The Strength, Fracture Toughness, and Low

Cycle Fatigue Behavior of 17-4 PH

Stainless Steel
H. J. RACK AND DAVID KALISH

The influence of m i c r o s t r u c t u r e on the strength, f r a c t u r e toughness and low cycle fatigue

behavior of 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s s t e e l has been examined. Aging hardening involves initial
f o r m a t i o n of coherent c o p p e r - r i c h c l u s t e r s which t r a n s f o r m to incoherent fcc E-copper
p r e c i p i t a t e s upon f u r t h e r aging. The changes in strength level and s t r a i n hardening r a t e s
o b s e r v e d during aging a r e consistent with p r e v i o u s l y suggested models for p r e c i p i t a t i o n
hardening b a s e d on differing e l a s t i c moduli. The f r a c t u r e toughness and fatigue c r a c k
growth r a t e s were shown to be a function of m i c r o s t r u c t u r e and environment. At equiva-
lent strength l e v e l s overaging r e s u l t e d in a higher f r a c t u r e toughness than did underaging.
The fatigue c r a c k growth r a t e s i n c r e a s e d with i n c r e a s i n g strength level and humidity but
were not a function of toughness level. Attempts to c o r r e l a t e the fatigue c r a c k growth
r a t e s with monotonic t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s were unsuccessful. However when final f a i l u r e
obeyed a c r i t i c a l s t r a i n c r i t e r i a , the f r a c t u r e toughness behavior could be r e a s o n a b l y d e -
s c r i b e d and r e l a t e d to p r e f e r e n t i a l void nucleation and growth at 5 - f e r r i t e - m a t r i x i n t e r -
faces.

K.~ENERALLY, p r e c i p i t a t i o n hardening m a r t e n s i t i c e n e r g y was taken as the sum of the c r a c k initiation

s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s have higher s t r e s s - c o r r o s i o n r e s i s -
tance and f r a c t u r e toughness than do s e m i - a u s t e n i t i c
p r e c i p i t a t i o n hardening s t a i n l e s s s t e e l s . 1 Of the f o r -
m e r 17-4 PH is p r e s e n t l y one of the most widely used
a l l o y s . Although previous investigations of this m a t e -
r i a l have examined the g e n e r a l age hardening r e -
sponse, 2'3 no d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the m i c r o -
s t r u c t u r e and the strength, f r a c t u r e toughness, or f a -
tigue r e s i s t a n c e have been r e p o r t e d . The p r e s e n t in-
vestigation was undertaken to e s t a b l i s h these r e l a t i o n -
ships.
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
The 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s s t e e l used in this study was
m i l l - p r o c e s s e d and annealed plate, Table I. All heat
t r e a t m e n t s were p e r f o r m e d in ultrahigh p u r i t y argon.
Solution annealing at 1900~ (1038~ was followed by
subcooling to 32~ (0~ to a s s u r e complete f o r m a t i o n
of m a r t e n s i t e .
The t e n s i l e and f r a c t u r e toughness p r o p e r t i e s were
e s t a b l i s h e d using a) 0.250 in. (0.635 cm) diam smooth
b a r t e n s i l e s p e c i m e n s f r o m the long t r a n s v e r s e d i r e c -
tion, b) Charpy V-notch s p e c i m e n s with an L-S o r i e n -
tation 4 and c) compact tension s p e c i m e n s with a T - L
orientation 4 machined in a c c o r d a n c e with ASTM Stan-
d a r d E399-72. The Charpy s p e c i m e n s were t e s t e d at
r o o m t e m p e r a t u r e in impact in the s t a n d a r d V-notch
configuration and with a fatigue p r e c a r c k at the root
of the notch. Charpy V-notch and p r e c r a c k e d s p e c i -
mens were also t e s t e d in 3-point slow bending in o r -
d e r to s e p a r a t e the initiation and propagation s t a g e s
of f r a c t u r e . The slow bend c o r r e c t e d total f r a c t u r e
H. J. RACKis Member of Technical Staff, Sandia Laboratories,
Albuquerque, N. Mex. 87115. DAVIDKALISHis Member of Techni-
cal Staff, BellTelephone Laboratories, Norcross,Ga. 30071.
Manuscript submitted October 31, 1973.
e n e r g y d e r i v e d f r o m the V-notch t e s t and the c r a c k
propagation e n e r g y d e r i v e d f r o m the p r e c r a c k e d t e s t s .
Ronald 5 has shown that this p r o c e d u r e e l i m i n a t e s the
i n e r t i a l effects n o r m a l l y a s s o c i a t e d with Charpy t e s t -
ing. The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dimensions of the compact t e n -
sion s p e c i m e n s , in a c c o r d a n c e with ASTM E399-72,
were B = 1.125 in. (2.858 cm) and W = 2.0 in. (5.08 cm).
The slow bend Charpy and compact tension t e s t s e m -
ployed a e r o s s h e a d speed of 0.04 t n . / m i n (0.1 em/mtn)
while tenstle t e s t s involved an Initial s t r a i n r a t e of 2.9
• 10-2/min; a l l t e s t s were at room t e m p e r a t u r e .
Fatigue c r a c k growth r a t e s were m e a s u r e d with c o m -
pact tension s p e c i m e n s with a T - L orientation, a The
e h a r a e t e r i s t l e dimensions were B = 0.35 in. (0.89 era)
and W = 4.0 in. (10.16 cm). The t e s t s involved stnu-
soidal t e n s i o n - t e n s i o n loading (R = 0.1) at 10 c y c l e s
p e r second. The t e s t s were p e r f o r m e d in d r y argon
(99.999 pet pure) and water s a t u r a t e d argon. The d r y
a t m o s p h e r e was obtained by p a s s i n g ultrahigh p u r i t y
argon (dew point - 100~ through a d r y i n g agent just
p r i o r to entering the specimen chamber, while water
s a t u r a t e d argon was obtained by slowly bubbling the
gas through boiling water. A complete d e s c r i p t i o n of
the data collection and a n a l y s i s techniques ts given
elsewherefl
Standard techniques were used to p r e p a r e s p e c i m e n s
for light and t r a n s m i s s i o n e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p y . 7 The
f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e s of v a r i o u s t e s t s p e c i m e n s were a l s o
examined by scanning e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p y .
Table I. Chemical Compositions
Element (wt. pct)
Form Cr Ni Cu C kin P S Si Cb Ta
5/8in. plate 15.8 4.25 3.46 0.037 0.24 0.015 0.015 0.60 0.29 0.01
188 plate 15.55 4.52 3.440.040 0.30 0.016 0.015 0.60 0.26 0.01

