Renewable & Sustainable Energy

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Manuscript Number: RSER-D-16-02193

Title: Methods of Heat Transfer Intensification in PCM Thermal Storage

Systems: Review Paper

Article Type: Review Article

Section/Category: Solar Thermal

Keywords: Phase change materials; Latent heat storage; Thermophysical

properties; Heat transfer Intensification methods.

Abstract: The thermal energy storage systems can be classified into

several main groups, namely thermochemical storage, sensible heat storage
and latent heat storage, or combination of these both. Thermochemical
heat storage involves chemical reactions to take place in the storage
vessel. In the sensible storage systems, the heat is stored by increasing
the temperature of a single phase storage medium, while the latent heat
systems store the energy as a result of the phase transition of the
materials at the constant or nearly constant temperature. It is
highlighted in a number of works that the latent heat storage systems
using a Phase Change Material (PCM) is perhaps the most effective heat
storage technique because it provides a very high energy density during
the melting and solidification processes compared to the conventional
sensible heat energy storage. This means that the latent heat storage
system using a PCM requires a much smaller volume of materials to store a
certain amount of energy. This paper presents results of the
comprehensive review of the most significant studies which are relevant
to the current research topic. The review focuses on the techniques
applied to enhance the performance of thermal storage systems and the
methods used to analyse the heat transfer problems in the phase change
materials. Also, this paper describes the published results and
discussions on the heat transfer intensification methods including
application of fins, filling materials, nano-fluids, nano-particles,
microencapsulation and the thermal conductivity enhancement.
*Manuscript
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1
2 Methods of Heat Transfer Intensification in PCM Thermal Storage Systems: Review
3 Paper
4
5 Maher Al-Maghalseh1,2* and Khamid Mahkamov2
6 1
College of Engineering, Palestine Polytechnic University, Hebron, Palestine
7 2
8
Faculty of Engineering and Environment, Northumbria University, Newcastle, UK
9 P.O. Box 198 Hebron, Tel:+970-2 2233050, ext 131, Fax:+970-2-2233050
10 *Corresponding Author: E-mail: maherm@ppu.edu
11
12
13 Abstract
14
15 The thermal energy storage systems can be classified into several main groups, namely
16 thermochemical storage, sensible heat storage and latent heat storage, or combination of these
17 both. Thermochemical heat storage involves chemical reactions to take place in the storage
18
19 vessel. In the sensible storage systems, the heat is stored by increasing the temperature of a
20 single phase storage medium, while the latent heat systems store the energy as a result of the
21 phase transition of the materials at the constant or nearly constant temperature. It is
22 highlighted in a number of works that the latent heat storage systems using a Phase Change
23
24
Material (PCM) is perhaps the most effective heat storage technique because it provides a
25 very high energy density during the melting and solidification processes compared to the
26 conventional sensible heat energy storage. This means that the latent heat storage system
27 using a PCM requires a much smaller volume of materials to store a certain amount of
28 energy. This paper presents results of the comprehensive review of the most significant
29
30 studies which are relevant to the current research topic. The review focuses on the techniques
31 applied to enhance the performance of thermal storage systems and the methods used to
32 analyse the heat transfer problems in the phase change materials. Also, this paper describes
33 the published results and discussions on the heat transfer intensification methods including
34
35
application of fins, filling materials, nano-fluids, nano-particles, microencapsulation and the
36 thermal conductivity enhancement.
37
38 Keywords: Phase change materials; Latent heat storage; Thermophysical properties; Heat
39 transfer Intensification methods.
40
41 1. Introduction
42
43 This paper presents results of the literature review on thermal energy storage technologies as
44 well as the latent heat thermal energy storage (LHTES) using PCMs. The paper discusses
45 outcomes of previous studies on the design and configuration of thermal storage systems,
46
47
methods of heat transfer intensification, and on the experimental testing and mathematical
48 simulation of systems with PCMs.
49
50 2. Encapsulation and packed bed thermal storage systems
51
52 Recent developments in the field of thermal energy storage systems using PCMs have led to
53 renewed interest in encapsulation thermal storage systems (ETSS) and packed bed storage
54 systems. Such systems have the advantage of the higher storage density with the higher
55 efficiency, and a large number of published papers describe relevant performance analyses. In
56
57
these works the following aspects were investigated: storage system designs and their
58 configurations, the PCM materials used; heat transfer enhancement methods deployed, and
59 the flow and heat transfer processes during both the charging and discharging processes. A
60 number of the published articles, which describe the heat transfer in the thermal storage
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 systems using PCM capsules, have been summarised by Regin in [1]. A large amount of the
published literature also was discussed in the extensive review of the research carried out on
1 the packed beds thermal storage systems [2].
2
3 Regin et al. [3] developed a numerical model to analyse and predict the thermal performance
4 of the packed bed cylindrical latent heat thermal storage system. The storage container was
5 filled with spherical capsules filled with paraffin wax. These were in the flow of the heat
6
7 transfer fluid. Figure 1 presents the layout of this system.
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34 Figure 1: Layout of the storage system [3].
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36 The inlet temperature of the heat transfer fluid, the phase change temperature range and
37 capsule sizes were discussed by the author. The results of the study show that the
38
39 solidification time was longer than the duration of the melting process. This was due to a very
40 low value of heat transfer coefficient during the solidification process because of the high
41 thermal resistance of the solidified layer which formed on the inner wall of the capsule. With
42 the increase in the inlet heat transfer fluid temperature, the time to reach the melting point
43
44
and the charging time were reduced. Similarly, for higher mass flow rates of the heat transfer
45 fluid, the time interval needed for complete charging was shorter. The second major finding
46 was that the capsule size had a significant effect on the charging and discharging process.
47 Smaller capsules provided higher storage rates, and a shorter time was needed to reach the
48 melting point. These findings were consistent with those of Zeinab et al. [4], who numerically
49
50 investigated the thermal performance of a cylindrical packed bed thermal storage unit filled
51 with the PCM in spherical capsules.
52
53 Cho and Choi [5] experimentally investigated the thermal characteristics of the storage
54 system with paraffin in spherical capsules during the freezing and melting process. The
55 influence of two factors were investigated; namely, the Reynolds number and inlet
56
57 temperature. The temperature distribution in the storage tank and inside the spherical
58 capsules was measured during both processes. It was found that the temperature on the
59 capsule surface was lower than that inside the capsule during the freezing and melting
60 process due to the difference between the heat removal rate and solidification heat release
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 rate. Moreover, the phase-change period during the freezing and melting process decreased as
the Reynolds number increased, even with reduced inlet temperature. Another important
1 finding was that the phase-change period for the capsule in the first layer was shorter than
2 that for the capsule in the seventh layer, and the phase-change period in the centre of the
3 capsule was longer than that in the capsule edge. The reason for this is that the porosity at the
4
5
edge of the tank is greater than that at the centre. Bedecarrats et al. [6, 7] also experimentally
6 investigated the thermal behaviour of the system with spherical PCM capsules filling up
7 randomly the cylindrical storage tank. The obtained results were used to explain the
8 temperature distribution and the duration of solidification and melting processes in spherical
9 capsules.
10
11
The thermal characteristics of a packed bed thermal storage system with spherical capsules
12
13 were also investigated numerically and experimentally by Ismail and Henrıq́ uez [8]. This
14 study concentrated on the effect of the working fluid entry temperature and its mass flow rate
15 as well as the capsule temperature during both the charging and discharging processes.
16 Moreover, capsules made of different materials were also investigated, and the numerical
17
18
results corroborated the findings of the experimental work. Singh et al. [9-12] developed a
19 mathematical model to predict the thermal performance of packed bed storage systems using
20 a computer code written in the C++ language. Different shapes and sizes of thermal storage
21 systems were studied, and the computational model predicts the temperature distribution,
22 thermal energy stored in the unit and the energy consumption.
23
24
25
Wang et al. [13] conducted the experimental study of the charging process in cylindrical heat
26 storage capsules filled with multiple PCMs. Two cylindrical capsules made of three coaxial
27 red copper tubes were horizontally immersed in the water tank. One of these was filled with
28 three different PCMs: stearic acid, sliced paraffin and lauric acid. The other tube was filled
29 with sliced paraffin only. The experiment results showed a significant enhancement of the
30
31 charging process using the multiple PCM (MPCM) capsule compared to that using a single
32 PCM (SPCM). Moreover, the complete melting time in the MPCM capsule was significantly
33 decreased, namely by 37-42%. In addition, the melting process time in MPCM capsules was
34 shorter by 15-25% in the charging process.
35
36 The isothermal phase change of the PCM encapsulated in a storage tank was analysed
37
38 mathematically and experimentally by Zivkovic and Fujii [14]. A computational model was
39 developed using the enthalpy method to simulate the transient performance of the isothermal
40 phase change process. The reason for this was that such a method did not require an explicit
41 treatment of the boundary conditions in the phase change system. Both cylindrical and
42
rectangular containers were investigated. The volumes of the containers as well as the
43
44 convective heat transfer area for both types were selected to be equal. It was demonstrated
45 that the melting time increased gradually with increasing volume for both types of containers.
46 However, the melting time of the rectangular container was much shorter compared to that of
47 the cylindrical container with the same volume and heat transfer area. The use of a
48
49 rectangular container for the encapsulation of the PCM was recommended.
50
51 Tan et al. [15] experimentally investigated the buoyancy and natural convection phenomena
52 during the melting process of the PCM inside a spherical capsule. These results were
53 validated with a numerical solution obtained using CFD software FLUENT. The most
54 interesting finding was that the conduction heat transfer dominated during the early stage,
55
56
whereas, buoyancy-driven convection becomes more prominent as the liquid fraction volume
57 is increased. However, the molten PCM ascends upwards to the upper regions of the sphere
58 due to the natural convection. Consequently, the upper regions of the sphere melt first,
59 followed by the other regions. Another interesting finding from the computational results was
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 that the temperature distribution fluctuated chaotically at some points inside the sphere, due
to the existence of the unstable fluid layer at these points. The findings of this study
1 supported observations in the previous research by the same author [16, 17].
2
3 Koizumi [18] experimentally examined the heat transfer on an isothermally heated sphere
4 placed in a uniform, downwardly directed flow using a micro-foil heat sensor (HFS). This
5 study dealt with the opposing flow mixed convection, where the direction of the free flow
6
7 was opposite to that of the forced flow. Two situations were analysed and discussed. In the
8 first case, isothermal spheres were used, made of 3 mm thick copper with an outer diameter
9 of 50 mm, while in the second case, solid PCM capsules were used, which were made of 1
10 mm thick glass and with an outer diameter of 50 mm. The spherical capsules were filled with
11
n-Octadecane as a PCM. Figure 2 shows schematics of these two cases.
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31 Figure 2: Schematic drawing of the opposing flow mixed convection. (a) Isothermal sphere
32 and (b) solid PCM capsule [18].
33
34 In this study, three types of air flow patterns with a Grashof number (Gr) of 3.3× 105 were
35
36 investigated. These were chaotic flow at Reynolds number (Re) < 240, two-dimensional
37 steady separated flow at 240 ≤ Re ≥ 500, and three-dimensional unsteady separated flow at
38 Re >500. The time average local Nusselt number (Nu) was obtained using the following
39 formula:
40
41 hd qd
Nu   (1)
k Tw  T f  k
42
43
44
45
The measurements of the Nusselt number for the three types of patterns are illustrated in
46
47 Figure 3. The dashed line shows the experimental results for the pure forced convection
48 found by Yuge [19].
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25 Figure 3: Nusselt Number vs Reynolds number [18].
