1.

Introduction
Brazing (B) is a group of joining processes, which produce coalescence of the
materials by heating the assembly to the brazing temperature in the presence of a filler
metal, which is subsequently drawn between the surfaces by capillary action. Parts
are joined by creating a metallurgical bond at the molecular level between the filler
metal and the surfaces of the two metals being joined. The temperature ranges are
above the liquidus temperatures of the filler metals and below the solidus temperatures
of the base metals. The difference between brazing and soldering is in the liquidus
temperatures of the filler metals. For brazing, the liquidus temperature is above 450 oC
(840oF) and for soldering, it is below 450oC.

Brazing is a widely used joining method. Applications range from simple consumer
products to the aerospace industry. Many different types of materials can be joined by
brazing including carbon steel, stainless steel, tool steels, cast iron, copper, aluminum,
beryllium, nickel and nickel alloys, zirconium, titanium, precious metals, ceramics, etc.

2. Process Principles
The underlying physical principle of the brazing process is capillary action between
closely spaced faying surfaces, usually in a lap type joint. The faying surfaces are
cleaned and properly spaced to permit efficient capillary action to take place. The
clearance between the faying surfaces is in the range of 0.03 to 0.25mm depending on
the fluidity and the type of filler metal. The filler metal flow characteristics are
influenced by the liquid filler metal fluidity, viscosity, metallurgical reaction between the
filler and base metal, and gravity. A suitable type of flux is generally applied to the
faying surfaces in order to dissolve solid metal oxides and prevent new oxidation. As
the joint is heated the flux melts and cleans the base metals. Brazing filler metal is then
melted on the surface of the joint area. The flux and oxides are pushed out of the joint
by the high capillary attraction of the filler metal. Upon cooling to ambient temperature,
a thin film of solid filler metal fills the joint between the faying surfaces. The flux residue
is found on the joint periphery where it can easily be removed.

3. Joint Design
When designing a component to be brazed the following must be considered:

- Joint type: Two types of joints are used in brazing: the lap and butt joint. The scarf
joint is a variation of the butt joint.

The strength of the filler metal is usually less than the base metal thus a butt joint will
not provide 100% efficiency. By scarfing the joint additional area is provided which will
increase the strength of the joint.

A properly fitted and brazed lap joint with at least 3t (t = thickness of thinner member)
overlap is just as strong as the base metal. Lap joints are very efficient and easy to
fabricate.

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 Fig.1 Joint Types

- Joint clearances: If the joint clearance is too small capillary action cannot occur. If it
is too large the filler metal may flow right through the joint with a resulting loss in joint
strength.

- Surface finishes: faying surfaces should have a finish of between 30 - 80 micro-

inches. If they are too smooth or too rough the brazing filler metal may not adhere
properly. Excessively rough surfaces also increases the clearance between the faying
surfaces which could result in a loss of joint strength.

- Placement of the filler metal: for manual brazing operations the filler metal is fed
into the open side of the joint by the operator. However, for many automated brazing
processes or where brazing takes place inside a furnace or bath the operator no longer
has control over filler metal flow. For such situations the workpiece and joint designs
must allow for the pre-placement of the filler metal so that when melted it flows into the
joint. The diagram shows some typical joint designs that allow for the pre-placement of
filler metal.

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 Fig.2 Pre-placement of filler metal

- Placement of the flux if used: fluxes can be applied in many different ways. For
example it can be applied by dipping, spraying, brushing, or mixed with a fuel gas. The
application method will be largely determined by the part design and brazing method.

- Possibility of gas entrapment: this is a problem that occurs when the filler metal is
being drawn into the joint. If the small amount of air or gas that exists between the
faying surfaces has no avenue of escape it will prevent the filler metal from completely
filling the joint. The result is a joint that has less strength than required.