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 5, JULY 1974- 1595

 RESULTS
Microstructure
Unaged 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s steel is a mixture of a -
m a r t e n s i t e and 6 - f e r r i t e , Fig. l(a). The m a r t e n s i t e
m a t r i x is equiaxed while the 6 - f e r r i t e phase is elon-
gated in the p r i o r working d i r e c t i o n (Point At. Large
s i l i c a t e s t r i n g e r s were also noted (Point B). The m a r -
t e n s i t e m a t r i x in a i r cooled 17-4 PH is s i m i l a r to that
in 18 Ni m a r a g i n g steel. 8 It is a p r e c i p i t a t e - f r e e lath
m a r t e n s i t e o c c a s i o n a l l y containing m i c r o - t w i n s , Fig.
lib). The globular inclusions, which tend to lie on
p r i o r austenite or a u s t e n i t e - 6 f e r r i t e boundaries, a r e
p r o b a b l y M23C6 c a r b i d e s . 9
Aging below 900~ (482~ does not p e r c e p t i v e l y a l -
t e r the m i c r o s t r u c t u r e although some p r e c i p i t a t i o n was
o b s e r v e d after aging for 1 h at 900~ (482~ Fig. 2(a).
The e x t r e m e fineness of the p r e c i p i t a t e p r e c l u d e d its
identification by s e l e c t e d a r e a diffraction. Slight o v e r -
aging, at 950~ (510~ for 1 h, r e v e a l e d an fcc c o p p e r -
rich e-phase, Fig. 2(b). Overaging at l l 0 0 ~ (593~
confirmed this identification, Fig. 2(c). In a l l c a s e s ,
the e-phase was s p h e r i c a l .
T r a n s m i s s i o n e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p y r e v e a l e d that 5-
f e r r i t e contained a p r e c i p i t a t e which was unaffected
by aging, Fig. 3. These p a r t i c l e s a r e NbC, which
f o r m e d during solidification and p r i o r hotworking.
Finally, the 5-5 and 5 - m a t r i x b o u n d a r i e s exhibit p r e -
cipitate f r e e zones, with M2sC6 lying at the b o u n d a r i e s . 9

Mechanical P r o p e r t i e s
Aging 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s s t e e l for 1 h between 800~
(428~ and l l 0 0 ~ (593~ r e s u l t s in a m a r k e d strength
i n c r e a s e above that o b s e r v e d in the solution heat t r e a t e d
condition, Fig. 4. This strength i n c r e a s e is not a c c o m -
panied by any significant d e c r e a s e in the t e n s i l e d u c t i l -
ity (elongation and r e d u c t i o n - i n - a r e a ) , although a slight
d e c r e a s e in r e d u c t i o n - i n - a r e a o c c u r s at the highest
strength. The s t r a i n hardening exponent is a l s o a func-
tion of aging t r e a t m e n t , d e c r e a s i n g from 0.099 to 0.082
to 0.014 as the aging t e m p e r a t u r e is i n c r e a s e d from
800~ (427~ to 900~ (482~ to l l 0 0 ~ (593~ re-
spectively.
The r e s u l t s of the f r a c t u r e toughness t e s t s a r e s u m -
m a r i z e d in Tables II and III. The f r a c t u r e toughness
of 17-4 PH, as m e a s u r e d by e i t h e r a s t a n d a r d Charpy
or fatigue p r e c r a c k e d impact test, indicates a b r o a d
minimum upon aging at 800~ (428~ to 900~ (482~
The c o r r e c t e d Charpy slow bend f r a c t u r e energy shows
a distinct minimum after aging at 900~ (482~ i.e.,
at the maximum strength. This minimum is due p r i -
m a r i l y to a minimum in the c r a c k propagation energy;
the c r a c k initiation e n e r g y is l e s s s e n s i t i v e to aging,
Table III.
Finally, the c o r r e c t e d slow bend e n e r g y and KIC
(KQ for the l l 0 0 ~ (593~ aging) both indicate that, at
an equivalent strength, overaging y i e l d s higher f r a c -
t u r e toughness than does underaging.
Over a l i m i t e d c r a c k growth range, the fatigue data,
Fig. 5, can be d e s c r i b e d in t e r m s of a power r e l a t i o n -
ship:
,~t / ,~Y = A (Me) rn [1]
The values for A and m a r e given in Table IV. Only
the growth region between 10-7to 10-Sin./cycle (2.54 • -9
to 2.54 • 10 -7 m / c y c l e ) was c o n s i d e r e d since a) non-plane
s t r a i n propagation o c c u r s above this r a t e tn s p e c i m e n s

Table II. Charpy Impact Energei$

V-Notched Precracked
AgingTemp in-lb/in2 (103 m'N/m2) in-lb/in2 (103 m'N/m 2)
As-solutionized 2710(475) 2000(350)
800~ (428~ 813(142) 184(32)
900~ (482~ 834(146) 576(101)
Fig. 1--Unaged 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s steel. (a) Light m i c r o g r a p h 950~ (510~ 2110(370) 1550(271)
of section n o r m a l to long t r a n s v e r s e grain direction. Point A-- 1000~F (538~ 3090(541) 1790(314)
delta f e r r i t e , Point B - - s i l i c a t e s t r i n g e r . (b) T r a n s m i s s i o n e l e c - 1100~ (593~ 3070(532) 2470(433)
tron micrograph.