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The experimental results show that, in the case of the chaotic flow at Re < 240, the Nusselt
29 number around the sphere is 10% higher than that for the pure forced convection, while it is
30 greater by factor of two in the case of Re ≥ 500. Moreover, the results were validated using
31 the numerical results of Jia and Gogos [20], and very good agreement between the numerical
32 and experimental results was obtained. Additionally, the experiments investigated the
33
34 influence of copper plates inserted inside the solid PCM capsule. There was a significant
35 improvement in the latent heat storage rate by the solid PCM when the copper plate was
36 inserted inside the spherical capsule.
37
38 A study in [21] addressed the transient thermal response of a packed bed of spheres
39 containing a PCM. The authors presented a computational model which analysed both
40
41 isothermal and nonisothermal melting behaviour, axial thermal dispersion effects, and
42 intraparticle conditions (Biot number) effects. In order to validate the results, an experiment
43 was conducted on a cylindrical bed filled with high-density polypropylene spheres. Data from
44 the computational model was compared with the experimental results. The results showed
45
good agreement for the temperature distribution and energy stored in the system. On the other
46
47 hand, the study provided an opportunity to explain the heat transfer, isothermal melting and
48 phase trajectory melting processes under a variety of conditions, such as the varying
49 Reynolds number.
50
51 Khalil et al. [22] experimentally investigated the thermal performance of a packed bed
52 thermal storage system containing spheres of different sizes. The study examined the effect of
53
54 the Reynolds number and particle size on the heat transfer in the system. The results indicated
55 that heat transfer improved significantly when the porous media were used, and it was also
56 improved when the flow Reynolds number was increased. Correlations were proposed
57 between the Nusselt and Reynolds numbers for the cases with and without the porous
58
59
material. The Nusselt number in the case of using the porous material was
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62 11
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 0.77 0.3
D D
NuD  17.30   ReD 0.235
  (2)
d d
1
2
3 For 2167  ReD  19400 and 3.54  D / d  14.16 .
4
5 The Nusselt number as a function of the Reynolds number for the case without the porous
6 material was
7
8
9 NuD  0.042 ReD0.76 (3)
10
For 2778  ReD  19400 and 1.5  Pr  3.4 .
11
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13
14 Nsofor and Adebiyi [23] also experimentally investigated the heat transfer and natural
15 convection phenomena in a packed bed thermal storage system at high temperature
16 conditions. Heat transfer correlations were proposed as the Nusselt number as a function of
17
18 the Prandtl and Reynolds numbers and comparisons were carried out with the existing
19 correlations derived previously for the similar storage media. The heat transfer and pressure
20 drop characteristics of a backed bed thermal storage system were experimentally investigated
21 by Varun et al. [24]. The storage tank was filled with large cylindrical elements with various
22 horizontal and vertical orientations. Significant correlations were derived to calculate the
23
24 Nusselt number and friction factor as a function of the Reynolds number. Therefore, these
25 correlations could be efficiently used in predicting the performance of solar thermal energy
26 storage systems in the form of large cylindrical elements.
27
28 The efficiency of the effective thermal conductivity of latent heat storage capsules was
29 evaluated numerically by Shiina and Inagaki [25]. The uniform and non-uniform heat transfer
30
31 around the cylindrical surface was observed. In this study water, octadecane, Li2CO3 and
32 NaCL were selected as PCMs, and copper, aluminium and carbon steel were used as the
33 porous media. The PCM injected inside the capsule had the following dimensions: 6.6 mm of
34 the outer diameter, 6 mm of the inner diameter, and 0.3 mm of the thickness. Acrylic resin
35
36
and copper were used as the capsule walls. Moreover, air, helium and water were used as the
37 HTF. Figure 4 shows results obtained on the melting time as a function of the effective
38 thermal conductivity of two composite PCMs of octadecane and Li2CO3 at Re= 7500 and
39 with helium as HTF.
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20 Figure 4: Melting time for composite PCMs of octadecane and Li2CO3 [25].
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24 It can be seen that the melting time is reduced when the effective thermal conductivity is
25
26 increased. Furthermore, the melting of the PCM in the case of the acrylic wall is much longer
27 compared to the result for the copper wall. It can be seen that, unlike the PCM with the high
28 thermal conductivity, the influence of the effective thermal conductivity on the melting time
29 is greater for the PCM with the low thermal conductivity.
30
31 Hawlader et al. [26] conducted a numerical and experimental study of the thermal energy
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33
storage involving the encapsulated PCM. The study investigated the effect of the
34 encapsulation ratio, hydrophilicity, and energy storage on the thermal performance of PCM
35 capsules. It was concluded that using the PCM capsule increases both the thermal energy
36 charging and discharging capacity. In addition, the capsule maintained its original
37 geometrical profile and the energy storage capacity after 1000 thermal cycles. A large volume
38
39 of published papers describe the role of heat transfer and phase change processes in packed
40 bed thermal storage systems. Results of some of these studies are summarised in Table 1.
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6 Table 1: Heat transfer and phase change process studies in packed bed thermal storage system.
7
8 No Author Geometry Methods PCM HTF Process Parameters/range Dimensions
9
10 1. Regin et al. Cylindrical Numerical Paraffin wax Water Charging and Charging: , Tank: D=1 m,
11
[3] storage/ spherical Modelling discharging , L=1.5 m, Sphere,
12
13 capsule D=1 mm.
14 . Discharging: ,
15
16 ,
17
18 .
19
20
21 2. Cho and Acryl storage/ Experimental n-tetradecan Water Charging and Re= 8,12 and 16. Tank: Di= 220
22 Choi [5] spherical capsule (C14H30) discharging Charging, mm,
23 , thickness=10
24 n-hexadecane mm, H=173 mm
.
25 (C16H34)
26 Discharging, ,
27
28
29 3. Chen [27, Cylindrical Experimental Water/ice Alcohol Charging , Capsule: D=34
30 28] storage/ spherical and process mm, porosity
31 capsule numerical
32
33 4. Silva et al. Rectangular Experimental Paraffin wax Air Charging and :0.005488kg/s , Tank: H=813
34
35 [29] and discharging , heat flux mm, L=623 mm
36 numerical (q):480W/m 2
37
38 5. Zeinab et al. Cylindrical Numerical Paraffin wax Water Charging and Charging, , The porosity of
39
[4] storage/ spherical Modelling discharging , the bed is 0.4
40
41 capsule .
42
43 Discharging, ,
44 ,
45
46
47
14
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 .
7 6. Bedecarrats Cylindrical Experimental Water/ice Chilling Charging and Charging, , Tank: D=0.95 m,
8
9 et al. [6, 7] storage/spherical fluid discharging Flow rate = 1.3m3/h. H=1.42m.
10 capsule Discharging, , Sphere: Do=77
11 Flow rate = 1.1m3/h mm, thickness=2
12 mm
13
14 7. Bilir and Cylindrical Numerical Water/ice - Discharging ,
15
16 İlken [30] spherical storage Modelling process .
17
18 8. Ismail and Cylindrical/spheri Experimental Water/ice Ethylene Charging and . Tank: D= 0.92 m,
19 Henrıq́ uez cal capsule and glycol discharging , L = 1.54 m.
20
[8] numerical
21 ,
22
23 9. Ismail and spherical capsule Numerical Water/ice Ethanol Discharging , Capsules: D= 20,
24
25
Henrıq́ uez Modelling process , 40, 100, 140,
26 [31] , 200, 300 and 400
27 mm.
28
,
thickness=0.1 m
29
30 10. Ismail [32] Cylindrical Numerical Stone/ steel Water/air Charging and , particle D= 25-50
31
32
storage/spherical Modelling discharging , mm,
33
34 11. Singh et al. Cylindrical Numerical - Air System . Tank: D=0.95 m,
35 [9-11] performance H=6 m.
36
37 12. Farid and Cylindrical Experimental Paraffin wax Air Charging and Tank: (D= 31.8
38
39 Husian [33] and discharging , , mm, L = 335
40 numerical mm)
41
42 13. Kousksou et Cylindrical/spheri Experimental Water/ice Chilled Charging , Tank: D= 0.95 m,
43
44 and , L=1.42 m.
45
46
47
15
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 al. [34] cal capsule numerical glycol process . Sphere: D=77
7 mm,
8
9 14. Wang et al. Cylindrical/ Experimental Stearic acid/ Water Charging , Tank volume 200
10
11
[13] spherical capsule sliced process litres
12 paraffin/
13 lauric acid
14
15 15. Eames et Spherical Experimental Water/ice Chilled Charging and , Spheres: D=8.14,
16 al.[35] water discharging . 7.00 and 6.27 cm
17
18 17. Zivkovic Cylindrical and Experimental calcium Air Charging , Tank L=100 mm,
19
20
and Fujii rectangular/spheri and chloride process W= 100 mm,
21 [14] cal capsule numerical hexahydrate H=20 mm.
22 Heat transfer (q)= 16
23 W/m2K
24
25 18. Hirata et al. Rectangular Experimental Octadecane/ - Discharging
26
27 [36] capsule and ice process
28 numerical
29
30 19. Tan et al. Spherical capsule Experimental Paraffin wax - Charging Sphere D=101.66
31 [15] and n-Octadecane process mm,
32 numerical thickness=1.5
33
34
mm
35
36 20. Tan and spherical capsule Experimental n-hexadecane Water Discharging
37 Chan [16] process
38
39
40 21. Tan [17] Spherical capsule Experimental n-Octadecane Water Charging Sphere D=101.66
41 process mm,
42
43
thickness=1.5
44
45
46
47
16
48
49
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2
3
4
5
6 mm
7
8 22. Khodadadi Spherical Numerical Paraffin wax - Sphere
9 and Zhang container Modelling
10
11
[37]
12
13 23. Fomin and Spherical capsule Numerical n-octadecane - Charging
14 Saitoh [38] Modelling process
15
16 24. Koizumi Spherical capsule Experimental n-Octadecane Air Charging Sphere D=55
17 [18] process mm, thickness=3
18
mm
19
20
21 25. Saito et al. Cylindrical Experimental Gelled Water Discharging Capsule: D=24.3
22 [39] capsule and sodium process , , mm, L=1220
23 numerical sulphate mm.
24 decahydrate
25
26 26. Besley and Cylindrical Experimental Paraffin wax Air Charging Re =260 Tank: D= 20.3
27
28 Ramanaraya storage/spherical and process cm, H=30.5 cm.
29 nan [21] capsule numerical Sphere: D=2.1
30 cm.
31
32 27. Khalil et al. Cylindrical Experimental - Water Charging Tank: D= 42.5
33
34 [22] storage/spherical process mm, L=0.5 m,
35 capsule thickness=5.5
36 mm
37
38 28. Yagi [40] Spherical capsule Experimental AaCl, KNO3 Nitrogen Charging and Sphere: D= 40
39 and gas discharging mm.
,
40
41
numerical
42 ,
43
44
45
46
47
17
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 29. Nsofor and Cylindrical Experimental - Gas Charging Tank: D=0.61 m,
7 Akiyama storage and process L= 0.61 m. Pellet
8 [23] spherical capsule D=18.3 mm,
9
10 L=18.3 mm.
11
12 30. Benmansou Cylindrical Experimental Paraffin wax Air Charging and Tank: D=0.2 m,
13 r et al.[41] storage/ spherical and discharging thickness= 1 mm,
14 capsule numerical H=0.6 m. Sphere:
15 D=31.8 mm.
16
17
18
31. Katayama Cylindrical Experimental Naphthalene Water Charging and Capsule :(D= 30
19 et al. [42] capsule and discharging mm, L = 300
20 numerical mm)
21
22 32. Shiina and Cylindrical Numerical Water/O- Air/heliu Charging Re =300, 3000 and 7500, Capsule D= 6.6
23 Inagaki [25] capsule Modelling ctadecane/ m/ water process mm, thickness=
24
25
Li2CO3/NaCL 0.3 mm
26
27 33. Varun et al. Cylindrical Experimental N/A Air Charging Tank: D=0.6 m,
28 [24] storage/ process L=1.25 m.