4. Brazing Fluxes
The use of a flux is essential in the brazing operation. Heating of a metal accelerates
the formation of oxides, the result of the chemical combination between the hot metal
and oxygen in the air. If not removed the oxides prevent the brazing filler metal from
wetting and bonding to the surfaces. The flux shields the surfaces from the air thus
preventing oxide formation. It will also dissolve and absorb any oxides that may already
be present on the metal. The molten filler metal will displace the flux from the joint at
the brazing temperature. After joining, the flux residue must be removed from the
metal surfaces. This is especially important for brazing fluxes because it may cause
severe corrosion. Flux can be applied in many different ways. Common methods
include brushing, spraying and dipping.

5. Cleaning
Fluxes are not intended to clean the joint surfaces. Instead they are designed to keep
them clean and prevent oxide formation during brazing. All grease, oil, dirt, paint, rust or
other contaminants must be removed from the joint surfaces prior to the application of
the flux. Chemical cleaning can be used to remove dirt and oils. Oxide can be removed
by mechanical methods such as grinding, sanding, wire brushing, sand blasting, filing
and machining. Cleaning should take place just prior to brazing to prevent possible
recontamination of the parts. Flux should be applied as soon as the parts are cleaned.

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 6. Brazing Filler Metal
Selection of a filler metal is based on the following factors:

-ㄴ Types of base metals

-ㄷ Service requirements of the assembly
-ㄹ Brazing temperature required
-ㅁ Method of heating.

The requirements for brazing filler metals are found in AWS standard A5.8,
Specification for Brazing Filler Metal. It divides the filler metals into eight categories
and various classifications within each category. They are categorized according to the
major elements present:

- Aluminum - silicon: these filler metals are used for joining certain grades of the
1000, 3000, 5000 and 6000 series of aluminum alloys.

- Cobalt: these filler metals are used for joining cobalt based metals. They have
excellent high temperature properties.

- Copper and copper - zinc: these filler metals are used for joining carbon and
stainless steels and nonferrous metals such as copper, copper alloys, silicon bronze,
copper-nickel alloys, nickel alloys and copper - nickel alloys.

- Copper - phosphorus: these filler metals are used primarily for joining copper and
copper alloys and limited use on silver, tungsten and molybdenum. They should not be
used on ferrous, nickel based alloys or copper - nickel alloys with more than 10%
nickel.

- Gold: these filler metals are used in the electronics industry and for brazing iron,
nickel and cobalt based alloys where corrosion resistance is important.

- Magnesium: these filler metals are used for joining magnesium alloys only.

- Nickel: these filler metals are used on the 300 and 400 series stainless steels, nickel
and cobalt based alloys, carbon steel, low alloy steels. They have good corrosion and
heat resistance properties.

- Silver: these filler metals are used for joining most ferrous and nonferrous metals
except for aluminum and magnesium.

Filler metals come in many different shapes and sizes in order to suit the wide variety
of joint designs and the types of heating sources in use. These include rods, strips,
rings, pellets, disks, wire, powder and paste to name a few.

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 Fig.3 Brazing filler metals -strips and rods

Fig.4 Brazing filler metals - other shapes

7. Brazing Processes
Brazing processes are customarily designated according to the sources or methods of
heating. Industrial methods currently in use are the following:

-ㄴ Torch brazing
-ㄷ Furnace brazing

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-ㄹ Dip brazing
-ㅁ Induction brazing
-ㅂ Resistance brazing
-ㅅ Infrared brazing

A brief description of each method is provided in this chapter.

7.1 Torch Brazing

Torch brazing is performed by heating the joint with one or more gas torches.
Depending on the temperature required the fuel gas is burned with air, compressed air
or oxygen. Common fuel gases are acetylene, propane, butane and natural gas. For
manual torch brazing, normally a single torch and tip are used, but for automatic torch
brazing multiple torches and tips may be required. Manual brazing is particularly useful
for repair work. Automatic torch brazing is used for high production applications. Here
multiple torches are often arranged in different stages, such as for preheating, filler
metal melting and cleaning. Filler metal is often preplaced in the joints in the form of
rings, washers or strips. The parts or even the torches are then moved through the
various heating stages. For either method, the parts must be preassembled and held in
position either by virtue of their own joint design or by other means throughout the
entire heating and cooling cycle.

