. Whereas Guelich
views 1:1 as an introduction to vv. 1–15, Marcus sees it as introducing much more.
16. Marcus, The Way of the Lord, 20.
17. U. Mauser, Christ in the Wilderness (SBT 39; Naperville: Alec R. Allenson,
1963), 136–37, as cited in Marcus, The Way of the Lord, 24.
18. Marcus, The Way of the Lord, 33, original emphasis.
19. E. Lohmeyere, Das Evangelium des Markus (MeyerK; 11th ed.; Göttingen:
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1951), 13–15, as cited in Marcus, The Way of the Lord,
31.
1
They were on the road (FO UI] PEX), going up (BOBCBJOPOUFK) to Jerusa-
lem, and Jesus was walking ahead of them; they were amazed, and those
who followed were afraid. He took the twelve aside again and began to
tell them what was to happen to him, saying, “See, we are going up
(BOBCBJOPNFO) to Jerusalem, and the Son of Man will be handed over
to the chief priests and the scribes, and they will condemn him to death;
then they will hand him over to the Gentiles; they will mock him, and spit
upon him, and og him, and kill him; and after three days he will rise
again.”20
Marcus recognizes that BOBCBJOX (“to go up”) is a technical term for the
festal ascent to the holy city. Like SI, Jesus leads a procession to the holy
city. Yet, unlike SI, Mark does not assume that this victory comes
through the military conquests of the Divine Warrior. For Mark, “the true
fulllment of the prophecy of Yahweh’s triumphant march through the
wilderness lies not in the military campaigns of the revolutionaries but in
the weary trek of Jesus and his disciples up to Jerusalem.”21 Marcus
believes the author of Mark closely aligned Jesus with God, especially in
1:2–3, yet 12:36–37 preserves a distinction between the two. Jesus’
apparent defeat is the occasion for God’s victory. He concludes that in
Mark apocalyptic eschatology collides with the theology of the cross and
results in a new, transformed version of apocalyptic eschatology. He
writes, “The main point of this portrayal is to show that Jesus’ journey
up to suffering and death in Jerusalem is, in the strange logic of a cruci-
form apocalyptic theology, the victorious assault of the divine warrior on
the resistant cosmos.”22 If the WOL is the way of the cross, then the call
to prepare the LORD’s way is not merely a general call to repentance or
baptism, but it is a call to discipleship. This interpretation is supported by
Marcus’ observation that the term “Servant” in SI oscillates between an
individual and collective reference. He writes, “Christian discipleship is
a matter of following Jesus in the way of the cross (8:34; 10:52) or of
being with him (cf. 3:14), not of going before him or of preparing his
way.”23 In this manner the WOL does not end with Jesus’ death and
resurrection. It continues to possess an eschatological import since Jesus
20. Besides the numerous references to the “Suffering Servant” passages of SI in

Mark 14–16, Marcus (“Mark and Isaiah,” 460) highlights within these verses the
concentrated collection of Suffering Servant motifs: handed over (Isa 53:6, 12);
appears before Gentile authorities (Isa 52:15); condemned to death (Isa 53:8); spat
upon and scourged (Isa 50:6); killed (Isa 53:8–9); raised up (Isa 52:13).
21. Marcus, The Way of the Lord, 37.
22. Ibid., 40.
1
23. Ibid., 42–43, emphasis added.
will come again, this time on the clouds of heaven. The Church’s preach-
ing of the gospel “prepares the way” for Jesus’ return.
Instead of using the term WOL, Rikki Watts refers to this same motif
as the INE in his study of Mark. Working independently of Marcus,
Watts comes to similar conclusions concerning the function of this same
theme in Mark. He, like Marcus, believes Isa 40:3 functions in a pro-
grammatic manner, and criticizes previous approaches for seeking
explanations merely in textual terms without giving due attention to the
role of ideology and its inuence upon the shaping of texts. For Watts,
the INE forms the Weltanschauung of Mark. That is, it “is the ideologi-
cally shaped schema of Israel’s history cast in terms of Yahweh’s and
Israel’s relationship in which various texts act as hermeneutical points
evoking sections of this schema.”24 Whereas Marcus looks only to how
the Isaianic texts shape the theme of the INE, Watts goes to great lengths
to include the texts from Malachi (3:1) and Exodus (23:20) as contri-
buting to Mark’s conception of the INE. He believes Malachi not only
had Isa 40:3 in mind, but also 57:14 and 62:10, since these texts share
features with Malachi, in addition to a common post-exilic context. For
him, the INE had already become a unied and pervasive motif of Jewish
hopes by the time of Malachi such that a single key word or phrase such
as (Mal 3:1) might evoke Isaiah’s entire eschatological program.
Mark’s addition of Mal 3:1 and Exod 23:20 serves as a warning to the
people that Yahweh’s coming also requires a right response to John if the
nation is to avoid a purging of the temple. For Watts, the quotation of Isa
40:3 functions in an iconic manner and “suggests for Mark [that] the
long-awaited coming of Yahweh as King and Warrior has begun, and
with it, the inauguration of Israel’s eschatological comfort: her deliver-
ance from the hands of the nations, the journey of her exiles to their
home and their eventual arrival at Jerusalem, the place of Yahweh’s
presence.”25 Within the prologue (Mark 1:1–15), Mark’s use of FVBHHFM-
JPO (1:1, 14) is to be understood in terms of the Isaiah’s announcement of
comfort, which involves Yahweh’s INE coming to his people. Also, the
rending of the heavens and the descent of the Spirit (1:10) over what
Watts deems the delay of the INE in Isa 63:7–64:12 also suggests that
Yahweh’s intervention “in strength” (Isa 40:9) has come. Lastly, 1:11
carries an allusion to Isa 42:1, signifying that Jesus is the Servant and
therefore the true representative of Israel.
24. Watts, Isaiah’s New Exodus, 51.

1
25. Ibid., 90.
Watts conceives of the NE in Isaiah as following a schema that

involves three stages: (1) Yahweh’s deliverance of his exiled people
from the power of the nations and their idols; (2) the journey along the
“Way” in which Yahweh leads his people from their captivity among the
nations; (3) arrival in Jerusalem, the place of his presence, where Yah-
weh is enthroned in a gloriously restored Zion. The structure of Mark
mirrors these stages: Jesus’ ministry in “Galilee and beyond” (1:16–26),
the “Way” (8: 27–10:45), and “Jerusalem” (10:46–16:8). In both Mark
and Isaiah Jerusalem is the goal of the way. Watts observes that the
Divine Warrior motif spans both Isa 40–55 and Isa 56–66 and involves
Yahweh’s supremacy over the gods and idols of the nations. He then sees
in the rst section of Mark (1:16–8:26) Jesus acting as Yahweh the
Creator-Warrior who liberates his people from their captivity to unclean
spirits and demons and in doing so inaugurates the INE. Similarly, Jesus’
healing of the blind, deaf/dumb, and lame, the offer of forgiveness of sin,
and his feeding of the people who are like sheep without a shepherd
reverberate the INE motifs. Watts recognizes that the WOL requires a
right response from the people since it is a holy “way.” He believes the
language of “sight,” “hearing,” and “understanding” prevalent through-
out Mark are Wisdom motifs and therefore the “way” is a rejection of
human wisdom and the acceptance of Yahweh’s counsel. Jesus’ confes-
sion that he came to serve and give his life as a ransom for many con-
cludes the “way” section of 8:22–10:45. Watts’s argument that Isa 53
serves as the basis for understanding Mark 10:45 is based primarily on
the fact that Isa 40–55 serves as the structuring device for Mark. Here
Watts agrees with Marcus that the INE is accomplished through the
suffering and death of Jesus.
Watts follows most commentators who assume Isa 56–66 reect the
disappointment following the failure of SI’s promises to materialize upon
returning from exile. He recognizes the movement from the Servant to
the Servants within chs. 40–66 and observes that a sharp division exists
between the servants and a group of apostates. Jesus’ cursing of the g-
tree, representative of his rejection of the present Temple authorities,
recalls the laments of TI, which describe the desolation and withering of
the sanctuary. Mark’s progression of Jesus as the messianic King to
“cleanse the Temple” (11:1–1), announce the present Temple’s demise
(11:12–25), and proclaim its replacement with himself (11:26–12:12)
fullls of the INE hopes of Isa 2:2; 11:16, and 56:7.26 The quotation of
1
26. Ibid., 346.
Isa 56:7, “My house shall be called a house of prayer for all the nations,”
in Mark 11:17 demonstrates that the INE inaugurated by Jesus is not the
nal consummation of Isaiah’s eschatological hopes. Watts observes:
The Markan Jesus, as Israel’s messianic king and inaugurator of the INE
[Isaianic New Exodus], is neither as many have assumed merely protect-
ing the somewhat minimal access of Gentiles to the house of God, nor is
he against the profanation simpliciter of the Temple, nor is he making a
statement about the eschatological replacement of the Temple. Instead, the
LORD of the Temple having arrived, now orients the Temple toward its
nal goal.27
Even though the INE in Mark is eschatological, it is not the complete