1596-VOLUME 5, JULY 1974 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

aged at 800~ (428~ and II00~ (593~ and b) fast
fracture occurred above this range in specimens aged
at 900~ (482~
At low AK, i.e., propagation rates less than 10-7
in./cycle (2.54• 10-9 m/cycle), the fatigue crack growth
rates are independent of environment. Speidel et al. ~~
have suggested that below a certain AK level, which
depends only on the elastic modulus (E), the fatigue
crack growth rate should be insensitive to environ-
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
mental conditions. This AK level, (~xKICF), the cor-
rosion fatigue limit, is given by: I~
AKIc F ~- (1.7 =L0.2) 10-4E (ivTm.) [2]
Applying Eq. [2] to the fatigue crack growth behavior
of 17-4 PH stainless steel with E = 29.3 x 106 psi (202
xl03 MN/me) predicts that AKIc F ~ 5.0 ksi i~-n-~. (5.5
MNm-3/z). This is in excellent agreement with the
present experimental results, Fig. 5.
Fig. 2--Transmission electron micrographs of 17-4 PH stain-
less steel aged 1 h at (a) 900~ (482~ (b) 950~ (510~ and
(c) I100~ (593~
VOLUME 5, JULY 1 9 7 4 - 1597
 Table III. Charpy Slow Bend and Plane-Strain Fracture Toughness

Crack Initiation Energy Crack Propagation Energy Corrected Total Fracture Energy KIC
Aging Temp in.lb/in 2 (10 a N-m/m2) in-lb/in2 (103 N.m/m 2) in-lb/in2 (103 N.m/m 2) ksi ~/~ (MNm"3/2)

As-solutionized 689 (121) 1669 (292) 2358 (413) - -

800~ (428~ 946 (166) 1800 (315) 2746 (481) 79.5 (87.4)
900~ (482~ 570 (100) 286 (50) 856 (150 43.9 (48.2)
1100~ (593~ 571 (100) 2053 (360) 2624 (460) 108.2 (119)*
*Test did not meet ASTM requirements for valid KICdetermination.

AGING TEMPERATURE(~
Table IV. Fatigue Crack Growth Rate Law Constants _~ 425 4/5 525 5/5 625
-- 250 I 1 i i I 15
Relative AGING TIME: 1 HR
Aging Temp Humidity, pct log A m REDUCTION IN AREA
(READ RIGHT)
0 -17.2 2.7 ].50(]-
800~ (428~ 100 -20.3 3.5
0 -20.7 3.6 21111 50
900~ (482~ 100 -22.5 4.1 ~,~-'~T,,,,~r ULTIMATE STRENGTH
0 -18.2 2.9
1100~ (593~ 100 -21.5 3.8
eL.
t~

i000 150 f# - 0.2~ YIELD STRENGTH

(READ LEFT)

ELONGATION
(READ RIGHT)
I I I I 0
800 900 i000 II00 1200
AGING TEMPERATURE(~
Fig. 4 - - I n f l u e n c e of aging t e m p e r a t u r e on t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s
of 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s s t e e l .

i.e., 900~ (428~ and ll00~ (593~ where Carter

et al z showed that KISCC > 0 . 8 5 KIC. Thus, the effects
of s t r e s s corrosion cracking and of fatigue crack
growth in an inert environment z~-~s cannot be s u p e r -
imposed in 17-4 PI-I stainless steel and a high s t r e s s
corrosion resistance does not presuppose an environ-
mentally insensitive fatigue crack growth behavior.
At high ~ levels, the rate of change of the crack
growth rates in specimens aged at 800~ (428~ and
ll00~ (593~ decreased. This transition occurs in
either inert or corrosive atmospheres. If no environ-
ment effects are involved and if this transition is due
to a gradual deviation from plane strain crack propa-
gation, then the s t r e s s intensity, K m a x , associated
with the initial departure from plane strain conditions
can be estimated from: 14
Fig. 3 - - T r a n s m i s s i o n e l e c t r o n m i e r o g r a p h of (5 p h a s e in 17-4
PH aged for 1 h at 950~ (510~
ayB z/2
Kmax - 1.58 [3]

The principal influence of the humid environment
on the fatigue crack growth involves plane strain crack
propagation. Increasing the humidity increases the
growth rate. Table IV does indicate that the environ-
mental effects appear to be more pronounced after
aging at either 800~ (428~ or ll00~ (593~ than
after aging at 900~ (482~ However, the absolute
crack growth rate, at any given ~ level, is always
greater following the latter aging treatment. It should
be noted also that the influence of environment on the
fatigue crack growth rate includes aging treatments,
where B is the specimen thickness and ay is the yield
strength. Application of Eq. [3] indicates that Kma x
~ 57 ksi i~]~:-. (62.5 MNm -s/2) for test specimens aged
at 800~ (428~ and ll00~ (593~ Experimentally
the ~ levels associated with the initial decrease in
slope of the fatigue crack growth rate curve when the
fatigue tests were c a r r i e d out in an inert atmosphere
are far below these calculated values. Indeed, when
the tests were performed in 100 pct humidity, this de-
c r e a s e in slope occurred at still lower ~ levels. This
indicates that the decrease in crack growth rate at high

1598 -VOLUME 5, JULY 1974 METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS

