THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

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Printed in U.S.A. Copyright © 1994 by ASME

SOLAR TURBINES INCORPORATED "TAURUS 60"

GAS TURBINE DEVELOPMENT

Vern Van Leuven

Department of Mechanical Design Engineering
Solar Turbines Incorporated
San Diego, California

ABSTRACT Program Objectives

The Taurus gas turbine was first introduced in 1989 with
ratings of 6200 HP for single shaft and 6500 HP for twin shaft
configurations. A new design of the single shaft third stage
turbine rotor and exhaust diffuser brought its power to 6500 HP
in 1991. A program was initiated early in 1992 to identify
opportunities to further optimize performance of the Taurus.
Thorough investigation of performance sensitivity to
thermodynamic cycle parameters has resulted in significant
improvement over the original design with no change in firing
temperature. Aerodynamic and mechanical design changes were
implemented in 1993 which raised Taurus performance to 7000
HP and 32% thermal efficiency. Selection of the final design
configuration was the outcome of performance maximization
versus cost increase, durability risk and loss of commonality with
previous engines. This paper details these changes and the design
selection process.
INTRODUCTION
History
The Taurus 60 gas turbine (Figures 1 and 2) was originally
introduced to the market in 1989. Table 1 summarizes original
ISO performance and significant features of the single and two
shaft versions. The engine configuration is similar to the Solar
Centaur 50 with the most important changes being an additional
stage at the front of the compressor and a new design two stage
power turbine for the two shaft version. The compressor stage is
a scale of the Solar Mars first stage blade while the two shaft
power turbine was a new design. In 1991 the third stage turbine
and exhaust diffuser for the single shaft version was redesigned.
Engine performance improved by 390 HP and -534 BTU/HP-hr.
Quantities of engines produced from 6/90 to 10/93 were (22) 6200
HP single shaft, (27) 6500 HP single shaft and (39) 6500 HP two
shaft engines.
Industrial gas turbine designs in all size ranges are
continually responding to evolving application demands for higher
engine performance and the Taurus 60 is no exception.
Competitive challenges and the potential for design improvement
using advances in design and analysis technology motivated Solar
to initiate a development program for the Taurus 60. Goals of the
program were to deliver a product to the market in 18 months,
maintain existing cost normalized by power, incur no sacrifice in
durability and produce performance shown in Table 2.
Program Summary
The program objectives provided a tough challenge to the
new product introduction (NPl) teaming approach newly
implemented at Solar. The basis of NPI teaming is to assign
responsibility for product development to a cross functional team
so that communication and participation throughout all disciplines
are maximized. An NPI team was assigned by management and
the team's first task was to complete conceptual product design.
Fundamentally there are two ways to improve the
performance of a gas turbine. The cycle (pressure ratio and firing
temperature) can be changed or the component efficiency can be
increased (this includes reducing cooling air flow and leakage).
Brainstorming sessions were held to create a list of options to
achieve the program objectives with the criteria used in the
evaluation being performance, durability risk, cost, development
time and product commonality.
Once preliminary design was completed and the optimum
configuration determined detail design work was initiated. A
timeline was prepared summarizing the program, and tasks were
organized with consideration to component lead times, manpower
and test rig availability. More refined performance, temperature
and stress evaluations were begun and definition for necessary
testing was created. Previous experience from Centaur 50 and
original Taurus 60 were also heavily utilized in this program.

Presented at the International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exposition
The Hague, Netherlands — June 13-16, 1994

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 FIGURE 1. TAURUS 60 SINGLE SHAFT ENGINE CROSS SECTION

RE93133

FIGURE 2. TAURUS 60 TWO SHAFT ENGINE CROSS SECTION

Both the single and two shaft designs were completed on
schedule and the cost target was achieved. Performance of engines
tested to date (Table 2) show that performance goals were also
exceeded.
DISCUSSION
Conceptual Design
A substantial period of time was spent identifying all
potential design changes which might be made to achieve the
performance goal. A list of options was compiled and evaluated
using the established criteria as illustrated in Table 3. Several
different combinations of the potential modifications would satisfy
the performance goal but most involved compromises in cost,
schedule and risk.
A configuration which increased firing temperature and
pressure ratio was seriously considered in the beginning of the
conceptual stage. This required additional stages added to the aft
end of the compressor and a new gas producer turbine design. The
compressor stages would be scaled form existing Solar Mars
engine stages and would not require a lengthy development.
However, the new GP was to have new nozzles and would require
a directionally solidified first stage GP turbine blade. The third
stage nozzle would also have to be redesigned to provide the
connect flow characteristics. Although this configuration met the
performance goals, the increased engine cost of about 15%,