fulllment of Isaiah’s hopes for the NE. As Watts observes, it advances
Yahweh’s redemptive agenda for the cosmos and points toward his nal
goal, but it is not the goal itself. Like the rst exodus, on the eve of the
Passover Jesus integrates the INE with the rst Exodus through the
covenant act of the Passover meal. The short ending of Mark reminds the
followers of Jesus that they, like the rst audience to hear SI, ought not
to fear so that they might experience the full realization of God’s prom-
ised deliverance.
David Pao approaches Luke much in the same manner Watts interprets
the Gospel of Mark. He argues that Isa 40:3–5 functions
as a hermeneutical lens without which the entire Lukan program cannot
be properly understood… The citation itself presupposes the knowledge
of the wider context of Isaiah 40–55. The prominent themes in Isaiah 40–
55 become the organizing principles for the second volume of the Lukan
writings.”28
Isaiah 40:3–5 not only introduces the Gospel of Luke, but it serves to
unify Luke and Acts into a continuous work. In addition to Luke 3:4–6,
Luke 1:17; 2:30; Acts 13:23–26, and 28:28 share allusions to Isa 40:3–5.
These passages do not serve to indicate the fulllment of individual
events, but work together as a means to understand the entire narrative.
Pao interprets the INE as initially a literal reference to the return of exiles
from Babylon followed later by a more metaphorical meaning. Even
then, he recognizes that the cosmic impact of the INE underlies the entire
Isaianic program. He writes, “When the return of the Babylonian exiles
failed to fulll such hopes, the exact denition of ‘exile’ underwent a
transformation. The physical sense was substituted by a moral if not a
27. Ibid., 324, emphasis added.

1
28. Pao, Isaianic New Exodus, 37.
cosmic sense.”29 The NE has been radically “eschatologized” without

carrying the overtones of an otherwordly reality as in apocalyptic.30
Pao observes that the PEP K terminology used in an eschatological
sense in Acts is dependent upon the context of Isa 40:3–5. He examines
the rhetorical use of the PEP K terminology and concludes that it “is used
in polemical contexts where the identity of the ‘true’ people of God is at
stake.”31 For early Christians, the “way” functioned as a means of dis-
tinguishing themselves over and against other communities. In Acts
22:3–21, the “way” serves to link Paul as the legitimate heir of the
ancestral traditions, as opposed to those who do not belong to this “way.”
In Acts 9:2, the term functions to identify those who separate themselves
from the synagogue. Pao sees Luke’s use of Isa 40:3 as similar to the
interpretation of the verse within the Qumran community. In both cases
the term is used as an identity marker for a marginalized group that
attempts to defend itself against the majority culture.32 In Acts 13:10, the
one who opposes Christians, people of “the Way,” is the one who makes
“crooked the straight paths of the LORD” (EJBTUSFGXO UB=K PEPV=K UPV
LVSJPV UB=K FVRFJBK), an obvious allusion to Isa 40:3.
Luke’s quotation of Isa 61:1–2, the announcement of a new age of
salvation that includes the salvation of the Gentiles, is supported by the
overall narrative of Luke 4:16–30. In this passage the identity of the
people of God is a major concern, as it is in Acts 10:35–38, which again
evokes Isa 61:1. Later, in Luke 24:44–49, the Isaianic program intro-
duced in 4:16–30 advances a step further with the introduction of the
theme of the inclusion of Gentiles. Pao sees Isa 49:6 and 32:15, texts
signifying the coming of the Spirit in the NE, as the backdrop for Acts
1:8. He believes that the programmatic statement of Acts 1:8 ought to be
understood not in geographical terms but in a theopolitical sense. The
three categories of Jerusalem, Judea and Samaria, and the ends of the
earth now signify varying stages in the arrival of a new era of salvation:
(1) the dawn of salvation upon Jerusalem; (2) the reconstitution and
reunication of Israel; (3) the inclusion of the Gentiles within the people
of God. Acts 13:46–47 inserts the quotation of Isa 49:6 strategically
within the narrative to highlight the connection between the themes of
29. Ibid., 145.

30. Pao, Isaianic New Exodus, 56 n. 63. Here Pao is correct to view Isa 40–55 as
“prophetic eschatology” rather than apocalyptic or even proto-apocalyptic since SI’s
hopes are to be realized within history.
31. Ibid., 60.
1
32. Ibid., 67.
the rejection by the Jews and the offer of salvation to the Gentiles. The
quotation of Isa 6:9–10 in Acts 28:26–27 indicates that a dramatic
reversal of Isaiah’s pattern of judgment followed by salvation has taken
place. Pao writes, “In the Lukan writings, therefore, instead of ‘judg-
ment–salvation’ one nds the proclamation of the scheme of ‘salvation–
judgment’ upon the people of God.”33
Pao observes that the restoration of Israel lies at the center of the
Lukan program even though it remains unfullled. The reconstitution of
Israel is an important aspect of the INE (Isa 49:6; 63:17b; also 11:13),
and the election of Matthias signals the beginning of the restoration of
Israel since the twelve apostles symbolize the twelve tribes of Israel.
This eschatological hope is further realized at Pentecost in Acts 2,
fullling the promise of ingathering in Isa 11:11. The conversion of the
Ethiopian eunuch in Acts 8:26–40 corresponds to the inclusion of the
outcasts in Isa 56:3–5 and is therefore another fulllment of the INE. Pao
acknowledges that within the book of Acts the Gentile inclusion has
redened the people of God in a manner that goes beyond what which
was anticipated in Isaiah. Whereas the submission of the nations to Israel
remains a signicant element of the NE in Isaiah, in Acts the narrative
moves in the direction of universal salvation. Pao believes a transforma-
tion of the NE motif here takes place, one that was unforeseen by Isaiah.
So radical is the equality between Jew and Gentile that circumcision is
no longer a requirement for initiation into the people of God. Paul’s
initial call to minister to both Jews and Gentiles, the rejection of the
gospel by the Jews, and the narrowing focus of Paul’s mission to the
Gentiles demonstrates that the narrative of Acts has moved far beyond
the paradigm offered by Isaiah.
A unique element of Pao’s argument is his claim that the anti-idol
polemic in Acts is rooted in Isa 40–55, and therefore these passages
contribute to the notion that the early Christian mission fullls the INE.
He writes, “As in the ancient Exodus traditions, power becomes the
focus of the New Exodus in Acts. The establishment of a new commu-
nity is intricately tied to the denial of the authority and legitimacy of
other competing communities and sovereign bodies.”34 Pao follows the
interpretation of Clifford,35 arguing that Isa 46:13 should be understood
in light of the beginning of the chapter, with this nal verse conrming
33. Ibid., 108.