29 Cylindrical Cylindrical
30 capsule elements: D=
31
32
0.06 m , L=0.12
33 m
34
35 34. Wei et Cylindrical Experimental Paraffin wax Water Discharging Tank: L=303
36 al.[43] storage/spherical and process mm, W=103 mm,
37 capsule numerical thickness=175
38
39
mm, Sphere:
40 D=2-5 mm
41
42 35. Arkar and Cylindrical Numerical Paraffin Air Charging and For Tank : (D= 340
43 Medved storage/spherical Modelling (RT20) discharging charging: mm, L = 1.52 m).
44 Sphere D= 50
45
46
47
18
48
49
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2
3
4
5
6 [44] capsule . mm)
7 For dis charging:
8
9
10
11 36. Lacroix Parallelepedic Numerical n-Octadecan - Discharging , Tank: L=75 mm,
12 [45] capsule Modelling process ,
13
H=30 mm
14
15
16 37. Assis et Spherical shell Experimental Paraffin wax Air Charging , wall Spheres D= 40,
17 al.[46] and process temperature varies from 2 60 and 80 mm
18 numerical to 20 > Tm
19
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19
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 3. Cylindrical PCM container storage systems
1
2 Cylindrical PCM containers have been classified in three types [47]. In the first type the PCM
3 fills the shell and the HTF flows through a single tube (Figure 5a), this is called a pipe model.
4 The second type the PCM fills the tube and HTF flows parallel to the tube (Figure 5b); this is
5 called the cylinder model. The third type is called a shell and tube model (Figure 5c). This
6
7 contains several parallel tubes, and the HTF flows through the tubes while the PCM fills the
8 space around them.
9
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23
24
Figure 5: Cylindrical PCM containers [47].
25
26
27 3.1 Pipe model
28 Jian et al. [48] developed a numerical model to predict the transient thermal behaviour during
29
30 charging and discharging processes of a latent thermal storage unit involving a triplex
31 concentric tube with the PCM filling the middle channel. A simple numerical method, called
32 the temperature and thermal resistance iterations, was used in the numerical calculation. The
33 data from the numerical model was then compared with experimental results, and a good
34
35
agreement was observed. Ho and Chen [49] also developed a numerical model for the
36 melting of ice around a horizontal isothermal cylinder. The model’s results were compared
37 with experimental data published by White in [50], and a good agreement was found. It was
38 concluded that the melting process of ice is strongly affected by the changing recirculation
39 occurring in the molten water. Another numerical model of melting around a horizontal pipe
40
41 was developed by Rieger et al. [51]. The numerical solution was obtained for Rayleigh
42 numbers (Ra) up to 1.5  105 , Stefan numbers in the range of 0.005  Ste  0.08 , and for
43 Pr=50. It was found that the natural convection is the dominant process in the heat transfer
44 mechanism throughout almost the entire melting process.
45
46
47
Dimaano and Watanabe [52] studied the charging and discharging processes of a latent heat
48 storage system with a capric and lauric acid mixture with a melting point of 18-19.5 ℃. A
49 vertical cylindrical storage unit involving a copper tube filled with the PCM was employed in
50 the study. The temperature distribution in both radial and axial directions was experimentally
51 measured, as was the heat stored during the charging and released during the discharging
52
53 process.
54
55 Bareiss and Beer [53] carried out an experimental and mathematical investigation of a
56 horizontal cylindrical tube filled with PCM. A photographic technique was used to evaluate
57 the melting and solidification fraction. They used both C18H38 n-Octadecane and C9H10 p-
58 xylene as PCM. The numerical and experimental results were compared and the excellent
59
60
61
62 20
63
64
65
 agreement between them was observed. However, the validity of the analytical model was
1 limited to the following conditions:
2
3 Ra
4 Ste  *  1.4 (4)
5 Pr Ar
6
7 Ismail and Abugderah [54] developed a fixed grid one-dimensional numerical model using
8 the control volume finite difference method. The model predicts the transient behaviour of
9 the thermal storage system of a vertical tube type. The influence of several parameters were
10
11 investigated, including Reynolds and Stefan numbers, phase change temperature range,
12 system length, outer radius and time periods. It was noted that both Reynolds and Stefan
13 numbers had a significant effect on the system performance whereas there was no
14 considerable influence of the phase change temperature range. Another interesting finding
15
16
was that the tube’s outer radius and system length both noticeably affected the system
17 performance.
18
19 Sari and Kaygusuz [55] experimentally evaluated the thermal behaviour of a eutectic mixture
20 of lauric and stearic acid as a PCM in the system with two vertical concentric pipes. The key
21 experimental parameters were the Reynolds and Stefan numbers. It was demonstrated that
22
23
these two parameters had more effect on the total PCM melting time than on the total
24 solidification time due to the convection phenomena occurring during the melting process
25 which improved the melting rate, whilst the thermal resistance during the solidification
26 process decreased the solidification rate. On the other hand, the Reynolds number had more
27 effect on the heat transfer coefficient during the melting process rather than solidification,
28
29 whilst the Stefan number had more effect on the solidification than melting.
30
31 The same authors then conducted a series of experimental studies [56-60] on a latent heat
32 storage system involving a vertical double pipe. The phase change stability and the thermal
33 characteristics of several PCMs during the solidification and melting processes were
34 investigated. Stearic, palmitic, lauric, myristic and fatty acids were used as PCMs in the
35
36 storage system, and the influence of the transition time, temperature range, the expansion of
37 the solid-liquid interface and heat flow rate on the phase change stability were investigated. It
38 was found that stearic, palmitic and myristic acids are all suitable for domestic solar water
39 heating storage systems because they do not exhibit any subcooling, while lauric acid is
40
suitable as an energy storage material for space heating and greenhouses applications.
41
42
43
Khillarkar et al. [61] carried out a numerical study to examine the free convection of the pure
44 PCM during melting in tube geometries of two different configurations: a square external
45 tube with a circular tube inside, and a circular tube with a square tube inside. The effects of
46 heating the inside wall, the outside wall or both walls, as well as of the Raleigh number on
47 the system performance were described. The results indicated that the rate of melting is lower
48
49 at the bottom part compared to the top part due to the buoyancy force acting during the
50 melting of the PCM. Furthermore, in both cases, the effect of heating the inside walls and
51 outside walls was the same as heating both walls until an interaction occurred between the
52 two zones.
53
54
55
56 3.2 Cylinder model
57 Shmueli et al. [62] performed a numerical investigation into melting PCM in vertical circular
58 tubes. The effects of various parameters in the numerical model on the results were
59
60 examined, including a detailed study of the effect of pressure-velocity coupling and pressure
61
62 21
63
64
65
 discretization schemes. PISO vs SIMPLE and PRESTO vs. Body-Force-Weighted schemes
1 were examined, and no difference was found in the results using PISO and SIMPLE. On the
2 other hand, there were considerable differences between results using the PRESTO and
3
4 Body-Force-Weighted schemes. Also, the term describing the magnitude of the mushy zone
5 in the momentum equation was analysed, and it was concluded that an optimum value of the
6 specific constant C, should be used for this term.
7
8 Jones et al. [63] conducted an experimental and numerical study of the melting of the
9 moderate-Prandtl-number material (n-eicosane) in a cylindrical enclosure heated from the
10
11 sides. A multiblock finite volume method and enthalpy method for a range of values of the
12 Stefan number were deployed in the numerical calculations, and numerical data was validated
13 against the experimental information. A good agreement was observed between both methods
14 for the Stefan number value of up to 0.1807.
15
16 Regin et al. [64] conducted the theoretical study of the latent heat thermal storage using a
17
18 horizontal cylindrical capsule filled with paraffin wax as a PCM. The effects of various
19 parameters on the melting performance were considered. The numerical modelling was
20 conducted using the finite difference approach and fixed approach based on the enthalpy
21 method technique. The model was validated by comparison of theoretical results to
22
experimental data, and an acceptable agreement was found between these two data sets.
23
24
25
The enthalpy-temperature relationship is presented below for the four regions during the
26 melting processes (Figure 6): the solid phase, solid-solid phase change below the melting
27 point, solid-liquid phase and liquid phase.
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57 Figure 6: Enthalpy temperature relationship [64].
58
59
60
61
62 22
63
64
65
 T T   ,
Lp
H  C psT  T p  a1  T  T p  a 2 (5)
 a1  a2 
1 p  a1
2
3
4 H  C psT  Tp , T p  a 2  T  T me1 (6)
5
6
7
8 H  C plT  Lp 
L
 e1  e2 
 
T  T me1 , T me1  T  T me 2 (7)
9
10
11 H  C plT  Lp  L, T  T me 2 (8)
12
13
14 The PCM’s thermal conductivity, k, in the interface phase was expressed as
15
16  k k 
17 k  ks   l s  T  Tme1   , T me1  T  T me 2 (9)
  T  
18  m 
19
20
21
The stored energy in a unit volume of the PCM was expressed as:
22 T p a 1 Tp a 2 Tme 2 Tf

 C  C  C  C
23
24 E s ps dT  s ps dT  s Lp  l pl dT  l L  l pl dT (10)
25 To T p a 1 Tme1 Tme 2

26
27 The melting of particle-laden slurry in a cylinder was numerically and experimentally
28 investigated by Sun et al. [65]. A particle-diffusive model and the enthalpy method were used
29
in the numerical analysis. This study was later validated with results by Jones et al. [63]. It
30
31 was found that the melting behaviour of the slurry with a lower particle loading (   5% )
32 was similar to the melting of pure wax. Indeed, a strong influence of the convection was
33 observed in both cases. On the other hand, the natural convection was reduced as the particle
34
35
loading increased and the melting process was then dominated by the conduction.
36 Nevertheless, one major drawback of the diffusive flux model is that the model is not
37 sufficiently adequate to describe the melting of slurries with various particle loadings.
38
39 The melting of the PCM in the latent heat thermal energy storage having a hollow cylinder
40 form was studied semi-analytically by Zhang and Faghri [66] using the integral
41
42
approximation method. The results were then validated using findings by the same authors in
43 [67]. The structure of the thermal storage system in both above studies was similar but
44 initially without external radial fins. It was demonstrated that the laminar forced convection
45 heat transfer never reached the fully developed state, even with application of a very long
46 tube.
47
48
49
Cabeza et al. [68] experimentally examined the PCM behaviour in cylinders at the top of the
50 water tank. Several configurations with two, four and six PCM modules were investigated,
51 see Figure 7. Commercial aluminium bottles filled with PCM were used as PCM modules.
52 Several PCMs were investigated: paraffin, sodium acetate trihydrate and fatty acids. It was
53 found that this technique provides long periods of the storage time as well as increasing the
54
55 energy capacity and density.
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 23
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
Figure 7: Water tank with PCM modules of different configurations [68].
32
33 Wu and Lacroix [69] analysed numerically the natural convection in the melting PCM in a
34 vertical cylindrical capsule heated from below. The model was created using the finite-
35 difference method. They compared their numerical predictions with the numerical and
36 experimental results in [70-72], and reported that the heat transfer rate at the top surface was
37
38
dominated by the conduction, but this decreased to zero as melting progressed and the natural
39 convection developed fully. On the other hand, they also observed that the most intensive
40 heat transfer was taking place at the bottom surface of the capsule.
41
42 Rieger and Beer [73] examined the effect of the natural convection flow on the heat transfer
43 during the melting process of ice inside an isothermal horizontal cylinder. They predicted
44
45
numerically the overall and local heat transfer coefficients, temperature fields, interface
46 positions and flow pattern. They compared their numerical results with experimental data,
47 and reported that the heat transfer was enhanced at the lower part of the ice body at wall
48 temperatures less than 8 because of the density effect, whilst for the wall temperature
49
50 exceeding 8oC the ice body moved downwards. The same procedures have been applied by
51 Rieger et al. [74] to investigate the heat transfer during melting n-Octadecane as a PCM
52 inside a horizontal tube.