PA

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 TABLE 1. ORIGINAL PERFORMANCE OF TAURUS 60 ENGINES

Parameter Original Single Shaft Taurus 60 Original Two Shaft Taurus 60

Power (1) 6200 HP (Pre 1992) 6500 HP

6450 HP
Cycle Efficiency (1) 29.6% (Pre 1992) 31.0%
30.3%
Mass Flow 46.0 Lbm/s 46.0 Lbm/s

TR1T 1850°F 1850°F

Pressure Ratio 11.2 11.2

Exhaust Temperature 901°F 910°F

Speed 14950 RPM 15000 RPM GP

14300 RPM PT (max)

Compressor Stages 12 12
Variable Comp Stages 4 4

Turbine Stages 3 4

Note: 1. All values represent no duct losses, natural gas fuel and 59°F, sea level, 60% relative humidity air.

TABLE 2. PERFORMANCE OF UPRATED TAURUS 60 ENGINES

Engine Power Efficiency

Single Shaft Taurus 60 6900 HP 32.0%

Program Goal
Two Shaft Taurus 60 6950 HP 32.0%
Program Goal
Single Shaft Taurus 60 6947 HP 32.0%
Average 8 Engines
-

Two Shaft Taurus 60 7007 HP 31.9%

-1 Engine

Note: 1. All values represent no duct losses, natural gas fuel and 59F, sea level, 60% relative humidity air.

longer program development time, and loss of commonalty with
the current fleet of Taurus engines led to closer evaluation of
other options.
The most attractive configuration was found by improving
component efficiencies. This could be accomplished in a shorter
time while maintaining fleet commonalty, low engine cost, and
without increased durability risk. Efficiency improvements were
made for both compressor and turbine components in the new
Taurus 60. In the compressor, the 0-stage blade was modified, tip
clearances were reduced, improvements were made in surface
finish and the guide vane settings were optimized. The turbine
also had the tip clearances reduced as well as leakage and cooling
flow reduction. One option that was in the concept initially was
a longer exhaust diffuser for both single and two shaft engines.
This option was eliminated because the performance gain did not
outweigh the significant package changes required and loss of
opportunity for customers wishing to uprate their units. In this
instance, the early design conceptualization involving Solar
Package Engineering and Customer Services groups facilitated by
the NPI process was of great benefit.

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 TABLE 3. MATRIX OF PERFORMANCE IMPROVEMENT OPTIONS

Modification Performance Cost Risk Duration

Sensitivity

Raise TRIT High High Med 24 M

New 1 st, 2nd GPT
Blade Mat.