34. Ibid., 182.
35. Richard J. Clifford, “The Function of Idol Passages in Second Isaiah,” CBQ
42 (1982): 456, as cited in Pao, Isaianic New Exodus, 188.
1
that the rejection of idols is in effect the condemnation of nations. The

afrmation of Yahweh’s power over idols is a declaration of deliverance
for the Israelite community. Pao goes on to assert that, like Isa 40–55,
the focus in Acts is not on religious assimilation but rather the
sovereignty of Yahweh/Lordship of Christ. The resurrection and exalta-
tion of Jesus in Acts provides the ultimate demonstration that Jesus is
Lord of all. Statements in Acts that afrm Christ’s Lordship provide the
hermeneutical key for understanding the anti-idol passages.36 Viewed in
this manner, both Acts and Isa 40–55 use the anti-idol polemic for the
same rhetorical purpose. That is, “It is precisely because Jesus is Lord of
all that no one can resist the advancement of the word and the early
Christian movement. Behind the anti-idol polemic is the claim that the
early Christian community is the sole possessor of divine truth.”37
Pao demonstrates a number of similarities between the language of the
Areopagus narrative (17:16–34) and the narrative of Philip’s encounter
with Simon Magus (8:4–24), with the anti-idol speeches in Isa 40–48. In
particular, Pao believes the Areopagus narrative was constructed in
keeping with the INE program in Isa 40–55. The narrative concerning
Herod’s death (12:20–23) shares similarities with the oracle against the
King of Babylon in Isa 14:4–20, as well as the description of the evil
actions of Pharaoh in Exod 3. In Acts, the death of Herod is portrayed as
the death of Pharaoh.38 Gentiles are not alone in their proneness to
idolatry, according to Pao, who interprets the quotation of Isa 66:1–2 in
Stephen’s speech as part of his argument that the Jews’ misuse of the
temple is an act of idolatry. The language of idolatry functions as a
boundary-marker that separates those who are within and outside the
early Christian community.39 According to Isaiah and Luke, the true
people of God reject the power of the nations and submit instead to the
Lordship of Yahweh.
Rather than adopt a promise–fulllment, proof-from-prophecy, imita-
tion/continuity, or typology model for approaching the Scriptures of
Israel in Luke–Acts, Kenneth Litwak employs a mode of intertextuality
36. Pao, Isaianic New Exodus, 210–11.

37. Ibid., 192–93.
38. Pao here follows the studies of O. Wesley Allen, Jr., The Death of Herod:
The Narrative and Theological Function of Retribution in Luke–Acts (Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1997), 98–101; Susan R. Garrett, “Exodus from Bondage: Luke
9:31 and Acts 12:1–24,” CBQ 52 (1990): 656–80, as cited in Pao, Isaianic New
Exodus, 201.
1
39. Ibid., 208.
that he refers to as “framing discourse.”40 “Frames” consist of cues or

markers in the text that indicate to the reader how they are to interpret the
statements. In the case of Luke–Acts, he argues that the beginning,
middle, and end of the book possess cues to indicate that the present
followers of Jesus are to be identied as God’s people, in continuity with
Israel of the past. Viewed in this way, the Old Testament functions
primarily in an ecclesial manner by announcing God’s coming to gather
together a people who will experience his salvation. Litwak interprets the
quotation of Isa 40:3–5 in Luke 3:4–6 as a clear reference to the procla-
mation of the NE. His focus is on the beginning and end of Luke–Acts,
and in regard to the latter he observes that Acts 28:26–28 contain an
explicit quotation of Isa 6:9–10, as well as an echo of Isa 40:5, “salvation
of our God.” Litwak acknowledges the difculty in determining the
origins of the phrase UP= TXUISJPO UPV RFPV(Pss 49:23; 97:3; Isa 38:11;
40:5; Luke 2:30; 3:6), but believes it to be an echo of Isa 40:5 since the
two other occurrences of this phrase in Luke both have Isa 40 within its
immediate co-text.
Taken together, both Isaianic references in Acts 28:26–28 highlight
the inclusive and exclusive nature of the Church. The citation of Isa 6.9–
10 signies that only the remnant will participate in Yahweh’s announce-
ment of salvation, and the reference to Isa 40:5 recalls the universal
scope of salvation that includes Gentiles. Luke–Acts follows the narra-
tive logic within BI and alludes to two programmatic passages within the
book: Isa 6 announcing an era judgment and Isa 40 announcing the dawn
of salvation. In this instance, Luke–Acts alludes to Isa 40:5 rather than
Isa 40:3, as in other WOL/INE passages in the New Testament. As such,
there is no mention of a wilderness or a “way.” Nevertheless, Litwak
considers this a NE reference and denes the INE as the offer of sal-
vation to both Israel and the nations. Viewed in this manner, the dual
Isaianic references in Acts 28:26–28 function in tandem and have “the
effect of suggesting that the new Exodus is only for a faithful remnant, a
faithful community of those who are saved and gathered like lambs (Isa
40:11).”41
40. Kenneth D. Litwak, Echoes of Scripture in Luke–Acts: Telling the History of

God’s People Intertextually (JSNTSup 282; London: T&T Clark International,
2005), prefers this designation to “Old Testament” or “Hebrew Bible” since it
acknowledges that early Christians and Jews considered these texts as authoritative
in religious and theological matters.
1
41. Ibid., 194.
Evaluation and Critique

The thesis of this book nds support in the Qumran writings and the
New Testament understanding of WOL. They all view the WOL/INE
primarily as an eschatological revelation of Yahweh in the form of a
theophany. The WOL/INE requires an ethical response on the part of the
people who, through their piety, identify themselves as the true people of
God. This interpretation of the WOL is consistent with my interpretation
of the “way” discussed in Chapter 4 and 5. Only one of the works
examined suggests that Isa 40:3 was originally understood to refer to an
actual highway and that it was later reinterpreted in an ethical manner.
Second, in the Dead Sea Scrolls, Mark, and Luke–Acts, Isa 40:3 func-
tions in a programmatic manner to dene the identity and mission of the
community. By quoting this passage, the authors do not refer merely to
one verse, but rather the whole Isaianic program of salvation as dened
in chs. 40–55 or 40–66. Just as Isa 40:3 plays a vital role in shaping the
Qumran community’s identity, or in structuring Mark’s and Luke’s
Gospels, it becomes a means of dening the identity of the early Chris-
tian community in Acts. If 40:3 constantly functions in a programmatic
manner, it is likely that the quotation of 40:3 by 57:14 and 62:10 was
intended to be much more than “religiously sancted vocabulary”42 or
“the shared phraseology of a school tradition.”43 If, in Mark and Luke–
Acts, the quotation of one verse invokes the whole salvation program of
Isa 40–55/66, then it is reasonable to assume it can function similarly in
57:14 and 62:10. Marcus, Watts, Pao, and Litwak have certainly pro-
vided a compelling case that the WOL/INE functions as the organizing
principle of Mark and Luke–Acts, a principle which subsumes the
subthemes of healing the blind and lame, the anti-idol polemic, the return
to Zion, and the Servant.
Luke–Acts does not reinterpret Isa 40:3 in an ethical manner and
therefore it is unlikely the author of 57:14 and 62:10 would have done so
as well. If 40:3 originally referred to a literal road, and 57:14 and 62:10
were ethical reinterpretations of 40:3, why did the New Testament
authors not instead quote 57:14 or 62:10, since 40:3 would only conjure
up images of road construction? It is likely that the New Testament
authors understood 40:3; 57:14, and 62:10 as related texts all describing
the same salvation program, with 40:3 serving as an introduction or
metonymy of this theme. Even though for Christians, New Testament
readings do not provide the only authoritative interpretation of Old