53
54 Tay et al. [75] carried out an experimental investigation of a tube-in-tank thermal storage unit
55 during the freezing and melting process of salt hydrate as a PCM. The HTF circulated inside
56
57 the tube and the PCM was contained in the cylindrical tank. Three different experiments with
58 different configurations were carried out. The first was conducted in a tube which was 5.46m
59 in length in a cylindrical tank (Figure 8a), whilst the second configuration used two tubes
60
61
62 24
63
64
65
 with lengths of 5.61 and 6.01m, respectively (Figure 8b). The third experiment was
1 conducted on four tubes with lengths of 5.95, 6.05, 5.79 and 6.04 m (Figure 8c).
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27 Figure 8: Schematic of the tube tank with different configurations [75].
28
29
30
31 Temperature distributions, average effectiveness and solidification and melting times were
32 analysed. The experimental measurements were compared to numerical results by Tay et al.
33 [76] with a good agreement demonstrated between the two sets of data. The numerical model
34
35
was developed using ANSYS code, and a three-dimensional CFD model was created in order
36 to analyse transient heat transfer during the melting and solidification process. It can be
37 concluded from the results that the CFD model can accurately predict the performance of the
38 thermal storage system, and it also can be used to optimize its design.
39
40 Saitoh and Hirose [77] numerically investigated the natural convection heat transfer inside a
41
horizontal circulator cylinder capsule packed with a PCM during the melting and
42
43 solidification process for high Rayleigh numbers. The model predicted the formation of the
44 transient solid-liquid interface, solid-liquid temperature, streamlines, isotherms, and heat
45 stored. The numerical results were validated through comparison with those of Pannu et al.
46 [78], and, in general, considerable quantitative and qualitative differences were found. It is
47
48
interesting to note that the natural convection controlled the melting heat transfer inside the
49 capsule, and also that thermal instability occurred at the bottom portion of the capsule.
50
51 Sparrow and Broadbent [79] experimentally examined the melting process in a phase change
52 medium contained in a vertical tube. The experimental results were compared with a
53 numerical solution and good agreement was observed. It was demonstrated that the rates of
54
55
melting and heat transfer are significantly affected by the natural convection inducing the
56 fluid flow in the liquid molten zone. The experimental measurements of the energy
57 transferred and stored in the liquid molten zone were higher than those predicted by the
58 numerical model.
59
60
61
62 25
63
64
65
 3.3 Shell and tube model
1 Fukai et al. [80-82] carried out an experimental and numerical investigation of the effect of a
2 carbon-fibre brush on the thermal conductivity in a thermal energy storage system. Several
3
4 techniques for the thermal conductivity enhancement using carbon-fibre brushes were
5 investigated. These include: randomly oriented carbon fibres packed in a cylindrical capsule
6 (Figure 9a); a carbon fibre brush packed in a cylindrical capsule (Figure 9b) [80], carbon
7 fibre brush/PCM composite inserted around tubes (Figure 9c) [81]; and carbon fibre on the
8
9
shell side [82]. The findings of such studies indicated that the type of the brush had a
10 significant effect on the thermal conductivity enhancement. The randomly oriented fibres had
11 little effect on the magnitude of the thermal conductivity. In addition, the transient thermal
12 response in the brush/PCM composite is improved as the diameter of the brush increased.
13 However, the response did not improve when the diameter of the brush was greater than the
14
15 distance between the tubes, due to the increased thermal resistance near the tube wall. The
16 heat exchange rate during both charging and discharging processes was significantly
17 improved when brushes inserted around the tube were used.
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41 Figure 9: Configurations of the carbon fibres [80-82].
42
43
44
45 Hamada et al. [83] also experimentally and numerically studied two heat transfer
46 enhancement mechanisms using carbon-fibre chips and carbon brushes packed into a shell-
47
48 and-tube thermal storage system. For the experimental investigations, four steel tubes were
49 vertically placed in a cylindrical container made of acrylic resin and insulated using glass
50 wool. Carbon-fibre chips with a diameter of 10μm and length of 5mm were packed in the
51 container. The PCM n-Octadecane, with a thermal conductivity of 0.34 W/m K, was used to
52
53
fill the container. Figure 10 illustrates the experimental apparatus.
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 26
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32 Figure 10: Experimental apparatus [83].
33
34
35
36 Three types of the fibre were used, namely those with low, medium, and high levels of the
37 thermal conductivity (kf = 5, 190 and 500 W/m K, respectively). The control volume method
38
39
was used in the numerical model, and the computational domain is illustrated in Figure 11.
40 The mathematical and experimental data were then compared, and it was found that the
41 carbon-fibre chips significantly improved the heat transfer rate in the PCMs. However, taking
42 into account the effect of the thermal resistance near the heat transfer surface, the overall heat
43 transfer for the carbon brushes was higher than that for the carbon-fibre chips.
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 27
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Figure 11: Computational domain [83].
24
25
26
27 Trp studied the transient heat transfer in the shell-and-tube thermal storage system in an
28 experimental and numerical study [84, 85]. He developed a mathematical model based on the
29 non-isothermal phase transition, and it was implemented as a FORTRAN computer code. The
30 numerical results were validated with experimented data, and it was concluded that heat
31
32 transfer from the HTF to the PCM was low due to the large Prandtl numbers of the HTF.
33 Therefore, a large amount of heat was carried downstream with the HTF, whilst a small
34 amount of heat was transferred to the PCM upstream. The same author [86] numerically
35 investigated the effects of several geometrical parameters and different HTF operational
36
conditions on heat transfer during both melting and solidification processes by measuring the
37
38 transient temperature distribution of the HTF, PCM and tube wall.
39
40 Lacroix [87] developed a numerical model using an enthalpy-based method. The model
41 predicted the transient behaviour of a shell-and-tube storage unit with circulating HTF inside
42 the pipe with PCM on the shell side. The model was validated by comparison with
43 experimental data and the effects of several thermal and geometric parameters on heat
44
45 transfer were investigated. It was found that the shell radius, mass flow rate and inlet
46 temperature must be selected carefully in order to optimize the storage unit performance.
47
48 Morcos [88] experimentally analysed both the charging and discharging processes in the
49 thermal energy storage involving a shell-and-tube unit. Two types of the PCM were
50 investigated, namely paraffin wax and asphalt. Experimental measurements of the
51
52 temperature distribution, heat stored during charging and the heat released during discharging
53 were compared for these different storage substances. Ezan et al. [89] experimentally
54 investigated the effect of natural convection and several design/flow parameters on charging
55 and discharging processes for ice in a shell-and-tube design. It was found that the natural
56
57
convection dominated the heat transfer mechanism after a short period in which the
58 conduction was main mode of the heat transfer. Furthermore, the flow rate, inlet temperature,
59 shell diameter, and thermal conductivity of the tube material had considerable effects on
60 charging and discharging processes.
61
62 28
63
64
65
 Akgün et al. [90, 91] carried out an experimental investigation on charging and discharging
1 processes of paraffin as a PCM. They used a novel tube-and-shell configuration which was
2 oriented vertically. The key experimental parameters investigated were the HTF inlet
3
4 temperature and Reynolds number. It was concluded that increasing the inlet temperature
5 results in a decrease in the total melting time, whilst the Reynolds number had no significant
6 influence. The PCM started to melt in the lower region close to the inner wall, and the molten
7 PCM ascended radially outwards to form a conical shape of the molten region as a result of
8
9
the natural convection currents. A large number of studies considered the enhancement of
10 heat transfer using fin configurations. A summary of some of these studies are presented in
11 Table 2.
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 29
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4
5
6 Table 2: Results of studies on the shell and tube thermal storage systems with PCMs.
7
8 No Author Geometry Methods PCM HTF Process Parameters/range Dimensions
9
10 1. Jian [48] Pipe Experimental n- Water Charging Charging process:
11 model and Hexacosane and
12 numerical discharging
13
14 2. Ho and Pipe Numerical Ice - Charging Cylinder: Di=25.4
15 Chen[49] model process mm
16
17 3. Rieger et Pipe Numerical Ice - Charging , -
18 al. [51] model process , Pr=50
19
20
4. Dimaano Pipe Experimental capric and Water Charging Charging: Tube: D=30 mm,
21 and model lauric acid and thickness= 0.1 mm,
22 Watanabe discharging Discharging: L=420 mm)
23 [52] , Cylinder: (D=56
24 mm, thickness=10
25
26 mm, L=345 mm)
27 5. Bareiss Pipe Experimental n- Charging Tube: (D=60 mm,
28 and Beer model and Octadecane and thickness= 1 mm,
29 [53] numerical and p-xylene discharging L=40 mm)
30
31 6. Sarı and Pipe Experimental Stearic, Water Charging Investigate the effect of flow Tube: : (D=50 mm,
32
Kaygusuz model palmitic, and operation conditions L=350 mm)
33
34 [55-60] lauric, discharging Cylinder: (D=120
35 myristi and mm, L=200 mm)
36 fatty acids
37 7. Khillarkar Pipe Numerical octadecane Charging 0.0432 < Fo < 0.432, -
38
39
et al. [61] model process
40
41 8. Lu et Pipe Numerical Molten salt - Charging Ts=300K, Inlet velocity=1 m/s, Pipe (Di=0.008 m,
42 al.[92] model and To=453K Do=0.01 m, L=2 m)
43
44
discharging
45
46
47
30
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 9. Ismail and Vertical Numerical Charging , -
7 Abugdera tube type and ,
8 h [54] discharging
9
10 10. Shmueli et Cylinder Experimental Rubitherm - Charging - Cylinder: (D=30 and
11 al [62] model and GmbH process 40 mm)
12 numerical
13 11. Jones et al Cylinder Experimental n-Eicosane Water Charging , Cylinder: (D=31.9
14 [63] model and process mm, thickness=5.97
15 ,
16 numerical mm, L=59.8 mm)
17 ,
18
19 12. Regin et Cylinder Experimental Paraffin wax Water Charging Cylinder: Di=76
20 al. [64] model and process mm, thickness=2
21 numerical mm, L=100 mm)
22 13. Sun et al. Cylinder Experimental n-Eicosane Water Charging Cylinder: Di=63.8
23
24
[65] model and process mm, Do=69.5 mm,
25 numerical L=59.8 mm
26
27 14. Zhang and Cylinder Numerical n- Water Charging
28 Faghri model modelling Octadecane process
29 [66]
30 15. Cabeza et Cylinder Experimental Paraffin, Water Charging Cylinder module :
31
32
al [68] model sodium process (D= 8.8 cm, H=31.5
33 acetate cm)
34 trihydrate and Tank : (D= 39 cm,
35 fatty acids H=125 cm)
36 16. Wu and Cylinder Numerical - - Charging -
37
38 Lacroix model modelling process
39 [69]
40
41 17. Rieger Cylinder Experimental Ice/ n- - Charging Cylinder tube:
42
43
[73, 74] model and Octadecane process Di=32 mm,
44 numerical thickness=1 mm,
45
46
47
31
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 L=40 mm
7 18. Tay et al. Cylinder Experimental Salt hydrate Nano- Charging Cylinder tank: D=
8 [75, 76] model and fluid and 290 mm, H=330 mm
9
10
numerical discharging
11 19. Saitoh and Cylinder Numerical Paraffin, Ice/ - Charging Pr = 54.6, Ra = 15800, 426400, Cylinder capsule:
12 Hirose model modelling n- and 3411000, and 2914000 D= 0.01, 0.02, 0.03,
13 [77] Octadecane discharging ΔT =7K and 13K 0.0448 and 0.06 m
14
15
16 20. Sparrow Cylinder Experimental Paraffin Charging Ste= 0.0387, 0.0971, and 0.248 Cylinder: Di=5.08
17 and model and process cm, thickness=0.152
18 Broadbent numerical cm, L=39.4 cm
19
[79]
20
21 21. Hasan Cylinder Experimental Palmitic acid Water Charging , Cylinder tube:
22 [93] model and , Di=40 mm,
23 discharging thickness=1.5 mm,
24 L=550 mm
25
26 22. Yang and Cylinder Numerical - - Charging Ra = 103-106 Slot width=0-0.5,
27 Tao [94] model modelling process r0/ri=2.6
28 23. Fukai et Shell-and- Experimental Paraffin wax Water Charging Charging: Cylindrical: D=50
29 al [80-82] tube and and Discharging: mm, H=130 mm.