AK levels cannot be due to a simple departure from ture. Following aging, the fracture surface was even
plane strain crack propagation. more complex, the dimple sizes being smaller and
highly nonuniform, Fig. 6(b).
Tensile and impact loading of notched and p r e -
Fractography cracked 17-4 PH resulted in some quasi-cleavage
The fracture appearance depends upon heat t r e a t - failure, the amount depending upon the prior heat
ment and s t r e s s state. Tensile failure of smooth spec- treatment, Fig. 7. Although microvoid coalescence
imens occurred by transgranular dimple rupture inde- predominated when specimens were aged at 800~
pendent of heat treatment, Fig. 6(a). However, heat (428~ and ll00~ (593~ large amounts of quasi-
treatment did influence the dimple sizes and distribu- cleavage failure (Point A) were observed in speci-
tion. The as-solutionized condition was characterized mens aged at 900~ (482~ Parting plane cracks
by relatively uniform dimples, the l a r g e r dimples be- (Point C) which appeared to be related to the p r e s -
ing associated with bulk particles, presumably silicates, ence of 6-ferrite and presumably a r o s e when an ad-
while the smaller dimples had a dispersoid free s t r u c - vancing crack front encountered a 5-~ interface were

K (MN -m3/2) A K (MN m-3/2)

10 20 40 70 100 70 100
10-3 10-3 10 20 40
{ I I I
{~] i0-5
I I I i IN_ 10-5
9 DRY ARGON { [" DRY ARGON ]
[] I00~ HUMIDITY I {'- [~ 100~ HUMIDITY J]
i0 -4
:.
L7 9
__ 10-6 10-6
} 9
-~ i0"5 d 10-5 d
d
i0-7 10-7
W-
10-6
lO-s ~ 10-8

104 f 10-7 { - ~
t.0

R = 0. i {- 10-9 II R =0.1
~a: i0 cps
1-- i0 -9
w = i0 cps I
10-8 ,,,[ ,,,l , ,,l, ,,,I,,,,,I 10-8 l l ,l I I ,,I , , , I ,,,Jl,,,,,l, ,
96 I0 20 40 70 i00 6 I0 20 40 lO i00
A K (ksi-in. I12) d K (ksi - in. 1/2)
(a) (b)

AK(MN m-312)
10 20 40 70 100
i0-3

DRY ARGON
i00~ HUMIDITY
IO -4 - - D~'.~:

10-6
d
10-5 6
10-7 Fig. 5 - - F a t i g u e c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e d e p e n d e n c e on s t r e s s i n -
t e n s i t y r a n g e f o r 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s s t e e l aged f o r 1 h at (a)
800~ (428~ (b) 900~ (482~ (c) l l 0 0 ~ (593~
i0 -6
O
10-8
r

10-7
FD
-9
I R=0.1 -- 10
I (A 10 cps
10-8 1 ,,,1 ,,I]{ I ,]lll, I,,,,,I , L
10 20 40 70 100
K (ksi-in. I12)
(:)

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 5, JULY 1974-1599

also o b s e r v e d in unaged, underage and o v e r a g e d 17-4
PH, Fig. 7(a).
The influence of heat t r e a t m e n t on fatigue c r a c k
propagation is evident on both a m a c r o s c o p i c and m i -
c r o s c o p i c s c a l e . Macroscopic examination showed
that at high AK l e v e l s a deviation from p l a n e - s t r a i n
c r a c k propagation o c c u r r e d in those s p e c i m e n s aged
at 800~ (428~ and l l 0 0 ~ (593~ Fig. 8. This d e -
p a r t u r e f r o m c r a c k growth n o r m a l to the applied t e n -
s i l e axis is thought to have manifested itself in the
d e c r e a s e in the r a t e of change of the c r a c k growth
r a t e s p r e v i o u s l y alluded to, i.e., the calculation of K
is invalid when c r a c k growth is not n o r m a l to the a p -
plied t e n s i l e load. Aging at 900~ (482~ r e s u l t e d in
plane s t r a i n c r a c k propagation throughout. All fatigue
c r a c k growth on a m i c r o s c o p i c s c a l e was t r a n s g r a n u -
l a r . Growth in s p e c i m e n s aged at 800~ (428~ and
l l 0 0 ~ (593~ and t e s t e d in e i t h e r the d r y or wet a r -
Fig. 6--Scanning electron fractographs of 17-4 PH stainless
steel tested in tension following aging at (a) 75~ (25~ and
(b) 900~ (482~
1600-VOLUME 5, JULY 1974
gon environment were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by ductile fatigue
s t r i a t i o n s , Fig. 9. However some s e c o n d a r y c r a c k i n g
was o b s e r v e d at high AK l e v e l s when these heat t r e a t -
ments were t e s t e d in 100 pct humidity, Fig. 10.
While ductile fatigue s t r i a t i o n s were o b s e r v e d at
low ZkK l e v e l s in s p e c i m e n s aged at 900~ (482~ in-
c r e a s i n g amounts of q u a s i - c l e a v a g e f a i l u r e were ob-
s e r v e d with i n c r e a s i n g 5Jr level, Fig. 11. F u r t h e r m o r e
at equivalent 5K l e v e l s t e s t i n g in 100 pct humidity r e -
sulted in s t i l l f u r t h e r i n c r e a s e s in the amounts of q u a s i -
cleavage c r a c k propagation, Fig. 12.
DISCUSSION
Age Hardening
The p r e c i p i t a t i o n sequence o b s e r v e d in 17-4 PI-I
s t a i n l e s s s t e e l is e s s e n t i a l l y that p r e v i o u s l y o b s e r v e d
in F e - C u and F e - C u - X a l l o y s . 15-22 Briefly, this in-
Fig. 7--Scanning electron fractographs of 17-4 PH stainless
steel tested in impact following aging at (a) 75~ (25~ and
(b) 900~ (482~
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS
v o l v e s the i n i t i a l f o r m a t i o n of c o h e r e n t c o p p e r - r i c h
c l u s t e r s which t r a n s f o r m to i n c o h e r e n t fcc e - c o p p e r
p r e c i p i t a t e s upon f u r t h e r aging. Youle and Ralph TM
showed that c o h e r e n t c o p p e r - r i c h c l u s t e r s ( ~ 204)
r e s u l t in m a x i m u m h a r d n e s s in F e - C u a l l o y s . T h e s e
p a r t i c l e s cannot be o b s e r v e d using s t a n d a r d t r a n s m i s -
s i o n e l e c t r o n m i c r o s c o p y t e c h n i q u e s . This d i f f i c u l t y
s u g g e s t s that t h e s e c o p p e r - r i c h c l u s t e r s have the s a m e
c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e a s the m a t r i x (i.e., b c c ) o r that the
Fig. 8 - - M a e r o g r a p h s of 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s steel fatigue c r a c k
growth s p e c i m e n s t e s t e d in dry argon following aging at (a)
800~ (428~ and (b) l l 0 0 ~ (593~
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
c o h e r e n c y s t r a i n s a s s o c i a t e d with p r e c i p i t a t i o n a r e
m i n i m a l . In e i t h e r c a s e , the age h a r d e n i n g of 17-4 PH,
F e - C u , and F e - C u - X a l l o y s m u s t depend on s o m e t h i n g
o t h e r than e l a s t i c s t r a i n s a s s o c i a t e d with the p r e c i p i -
t a t e . This fact is r e e m p h a s i z e d when the influence of
a g i n g on the w o r k h a r d e n i n g r a t e is c o n s i d e r e d . The
u s u a l r a p i d i n c r e a s e in w o r k h a r d e n i n g r a t e n o r m a l l y
a s s o c i a t e d with o v e r a g i n g is a b s e n t in t h e s e s y s t e m s .
Knowles and K e l l y 23 and R u s s e l l and Brown u r e c e n t l y
p r o p o s e d t h a t the age h a r d e n i n g b e h a v i o r of F e - C u a l -
l o y s can be e x p l a i n e d b y the i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n a m a -
t r i x d i s l o c a t i o n and a s e c o n d p h a s e p a r t i c l e with a d i f -
f e r e n t s h e a r modulus than the m a t r i x . Knowles and
K e l l y 2s noted that one t e s t of this h y p o t h e s i s r e q u i r e s
that the p a r t i c l e s have the s a m e c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e a s
the m a t r i x . This c r i t e r i o n m a y have b e e n v i o l a t e d in
the two s t u d i e s c i t e d . T h e y both c o n s i d e r e d F e - C u a l -
l o y s a g e d to a s t a g e w h e r e p r e c i p i t a t e p a r t i c l e m e a -
Fig. 9--Scanning electron fractographs of fatigue crack prop-
agation in 17-4 PH stainless steel tested in 100 pct humidity
following aging at 1100~ (593~ Arrow denotes macroscopic
fatigue crack growth directions.
Fig. 10--Secondary c r a c k i n g in 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s steel t e s t e d
in 100 pct humidity following aging at l l 0 0 ~ (593~ Arrow
denotes m a c r o s c o p i c fatigue c r a c k growth directions.
VOLUME 5, JULY 1974-1601