1
43. Fishbane, Biblical Interpretation, 289.
Testament passages, nevertheless it is striking that they overwhelmingly

favor eschatological interpretations of Isaiah’s WOL.
Lastly, the fulllment of Isa 40:3 in Mark and Luke–Acts is congruent
with the eschatological scheme set forth in Chapter 5. Earlier it was
argued that the return from exile was an eschatological event fullled in
history, yet only in a partial manner. Similarly, Jesus’ rst advent is,
according to the New Testament, an eschatological event. As Marcus and
Watts suggest, in Jesus’ ministry he acts as the Divine Warrior conquer-
ing cosmic forces of evil, particularly through his death on the cross. Yet,
as Pao and Strauss observe, Mark and Luke–Acts by no means offer an
apocalyptic eschatology. These actions take place within history, and
even after the life, death, resurrection, and ascension of Jesus, the con-
summation of Israel’s hopes are not realized. Jesus’ eschatological acts
contribute rather to a scheme of salvation-history in which a new phase
of redemption has been inaugurated. According to Pao, this new phase
includes the conversion of the Gentiles in a manner unforeseen even in
Isaiah.
In general I afrm how these authors interpret Isaiah and the theme of
the WOL and INE in the New Testament. The only signicant disagree-
ment I have is with Pao’s work.44 Pao appears to follow Zimmerli’s inter-
pretation that Isa 40:3 initially referred to a literal highway only to be
later reinterpreted. In addition, he appears to adopt Hanson’s view that
the failure of SI’s vision to materialize following the exile led to an
apocalyptic reinterpretation of these chapters.45 Yet the greatest weak-
ness in Pao’s argument is his failure to address the relationship between
chs. 40–55 of Isaiah and chs. 56–66. He provides a denition of the INE
based solely on Isa 40–55, yet throughout his work he constantly appeals
to texts within chs. 56–66, since Luke–Acts quotes from these passages
as well. This is signicant since according to him, the INE extends
beyond the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus into the early Christian
community. As indicated in Chapters 4 and 5 of this study, a prominent
theme within Isa 40–66 is the transference in leadership from the Servant
of the LORD to a community of servants who carry on the legacy of their
persecuted leader. It is unfortunate that although Pao traces the pro-
gression of the INE from Jesus as the LORD’s Servant in Luke–Acts to
the early Christian movement of the “way,” he does not observe the
transition from the Servant to the servants within Isa 40–66.
44. As discussed in Chapter 3, I disagree with Watts’s contention that the INE
was delayed due to the unbelief of the exilic community.
45. Pao, Isaianic New Exodus, 145. Pao’s favorable references to Hanson’s work
throughout his monograph appears to conrm this.
1
Pao highlights the distinct manner in which this “way” functions as an

identity marker sharply distinguishing the true people of God from
imposters in Acts, yet he fails to observe that this same type of phenome-
non also occurs within Isa 56–66, where the servants are dened over
and against the apostate. While only limited textual evidence exists to
link Isa 56–66 with Acts (although Pao correctly observes that the salva-
tion of the Ethiopian eunuch fullls Isa 56:3–5), certainly thematic corre-
spondence exists. Perhaps it is safe to say that just as Isa 40–53 focus on
the Servant and Isa 54–66 focus on the subsequent theme of the servants,
this same pattern is reected in the transition from Luke to Acts. If read
in this manner, the community described in Isa 56–66 is the natural result
of the INE of chs. 40–55, and the radical redenition of the people of
God that occurs in the book of Acts may not be, as Pao describes, beyond
the vision of Isaiah. Chapters 56–66 redene the servants of Yahweh and
Israel such that their religious rather than their ethnic identities determine
their inclusion among the people of God. What certainly is new in Acts
is the degree to which the Jews reject the gospel as indicated by the
reversal of the salvation program in Acts 28:26–27. This reversal indi-
cates to the reader that the INE is to come again in the future and once-
and-for-all reverse the judgment of Isa 6:9–10. Viewed in this manner,
the eschatological vision of Isaiah is kept intact. Those disappointed that
the fullness of the eschatological promises of the INE did not occur in
the life, death, and resurrection of Christ can nd comfort in the fact that
a similar experience occurred with the post-exilic community. So the
Church, like the post-exilic community, awaits another exodus that will
this time lead to the nal Zion, the nal Jerusalem—the New Heavens
and the New Earth (cf. Rev 21–22).
1
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INDEXES
INDEX OF REFERENCES
HEBREW BIBLE/ 21:8 126 18 91

OLD TESTAMENT 18:19–31 63
Genesis Deuteronomy
1:2 59, 152 2:7 11 1 Kings
2:6 152 2:27 142 5:1–5 84
7:11 59, 152 4:29 98 22:20–22 49
12:2–3 57 4:34 59, 63 22:20 50
14:1–16 70 5:14–15 112 22:27 142
15:1 63 5:32 142
15:6 70 8:2–4 11 2 Kings
18:19 66, 67 8:15–16 11 13:7 69
22:17 79 10:19 112 22:2 142
12:5 98
Exodus 15:21 145 2 Chronicles
3 170 17:20 142 18:26 142
6–13 81 23:7 112 36:22 77
11:8 80 24:17–22 112
12:41 80 28:14 142 Ezra
13:3–4 80 33:2–3 72, 150 1 113
14:19 93 33:2 72 1:1–4 109, 113
15 7 34:6 64 1:1 77, 109
15:1–21 55 1:4 107
15:3 59 Joshua 1:6 107
16:1 80 1:7 142 2:61–63 110
17:1–7 80 2 55 2:64 113
22:21 112 13–19 86 6:21 110
23:9 112 23:6–7 142 6:22 108
23:20 160, 165 7–9 108
33:3 67 Judges 7:6 106
33:12–14 67 2:22 67 7:9 108
5:4–5 72, 150 7:28 106
Leviticus 5:19–20 74 8:15 108
21:18 153 8:21 108
1 Samuel 8:22 106
Numbers 4:17 63 8:31 106
20:1–13 80 9 107
20:14–21 150 2 Samuel 9:1–2 111
20:17 14, 142 5:2 63 9:2 108, 110
20:19 14 5:12 84 9:6 110
9:7 110 68:8 72, 150 Proverbs

9:8 107, 108 68:18 72, 150 2:8 140
9:9 108 74 59 2:13 140
9:11 110 74:1 118 3:6 140
9:13 108, 110 74:12–15 59 3:20 152
10:11 108 74:13–14 59 4:14 140
74:13 59 9:15 140
Nehemiah 74:22 59 10:29 67
1:4–11 84 76 91 12:28 140
1:6 112 77 59 15:19 140
1:7 112 77:14–15 59 16:17 45
1:8 112 77:16–20 81, 82
1:10 112 77:17–21 EV 81, 82 Isaiah
1:11 112 77:19–20 59 1–66 25
5:1–13 112 78 55, 63 1–62 126, 130
7:66 113 78:15–20 80 1–55 33
9 107 78:51–54 64 1–52 25, 26
78:69–70 84 1–39 2, 6, 9,
Job 79:5 118 16, 19,
1–2 49 80:3 59 25–27,
22:15 140 84:5–6 EV 143 33, 81
26:12 59 84:6–7 143 1–33 131, 132,
85 118 134, 140
Psalms 88:8 96 1–32 27
2 39 89 55 1–12 24
5:8 67 89:9–10 63 1–5 135
5:9 EV 67 89:10 59 1–2 32
22:6–7 96 89:11 59 1 133, 135,
23 63 93–99 91 144, 145,
23:4 64 93:1 91 149, 156
24:6 98 96:10 91 1:1–62:12 123
24:7–10 7, 125 97:1 91 1:1–11:10 137
25:4 140 97:3 171 1:1 149
27:11 140 100:4 7 1:2–4 109
44:23–24 118 106 55 1:2 22, 135,
44:24 59 107 72 149
45:14–15 101 107:7 73 1:3 138, 144
45:15–16 EV 101 107:33–35 73 1:4 145
46 91 108:10 101 1:7 144
48 91 108:11 EV 101 1:11 135, 149
49:23 171 109:20 63 1:16 145
60:9 101 118:19–20 7 1:24 135, 149
66 55 119:165 117 1:27 149
66:6 55 127:3 63 1:30 144
66:10–12 55 137:7 149, 150 1:31 135, 149
66:12 55 139:13 140 2 65, 68
Isaiah (cont.) 6:13 108 13:15 135