30 numerical discharging Brush: D=10 μm, L=
31
32 HTF velocity= 0.015, 0.03 and 5 and 200 mm. Tube
33 0.08m/s Di= 8 mm, Do=9.5
34 mm
35 24. Hamada et Shell-and- Experimental n- Water Charging Tube: Di=23.6 mm,
36
37
al. [83] tube and Octadecane process HTF velocity= 0.35 m/s Do=25.4 mm.Shell:
38 numerical D=164 mm, L=60
39 mm
40 25. Trp [84- Shell-and- Experimental RUBITHER Water Charging Inside tube:
41 86] tube and M RT30 process (Di=0.033m,
42
43 numerical Do=0.035m, L=1m)
44 Outside tube: :
45
46
47
32
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 (Di=0.128m,
7 Do=0.133m, L=1m)
8 26. Lacroix Shell-and- Experimental n- Water Charging Inside tube:
9
10
[87] tube and Octadecane process Di=0.0127m,
11 numerical Do=0.0158m, L=1m
12 Outside tube:
13 Di=0.0258m, L=1m
14 27. Morcos Shell-and- Experimental Paraffin wax Water Charging Inside tube:
15
16 [88] tube and Asphalt and Di=026.64mm,
17 discharging Do=33.4mm, L=1m)
18 Outside tube:
19 Di=52.5mm,Do=60.3
20
21
3mm, L=1m)
22 28. Ezan et al. Shell-and- Experimental Ice Water, Charging Tube material: s. steel and Di=15mm,
23 [89] tube Ethylen process copper. Do=25mm, L=0.4m
24 e, and
25 Glycol
26
27 29. Akgün Shell-and- Experimental Paraffin P24- Water Charging Charging process: = 60, 65, Tube diameter =
28 [90, 91] tube 44 and 70 and 75 28mm
29 Paraffin P46- discharging Cylindrical Storage
30 48 (D =94.67mm,
31 Charging process: = 20
32 Paraffin P56- L=465mm)
33 58 Storage geometry
34 with a shell angle:
35 (upper D =
36
37
133.4mm, lower
38 D=56mm)
39 30. Hendra et Shell-and- Experimental Mikro Water Charging Ti=300K Tube diameter:
40 al[95] tube and and 0.015m
41 numerical discharging Container diameter:
42
43 0.2625m
44 31. Ismail Shell-and- Numerical n-Eicosane Water Discharging ,
45
46
47
33
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 and tube modelling process
7 Gonçalves
8 [96]
9
10
32. Castell et Shell-and- Experimental Hydrate salt - Charging Pipe: (Di= 0.008m,
11 al [97] tube process L=5.46m)
12 Tank: (Di=0.29m,
13 H=0.35m)
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
34
48
49
 4. Methods used for the heat transfer intensification
1
2 The low values of the thermal conductivity in PCMs resulted in a big number of studies on
3 the enhancement of heat transfer during solidification and melting of PCMs. various
4 techniques were tested to enhance the heat transfer performance and melting and
5 solidification processes in PCM latent heat thermal storage systems. This section presents a
6
7 review of these methods and provides information on their advantages and disadvantages.
8
9
10 4.1 Intensification using fins
11
12
Fins or extended surfaces can be used to provide an additional heat transfer surface in the
13 thermal system and thus to increase the heat transfer rate. A range of fin geometries were
14 extensively studied by a number of researchers. Liu et al. [98] experimentally studied the
15 enhancement of the PCM thermal conductivity by using copper fins with a spirally twisted
16 configuration. The experimental results showed that the fin design had a profound effect on
17
18 both the conductive and natural convective heat transfer. It was also observed that finer fins
19 are more effective than large fins in enhancing the melting process if an equal amount of fin
20 material is used. It was concluded that changing the fin width could lead to a more significant
21 enhancement of the PCM’s thermal conductivity.
22
23 Stitih [99] investigated the heat transfer enhancement in a thermal storage unit with a finned
24
25 surface during both solidification and melting processes. The storage unit was made as a
26 rectangular box with an inlet and outlet, while water was used as the HTF. The other part of
27 the system was a heat exchanger with 32 rectangular fins. The exchanger was filled with
28 RUBITHERM RT paraffin as a PCM. The heat transfer and natural convection phenomena
29 were investigated and compared with those of the storage unit without fins. Experimental
30
31 correlations were presented for the fin effectiveness as a function of Stefan (Ste) and Fourier
32 numbers (Fo) and the Nusselt number (Nu) as a function of Rayleigh number (Ra):
33
 f  1107 *  Ste.Fo   1719.4*  Ste.Fo   0.7813
2
34 (11)
35
36
37 Nu  8  1012 Ra1.0392 (12)
38
39 It was found that, for the low Fourier number, the fin effectiveness was less than 1. The
40 reason for this was that the natural convection, which was dominant in the process of melting,
41 was suppressed due to the presence of the fins. In the solidification process the fin
42
43 effectiveness varied from 0.4 to 3.06 depending on the Stefan and Fourier numbers.
44
45 An experimental study with numerical modelling of the solidification process of the PCM
46 inside a cylindrical vertical tube and using internal longitudinal fins was performed by Velraj
47 et al. [100]. The experimental results showed that the surface heat flux increased significantly
48 with an increase in the number of fins. The effect of the radius of the tube on the surface heat
49
50 flux was also investigated. It was found that for tube of small radius the surface heat flux
51 initially increased but after a certain period of time this heat flux became lower than for the
52 corresponding case with tube of large radius. The reason for this is that in the smaller tube the
53 thickness of the solidification layer is greater. Therefore the conductive resistance of the
54
solidification layer becomes higher than in the case in which the tube radius is smaller. The
55
56 solidification process for cases with and without fins was also compared. It was found that
57 the complete solidification time for the tube with fins was approximately 1/n-th (n is a
58 number of fins) of the case of the tube without fins. A numerical model was developed to
59 investigate the effect on heat transfer of different tube wall and fin thicknesses. The
60
61
62 35
63
64
65
 calculations were conducted for a tube with a radius of 0.03 m, and it was demonstrated that
1 there was no reduction in the heat transfer until the tube wall and fin thicknesses were
2 reduced to 0.0015m.
3
4
5
The same authors [101] studied different heat enhancement techniques for thermal storage
6 units, shown in Figure 2.12, namely internal longitudinal fins inside a plain cylindrical
7 storage tube filled with paraffin; the same tube filled with Lessing rings of 1cm in the
8 diameter with a small amount of water in the tube, which was then evacuated using a vacuum
9 pump after adding the molten paraffin. The vacuum was maintained such that the saturation
10
11 temperature of the water inside the tube was nearly equal to the melting temperature of
12 paraffin. It was found that the total solidification time was significantly reduced to the one-
13 quarter value by using fin configurations compared with the plain tube and to one-ninth when
14 Lessing rings were used.
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34 Figure 12: The cross section of tube storage units with different configurations: (a) plain tube
35 (b) with internal longitudinal fins (c) Lessing rings (d) bubbles [101].
36
37
38
39 Kayansayan and Acar [102] conducted a numerical and experimental study of the
40
41 solidification of ice in a cold thermal storage system with a horizontal finned tube. The
42 effects of the HTF inlet temperature, flow rate, fin density, and fin size were investigated.
43 The numerical model was validated with comparison to experimental data and the numerical
44 model was also tested against the results of Lacroix in [103], who developed his own
45
mathematical model for the melting process with the same geometrical and flow parameters.
46
47 Kayansayan and Acar used water as HTF and n-Octadecane (n-C18H38) as the PCM, while
48 the later study used ethyl-alcohol as the HTF and ice as PCM. The comparison was carried
49 out for a tube with 12 fins and the working fluid having the same Peclet numbers of 75.4,
50 754, and 7540 respectively. Figure 13 shows the effect of the flow rate on the molten fraction
51
52
and HTF exit temperature. In general, a good agreement was observed, and the results
53 demonstrated that increases in the flow rate, HTF inlet temperature and the number of fins led
54 to an increase in the heat transfer rate and the amount of energy stored in the system.
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 36
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28 Figure 13: The comparison of numerical results on the effect on the HTF exit temperature
29
30 and molten fraction in [102] and [103].
31
32 Ismael et al. [104] presented a numerical model of the solidification process around a
33 vertically axially finned tube immersed in a PCM. The model results were compared with
34 experimental data. The study was designed to determine the effect of the fin length, thickness
35 and number, the aspect ratio of the annular space, and the temperature difference between
36
37 phase change temperature and the wall temperature of the tube. The numerical results were
38 supported by the findings in the experimental work, and these indicated that, as the fin length
39 increases, the complete solidification and the solidified mass fraction are reduced
40 significantly. An increase in fin thickness as well as the number of fins resulted in an increase
41
in the solidified mass fraction and a reduction in the solidification time. The results also
42
43 demonstrated that an increase in the aspect ratio of the annular space resulted in the increase
44 in both solidification time and the solidified mass fraction, whilst an increase in the
45 temperature difference resulted in the reduction in the solidification time and solidified mass
46 fraction.
47
48 Zhang and Faghri [67, 105] developed theoretical methods to study the heat transfer
49
50 enhancement in the latent heat thermal energy storage unit using tubes with internal
51 longitudinal fins (Figure 14a) and external radial finned tubes (Figure 14b). The most
52 interesting finding was that the use of internal fins provides stronger effect of enhancing
53 melting heat transfer for transfer fluids at low Reynolds numbers. Another important finding
54
55
for the externally finned case was that tube wall temperature and Nusselt number were
56 increased significantly when the thickness of the wall increased, but the latter had no
57 significant effect on the molten liquid volume. On the other hand, the fin height had a
58 significant impact on the molten volume fraction (MVF).
59
60
61
62 37
63
64
65
 Castell et al. [106] experimentally investigated the natural convection phenomena for a
1 cylindrical model of the system with external vertical fins. The model consisted of a PCM
2 placed in the middle upper part of a cylindrical water tank. Experimental correlations
3
4 between Nusselt number and Rayleigh number were proposed.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Figure 14: Schematic of internally and externally finned tubes deployed in [67] and [105] .
26
27
28
29
30 Agyenim et al. [107] studied different aspects of the enhancement of the heat transfer in a
31 medium temperature thermal storage system using both circular and longitudinal fins. It was
32 reported that longitudinal fins achieved a sufficient enhancement of the heat transfer, and that
33 the average temperature was higher than in the control and circular finned systems. The
34
35
circular fins did not provide a noticeable improvement of heat transfer during sensible heat
36 absorption even though they increased the heat transfer area.
37
38 Shatikian et al. [108, 109] conducted a numerical study of the melting of the PCM in a heat
39 storage system with internal fins and a horizontal base. He reported that the melting process
40 and heat flux were affected by changes in the geometry of the system and the boundary
41
42
conditions. It was found that the Nusselt number and melting fraction depended on a
43 combination of dimensionless numbers, such as the Fourier (Fo), Stefan (Ste) and Rayleigh
44 (Ra) numbers:
45
46 4
Nu  5  (13)
47
48  Fo * Ste * Ra lf
1/4
Ralb1/6   0.015
49
50 Sparrow et al. [110] experimentally examined the enhancement of the conduction and
51 convection heat transfer during the solidification process in a thermal storage unit with a
52
53 vertical tube with external fins. It was found that the conduction enhancement for fins is less
54 than the area ratio of the finned and unfinned tubes, whilst the enhancement in the natural
55 convection was very nearly equal to the area ratio. On the other hand, the degradation in the
56 heat transfer due to the natural convection increased with time and this degradation was
57
greater for lower values of the temperature difference across the frozen PCM layer.