Fig. ll--Scanning electron micrograph of fatigue crack propa-
gation in 17-4 PH stainless steel tested in dry argon following
aging at 900~ (482~ (a) A/f 2. 19 ksi i~/~n. (20 9 MNm -3/2)
(b) ZkK ~ 25 ksi'l~n. (27.5 MNm -3 2). Arrows denote macro-
scopic crack growth directions.
Fig. 12--Scanning electron micrograph of fatigue crack prop-
agation in 17-4 PH stainless steel tested in 100 pct humidity
following aging at 900~ (482~ Arrow denotes macroscopic
crack growth direction.
1602-VOLUME 5, JULY 1974
s u r e m e n t s b y T E M could be o b t a i n e d . Our r e s u l t s
i n d i c a t e that when the p r e c i p i t a t e p a r t i c l e s a r e v i s i b l e ,
t h e y a r e fcc e - c o p p e r p r e c i p i t a t e s in the b c c m a t r i x .
P e r h a p s the r e q u i r e m e n t of i d e n t i c a l m a t r i x and p a r -
t i c l e c r y s t a l s t r u c t u r e is of s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e in
F e - C u s y s t e m w h e r e c o m p l i c a t i o n s due to l o c a l o r d e r -
ing within the p r e c i p i t a t e p a r t i c l e a r e not e x p e c t e d .
The o t h e r c r i t e r i a f o r s h e a r m o d u l u s h a r d e n i n g , d i f -
f e r e n t s h e a r m o d u l i i b e t w e e n m a t r i x and p a r t i c l e and
a s m a l l s i z e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n p a r t i c l e and m a t r i x
a t o m , m a y b e of o v e r r i d i n g i m p o r t a n c e in F e - C u t y p e
alloys.
Knowles and K e l l y 23 i n d i c a t e d that A~, the s t r e s s
n e c e s s a r y to f o r c e a d i s l o c a t i o n p a s s e d the p r e c i p i -
t a t e p a r t i c l e s , is given b y :
(6
- --T~\0x / m a x \ ~r ! [4]
w h e r e A g = ~ m a t r i x - ~particle, f is the p r e c i p i t a t e
v o l u m e f r a c t i o n , b is the B u r g e r s v e c t o r of the d i s l o -
c a t i o n and (OE/Ox)max i s the m a x i m u m v a l u e of the
s l o p e of the e n e r g y / d i s t a n c e c u r v e for s p h e r i c a l p a r -
t i c l e s of r a d i u s R . It should b e noted that the r e l a t i o n -
s h i p b e t w e e n b (0E/Ox)ma x and (R/b) a l s o d e p e n d s upon
the e f f e c t i v e c o r e r a d i u s , ro, of the d i s l o c a t i o n c u t t i n g
the p a r t i c l e , s e e F i g . 1 of Ref. 23. Since the m a x i m u m
s t r e n g t h e n i n g m u s t c o r r e s p o n d to a m a x i m u m in a
b (aE/aX_)ma x v s (R/b) c u r v e , Eq. [4] m a y b e i n v e r t e d
and b (OE/Ox)max e v a l u a t e d if we a s s u m e that a l l of the
c o p p e r not in s o l i d s o l u t i o n at the a g i n g t e m p e r a t u r e
is a s s o c i a t e d with c o p p e r c l u s t e r s , and that A~ is the
d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n the unaged and a g e d s t r e n g t h . A p -
p l i c a t i o n of t h i s s t r e n g t h e n i n g m o d e l to 17-4 PH s t a i n -
l e s s s t e e l a g e d at 900~ (482~ p r e d i c t s that R / b u 6
when r o = 2b. This v a l u e of R a g r e e s quite well with
the r e c e n t r e s u l t s of Youle and Ralph. 19 Eq. [4] can
now b e a p p l i e d to the 1100~ (593~ a g i n g condition
b y u s i n g the s a m e c o r e r a d i u s and the c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e
of b (• 9 This r e s u l t s in a p r e d i c t e d (R/b)
--- 60, a g a i n in good a g r e e m e n t with p a r t i c l e s i z e m e a -
s u r e m e n t s on o v e r a g e d 17-4 PH, s e e Fig. 2(c). T h e s e
r e s u l t s s u p p o r t the c o n c l u s i o n that p a r t i c l e cutting is
the p r e d o m i n a t e d e f o r m a t i o n m e c h a n i s m in 17-4 PH
s t a i n l e s s s t e e l and that at l e a s t within the a g i n g r e -
g i m e i n v e s t i g a t e d , the s l i p mode i s i n d e p e n d e n t of h e a t
treatment.
F a t i g u e C r a c k Growth
Although Hahn et al ~5 have s u g g e s t e d t h a t fatigue
c r a c k growth r a t e s in s t e e l s a r e i n s e n s i t i v e to y i e l d
s t r e n g t h , c o m p o s i t i o n , and d u c t i l i t y , t h e y do s u g g e s t
that t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e i m p o r t a n t in a l u m i n u m b a s e
a l l o y s . 26 The p r e s e n t r e s u l t s , Fig. 5 and T a b l e IV,
show that the growth r a t e s in 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s s t e e l
b e t w e e n 10 -7 and 10 -5 i n . / c y c l e (2.54 x 10 -9 and 2.54
• 10 -7 m / c y c l e ) are a function of y i e l d s t r e n g t h . Indeed
the y i e l d s t r e n g t h effect on growth r a t e is m o r e p r o -
nounced in d r y a r g o n than in 100 pct h u m i d i t y . How-
e v e r , when 17-4 PH is a g e d at 800~ (427~ o r
l l 0 0 ~ (593~ to a c o n s t a n t s t r e n g t h l e v e l , ~ 150 k s i
(1032 MN/m2), but not to a c o n s t a n t KIC l e v e l , the
fatigue c r a c k growth r a t e s a r e c o m p a r a b l e . It should
b e noted that the c o m p a r i s o n s in 17-4 PH a r e b a s e d
on a s y s t e m w h e r e the s l i p mode, a s noted above, is
unaffected b y h e a t t r e a t m e n t . T h i s e l i m i n a t e s the
METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS
c o m p l i c a t i n g f a c t o r of r e l a t i n g s l i p c h a r a c t e r a s w e l l AGING TEMPERATURE(o C)
a s y i e l d s t r e n g t h and f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s to the growth 450 500 550 600
I I i I