Raise Pressure High High Med 18 M

Ratio Add Comp Stages

Redesign GP High High High 30 M

Turbine

Redesign PT High High High 30 M

Improve Diffuser Med High Low 24 M

New Package

Reduce Cooling, High Low Low 12 M

Leakage Flows

Optimize 0 Stg Med Low Low 6M

Comp Blade

New Air Inlet Unknown Med Low 12 M

Reduce Comp High Low Low 4M

Tip CL Med w/Rub Coat

Reduce Turb High Low Low 4M

Tip CL

Improve Comp Low Low Low 4M

Surface Finish

Optimize Comp Med Low Low 2M

Guide Vanes

KWl^zmm flow as much as possible without sacrificing efficiency. The

Zero Stage Blade . The zero stage blade was a scale of the
Mars first stage compressor stage which was originally designed
in 1975. Recent mechanical analysis of the blade with finite
element methods revealed that the deflections due to centrifugal
and aerodynamic loading were slightly different than what was
originally calculated. Today's capability of finite element software
to account for large deformations where the load vector relative
to the position of the structure changes significantly with
deflection (Figure 3) was not available at the time of original
design.
It is extremely difficult to predict by analysis alone
compressor performance sensitivity to changes in blade incidence
thus rig or engine testing is essential in the evaluation process.
Rather than just correcting a known problem, testing was used to
further optimize the stage incidence. The objective was to increase
airfoil incidence angle was modified and back to back engine
testing was performed to compare against the original design. One
compressor case half was removed, the blades were changed out
and the engine was rerun all in the same day. By changing out
blades in the test stand a minimum amount of uncertainty was
introduced in the evaluation. The result of several tests was a
blade incidence angle which produced additional airflow and no
detriment to compressor efficiency.
Increase in power is summarized in Table 4. There were no
additional material costs associated with the change in new
production and no mechanical risks were introduced.
Compressor Tip Clearance Reduction
Compressor performance is known to be very sensitive to tip
clearances. An optimum value of running clearance is generally
believed to be between 1.2 - 1.5% of chord length. Finite element