58
59
60
61
62 38
63
64
65
 Using an artificial neural network (ANN), Ermis et al. [111] analysed the heat transfer in a
1 latent heat thermal storage system with a finned tube. ANN modelling was used to predict the
2 amount of heat transfer through the PCM around the finned tube. The four network input
3
4 parameters considered (Figure 15) were the heat transfer area, Reynolds number, HTF inlet
5 temperature and time, whereas the output parameter was the total thermal energy stored. The
6 hidden node was modified to minimize the errors in the output values, and the ANN was
7 validated by comparison with experimental data. Very good agreement was achieved for both
8
9
laminar and turbulent flows.
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30 Figure 15: A three layer feed-forward back propagation neural network for heat transfer
31 analysis [111].
32
33
34
35 Eftekhar et al. [112] experimentally studied the enhancement in the heat transfer in a thermal
36 storage system with a heated and cooled horizontal finned-tube. The heat transfer and natural
37
convection effect at the liquid-solid interface were investigated, and correlations were
38
39 obtained from the experimental data for the Nusselt number and the volumetric rate of liquid
40 produced. These correlations were validated with results in [113] and agreement between the
41 two sets of data was found to be satisfactory. These correlations are presented below:
42
43
Nu  0.0270 f s1  Ra / Ste 
1/3
(14)
44
45
46 where
47
48 h L 
49 Nu  f c2/3  e c  (15)
50  k 
51
52 S
fs  (16)
S f  Sp 
53
54
55
56
57
fc 
T w 
 Tu
(17)
58
59 Tw T 
m

60
61
62 39
63
64
65
 The following heat transfer correlation equation was derived by Bathelt and Viskanta in
1 [113]:
2
Nu  0.0178  Ra / Ste 
3 1/3
4
(18)
5
6 The volumetric rate of liquid produced can be described as
7
8 1/3
 Ra   k 
9 dV
 0.0270 f c2/3  3     S f  S p  Tw  Tm   (19)
10 dt  Lc Ste    L 
11
12
13 where S f is the area of vertical fins, S p is the area of heated bottom plate, Tw is the mean wall
14
15 temperature, Tm is the melting temperature and S is the area of solid liquid interface.
16
17 A theoretical model was derived by Padmanabhan and Murthy [114] to study the phase
18 change occurring in a cylindrical annulus with axial fins on the inner tube. The theoretical
19
20 model was based on the finite-difference method. It was concluded that the melt/frozen
21 fraction could be estimated using the following formula, which was recommended for
22 engineering design purposes:
23
VF  1.1275  Fo * Ste *Tf  N  L W 
24 0.624 0.028 1.385 0.049
25 (20)
26
27 where N is the number of fins, L is the fin length and W is the fin thickness
28
29 Tan et al. [115] studied both experimentally and numerically the impact of the configuration
30
of spiral aluminium fillers on the PCM’s melting performance in a fin type latent heat storage
31
32 system. A two-dimensional simulation domain was designed using Fluent 6.3 software for
33 both fin type and fine-spiral fillers slab (Figure 16). The numerical results were validated
34 with experimental data, and good agreement between results was observed. It was also found
35 that the aluminium spiral fillers have a strong influence on the PCM’s melting behaviour. The
36
37
heat conduction increased due to the rise in the induction area as a result of adding the spiral
38 fillers, whilst the natural convection was reduced.
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 40
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25 Figure 16: Two-dimensional simulation domain [115].
26
27
28
29 Agyenim et al. [116] experimentally studied the melting and solidification processes in a
30 shell-and-tube design with longitudinal fins used to power a LiBr/H2O absorption cooling
31 system (Figure 17). The experiments were carried out for different values of the charging
32
33
mass flow rate and inlet HTF temperatures. The temperature gradients in the axial, radial and
34 angular directions during charging were recorded. The results demonstrated that the optimal
35 parameters for charging the LiBr/H2O absorption system were as follows: the mass flow rate
36 of 30 kg/min and the inlet temperature of 140oC.
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52 Figure 17: Schematic diagram of shell and tube system [116].
53
54
55
56 Choi and Kim [117] experimentally investigated the heat transfer characteristics of
57 magnesium chloride hexahydrate (MgCl2.6H2O) in circular finned and unfinned systems. It
58
59 was found that the molten fraction in a 5-finn tube was 25% greater than that in the unfinned
60 tube. However, the molten fraction in the 10-finned tube was similar to that in the 5-finned
61
62 41
63
64
65
 tube which meant that the additional surface in the 10-finned tube did not have the desirable
1 effect on the molten fraction. Heat transfer correlations were obtained for the amount of
2 energy storage in terms of Fourier, Stefan and Reynolds numbers:
3
4
5
For the unfinned-tube systems,
6
Q
7  7.42 104 Fo0.96 Ste1.07 Re0.48 , Re  8000 (21)
8 Qmax
9
10 For the 5-finned-tube systems,
11
12
Q
13  10.10 104 Fo0.92 Ste0.94 Re0.45 , Re  8000 (22)
14 Qmax
15
16 For the 10-finned-tube systems,
17
18 Q
19  24.90 104 Fo0.85 Ste1.07 Re0.40 , Re  8000 (23)
20 Qmax
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 42
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4
5
6 Table 3: Heat intensification using fins.
7
8 No Author Fin Fin Methods PCM HTF Process Parameters Dimensions
9 geometry material investigated
10
11 1. Liu et al. Rectangular Copper Experimental Stearic acid - Charging Effect of fin size Tube: Di=46mm,
12 [98] fins process and pitch on the L=550mm
13 heat transfer
14
15
2. Stritih Rectangular Steel Experimental Paraffin Water Charging Effects of fins on Fins: H=0.5m, L=0.12m,
16
17 [99] and and heat transfer thickness 1mm.
18 numerical discharging enhancement Rectangular Storage:
19 H=0.5m, L=0.12m,
20 W=0.65m.
21
22
23 3. Velraj et Rectangular Alumini Experimental Paraffin - Discharging Effect of fin Rectangular fins:
24 al. [100] internal um RT60 process number and tube H=27mm, L=300mm,
25 longitudinal radius on heat flux thickness 1.5mm.
26 fins and solidification Cylindrical tube:
27
28 fraction Di=54mm, L=600mm,
29 Do=60mm.
30
31 4. Kayansaya Annular Copper Experimental Ice Ethyl- Discharging Effect of HTF inlet Horizontal section:
32
33
n and Acar fins and alcohol process temperature, flow (L=57cm, W=50cm, H=
34 [102] numerical rate, fin density, 42cm)
35 and fin size Tube: (Di=20mm,
36 L=492mm, Do=30mm)
37 5. Lacroix Annular Copper Theoretical N- Water Charging Effect of shell Inner tube: Di=12.7mm,
38
39 [103] fins model Octadecane process radius, mass flow L=1m, Do=15.8mm.
40 rate, inlet Outer Tube: Di=25.8mm,
41 temperature. L=1m.
42 Annular fins:
43
Do=25.6mm.
44
45
46
47
43
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 6. Ismail et Vertical - Experimental Paraffin Water Discharging Effect of fin length, Fins length: 0.087, 0.196,
7 al. [104] axially and process thickness and, 0.348mm.
8 finned numerical number, aspect Aspect ratio: 2.481
9
10
modelling ratio of the annular Fins number: 2, 3, 4 and
11 space and the 5
12 temperature The angular half-width of
13 difference between the fin: 0.55, 0.45 and
14 phase change 0.36
15
16 temperature and the
17 wall temperature of
18 the tube
19
20
21
7. Zhang and Internal fins - Numerical - - Charging Effect of internal Fins thickness W=0.05
22 Faghri modelling process longitudinal fins on
23 [105] heat transfer
24
25 8. Zhang and External - Numerical - - Charging) Effect of external
26
27 Faghri radial modelling process radial fins on the
28 [67] finned heat transfer
29
30 9. Castell et External Experimenta Sodium Water Natural Effect of fins on Cylindrical Tank:
31
32
al.[106] vertical fins acetate convection natural convection D=440mm, H=450mm.
33 trihydrate phenomena phenomena Cylindrical model:
34 during D=88mm, H=315mm.
35 solidificatio Fins: H=310mm, L=20
36 n process and 40mm.
37
38
39 10. Agyenim Circular and Copper Experimental Erythritol Silicon Charging Effect of circular Fins number: 8
40 et al [107] longitudinal oil and and longitudinal Fin thickness: 0.001m
41 fins discharging fins on the heat Fin pitch: 0.04m
42
transfer of medium Circular fin diameter:
43
44 temperature 0.134m
45
46
47
44
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 thermal storage Longitudinal fin length:
7 system 0.95m
8 11. Shatikian Internal Alumini Numerical Paraffin - Charging Effect of fins on 0.15 < Fins thickness
9
10 et al [108, longitudinal um wax process the melting process <1.2 mm, 5 < fins high <
11 109] fins and heat flux 10mm,
12 0.5<PCM store between
13 fins<4mm
14
15
16 12. Sparrow et External Styrofoa Experimental Paraffin - Discharging Effect of fins on Storage unit: D=15.2cm
17 al [110] vertical fins m (n-eicosane) process natural and and H=11.5cm.
18 conduction heat
19 transfer
20
21
22 13. Ermis et al Internal fins Bronze Experimental Water/ice Ethyl- Charging Effect of fins and Fin: L= 440mm,
23 [111] and alcohol and flow parameters on thickness=3mm.
24 numerical discharging the phase change Tube: Di=10mm,
25
26
modelling process using Do=15mm, L=570mm.
27 artificial neural Tank: W=420mm, L=
28 network 570mm, H=500mm.
29
30 14. Eftekhar Vertical fins Experimental P116 Water Charging Effect of fins on Storage unit: H=
31
32 et al [112] paraffin process the enhancement of 53.5mm, L= 61.5mm and
33 wax heat transfer and W=56mm.
34 natural convection
35
36
15. Padmanab Axial fins Copper Numerical N-Eicosane Water Charging Phase change Dimensionless fin
37
38 han and and process of specific thickness= 0.1
39 Murthy discharging storage unit Dimensionless fin
40 [114] length= 1.5
41
42
43
16. Tan et al. Fins and Alumini Experimental Paraffin - Charging Effect of spiral Spiral fillers diameter =
44 [115] Spiral um and wax process fillers on melting 12mm
45
46
47
45
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 Fillers numerical performance
7
8
9
10
11 17. Ismail and Radial Copper Experimental Water Ethanol Discharging Effect of radial fins Tank: 700×500×500,
12 Lino [118] rectangular process and turbulence thickness=10mm.
13 fins promoters on heat Tube: Di=12.25mm,
14
15
transfer Do=18.35mm, L=1m.
16
17 18. Saha and Plate fins Numerical N-Eicosane - Charging Effect of aspect Heat sink: (L=20mm,
18 Dutta process ratio and applied H=2mm)
19 [119] heat flux on the Fin thickness= 0.2, 2.2,
20
21 thermal 4.2, 6.2, 8.2, 9.2, and
22 performance of the 9.9mm.
23 heat sinks Fin height= 2.7, 3.1, 5,
24 10, 20, 25, 30, 35, and
25
26
40mm.