2:2–5 143, 157 7:3 45 13:17–19 135
2:2 65, 166 7:4 22 13:17 77, 109
2:3 44, 46, 8:11 44 13:20 135
108, 140, 8:14 117 13:21–22 135
144, 153 8:23 43, 44 14–23 148
2:5 153 10 108, 148 14:4–20 170
2:6–9 65, 68 10:2 53 14:24–27 24
2:9 156 10:20 108 14:31 70, 124
2:11–12 129 10:23 23 19:11 138
2:11 156 10:24 44 19:13 138
2:12–14 65 10:26 44 19:15 79
2:17–18 68 10:33 65 19:23–25 157
2:17 156 11:10–16 137, 157 19:23 8, 45,
3:8 118 11:10–11 137 143, 154
3:12 140 11:10 63 22 64
3:14–15 53 11:11–16 123, 126, 22:4 64
4:5 63 127, 137, 22:5 64
4:16–30 168 161 22:7 124
5 144, 145 11:11–12 127 22:13 155
5:1–7 144 11:11 127, 137, 22:14 64, 145
5:2 124 169 24–27 15, 129,
5:6 144, 146 11:12–16 127 136
5:7 144 11:12 63, 108, 24:4 136
5:12 144 126, 127, 24:12 124
5:13 80, 144 137 25:3 136
5:15 156 11:13 169 25:7 136
5:26 126 11:15 137 25:10–11 65
6 50, 116, 11:16 8, 14, 45, 25:12 65, 156
121, 171 127, 128, 26:1–7 129
6:1–7 68 137, 143, 26:2 124, 129,
6:1–5 61 154, 166 136
6:1 52, 121 12:1–6 127 26:5 130, 156
6:3 50, 52, 13–14 136, 148 26:7–8 68, 140
63, 116, 13 73, 127, 26:7 130, 140
121 133, 135, 26:9 136
6:5 145 136 26:18 136
6:7 145 13:1–27:12 137 26:21 145
6:8 49 13:2–4 135 27 136, 145
6:9–10 23, 53, 13:2 126 27:1–6 136, 144
54, 92, 13:5–9 135 27:1 59
138–40, 13:8 135 27:2–4 96
169, 171, 13:9–11 73 27:3 136, 144
174 13:10–13 135 27:4 136, 144,
6:9 53 13:14–16 135 146
6:10 119 13:14 73 27:6 136, 144
27:12–13 123, 126, 31:9 126 34:1 135, 136,

128, 137, 32–34 132, 137 148, 149
157 32–33 137, 139 34:2–8 147
27:13 137, 154, 32 145 34:2–4 132, 133
156 32:1–20 65 34:2–3 135
28–34 137 32:1–5 145 34:2 136, 148
28:1–4 27 32:1–2 139 34:3 135, 149
28:1 27 32:3 139 34:4–5 135
28:4 27 32:4 137, 139 34:4 147
28:6 124 32:5 64 34:5–17 148, 149
28:22 23 32:15–18 79 34:5–8 135
29 54 32:15 137, 168 34:5–6 135, 147
29:10–12 138, 139 32:19 65 34:5 148, 149
29:11–12 23 32:23 140 34:6–7 135
29:17–18 147 33 132, 134, 34:6 135, 149
29:17 144, 146 143, 145 34:7 135, 147,
29:18 23, 139, 33:2 59, 63 149
140 33:8–9 143, 147 34:8 135, 137,
29:19 53 33:8 8, 45, 147–49
29:21 124 137, 143 34:9–15 147
30 54, 125, 33:9 137, 145, 34:9–10 135
133, 141 146 34:9 136, 137,
30:1–17 54 33:14–16 55 147
30:1–7 138 33:15–16 54 34:10–15 147
30:9 140 33:17–24 145 34:10 135, 137,
30:10–14 54 33:17 139 143, 147,
30:10 140, 141 33:20–23 147 149
30:11–12 54 33:20 139 34:11–15 135
30:11 44, 140, 33:21 137, 145 34:11 152
141, 153 33:22 137, 139 34:12 147
30:12 54, 140 33:23 137, 145 34:13–15 136
30:14 54 33:24 133, 145 34:13 136, 146,
30:18–26 54, 141 34–66 10, 134, 147
30:19 54 135 34:14 147
30:20–21 141, 147 34–35 16, 17, 34:15 147
30:20 141, 142 25, 131– 34:16 136
30:21 44, 141– 37, 139, 34:17 147
43, 153 146, 147, 34:35 147
30:22 142 150–52, 35 7, 11, 14,
30:27–33 54 157 15, 29,
30:27 54 34 131–37, 131–33,
30:28 54 143, 136–40,
30:29 55 147–50, 143,
30:30 54 156 146–52,
30:33 54 34:1–4 148, 149 154, 156,
31:1–3 138 157
Isaiah (cont.) 35:10 135, 40–42 71

35:1–9 29 147–49, 40 15, 49,
35:1–7 163 151, 153, 50, 69,
35:1–4 147 155, 157 88, 116,
35:1–2 136, 146, 36–66 131, 134 123, 132,
151, 154, 36–39 10, 134 137, 171
155 36:2 45 40:1–62:12 151
35:1 136, 137, 38:10 124 40:1–52:12 26, 27,
146, 147, 38:11 171 43, 93
150, 154, 39 35 40:1–51:11 155
157 40–66 5, 8, 9, 40:1–52 43
35:2 63, 136, 11, 16, 40:1–11 6, 10, 11,
137, 140, 32, 33, 14, 27,
146, 151, 52, 63, 29, 43,
154–56 95, 120, 49, 50,
35:3–6 147 122, 132, 52–54,
35:3–4 154 134, 154, 58, 62,
35:3 118, 151 157, 166, 64, 65,
35:4 135, 137, 172, 173 67, 76,
139, 141, 40–63 136 88, 93,
147–49, 40–55 2, 6, 9, 96, 115,
153, 154 19, 26, 116,
35:5–6 153, 154 27, 29, 122–24,
35:5 140 32, 33, 126, 132,
35:6–8 154 36, 48, 133, 154,
35:6–7 143, 152, 50, 77, 155, 160
154 80, 81, 40:1–8 62
35:6 136, 137, 97, 101, 40:1–5 160, 161
140, 102, 115, 40:1–3 154
145–47, 120, 133, 40:1–2 28, 50,
151, 152 154, 161, 133
35:7 72, 136, 166, 40:1 58, 64,
147, 152 168–70, 87, 88,
35:8–10 123, 126, 172–74 112, 115,
147, 150 40–54 96 119
35:8–9 147, 151 40–53 174 40:2 64, 76,
35:8 11, 44, 40–52 27, 82, 96, 112
45, 110, 88, 94– 40:3–11 47, 71
137, 138, 96, 102, 40:3–6 50, 163
143, 147, 116, 119 40:3–5 3, 28, 29,
149, 40–49 66 62, 160–
152–57 40–48 26, 28, 62, 167,
35:9–10 29 50, 68, 171
35:9 137, 147, 82, 85– 40:3–4 13, 14,
154, 155 88, 170 61, 67,
40–45 103 70, 76,
77, 87, 91, 106, 41:8 70, 75,

88, 116, 119, 154 78
122 40:9–10 128, 142, 41:9 50, 75
40:3 1, 2, 5–9, 163 41:10 75, 154
12, 14, 40:9 50, 128, 41:13 75, 154
15, 29, 141, 154, 41:15–16 70, 71,
43–45, 165 83
51, 53, 40:10–11 60, 63, 41:15 69, 70,
58, 61, 74, 88, 96, 103
62, 64, 101 41:17–20 29, 47,
66, 67, 40:10 9, 59, 74, 53, 54,
76, 78, 95, 124, 56, 57,
87, 96, 128, 130, 73, 81,
99, 105, 154 154
108, 109, 40:11 63, 87, 41:17–18 87
114–16, 142, 154, 41:17 53, 54,
119, 120, 171 73, 80,
122, 123, 40:12–42:17 69 130
129, 142, 40:12–20 71 41:18–19 14
152, 153, 40:13–48:20 28 41:18 53, 54,
158–62, 40:13–14 49 72, 87,
165, 168, 40:14 44, 140 103, 143
171–73 40:27–31 71 41:19 53, 58,
40:4–5 1 40:27 43, 96, 97
40:4 52, 53, 99 41:20 54
61, 64– 40:30 118 41:21–29 71
66, 72, 40:31 69 41:21 70
122, 160 41 69, 72, 41:22 70
40:5 52, 77, 81, 109 41:25 27, 70,
88, 92, 41:1–42:17 76 71, 75,
125, 142, 41:1–7 70, 71 77, 81,
171 41:1–3 70 109, 151
40:6–8 27, 29, 41:1 27, 69, 41:26 70
66 70, 76 41:27 63
40:6–7 27, 28, 41:2–4 81 42 71, 85–
52 41:2–3 68, 71, 87, 94
40:6 50, 67, 151 42:1–9 70–72,
105, 116 41:2 69, 70, 77, 82,
40:7 57, 119 74, 75, 85, 95,
40:8 51, 52, 77, 86, 112
77, 78, 109 42:1–6 85
96, 101, 41:3 69 42:1–4 71
105, 106 41:4 70 42:1 56, 72,
40:9–11 28, 62, 41:5 103 82, 85,
63, 76, 41:8–20 71 86, 165
77, 88, 41:8–13 70 42:3–4 73
Isaiah (cont.) 43:1–7 47, 54, 44:27 48