rate. o 100%HUMIDITY
V a r i o u s o t h e r i n v e s t i g a t o r s have s u g g e s t e d t h a t i10-7
9 DRY ARGON
the c o e f f i c i e n t A in Eq. [1] m a y be r e l a t e d to such
m e c h a n i c a l b e h a v i o r p a r a m e t e r s a s the y i e l d 10-4
s t r e n g t h , f r a c t u r e t o u g h n e s s , t e n s i l e d u c t i l i t y , Young's
10-8
m o d u l u s , and s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g c o e f f i c i e n t . 1x'27-s5 A

A
T a b l e V s u m m a r i z e s the r e l e v a n t p r o p e r t i e s d e t e r - o~

m i n e d d u r i n g t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n which can be u t i l i z e d 10-5 E

.E
to e v a l u a t e fatigue c r a c k growth m o d e l s . Young's
10-9 ~
m o d u l u s is i n d e p e n d e n t of h e a t t r e a t m e n t (within e x -
p e r i m e n t a l a c c u r a c y ) so that a m o d e l which a t t r i b u t e s
m
AK = 10.0ksi iVr~n
. 1 0 -6
d i f f e r e n c e s in growth r a t e to d i f f e r e n c e s in m o d u l i
a l o n e is not a p p l i c a b l e . F u r t h e r m o r e , m o d e l s which 10-10
s u g g e s t an i n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n y i e l d o r u l t i -
m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and growth r a t e a r e a l s o not AK = 6.0 ksi iVq'n'n
c o n s i s t e n t with the e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s . T h e s e c r i - 10-/
t e r i a e l i m i n a t e the m o d e l s p r o p o s e d b y P e a r s o n , 3z 10-11
McClintock, s~ and M c E v i l y and Wei. zl
T h r o o p and M i l l e r ~ have shown t h a t the o t h e r m o d - 10-8 , , , /
e l s c a n be e x a m i n e d b y c o n s i d e r i n g the influence of 800 900 1000 1100
a g i n g t e m p e r a t u r e on the g r o w t h c o e f f i c i e n t , A. F i g . AGINGTEMPERATURE(oF)
13 i s a r e p l o t of o u r p r e s e n t r e s u l t s and shows that
Fig. 1 3 - - F a t i g u e c r a c k g r o w t h r a t e s at c o n s t a n t zkK a s a f u n c -
a t c o n s t a n t AK, the c r a c k growth r a t e s go t h r o u g h a tion of a g i n g t e m p e r a t u r e .
m a x i m a upon a g i n g at 900~ (482~ If at f i r s t we
a s s u m e t h a t m in Eq. [1] is i n d e p e n d e n t of h e a t t r e a t -
AGING TEMPERATURE(~
ment, then an e v a l u a t i o n of A a s a function of a g i n g
t e m p e r a t u r e should e x h i b i t a d e p e n d e n c e s i m i l a r to 450 500 550 600
I I I I