27
28 19. Agyenim Longitudina Copper Experimental Erythritol Silicon Both Effect of mass flow Shell, Do=154mm
29 et al. [116] l fins oil and charging rate and inlet Tube, Do=54mm
30 water and temperature of
31
32 discharging HTF on the thermal
33 behaviour of PCM
34 system
35 20. Choi and Circular Stainless Experimental Magnesium Air Charging Effect of circular Shell; Di=55mm,
36
Kim [117] fins steel chloride (melting) fins on heat H=140mm and
37
38 hexahydrate process transfer thickness= 2.5mm
39 characteristics
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
46
48
49
 1
2 4.2 Intensification of the heat transfer using filling materials
3 Another technique widely used to increase the heat transfer surface in the thermal system is
4 incorporate filling materials, such as graphite materials and porous media (metal foams and
5 matrix materials).
6
7 4.2.1 Graphite materials
8
9
Pincemin et al. [120] experimented with graphite flakes combined with salts or eutectics as
10 PCMs at melting temperatures of 200-300oC. Graphite was added to improve the thermal
11 conductivity of the PCM and storage capacity. Three different types of graphite have been
12 used: natural graphite flakes (Figure 18a); expanded natural graphite (Figure 18b); and
13 ground expanded natural graphite (Figure 18c). A significant enhancement of the thermal
14
15 conductivity was found to be up to a factor of 14 with the effective conductivity of 9 W/m K
16 and a factor of 10 for with the effective conductivity of 6 W/m K. Also, no significant
17 changes were found in the phase change temperature, but a reduction in the phase change
18 temperature variation was observed.
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32 Figure 18:- Tested graphite [120].
33
34
35
36
37
Zhao and Wu [121] studied experimentally the intensification of heat transfer in a high
38 temperature thermal storage system using metal foams and expanded graphite filled with the
39 PCM. It was found that application of both metal foams and expanded graphite significantly
40 enhanced the heat transfer during both charging and discharging processes; the complete
41 freezing and melting times were reduced and the effect of metal foams was greater than that
42
43 of expanded graphite. Another interesting finding was that the heat transfer was significantly
44 enhanced in the solid regions due to increase in the conduction heat when using metal foams
45 and expanded graphite, but these materials suppressed the natural convection effect in the
46 liquid region.
47
48 Py et al. [122] studied theoretically and experimentally the performance of a composite PCM
49
50 made of paraffin saturated with compressed expanded natural graphite (CENG). They
51 concluded that the composite thermal conductivity can be improved up to 70 W/mK
52 depending on the CENG density and shape. CENG also significantly suppressed the natural
53 convection in the melted PCM region.
54
55 Zhang and Fang [123] studied the behavior of a paraffin/expanded graphite composite PCM.
56
57 Expanded graphite with an average particle size of 300μm and an expansion ratio of 200ml/g
58 was used in the study. The thermal performance of the composite was compared with that of
59 paraffin, and the results showed that the phase change temperature and latent heat remained
60 the same for these both materials. On the other hand, the time needed to reach the required
61
62 47
63
64
65
 temperature during the melting process was reduced by 27.4% for the composite PCM
1 compared to paraffin. It also can be seen in Figure 19 that the total solidification time for the
2 composite PCM was reduced by 56.4% compared to paraffin. The heat transfer rate in the
3
4 composite PCM was higher than that of paraffin due to the improved thermal conductivity.
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21 Figure 19: Temperature variation during the melting and solidification process [123].
22
23
24
25 The same method of enhancing the thermal conductivity was adopted by Xiao et al. [124] for
26 paraffin using a thermoplastic elastomer poly composite. The thermal storage performance of
27
28 the composite was compared with that of paraffin, and it was reported that the heat transfer
29 rate in the composite increased significantly with the rise of the mass of expanded graphite
30 during the solidification process. This was due to the increase in the thermal conductivity of
31 the composite. In the case of melting, the heat transfer rate was reduced due to the weaker
32
33
natural convection, which plays a significant role during melting. The most interesting
34 finding was that the composite PCM with paraffin content of 80% had the same phase
35 transition as pure paraffin.
36
37 Sarı and Karaipekli [125] obtained similar results from the experimental study of the melting
38 process in the composite PCM made of paraffin (n-docosane) with expanded graphite (EG).
39
40
The effect of the mass fraction of EG on the thermal storage characteristics was investigated.
41 The results indicated a strong relationship between the mass the fraction of EG and thermal
42 conductivity. The continuous introduction of EG resulted in an increase in the thermal
43 conductivity, thereby reducing the complete melting time. On the other hand, for all EG mass
44 fractions, the latent heat capacities were roughly the same and very close to that of paraffin.
45
46 The composite PCM made of 10% EG and 90% of paraffin was recommended for LHTES
47 applications due to its stable properties.
48
49 In an effort to improve the thermal conductivity of static acid, Karaipekli et al. [126] have
50 used expanded graphite (EG) and carbon fibre (CF) and compared the results with those of
51 authors in [80, 124, 127-130]. They discovered a linear relationship between the thermal
52
53
conductivity and the mass fractions of EG and CF additions:
54
55 k  0.0841M f  0.2194  for Expanded Graphite  (24)
56
57
58 k  0.0659M f  0.2831  for Carbon Fiber  (25)
59
60
61
62 48
63
64
65
 Zhang et al. [131] also studied the influence of graphite powders on the thermal conductivity
1 of mixed shape-stabilized PCMs. It was reported that the thermal conductivity of the
2 composite PCM could be increased up to 20 times. Beyond this value the mechanical
3
4 robustness of the composite deteriorated. Furthermore, the authors developed a correlation
5 for the effective thermal conductivity as a function of the graphite mass fraction and this
6 correlation showed a good agreement with experimental data:
7
8
9
k  333.3 X 4  213.3 X 3  31.97 X 2  2.187 X  0.15  0  X  0.2 (26)Mills
10 et al. [132] used a graphite matrix to form a paraffin/graphite composite. The graphite matrix
11 was made of flake graphite which can be obtained from stacked sheets of carbon. The thermo
12 physical properties of the composite were investigated, and their experimental results were
13
14 compared with correlations published by other authors in [122, 133, 134] with a good
15 agreement. It was found that the PCM mass fraction was decreased for higher bulk densities,
16 while the thermal conductivity of the composite PCM increasing anisotropically for the
17 higher bulk densities.
18
19 4.2.2 Intensification of heat transfer using porous media, metal foams and matrix
20
21 materials
22 Mesalhy et al. [135] numerically investigated the influence of a porous matrix with different
23 values of the thermal conductivity and porosity filled with the PCM in two concentric
24 cylinders. The finite element approach was used, and in order to validate the numerical model
25
26
the free convection during the melting process of pure PCM was investigated. The numerical
27 results were compared to those by Khillarkar et al. [61] and found to be in a good agreement.
28 The results demonstrated that a decrease in the porosity resulted in an increase in the melting
29 rate as well as in the convection flow of liquid PCM fractions due to the reduction in the
30 matrix permeability. Also, decreasing the porosity reduced the storage capacity of the PCM
31
32 due to reduction in the PCM quantity. On the other hand, using a solid matrix with the high
33 thermal conductivity and porosity resulted in the significant heat transfer enhancement in the
34 PCM storage. Also, Hoogendoorn and Bart [136] developed a mathematical model to study
35 the effects of metal matrix structure on the temperature transition range of
36
melting/solidification in paraffinic materials. It was demonstrated that the mathematical
37
38 model provided a good agreement with the experimental results.
39
40 Phanikumar and Mahajan [137] carried out both experimental and numerical analysis of the
41 natural convection inside the high porosity metal foams heated from below. The numerical
42 model was validated with experimental data and with the results of Beckermann et al. [138].
43 The effect of several metal foams (aluminium, carbon and nickel) on the heat transfer
44
45 enhancement was examined, and it was found that using metal foams led to significant
46 enhancement in heat transfer. On the other hand, the effect of Darcy and Rayleigh numbers
47 on the heat transfer was also reported, and it was demonstrated that local thermal non-
48 equilibrium effects became significant at high Darcy and Rayleigh numbers. Sasaguchi et al.
49
50
[139] proposed a numerical model for the solidification of pure water in the porous media
51 placed around a single cylinder and two cylinders. The model was used to study the effect of
52 the natural convection on the solidification process for the system with and without porous
53 media. Also, the effects of the initial water temperature as well as the number of cylinders on
54 solidification were studied. The model was validated with experimental results and excellent
55
56 agreement was found. It was concluded that both the initial temperature of water and the
57 number of cylinders had considerable effects on the solidification process. Their next paper
58 [140] examined the effect of the position of the cylinder on the solidification process. The
59 results demonstrated that the position of the cylinder had a significant influence on
60
61
62 49
63
64
65
 temperature distribution, average Nusselt number over the cylinder surface, and the cooling
1 rate of the water.
2
3 Bhattacharya et al. [141] conducted both analytical and experimental analysis of the physical
4
5
properties of high porosity metal foams. The effect of the thermal conductivity, permeability,
6 and internal coefficient of high porosity were investigated, and the theoretical model was
7 validated with experimental data which demonstrated the excellent agreement. A metal fibre
8 was used (Figure 20), and it was concluded that the thermal conductivity depended on the
9 porosity and the ratio of the cross-section of the fibre to the intersection area. The
10
11 permeability increased with the increase of pore diameters and the porosity of the medium.
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36 Figure 20: Open cell representation of the metal foam and schematic of the fibre cross-
37 sections at different porosities [141].
38
39
40
41
42
Boomsma and Poulikakos [142] developed a three dimensional numerical model to evaluate
43 the effective thermal conductivity of the fluid saturated metal foam. The foam structure was
44 represented as cylindrical ligaments attached to cubic nods at their centres as shown in Figure
45 21. The aluminium foam with a porosity of 95% was used as the foam metal, whilst air and
46 water were used as fluids. The model was validated with the experimental data by Calmidi
47
48 and Mahajan [143] and good agreement was observed. It was concluded that changing the
49 fluid conductivity slightly increased the effective thermal conductivity which demonstrated
50 that the heat conductivity of the solid phase determined the overall effective thermal
51 conductivity.
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 50
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19 Figure 21: Foam structure [142].
20
21
22
23
24 Calmidi and Mahajan [143, 144] numerically modelled and experimented with the forced
25 convection in high porosity metal foams. Experiments were carried out with the aluminium
26 metal foam saturated with air and water as the fluid medium. The numerical results were
27 compared to experimental data by Hunt and Tien [145], and it was demonstrated that the
28
29
enhancement effect of the thermal dispersion was very small for the foam-air compound due
30 to the high conductivity of the solid matrix, whilst for the foam-water the thermal dispersion
31 was very large.
32
33 Erk and Duduković [146] numerically modelled and experimentally analysed the heat storage
34 in a phase change regenerator consisting of n-Octadecane retained by capillary force in a
35
porous silica support. CO2 was used as the HTF in the phase change regenerator. The
36
37 experiment measured the outlet temperature and compared it with the predicted value, and the
38 results indicated the presence of a significant amount of heat losses. As much as 50% of the
39 energy stored in the experimental unit could be lost to the surroundings via the end plates.
40 Also, predictions of the net front movement were compared quantitatively with the
41
42
experimental data, showing a reasonable agreement in 60% of the volume of the bed.
43
44 Weaver and Viskanta [147] experimentally investigated the freezing of distilled water in the
45 saturated porous media. Spherical glass balls with the diameter of 1.59 and 6 mm were used
46 as the porous media, and their permeabilities were calculated to be 1.6×10-9 and 2.85×10-8 m2
47 respectively. It was concluded that the porous media had a significant effect on the natural
48
49
convection during the solidification process inhibiting the fluid motion.
50
51 Beckermann and Viskanta [148] carried out both experimental and numerical analysis of the
52 phase change of a fluid inside a vertical rectangular enclosure filled with glass beads as a
53 porous matrix. Numerical results were compared to experimental data to demonstrate a good
54 agreement. It was concluded that the porous media had a considerable effect on the natural
55
56
convection in the melt as well as on the conduction in the solid fraction.