42:3 57, 72, 55, 57 44:28–45:1 27
85 43:1 75, 154 44:28 11, 27,
42:4 71, 80, 43:2 54, 55 75, 76,
85 43:3 55, 154 109
42:5–9 71 43:4 78 45:1 11, 27,
42:5–8 76 43:5–7 93 75, 109,
42:5–7 27 43:5–6 55, 87, 124
42:6–7 52, 86, 126, 128 45:2 76, 162
111 43:5 74, 154 45:3 27, 75
42:6 72, 74, 43:7 75 45:4 56, 75
75, 85, 43:8 52, 154 45:5 27
86, 103, 43:11–12 154 45:8 76, 84,
125 43:14–21 29, 48, 154
42:7 71, 72, 154 45:11–13 76
87, 154 43:14 11 45:11 27
42:8 71, 86 43:16–20 55, 57 45:12–13 27
42:9–10 71 43:16 44 45:12 84
42:9 57, 134 43:17–20 56 45:13 44, 74,
42:10–17 71 43:19–20 103 76–78,
42:10–16 163 43:19 44, 45, 109, 162
42:10–13 76 56, 57, 45:14 78, 156
42:10–12 88, 97 134 45:15–22 154
42:10 71 43:20 87 45:18 27, 84
42:11 154 43:22–28 53 45:19 78
42:12 71 44–45 109 45:22–23 27
42:13–17 71 44 82 45:22 120
42:13–16 74 44:1–5 29, 48, 45:23 78
42:13 72, 74 154 46–48 78
42:14–17 47 44:1–2 57 46:8–11 84
42:14–16 73 44:2–5 154 46:10 75
42:15–16 14, 73 44:2 66 46:11 74, 78
42:15 52, 72, 44:3 56–58, 46:13 169
73, 96 80 48 26, 78,
42:16–19 154 44:4 57 82, 85,
42:16 44, 45, 44:5 57, 111 86, 94
52, 71– 44:18 53, 154 48:1–2 86
73, 125, 44:22 82, 99 48:10 55
130 44:23 88, 97, 48:12–22 78
42:17 53, 71 101 48:12–16 84
42:18–20 71 44:24–45:13 74, 81 48:12–15 27
42:18–19 53 44:24 84 48:12–13 78
42:20 53 44:26–28 77 48:12 78
42:21 80 44:26 58, 76, 48:14 11, 75,
42:24 44 78 78, 95
44:27–28 81
48:15 44, 75, 49:9 44, 45, 51:9 59, 88,

78 87 89, 95,
48:16–22 80 49:11 9, 11, 44, 155
48:16 79, 85, 45, 87, 51:10–11 88
86 154 51:10 44, 46,
48:17–19 79, 80 49:12–13 53 59, 91,
48:17 44, 78 49:12 26, 86, 155
48:18 79 87, 126 51:11 54, 99,
48:20–22 92, 97 49:13 76, 87, 112, 155,
48:20–21 29, 48, 88, 97, 156
80, 92, 112, 119 51:12 88, 91,
154 49:14 130 119
48:20 11, 87, 49:17 89 51:19 88, 119
97, 124, 49:18 126 52 32, 88–
125, 128 49:19 58, 88, 90, 155
48:21–22 80 108 52:1–12 88, 93,
48:21 58, 80, 49:22 126–28 95
87 49:23 156 52:1–2 91
48:22 97, 99, 49:25–26 154 52:1 89, 90,
102, 120, 50–51 26 110, 155
124 50:2 48, 79 52:2 112
49–55 77 50:4–9 95 52:3–6 91
49–53 85, 94 50:6 164 52:7–10 88, 90–
49–52 28, 85– 50:10–11 30, 113 92, 96,
88 51 155 97
49 26, 85– 51:1–52:12 58 52:7 63
87 51:1–3 29, 154 52:8 92
49:1–52:12 85, 86 51:2 58 52:9–12 88
49:1–52:10 28 51:3 58, 88, 52:9 88, 91,
49:1–12 85, 112 101, 108, 101, 106,
49:1–6 95, 111 112, 119, 108, 112,
49:1 76 154, 155 119, 154
49:2 86 51:4–52:6 82 52:10 88, 92,
49:3 86 51:4–5 27 95, 99
49:5–13 82 51:4 80 52:11–12 14, 28,
49:5–6 86, 99 51:5 59, 95, 29, 48,
49:6 75, 125, 154 91–93,
168, 169 51:7 80, 154 97
49:7–12 29, 86, 51:9–52:12 88 52:11 90, 92,
87 51:9–11 14, 29, 97, 124
49:7 75, 88, 89, 91, 52:12 106, 110,
156 106, 154 142
49:8–12 48 51:9–10 48, 58– 52:13–66:24 27, 43
49:8 86, 98 60 52:13–66:2 95
49:9–11 86 52:13–55:13 28
Isaiah (cont.) 55:9 44, 96, 57:13 13, 119,

52:13–53:12 26, 85, 99 121
95 55:10–11 77, 78, 57:14–21 7, 10, 32,
52:13 122, 164 96, 99 66, 114,
52:15 75, 164 55:11 51, 52, 115,
53–66 26 78, 97, 120–22
53–55 48 101, 105 57:14–15 121, 122
53 122, 166 55:12–13 29, 48, 57:14 4–6, 8,
53:1 95 96, 97, 12, 13,
53:5 122 100, 101, 15, 44,
53:6 44, 120, 103, 154 45, 114–
164 55:12 54, 96, 17, 119–
53:8–9 164 97, 101, 23, 129,
53:8 164 102 153, 165,
53:10 75, 122 56–66 2, 3, 6, 9, 172
53:12–66:24 26 17, 19, 57:15 116, 117,
53:12 164 20, 24, 119, 121,
54–66 26 30–34, 122, 129,
54:1–17 95 36, 102, 130
54:4 154 104, 110, 57:16–17 118
54:6–7 130 114, 115, 57:16 118
54:8 118 166, 173, 57:17–18 120
54:11 119 174 57:17 44, 117,
54:12 124 56–59 31, 119, 118
54:14 154 120 57:18 6, 44,
54:17 113 56–57 121, 122 119
55–66 174 56 26, 35, 57:20–21 120
55 26, 32, 121 57:21 120
35, 96, 56:1–8 31, 119 58:2 44
97, 100– 56:1 119 58:8 142
102 56:3–7 111 58:12 108
55:1 98, 100 56:3–5 169, 174 58:13 43, 44
55:3–5 28 56:3 13, 101 59:1–15 31
55:3 161 56:5 33 59:7 9, 45
55:6–13 96, 97, 56:6–7 13, 111 59:8 43, 44,
99, 100 56:7 166, 167 119
55:6–9 24 56:9–58:14 31 59:10 118
55:6–7 99 56:9–57:13 115 59:15–20 133
55:6 98, 99 56:11 44, 120 59:15 31
55:7–11 99 56:66 67 59:16–18 60
55:7–9 98 57 118 60–62 31–34,
55:7 43, 44, 57:3–13 117, 118, 110, 114,
96, 97, 121 123–26,
99 57:9 65 128–30,
55:8 44, 96, 57:10 44 155, 156
99 60 31, 125
60:1–2 63, 162 62:17–22 128 29:10 109