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 TABLE 4. RESULTS OF PERFORMANCE ENHANCEMENTS
Modification
Zero Stage Blade Twist
Compressor Tip Clearance Reduction
Compressor Guide Vane Optimization
GP Turbine Tip Clearance Reduction
Single Shaft PT Cooling Reduction
Two Shaft PT Cooling Reduction
Piston Seal Leakage Reduction
U 1 - U2 = Difference in orientation of structure
to load vector after loading. REM1
FIGURE 3. ZERO STAGE COMPRESSOR BLADE
DEFLECTION UNDER LOAD
modelling of the compressor rotor and a component tolerance
stackup study showed that there was potential for optimization of
tip clearances. Adequate margin of safety must be included in the
design because heavy nibs in the compressor cannot be tolerated.
A rub can result in material build up at the contact area which
may not clear away. If this happens, the rubbed material buildup
can continue to grow resulting in damage to the blading. Also, if
a stationary airfoil rubs against the rotor heating from friction can
cause distortion, further tubbing, loss of material strength and
possible component failure. A tub tolerant coating could be
introduced to permit occasional rubs by design, however the
expense of a rub coating and the risk of it not adhering
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Performance Improvement
114 HP
0.0% Efficiency
180 HP
0.7% Efficiency
50 HP
0.4% Efficiency
77 HP
0.37% Efficiency
92 HP
0.29% Efficiency
157 HP
0.45% Efficiency
110 HP
0.19% Efficiency
sufficiently outweighed the benefit of tighter clearances. It was
decided to reduce tip clearances as near as possible to optimum
without permitting the possibility of tub.
Finite element methods were used to calculate the rotor radial
growth due to thermal and centrifugal loads and static structure
thermal displacements were calculated. Positional tolerance of the
rotor relative to the cases involved a stackup of four features on
the front end and three features on the aft end while diametral
tolerance consisted of two features. Clearance values were then set
so that rubs would never occur. To confirm proper machining and
assembly, clearances were measured during build of each engine
by alternately removing each compressor case half and measuring
gaps with feeler gages. A development test engine was run to
verify analytically predicted minimum clearances by brazing in
small diameter instrumentation tubing to act as rub pins. Worst
case thermal transient condition clearance was measured by the
pins and compared favorably with design predictions.
Performance improvement due to tip clearance reduction was
determined both by comparison of test engine performance built
with the tighter clearances against data from previous production
engines, as well as a back-to-back test with the compressor
returned to original clearances. The measured performance
sensitivity to tip clearance compared well with analytical
predictions. No cost and minimal durability risk are associated
with this change.
Air Inlet Evaluation
Another area for potential performance improvement analyzed
was the air inlet collector and duct. Previous testing with
traversing probes showed a potential flow distortion in the air
entering the compressor inlet guide vane. Computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) modeling with the ACE (copyright CFD
 Research Corp.) computer code also showed some potential flow
field distortion (Figure 4). However, the flow velocities in this
area are low and the influence of this distortion on compressor
performance was not known. A back-to-back test was designed to
show the potential for compressor performance improvement
before changing the production design. Static pressure taps along
with Kiel Probes were used to show the flow distortion, and
engine performance was tested, first with the inlet collector then
with the collector removed (see Figures 1, 2). There is adequate
space on the engine package so that negligible flow distortion
occurs entering the compressor with the collector removed. This
simulates the lowest flow distortion expected from a collector
redesign. The test revealed that any flow distortion created in the
air-inlet was not reducing engine performance. Therefore, no
change to the existing air intake was made for the new Taurus 60.
RE93135
FIGURE 4. STATIC PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION
IN COMPRESOR INLET
Compressor Surface Finish
The compressor flowpath materials are stainless steel and
ductile iron which require coating for optimum corrosion
protection. The fact that the surface finish of the compressor has
a significant effect on performance is obvious to anyone that has
ever washed a dirty gas turbine in service. However, the
relationship of uniform surface roughness measured with a
profilometer to compressor performance is not well quantified.
Taurus 60 compressors had previously been coated with Sermatel
725 coating with a typical surface roughness of 65 pin. Sermatel
also offers a coating with a surface roughness objective of 10 pin
(0.010 in cutoff) called Sermatel 5380 DP ([Mosser, 1988]. Since
the difference in cost was not great and the corrosion protection
was expected to be as good as the 725 coating, the team chose to
pursue the 5380 DP coating. Surface roughness testing was
performed on a Solar airfoil uncoated and with both coatings and
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the results are summarized in Table 5. The 5380 DP coating
unfortunately did not meet its roughness objective. Still, the finish
was better than previous coating so evaluation continued.
TABLE 5. SURFACE ROUGHNESS TEST RESULTS
Sermatel
Component Seimatel 725 5380DP
Compressor Blade 65 pin 60 on
Compessor Vane 51 pin 36 pin
Note: Roughness measure ment made using 0030.in cutoff
length profilometer.
Back to back performance testing without introducing
variables more significant than the predicted benefit from the
coating could not be performed. To be conservative, no
performance increase was predicted from the new coating. Since
cost and durability risk were low and there may also be a benefit
of improved dirt fouling resistance the new coating was
implemented in the design.
Compressor Guide Vane Optimization
Recent expertise gained by the aerodynamic group in the use
of a powerful multivariable optimization routine which is part of
the RS1/Discover (copyright BBN Software Products Corp.)
computer program permitted fast and accurate optimization of the
guide vane settings. Optimization variables were individual
positions of the four guide vane stages and the objective variables
were engine horsepower and specific fuel consumption. A matrix
of the variables was first generated using 17 different
combinations of guide vane settings. The computer program fits
a regression to the data and then solves for the vane settings at
maximized objective variables. Some iteration around the solution
is required as the regression fit improves with more data. Figure
5 displays the Taurus 60 compressor efficiency as a function of
flow with isometric lines shown for power and cycle thermal
efficiency. Points were plotted on this curve during the
optimization to graphically show how the compressor flow and
efficiency are interelated and what tradeoffs must be made when
choosing cycle power or efficiency as an objective.
Optimization was performed using two different production
engines to improve accuracy of the result as compared to the
average of production engines. Results from this testing is shown
in Table 4. No durability impact or cost increase is incurred with
the change of guide vane settings.
Turbine Tip Clearances
In the attempt to reduce turbine tip clearances, teaming
between the design and manufacturing engineers proved
beneficial. Manufacturing suggested an improved machining
process that would reduce the tolerance on the first and second
stage turbine nozzle tip shoes. Previously the rub tolerant coating
 0.005 inches, without reducing the minimum clearance. Previous
analytical work, testing and field experience had already
+0.75 demonstrated that the minimum clearance should not be reduced.
o +2 'Sv Tip clearances of the power turbine stages had been fully
>- x +0.50 optimized in the original development program.
C
Z 0 o`y x?o0
w
Turbine Cooling Flow Reduction
° xr0
LL +1 +0.25
4U- The evaluation of reducing cooling flow began with a cycle
w
U 0 0 analysis showing the sensitivity of cooling air use and leakage at
I— each stage. Figure 7 and Table 6 show the sensitivity of cycle
m 0 ^
power and efficiency on cooling flows and leaks. With these
-0.25
0 results the team established a very high priority for evaluating
moo -0.50 flow reductions in the power turbine. The analytical investigation
0 began with an extensive network flow analysis using previous test
C -1
w data to correlate the model. Cooling and leakage changes could
- 0 . 75 G Thermal Efficiency %
then be quickly evaluated. Table 3 summarizes the potential flow
-1.00 reductions that were identified from this study.
0 -2