7.2 Furnace brazing

Furnace brazing is suitable for use when:

-The parts can be pre-assembled or held together by other means

-The brazing filler metal and flux can be pre-placed in the joint
-Multiple brazed joints are to be completed simultaneously on an assembly
-Many similar assemblies are to be joined
-The parts are very complex and must be evenly heated to prevent distortion.

Parts to be brazed are first assembled with the filler metal and flux (if used) placed in
and around the joints. The assembly is placed in the furnace and heated to brazing
temperature until brazing takes place. It is then removed from the furnace and cleaned
to remove any flux residue, if present. The time required to heat and braze an
assembly depends on the thickness of the components. However, once the brazing
temperature has been reached it should only be maintained for about one to two
minutes.

Furnaces are classified as:

- Batch type
- Continuous type
- Retort type
- Vacuum

A batch type furnace can only heat a finite number of parts in each production cycle.

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As the name applies, continuous furnaces receive and braze parts on a continuous
basis. The continuous conveyor-type furnace is suited for high volume production.

The atmosphere in either of these furnaces types can be air or some other type of gas
such as argon, helium or hydrogen.

Retort type furnaces are similar to the batch type except the parts are first placed in a
sealed retort. The air in the retort is then replaced with another gas. A retort is a metal
or glass or refractory vessel used in metal processing and refining industry. The retort
is placed in the furnace and heated to brazing temperature. It is removed from the
furnace and the parts are allowed to cool within the retort.

Vacuum furnaces are widely used in the aerospace and nuclear industries to join
stainless steels, superalloys, aluminum alloys, titanium alloys and other metals. By
completely removing air from this type of furnace oxidation of the brazed joint is
prevented.

All of the different furnaces may be electric, gas or oil fired. Electric heating is the most
common method.

Fig.5 Brazing furnace

7.3 Dip brazing

Two methods of dip brazing are commonly used;

- Molten chemical bath

- Molten metal bath.

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Brazing is accomplished by immersing clean and assembled parts into the molten bath.
The molten material is contained in a pot type furnace heated by oil, gas or electricity.
Normally the parts are preheated prior to immersion in the bath. The difference
between the two methods is the brazing material in the bath. In the molten chemical
bath, the bath consists of molten flux. Filler metal must be pre-placed in the joints that
are to be brazed. Once placed in the bath the heat of the flux melts the filler metal.

The other method uses molten filler metal in the bath. Parts must be first fluxed prior to
immersion. A flux blanket is maintained over the molten filler metal to prevent oxidation.
Parts are placed into the bath where capillary action draws the filler metal into the joints
to be brazed. Both methods are generally applied to the joining of small to medium
sized parts.

7.4 Induction brazing

The heat for brazing is generated from the induced electrical current in the parts by a
coil surrounding or near the parts. The coil, which is normally water-cooled, carries a
high frequency alternating current. Each is designed specifically to fit the shape of the
parts to be brazed. It has no contact with the parts and provides heat to the joint areas
only. Thus, the heating can be precisely controlled. Flux is used except if the brazing
operation takes place in a controlled atmosphere. The filler metal is normally pre-
placed in the joint. Heating of the parts is rapid thus making it viable for high volume
production. Mechanized systems for moving parts in and out of the coil are common. It
is used to produce a wide variety of consumer and industrial products.

Fig.6 Induction brazing

7.5 Resistance brazing

In this process, heat is generated in the joint by its resistance to the flow of electrical
current. The joint between the parts to be brazed is first fluxed and pre-filled with filler
metal. The parts are held between the electrodes of the welding machine while
pressure and electrical current are applied. As current flows the flux and filler metal
melt and flow. Pressure must be maintained until the joint has solidified. During the
heating process the parts form part of the electrical circuit. A wet flux must be used for

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 this type of brazing method since dry fluxes act as insulators and will not permit
sufficient current to flow. Resistance welding machines can be used for supplying the
electrical current and pressure on the parts. The process is suited for the low volume
production of parts which have a simple joint configuration and where heating is
localized.