t h a t of the growth r a t e . F i g . 14 p o r t r a y s the c a l c u l a - o KRAFFT(REF. 331

t i o n a l r e s u l t s of four m o d e l s p r o p o s e d b y M c E v i l y and + THROOPAND MILLER(REF.28) A
[] McCLINTOCK (REF. 29) ,/~
Johnston, 27 Krafft, 33 T h r o o p and M i l l e r , 28 and M c C l i n -
tock. 2e H e r e i n the q u a n t i t y C, which is p r o p o r t i o n a l to 10-16 O Mc EVILY AND JOHNSTON , /
(~EF. 271
A , the growth c o e f f i c i e n t , is p r e s e n t e d a s a function of
a g i n g t e m p e r a t u r e . M c E v i l y and J o h n s t o n ' s m o d e l was
e v a l u a t e d b y a s s u m i n g that the s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g b e h a v -
10-1/ E( ou + ay) a 2
u( u I0-23
i o r of 17-4 PH is d e s c r i b e d b y an e x p r e s s i o n of the
f o r m a = K E n , and that Eu, the e n g i n e e r i n g s t r a i n at I 1
n e c k i n g , is equal to e n - 1. C ~E2a2u( 2f
At low AK l e v e l s , M c C l i n t o c k ' s function a d e q u a t e l y
10-30 1 10-24
d e s c r i b e s the s h a p e of the c r a c k growth r a t e v e r s u s
a g i n g c u r v e while a t high AK l e v e l s t h a t of T h r o o p and
M i l l e r p r o v i d e s the b e s t d e s c r i p t i o n . H o w e v e r none of
t h e s e m o d e l s a g r e e s with o u r r e s u l t s o v e r the e n t i r e
10-31 1 10-1/
AK r a n g e i n v e s t i g a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n T a b l e IV shows
t h a t o u r a s s u m p t i o n of a c o n s t a n t m in Eq. [1] is i n - Ea KIC
31,34 35
c o r r e c t . Although T o m k i n s and c o - w o r k e r s '
have e x t e n d e d t h e s e a n a l y s i s b y t a k i n g into account 10-32 I = J = 10-18
the s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of m a t e r i a l s , 800 900 1000 1100
t h e i r a n a l y s i s a) is l i m i t e d to l a r g e s t r a i n a m p l i t u d e s AGI NG TEMPERATURE(~
and b) i n d i c a t e s that m is a s i n g l e d v a l u e d p a r a m e t e r F i g . 1 4 - - I n f l u e n c e of a g i n g t e m p e r a t u r e on C: [ d a / d N
-~ 2. Again the p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n h a s shown that = A(ZkK)m]; A = (eonst)C.

Table V. Numerical Parameters for Growth Rate Evaluation

.y % F. K~c
Aging Temp ksi (MN/m2) ksi 0dN/m 2) n* psi (10 a MN/m2) ksi V ~ (bin m "312) e;

800~ (427~ 150 (1034) 176 (1214) 0.099 29.3 X 106 (202) 79.5 (87.4) 0.77
900~ (482~ 176 (1214) 200 (1379) 0.082 29.3 X 106 (202) 43.9 (48.2) 0.65
1100~ (593~ 156 (1076) 162 (1117) 0.014 29.3 X 106 (202) 108.2 (119.0) 0.83
*From o = Ke n over the plastic strain range 0.002 to 0.004.
re/- -~ ln(1/I-RA).