-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2
AIRFLOW, Ibis
RE93143M

FIGURE 5. TAURUS 60 COMPRESSOR

PERFORMANCE MAP

had been applied to the integral tip shoes (Figure 6) with

dimensional control based on stackup of individual component
tolerances. The .improved process is to machine the coating to a
finish dimension referenced from the locating features of the
nozzle. This allowed the reduction of the nominal tip clearance by
AGE
RE93144M
:OOLING FLOW SCHEMATIC

. It was suspected that there could be

the piston ring seal on the first stage
paint tests confirmed the high leakage
;ak paths inherent in the design. A new
h incorporated several ideas to reduce
us leaks between the nozzle rails and
ur when the nozzle rail distorts under
sized by trapping the rails in a rigid
ised at the top of the rails to further
ing is now assembled into the carrier
ing around the circumference. The new
;ing comprehensive thermocouple
31 paint. Back to back tests of the old
)ns indicated that, as predicted, leakage
Quantification of the performance
accomplished with the instrumented

-rs felt that a field durability test would

iroduction implementation. Since the
program could be met without the
reed to delay implementation of this
i 5000 hour field testing results are

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 TABLE 6. TURBINE COOLING FLOW PERFORMANCE SENSITIVITY

Location Horsepower Cost (HP) Cycle Efficiency Cost

A 17 0.085

B 0 0

C 108 0.178

D 108 0.178

E 128 0.279

F 132 0.297

G 148 0.374

H 183 0.546

I 183 0.546

J 176 0.511

Note: 1. See Figure 7 for location schematic.

2. Performance penalties are normalized to 1% compressor mass flow.

1st STAGE CARRIER PISTON

NOZZLE RING SEAL C-SEAL HOUSING

FIGURE 8. GAS PRODUCER TURBINE PISTON RING

SEAL CONFIGURATION
RE93138M

Power Turbine Disk Impingement Flow. The perfor-

mance sensitivity study directed the most in depth optimization of
cooling flows to the power turbine section. Analytical evaluations FIGURE 9. IMPROVED GAS PRODUCER TURBINE
of both single and two shaft turbines and previous testing during PISTON RING SEAL CONFIGURATION

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 TABLE 7. DISC METAL TEMPERATURE SUMMARY

Uprate
Disk Location Original Taunts 60 Taunus 60 Change

Single Shaft Rim 950°F 960F +16°F

3rd Turbine Bore 790°F 800°F +10°F

Two Shaft (1) Rim 975°F <1060°F + <85°F

3rd Turbine Bore 730°F <780°F + <50F
Two Shaft (1) Rim 960°F <1060°F + <100°F
4th Turbine Bore 490°F <540°F + <50°F

Note: 1. Upper limit temperatures are from preliminary tests. Results of final development testing
were not available at the time of this writing.

the original design phase of the power turbine indicated that

impingement flows to the power turbine disks could be completely
eliminated without significant rise in disk temperatures. The main
reason for the opportunity in the design is that originally the
cooling system was sized for a potential thermal uprate. As
previously mentioned, an increase in firing temperature was not
part of this program. Testing of both the single shaft and two
shaft turbines was performed with instrumentation as shown in
Figures 10 and 11. Disc metal temperature increases from
complete elimination of cooling air is summarized in Table 7.
Performance evaluation could not be performed with the
heavily instrumented test configurations so final confirmation of
the improvements was taken from first production tests. From
Table 4, it can be seen that the cooling air reductions in the
turbine were responsible for a significant portion of the
performance improvement of the program. Excellent agreement of
actual engine performance with predictions thus validates the flow
and sensitivity analyses.
Elimination of impingement flows served to simplify both the
nozzle machining and casting resulting in significant cost
reduction. The cooling passage brazed covers, cast cooling cavity
and impingement holes were eliminated.