7.6 Infrared brazing

The heat for brazing is generated by high-intensity quartz lamps. Infrared radiation is
radiant heat. The lamps do not have to be arranged to follow the contour of the joint.
Concentrating reflectors direct the heat to the joint area. The infrared process is not as
fast as induction brazing, but the equipment cost is much less. Infrared brazing is
designed for automatic applications only. As in the other automatic applications, the
joint must be first fluxed and contain pre-placed filler metal. The process can be carried
out in air or a controlled atmosphere.

8. Advantages and Disadvantages of Brazing Process

Advantages
-ㄴ Economical joining process when done in large quantities
-ㄷ Parts can be disassembled at a later time by heating the joint above the filler
metal liquidus temperature
-ㄹ Large joint areas can be brazed at the same time
-ㅁ Can be used for joining a variety of materials including dissimilar metals and
metals to nonmetals
-ㅂ Useful for joining parts of unequal thickness
-ㅅ Joints require very little preparation

Disadvantages
-ㄴ In certain cases base metal erosion can occur
-ㄷ Brittle intermetallic phase can form which make the joint unacceptable for use
-ㄹ Mmanual torch brazing is a slow production process and requires a skilled
operator. It also tends to warp parts of different thicknesses.

9. Safety
Brazing presents hazards that also occur with most other welding and cutting
processes. These include:

- Burns
- Fires
- Electrical shock
- Fumes
- Radiation
- Explosion
- Chemical exposure

The special precautions, which are needed when brazing or braze welding, are:

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1. Ventilation must be excellent to eliminate the health hazards, which are presented by
toxic metal, and flux fumes so often present when brazing or braze welding

2. Many of the fluxes used are harmful to the skin and care should be taken in handling
them so that no direct contact is, made. If the fluxes do come into contact with the skin,
the skin should be washed thoroughly with soap and water.

3. When acids are used, only persons thoroughly trained for this type work should
handle these acids.

4. Some brazing filler metal alloys contain cadmium. When molten, and especially if
overheated, these alloys emit cadmium oxide fumes to the atmosphere. Cadmium oxide
fumes are very dangerous if inhaled. The limit value for cadmium oxide fumes is 0.1
milligrams per cubic meter of air for daily eight hour exposures. This value represents
the maximum tolerance under which workers may be exposed without adverse effects.

Cadmium fumes have no odor, and a lethal dose need not be sufficiently irritating to
cause discomfort until after the worker has absorbed sufficient quantities to be in
immediate danger of his life. Symptoms of headache, fever, Irritation of the throat,
vomiting. Nausea, chills, weakness, and diarrhea generally may not appear until some
hours after exposure. The primary injury is to the respiratory passages

Eating or storing of lunches should not be permitted in the work area. Workers should
wash both hands and faces before eating or leaving from work. Workers brazing with
cadmium-bearing alloys should be made aware of the hazard involved and trained to
take Precautionary measures relative to the environment of the particular job.

Alloys free of cadmium are available and should be used wherever possible. Workers
should be trained to recognize the brazing alloys, which contain cadmium.

An increasing temperature over the molten state accelerates the quantity of the fumes
produced. The use of an oxyacetylene flame as the heating source may produce higher
concentrations of cadmium oxide fumes due to its higher temperatures. Flames
Produced by air-acetylene, air-natural gas, or oxygen LP gas are therefore
recommended.

Obviously, it is of great importance that the work space used in brazing operations be
thoroughly ventilated.

5. Another brazing operation, which must be handled carefully, is the brazing of

beryllium. Oxides from this metal are also very dangerous if inhaled. Thorough
ventilation is a must when heating and working with this metal.

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