60:1 125 63–66 31, 32 29:12–14 98
60:2 125 63 133, 150, 31 108
60:3–9 125 157 31:1–14 29, 30
60:3 125 63:1–6 31, 32, 31:1 29
60:11 124, 125, 60, 123, 31:2 29
129 148–51 31:3 29
60:13 63, 155, 63:7–64:12 165 31:4 29
156 63:7–64:11 31 31:5 29
60:14 156 63:17 44, 169 31:6 29
60:15 130 63:18 33 31:7 29
60:17–22 126, 128 64:4 44 31:8 29
60:18 124 64:10 33 31:9 29, 44,
60:19 126 65–66 130 82, 108
61 31, 123 65:1–16 31 31:10 29
61:1–3 31 65:2 44 31:11 29
61:1–2 168 65:9 56 31:12 29
61:1 168 65:15 56 31:13 29
61:4 108 65:17–25 126, 128 31:14 29
61:6 63 65:19 156 31:16 63
61:8 63 65:22 56 31:21 82
62 31, 123, 65:25 128 49:7–22 149, 150
156 66:1–2 121, 170 50:34 63
62:1–63:6 133 66:1 33 51 109
62:2 63 66:3 44 51:1 109
62:4 130 66:11–12 63
62:6–11 11 66:18–24 31 Ezekiel
62:6 123 66:18–22 126, 128, 3:20 117
62:10–12 7, 8, 66, 129 7:19 117
114, 66:18–19 63 14:3 117
122–24, 66:20 128 14:4 117
126, 66:23 156 14:7 117
128–30 18:30 117
62:10–11 128 Jeremiah 21:20 117
62:10 8–10, 13, 1:14 70 25:12–17 149, 150
14, 44, 4:6 70 29:18–20 63
45, 114, 4:23 152 31 145
116, 120, 5:4–5 67 34 63
122–30, 6:21 117 37 57
153, 165, 15:17 96 37:5 57
172 20:7 96 37:11 57
62:11–12 124 20:10 96 44:12 117
62:11 125, 128, 23:5–6 161
130, 141 25:11–14 109 Daniel
62:12 13, 110, 25:11–12 109 7–12 37
130 29:10–14 98, 109 10–11 74
Hosea Mark 9:31 161

2:3 54 1:1–15 163, 165 9:52 160
12:4–7 66 1:1 163, 165 10:1 160
13:5 11 1:2–3 2, 14, 66, 24:44–49 168
160, 164
Amos 1:3 6 John
3:1–2 11 1:6–8:26 166 1:23 2, 6
5:4–15 98 1:10 165
5:14 98, 100 1:11 165 Acts
5:24 79 1:14 165 1:8 162, 168
1:16–26 166 2 169
Micah 3:14 164 8:4–24 170
4:2 140 8:22–10:52 163 9:2 2, 159,
8:22–10:45 166 168
Nahum 8:27–10:45 166 10:35:38 168
2:1 89 8:34 164 12:20–23 170
10:32–34 163 13:10 168
Habakkuk 10:45 166 13:23–26 167
2:1–5 22 10:46–16:8 166 13:46–47 168
2:2–3 22 10:52 160, 164 17:16–34 170
3:3–15 72 11:1–11 166 18:25 2, 160
3:3–6 62, 72, 11:12–25 166 18:26 2
150 11:17 167 19:9 2, 159
3:3 72 11:26–12:12 166 19:23 2, 159
12:14 160 22:3–21 168
Zechariah 12:36–37 164 22:4 2, 159
4:7 65 14–16 164 24:14 2, 159
24:22 2, 159
Malachi Luke 28:26–28 171
3:1 14, 44, 1:17 160, 167 28:26–27 169, 174
66, 159, 1:76–79 160 28:28 167
160, 165 1:78 162
2:25 160 Hebrews
APOCRYPHA/DEUTERO- 2:30–31 160 1:5 39
CANONICAL BOOKS 2:30 167, 171
1 Maccabees 3:3–6 160 Revelation
2:22 142 3:4–6 161, 167, 21–22 174
171
NEW TESTAMENT 3:4 2, 6 QUMRAN
Matthew 3:5 160 1QS
2:2–5 125 3:6 171 IX 19–20 1
3:3 2, 6 3:18 160 VIII 13–16 159
3:8–10 160 4:16–30 168 VIII 14 1
8–14 160
INDEX OF AUTHORS
Ackroyd, P. R. 50, 90, 113 Cody, A. 66

Aitken, K. T. 145 Collins, T. 21
Albertz, R. 26, 28, 90, 111, 113 Conrad, E. 23
Alexander, J. A. 8 Cross Jr., F. M. 49, 59, 97
Allen Jr., O. W. 170
Anderson, B. W. 2, 40, 47, 48 Davies, P. R. 21, 85
Auerbach, E. 39, 105 Davis, C. J. 162
Averbeck, R. E. 41 Delitzsch, F. 8, 68
Axelsson, L. E. 72 Dicou, B. 135, 149
Dille, S. J. 55
Baltzer, D. 62 Dorsey, D. A. 45, 61, 115
Baltzer, K. 13, 51, 57, 66, 74, 76, 82, Doty, W. G. 41
100, 112, 113, 158 Dozeman, T. B. 59
Barstad, H. M. 74 Dreschler, D. M. 7
Bartelmus, R. 57 Duhm, B. 4, 36, 89, 100, 116
Barth, C. 117
Barton, J. 35, 37, 133 Eissfeldt, O. 9
Batto, B. F. 59 Elliger, K. 26
Ben Zvi, E. 20, 46 Eng, M. 28
Berges, U. 29 Evans, C. A. 134, 158
Beuken, W. A. M. 30, 54, 69, 71, 125,
138, 141–45, 148, 152 Fischer, J. 2, 47, 48
Blenkinsopp, J. 2, 7, 19, 23, 28, 31, 49, Fishbane, M. 12, 39, 42, 172
66, 71, 74, 77, 91, 109, 111, 114, Floyd, M. H. 21, 22
118, 122, 123, 125, 127, 128, Flynn, S. W. 121
133, 142, 158 Fohrer, G. 89
Brooke, G. J. 1, 2 Fried, L. S. 28, 85
Brownlee, W. H. 135
Broyles, C. C. 81, 158 Garrett, S. R. 170
Brueggemann, W. 24 Goldingay, J. 39, 67, 69, 71, 73, 110,
Burrows, M. 159 113
Grätz, H. 132
Caird, G. B. 41 Grifths, P. J. 38
Carroll, R. P. 102, 103 Guelich, R. A. 163
Childs, B. S. 14, 23, 28, 32, 33, 50, 56,
60, 64, 96, 104, 105, 107, 116, Hanson, P. D. 30, 32, 42, 107, 125
122, 125, 126, 129, 158 Haran, M. 30
Clements, R. E. 25, 32, 125, 138–40 Hayes, K. M. 143
Clifford, R. J. 41, 60, 61, 72, 102, 150, Hermisson, H.-J. 29, 83
169 Hoffner, H. A. 101
Clines, D. J. A. 111 Holladay, W. L. 30
Hollander, J. 35 Miscall, P. D. 47, 146, 147