Single Shaft Exhaust Diffuser Improvements

Although the longer exhaust diffuser concept was determined
to be impractical, other methods of improving the diffuser's
performance were also evaluated. The previous exhaust diffuser
had 0.12 in thick sheet metal that protruded into the flow path.
This causes a detriment to performance because of the upset flow
along the walls and inhibited diffusion. In the quest to eliminate
the flow-path step the manufacturing and design engineering team
worked to improve the design. The shop floor worker who • Metal Temperature • Air Temperature •Pressure
RE93139M
personally manufactures the diffusers provided the most valuable
ideas and a design change was realized that not only eliminated
the step but reduced cost and manufacturing lead time. The FIGURE 10. SINGLE SHAFT TURBINE
success of this effort reveals the value of soliciting design input INSTRUMENTATION DIAGRAM
through our cross functional teams.

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 12,920

11,850

NpT, % of 14,300 rpm

10,770
\SO

9690 60
O
0
8620
1 00
D

= 7540

6460
NGP = 15,000 rpm

[
---fa
5380
T5 = 1400°F

4300
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100
AMBIENT TEMPERATURE, OF
RE93145M

FIGURE 12. TWO SHAFT POWER TURBINE THRUST

VERSUS ROTOR SPEED

SHAFT CENTERLINE

• Metal Temperature ■ Air Temperature A Pressure

RE9314C 1

FIGURE 11. TWO-SHAFT TURBINE INSTRUMENTATION

DIAGRAM

Two Shaft Version Power Turbine Thrust Bearing

The increase in pressure drop through the power turbine of the
two shaft version of the Taurus 60 resulting from the compressor
performance enhancements mandated a review of the thrust 1-1
COLLAR ,,n HOUSING
bearing load carrying capacity. Figure 12 shows the predicted RE93141 M

thrust as a function of rotor speed. The thrust bearing design must

analytically demonstrate a minimum oil film thickness of 0.0005
in and a maximum pressure-temperature severity ratio of 0.5
throughout the design speed range. Pressure-temperature severity
ratio is a measure of the bearing babbitt material yield stress
margin at a given temperature and pressure. The existing fixed
geometry tapered land thrust bearing (Figure 13) did not satisfy
the criteria so a tilting pad bearing with a larger area was
designed (Figure 14). Film thickness and pressure-temperature
severity ratio are plotted against speed for several ambient
temperatures in Figure 15. Engine testing with load cells and
temperature sensors in the thrust bearing verified analytical
predictions.
FIGURE 13. ORIGINAL POWER TURBINE THRUST
BEARING DESIGN
CONCLUSION
Thorough review of the Taurus 60 design from a team
representing all disciplines of Solar's industrial gas turbine
business resulted in an improvement in product performance
which met the program performance goals. The program schedule
was met and no increase in product cost or durability risk was
introduced. The performance improvements have been verified by
9 production engine tests. The key to the success of the program
was the NPI teaming concept because it insured continuing
involvement and product ownership from a wide area of expertise.

10

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 Responsibility to a focused group rather than as traditionally to a 1.6
functional area contributes primarily to these motivations. As a
result, critical evaluation of the design criteria were applied to 1.4
each concept in a systematic and unbiased fashion. Ta = 120°F
E 1.2
J
REFERENCES LL 1 Ta = 68°F
J
Mosser, M. F., 1988, "An Improved Coating Process for Steel 0
Compressor Components - SemieTel Process 5380 DP", SAE 0.8
Technical Paper 880879. ^Ta
0.6

0.4

SHAFT CENTERLINE
0.2 I
I I I I
'

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
SPEED, rpm (000)
RE93146M

0
Q 0.5

0.4
w
a
U 0.3
w
)

¢
D
THRUST I ILl PAD 0.2
COLLAR THRUST BEARING w
RE93142M a
w 0.1
FIGURE 14. NEW POWER TURBINE THRUST BEARIN w
DESIGN D 0
W 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
a SPEED, rpm (000)
RE93147M
FIGURE 15. TWO SHAFT POWER TURBINE THRUST
BEARING PERFORMANCE

11

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