METALLURGICAL TRANSACTIONS VOLUME 5, JULY 1 9 7 4 - 1603

m is a function of yield strength and environment. In
s u m m a r y , none of the models p r e s e n t e d to date can ex-
plain the influence of m i c r o s t r u c t u r e on the fatigue
c r a c k growth behavior of 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s s t e e l . Any
i m p r o v e d model must c o n s i d e r the influence of m i c r o -
s t r u c t u r e on both rn and A as defined in Eq. [1]. The
most p r o m i s i n g approach to date a p p e a r s to be that of
Tomkins, where the cyclic s t r a i n hardening behavior of
the m a t e r i a l just in advance of a propagating fatigue
c r a c k is c o n s i d e r e d .
F r a c t u r e Toughness
Several models have been p r o p o s e d to explain the
influence of m i c r o s t r u c t u r e , and in turn the t e n s i l e
p r o p e r t i e s , on the plane s t r a i n f r a c t u r e toughness of
high strength m a t e r i a l s . All of these models a s s u m e
that final f a i l u r e involves m i c r o v o i d c o a l e s c e n c e and
obey a c r i t i c a l s t r a i n c r i t e r i a . Although t e n s i l e f a i l -
ure of smooth s p e c i m e n s in 17-4 PH a p p e a r s to obey
these r e q u i r e m e n t s , t r a n s l a t i o n of this approach to
f r a c t u r e toughness p r e d i c t i o n must be made with c a r e .
Toughness s p e c i m e n s aged at 900~ (482~ a r e c h a r -
a c t e r i z e d by q u a s l - c l e a v a g e c r a c k i n g and thus do not
obey the above a s s u m p t i o n s . However, the r e s u l t s of
s p e c i m e n s aged at 800~ (428~ and l l 0 0 ~ (593~
can s t i l l f o r m a b a s i s for a valid evaluation of the
proposed models.
Hahn and Rosenfield 36 have suggested that:
Kic ~- [~ECryef(O.O005 + n2)]~/2 [5]
where E is Young's modulus, ay the tensile yield stress,
n is the strain hardening coefficient, and ~f the critical
true strain for coalescing voids. The latter may be ap-
proximated in a tensile test by the true strain at frac-
ture. An evaluation of Eq. [5] for 17-4 PH aged at
800~ (428~ and II00~ (593~ indicates that/~o
> K~~176 This is not consistent with the results of the
present investigation although only our 800~ (428~
measurement is actually a KIc value. Eq. [5] predicts
that, other things being equal, increasing the strain
hardening coefficient should increase the fracture
toughness. Clearly this does not agree with the re-
sults obtained on 17-4 PH stainless steel.
The model proposed by Krafft37 suggests:
K I c ~- [ 2 ~ E ~ 2 d t ] !/2 [6]
where d t is now the distance ahead of an advancing
c r a c k tip where the c r i t i c a l s t r a i n for f r a c t u r e is
reached.
Eq. [6] p r e d i c t s that d t equals 3.05 ~m, and 282 gm
for 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s s t e e l aged at 800~ (428~ and
l l 0 0 ~ (493~ r e s p e c t i v e l y . No c l e a r c o r r e l a t i o n b e -
tween d t and any m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l feature, for example,
grain size, p r e c i p i t a t e spacing, or the spacing between
5 - f e r r i t e p a r t i c l e s , is a p p a r e n t . F u r t h e r m o r e , b a s e d
on this model, the f r a c t u r e toughness should again in-
c r e a s e with i n c r e a s i n g s t r a i n hardening coefficient,
again in contradiction with our r e s u l t s on 17-4 PH.
F i n a l l y Rice 38 has r e c e n t l y attempted to extend
these models. He suggested that
dt =0.49-~yL ~-
%
E
l+n ln [7]
1604-VOLUME 5, JULY 1974
ZCzc=/-- v- L e [8]
where the t e r m s a r e as defined above. Eq. [7] p r e d i c t s
that d t equals 14.0 and 31.6 ~ for 17-4 PH s t a i n l e s s
s t e e l aged at 800~ (428~ and l l 0 0 ~ (493~ re-
spectively. These values of d t a r e well within the
range of spacings o b s e r v e d for 5 - f e r r i t e p a r t i c l e s
in 17-4 PH, s e e Fig. 5. F r a c t o g r a p h i c evidence, Fig.
7(a), a l s o suggest that 5 - ~ i n t e r f a c e s may be planes
of weakness and thus may s e r v e as void nucleation
s i t e s in 17-4 PH. Indeed it is well known that the f r a c -
t u r e toughness of this alloy is quite s e n s i t i v e to s p e c i -
men orientation and section s i z e and this s e n s i t i v i t y
is d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to the amount and d i s t r i b u t i o n of
the r e t a i n e d 5 f e r r i t e . 39
C ONC LUSIONS
1. Age hardening of 17-4 PH involves initial f o r m a -
tion of c o p p e r - r i c h c l u s t e r s which t r a n s f o r m i n - s i t u
to incoherent fcc 6 - c o p p e r p r e c i p i t a t e s upon f u r t h e r
aging.
2. While the t e n s i l e strength goes through a m a x i -
mum after aging for 1 h at 900~ (482~ the work
hardening r a t e g r a d u a l l y d e c r e a s e s with i n c r e a s i n g
aging t e m p e r a t u r e .
3. The f r a c t u r e toughness of 17-4 PH exhibits a
distinct minimum after aging at 900~ (482~ i.e.,
to the maximum strength. At an equivalent strength
level overaging r e s u l t s in a higher f r a c t u r e toughness
than does underaging.
4. At low ~ l e v e l s the fatigue c r a c k growth r a t e s
a r e independent of environment while at i n t e r m e d i a t e
l e v e l s i n c r e a s i n g humidity and strength level i n c r e a s e
the growth r a t e s . At high AK l e v e l s s p e c i m e n s aged
at 800~ (428~ and l l 0 0 ~ (593~ exhibit a gradual
d e c r e a s e in the slope of the c r a c k growth r a t e curve
which cannot be attributed to a s i m p l e deviation from
plane s t r a i n c r a c k propagation.
5. The p r e c i p i t a t i o n hardening b e h a v i o r of 17-4 PH
is consistent with p r o p o s e d models b a s e d on the i n t e r -
action of a m a t r i x dislocation and a second phase p a r -
ticle of lower s h e a r modulus than the m a t r i x .
6. Attempts to c o r r e l a t e the fatigue c r a c k growth
r a t e s with monotonic t e n s i l e behavior were unsuc-
cessful. The most s e r i o u s defect of the p r e s e n t mod-
els a p p e a r s to lie in t h e i r complete neglect of m i c r o -
s t r u c t u r a l effects on the cyclic s t r a i n hardening b e -
havior of the m a t e r i a l just in advance of a propagative
fatigue c r a c k .
7. The f r a c t u r e toughness behavior, when obeying
a c r i t i c a l s t r a i n c r i t e r i a , can be d e s c r i b e d using a
model r e c e n t l y p r o p o s e d by Rice. 38
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors a r e indebted to H. P e a r s o n , J. W. Elling,
K. D. Fike, D. Paschal, and C. Miglionico for t h e i r a s -
s i s t a n c e in the e x p e r i m e n t a l portion of this i n v e s t i g a -
tion. The c r i t i c a l comments of J. Munford and J.
Swearengen in reviewing the m a n u s c r i p t a r e g r e a t l y
a p p r e c i a t e d . This work was supported in p a r t by the
U. S. Atomic E n e r g y Commission.
METALLURGICALTRANSACTIONS
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