Hugenberger, G. P. 81 Moor, J. C. de 69
Hutton, J. M. 60 Motyer, J. A. 10
Muilenburg, J. 2, 6, 33, 91, 100, 123,
Ingrafa, B. D. 38 158
Myers, C. 84
Jones, G. H. 81
Neusner, J. 70
Kaufmann, Y. 30, 36 Niditch, S. 97, 116
Kee, M. S. 49, 51 Niehaus, J. J. 61
Keil, C. F. 8, 68 Nissinen, M. 25
Kiesow, K. 2, 28, 47, 48, 86, 100 North, C. R. 79, 95, 96
Kilian, R. 62 Nurmela, R. 26
King Jr., M. L. 1
Kloos, C. 60 Odeberg, H. 34
Koch, K. 67, 79, 106, 107 Ogden, G. S. 81
Koenen, K. 116, 119, 123 Olmstead, A. T. 132
Koole, J. L. 13, 30, 46, 57, 64, 66, 69, Oswalt, J. N. 9, 10
101, 116, 119, 124
Korpel, M. C. A. 69 Pao, D. W. 2, 167–70, 173
Kratz, R. G. 28 Payne, D. F. 67, 69, 71, 73, 110, 113
Kraus, H.-J. 98 Peels, H. G. L. 147–49
Kuan, J. K. 134 Petersen, D. L. 50
Kuenen, A. 26 Pickett, T. E. 38
Preuss, H. D. 80
Laato, A. 18, 19, 36, 69, 71, 74, 75, 81,
82 Repo, E. 160
Levy, R. 66 Reventlow, H. G. 96
Lincoln, B. 40 Ricoeur, P. 38, 105
Lindblom, J. 21 Rogerson, J. W. 41
Litwak, K. D. 171
Lohmeyere, E. 163 Sawyer, J. F. A. 158
Schilbrack, K. 41
Maass, F. 30 Schoors, A. 84
Marcus, J. 2, 162–64 Schramm, B. 11, 30, 33, 34, 111
Martens, E. A. 126 Schultz, R. 34, 35, 81, 115
Mathews, C. R. 56, 57, 146, 150, 151, Scott, R. B. Y. 132, 154
154 Seitz, C. R. 15, 24, 26, 27, 33, 37, 52,
Mathews McGinnis, C. 158 70, 96, 105, 123, 134, 136
Mauser, U. 163 Shipp, M. R. 40
McCasland, S. V. 1, 159, 160 Skinner, J. 4
McConville, J. G. 107, 108, 110 Smart, J. D. 12, 27, 30, 132
McKenzie, J. L. 132 Smith, D. L. 90, 113, 114
Melugin, R. F. 46, 88, 89, 91, 115 Smith, M. S. 29
Merendino, R. P. 62 Smith, P. A. 30, 32, 115, 123
Merrill, E. H. 143 Snaith, N. H. 2
Miller Jr., P. D. 49, 59 Snodgrass, K. R. 160, 161
Index of Authors 201
Sommer, B. D. 26, 30, 35, 56 Wagner, S. 97, 98

Soskice, J. M. 38 Watts, J. D. W. 13, 14, 71, 85, 144
Sparks, K. L. 41, 110–12 Watts, R. E. 2, 77, 161, 165–67
Spykerboer, H. C. 100 Westermann, C. 2, 6, 31, 51, 55, 58, 78,
Stansell, G. 139 80, 89, 90, 100, 115, 123, 125
Steck, O. H. 3, 20, 24, 32, 33, 104, 123, Whitelam, K. 84
128, 132, 137 Whybray, R. N. 49, 96, 99, 103, 117,
Strauss, M. L. 161 118
Stuhlmueller, C. 47, 48, 51 Widengren, G. 127
Sweeney, M. A. 30, 32, 127, 134, 135, Wildberger, H. 141, 148
140 Williamson, H. G. M. 25, 27, 109, 111,
114
Tidwell, N. L. 45, 115 Wilson, R. R. 49
Tiemeyer, L.-S. 117 Wyatt, N. 89
Toorn, K. van der 22
Torrey, C. C. 11, 27, 30, 132 Young, E. J. 7, 9
Tov, E. 76
Tull, P. K. 158 Zehnder, M. P. 43, 82, 122
Zimmerli, W. 2, 4, 5, 34, 36, 37, 47, 89,
Vanhoozer, K. J. 38, 105 103, 104, 124, 172
Vermeylen, J. 32, 123, 133, 135
Volz, P. 4, 6, 34, 158
Von Rad, G. 103

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LIBRARY OF HEBREW BIBLE/

OLD TESTAMENT STUDIES

Published by T & T Clark International

Visit the T & T Clark blog at www.tandtclarkblog.com

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ISBN: 978-0-567-02763-4 (hardback)

Typeset and copy-edited by Forthcoming Publications Ltd. (www.forthpub.com)

Is Isaiah 56–66 the Result of Failed Prophecy? 102

This study is a revision of my Ph.D. dissertation, which was submitted

ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by D. N. Freedman. 6 vols. New

The Enduring Inuence of Isaiah’s “Way of the LORD”

Proceedings of the First Meeting of the International Organization for Qumran

scholar to be mindful of the dynamics of reading Isaiah as a composite

Different Authors, Different Ways

7. Odil Hannes Steck, Bereite Heimkehr: Jesaja 35 als Redaktionelle Brucke

For Duhm, the differences in language as well as geographical and

In this essay, Zimmerli recognizes that speech, whether human or

historical context exists for the announcement of a “way” in TI. Muilen-

According to Muilenburg, SI’s words have been spiritualized and moral-

One Author, One Way

In Delitzsch’s conception, Zion extends beyond Israel to include the

49:11; 59:7 or 62:10 is the reference necessarily different.”22 Young

Composite Book, One Message

hindrances and difculties the Jews of the Dispersion faced as they

Torrey even includes the exhortations of SI, considered by most to be a

verses describe a theophany and the language is not hyperbolic but

28. James D. Smart, History and Theology in Second Isaiah: A Commentary on

treatment of individual texts. He argues that the prologue of SI, 40:1–11,

33. K. Baltzer, Deutero-Isaiah, 63.

Like Childs, Christopher Seitz believes the primary intertextual link

36. Christopher R. Seitz, “The Book of Isaiah 40–66: Introduction, Commentary,

myth, history, and eschatology will be examined so as to account for the

I proceed on the assumption, as observed by Antti Laato, that “Biblical

their exegetical conclusions. Differences in interpretations cannot be

Isaiah as a Prophetic Book

Ben Zvi stresses the signicance of a work whose primary reception is

such. Double entendre, ambiguity, and multidirectional intertextuality

8. J. Lindblom, Prophecy in Ancient Israel (Oxford: Blackwell, 1962), 279, as

Visions contain not only speech addressed to the prophet’s contempo-

The vision can only be understood at a later time in a manner similar to

of experience.”16 For Christopher Seitz, the version of history the pro-

The change in TI from SI may be understood as primarily one of focus

16. Steck, The Prophetic Books, 55.

The Composition of Isaiah 40–66

20. Ronald E. Clements, Old Testament Prophecy: From Oracles to Canon

for Isaianic texts; indeed, he borrows more frequently from Jeremiah,”23

23. Benjamin D. Sommer, A Prophet Reads Scripture: Allusion in Isaiah 40–66

this change in circumstances led to a change in focus or emphasis of the

28. See “The Divine Council in Isaiah 40:1–11” in Chapter 3.

52:11–12; 55:3–5.31 Albertz builds upon Kratz’s study and assigns

31. Reinhard G. Kratz, Kyros im Deuterojesaja-Buch: Redaktionsgeschichtliche

36. Hans-Jürgen Hermisson, “Einheit und Komplexität Deuterojejesajas. Problem

A fractured community is unfortunately an inevitable by-product of the

42. Westermann, Isaiah 40–66, 296.

49. Brevard S. Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Phila-

on in Third Isaiah is an integral part of a process that eventually led to the

52. Schramm, The Opponents of Third Isaiah, 43.

Yet it is precisely these claims, that TI dramatically changed the meaning

56. Sommer, A Prophet Reads Scripture, 5.

Any reconstruction of the proclamation of the historical prophets must be

This study will assert that the compositional separation of TI from SI

Duhm’s assertion that the “lawgiver is the antithesis of the prophet”63

61. Laato, History and Ideology, 207.

The prophet is never in control of Yahweh’s word; Yahweh remains free.

Zimmerli believes Yahweh is a Sovereign God, free to act out in new

Literalism, Metaphor, and Typology

Zehnder classies the “way” words, and

53. Commentators are divided over whether and

This is ongoing since it is salvation-historical, ethical, and eschato-

The way of the righteous is level ();

the larger theme of +,68 “righteousness” or “order” is the preferable

87. In 45:2 the hapax legomenon - !