57
58 Zhao and Lu [149, 150] produced a general model for heat transfer performance in metal
59 foam filled pipes. Detailed information on the velocity and temperature distributions were
60 obtained using the Brinkman-extended Darcy momentum model and a two-equation heat
61
62 51
63
64
65
 transfer model. The results indicated that the metal foam significantly increased the heat
1 transfer by a factor of forty. Also, the metal foam with a small porosity and pore density
2 resulted in the better heat transfer performance, but with the increased pressure drop. In their
3
4 later papers [151-154] they examined the influence of the metal foam on the phase change
5 process during the solidification and melting of paraffin. It was found that the additive metal
6 foam significantly increased the heat transfer rate during both solidification and melting. The
7 degree of the heat transfer enhancement depended on the metal foam structure and material
8
9
used. Some results described in this section are summarised in Table 4.
10
11
12
13 Table 4: Heat transfer intensification using filling materials.
14
15 No Authors Methods PCM Filling material Process Validation
16
17 1. Pincemin Experimental Slat and Graphite Charging Yes [155,
18 et al. [120] eutectics process 156]
19 2. Zhao and Experimental Sodium Metal foams and Charging No
20 Wu [121] nitrate graphite and
21
nano3 discharging
22
23 3. Py et al. Experimental Paraffin Expanded Charging No
24 [122] and natural graphite and
25 numerical discharging
26 4. Zhang and Experimental Paraffin Expanded Charging No
27
28
Fang [123] graphite and
29 discharging
30 5. Xiao [124] Experimental Paraffin Thermoplastic Charging No
31 elastomer poly and
32 graphite discharging
33
34 6. Sarı and Experimental Paraffin Expanded Charging No
35 Karaipekli (n- graphite and
36 [125] docosane) discharging
37 7. Karaipekli Experimental Static acid Expanded Charging Yes [80,
38
39
[126] graphite and process 124, 127-
40 carbon fibre 130]
41 8. Zhang et Experimental Graphite Charging Yes
42 al. [131] and process
43 numerical
44
45 9. Mills et al. Experimental Paraffin Graphite matrix Charging Yes[122,
46 [132] wax and 133, 134]
47 discharging
48 10. Haillot et Numerical Paraffin, Expanded Charging No
49
al. [157] stearic and natural graphite and
50
51 other acids discharging
52 11. Yin et al. Experimental Paraffin Expanded Charging No
53 [158] graphite and
54 discharging
55
56 12. Mesalhy Numerical N- Metal matrix Charging Yes [61]
57 [135] modelling Octadecan process
58 e
59 13. Hoogendo Experimental Paraffinic Metal matrix Charging Yes
60
61
62 52
63
64
65
 orn and and materials and
1 Bart [136] numerical discharging
2
3
14. Phanikum Experimental - Metal matrix - Yes[138]
4 ar and and (aluminium,
5 Mahajan numerical carbon and
6 [137] nickel)
7 15 Sasaguchi Experimental Pure water Porous media Discharging Yes
8
9 et al. [139, and process
10 140] numerical
11 16. Bhattachar Experimental Water Metal foams - Yes
12 ya et al. and
13
[141] numerical
14
15 17. Boomsma Experimental Water Metal foam - Yes [143]
16 and and
17 Poulikako numerical
18 s [142]
19
20 18. Calmidi Experimental - Metal foam - Yes [145]
21 and and
22 Mahajan numerical
23 [143, 144]
24
19. Erk and Experimental N- Porous silica Charging Yes
25
26 Dudukovi and octadecan support process
27 ć [146] numerical e
28 20. Weaver Experimental Water Porous Discharging No
29 and (spherical glass process
30
31 Viskanta balls)
32 [147]
33 21. Beckerma Experimental Gallium Porous Charging Yes
34 nn and and (spherical glass and
35 Viskanta numerical balls) discharging
36
37 [148]
38 22. Siahpush Experimental Eicosane Copper porous Charging Yes
39 [159] foam and
40 discharging
41
42
23. Zhao and Analytical - Metal foam Charging Yes [160]
43 Lu [149, model process
44 150]
45 24. Zhao and Experimental Paraffin Metal foam Charging Yes
46 Lu[151] RT58 and
47
48 discharging
49 25. Krishnan Numerical - Metal foam Charging Yes [148]
50 [161, 162] and
51 discharging
52
53
26. Tong Numerical Water Metal matrix Charging Yes [164-
54 [163] and 166]
55 discharging
56 27. Ettouney Experimental Paraffin Metal screens Charging No
57 et al. [167] wax and metal process
58
59 spheres
60
61
62 53
63
64
65
 4.3 Heat transfer intensification using nano-fluid, nano-particles and
1 microencapsulation
2
3 4.3.1 Nano-particles
4
5
Ho and Gao [168] experimentally evaluated the effect of alumina (AL2O3) nano-particles on
6 the thermo physical properties of paraffin (n-Octadecane) during melting/freezing processes.
7 From the results obtained, adding AL2O3 nanoparticles in paraffin had a small effect on the
8 melting/freezing behaviour of paraffin. A similar result was obtained for the thermal
9 conductivity enhancement using nano-particles. The thermal conductivity of nanoparticles in
10
11 paraffin becomes considerable higher with the rise of its temperature due to intensification of
12 the Brownian motion. Furthermore, the measured dynamic viscosity and density of pure
13 paraffin was compared with those found in [169] and excellent agreement was observed. The
14 results also revealed that the dynamic viscosity increased significantly as the amount of
15
16
AL2O3 nanoparticles increased. Wu et al. [170] carried out similar work on paraffin saturated
17 with nanoparticles. Cu, AL, and C/Cu nanoparticles were used to improve the heat transfer
18 rate during both freezing and melting processes. It was concluded that the paraffin with nano-
19 particles has the significantly enhanced heat transfer rate compared with pure paraffin, and
20 also that the nano-particles had a little influence on the melting/freezing temperatures. The
21
22 analysis conducted indicated that Cu nanoparticles provided the strongest enhancement
23 compared to Al and C/Cu nanoparticles.
24
25 Zeng et al. [171] experimentally investigated the influence of Ag nano-particles on the
26 thermal conductivity of the PCM. Tetradecanol (TD) was used as the PCM, and the
27 experiment was carried out using several types of thermal analysis: differential scanning
28
29
calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetry (TG), power X-ray diffraction (XRD), and
30 transmission electron microscopy (TEM). It was found from the results that the thermal
31 conductivity of the composite material increased with the rise of amount of Ag nano-
32 particles.
33
34 A numerical simulation using FLUENT software was carried out by Arasu et al. [172] to
35
36
investigate the effect of AL2O3 nanoparticles on the paraffin wax in a concentric double pipe
37 heat exchanger. The computed thermo-physical properties of paraffin saturated with AL2O3
38 nano-particles were compared with Ho and Gao’s measurements in [168] and a good
39 agreement was observed between these two data sets. The results demonstrated that the
40 AL2O3 nano-particles in paraffin wax have a significant effect on the charging-discharging
41
42 rates of the thermal energy compared to the case with pure paraffin. A similar enhancement
43 in the thermal conductivity of the composite materials and in the heat transfer rate was found.
44 Furthermore, the viscosity of the composite materials increased as the volumetric farction of
45 AL2O3 nano-particles rose, thus improving the natural convection heat transfer effectiveness.
46
47
Their study in [173] repeated this investigation for a square enclosure heated from below and
48 from the vertical side. The results indicated that paraffin wax saturated with nano-particles
49 exhibited increased thermo-physical properties compared to pure paraffin. In [174] the effect
50 of the volume fraction was studied for both AL2O3 and CuO nano-particles on the
51 solidification and melting processes of paraffin wax. The Authors found that the
52
53 enhancement in the thermal performance of paraffin wax was greater when AL2O3 nano-
54 particles were used compared to the application of CuO nano-particles.
55
56 Khodadadi and Fan [175] analytically solved the one-dimensional Stefan problem for the
57 freezing process of nano-particle-enhanced PCM (NEPCM) in a finite slab. Combinations of
58 both water and cyclohexane as a PCM with additions of four types of nanoparticles (alumina,
59
60
copper, copper oxide and titanium) were selected for investigations. The physical model for
61
62 54
63
64
65
 this investigation is illustrated in Figure 22. In their next paper [176], the authors
1 investigated the model experimentally. They demonstrated that freezing process depended
2 only on the volume fraction of nano-particles and was not related to the type of nano-
3
4 particles. The experimental results indicated that the freezing rate for NEPCM containing 5%
5 of nano-particles was considerably increased. With the volume fraction of nano-particles of
6 1% and 2% the freezing process was not affected.
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Figure 22: Schematic diagram for 1-D modelling of the PCM freezing in a finite slab [175,
30 176].
31
32
33
34 Khodadadi and Hosseinizadeh [177] also carried out analytical investigations of the effect of
35 nano-copper particles on natural convection and PCM thermal conductivity in a square
36 storage model. They applied the Boussinesq approximation model in FLUENT to simulate
37
38 the buoyancy force and density variation. The results obtained from this model were
39 compared with the results by other authors in [178-181]. In general, there was a good
40 agreement between data sets. It was pointed out that the latent heat of the PCM decreased as
41 the addition of nano-particles increased. The results indicated that the solidification fraction
42
increased rapidly as the mass fraction of suspended particles rose. This is because of the
43
44 enhanced thermal conductivity and smaller value of their latent heat. Ranjbar et al. [182]
45 obtained similar results from the numerical study of the solidification process in a 3-D
46 rectangular enclosure filled with PCM with addition of nanoparticles. It was pointed out that
47 the addition of nano-particles suppressed the natural convection, and therefore the heat
48
49
conduction dominated heat transfer in both solid and liquid phrases.
50
51 Kim and Drzal [183] experimentally investigated the behaviour of exfoliated graphite nano-
52 platelets (xGnP) filled with paraffin wax. The effects of xGnP on the thermal conductivity,
53 melting time, melting temperature, and the latent heat capacity of paraffin were investigated.
54 Their findings indicated that the thermal conductivity increased with the xGnP content. On
55
56
the other hand, the use of xGnP did not lead to a decrease in the latent heat of paraffin/xGnP
57 composite PCMs. Therefore, its latent heat storage was not reduced. Liu et al. [184] carried
58 out experimental work on the solidification/melting of BaCl2 filled with TiO2 nano-particles.
59 They found that the thermal conductivity and heat transfer were significantly enhanced by
60
61
62 55
63
64
65
 adding nano-particles, which also reduced the supercooling of the suspension. Wang et al.
1 [185] used the fractal theory to model the effective thermal conductivity of the liquid with
2 nano-particles. The effects of the particle size and surface adsorption were examined, and
3
4 when the model results were compared to experimental results [186] a good agreement was
5 observed for the particle content less than 0.5%.
6
7 Seeniraj et al. [187] proposed the theoretical expression for the energy storage and heat flux
8 for cases with and without dispersed particles in the PCM and identified the optimum fraction
9 of dispersed particles to maximise the energy storage and heat flux. The schematic
10
11 arrangement used in this study is shown in Figure 23. It was reported that the cumulative
12 energy storage capacity was decreased as the particle fraction was increased, due to the
13 particles reducing the volume occupied with the PCM. However, the addition of particles
14 increased the instantaneous surface heat flux and hence accelerated the energy storage
15
16
process. The results also revealed that the optimum fraction of dispersed particles to
17 maximise the stored energy depends on the thermal conductivity of the dispersed fraction.
18 Siegel [188] conducted a similar analysis for planer solidification process.
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38 Figure 23: Schematic of the storage unit containing dispersed particles [187].
39
40
41
42 Wang and Choi [189] experimentally evaluated the thermal conductivity of the nano-particle-
43 fluid mixture. They used Al2O3 and CuO nano-particles with diameters of 28 nm and 23 nm
44 respectively. Several fluids, such as distilled water, ethylene glycol, engine oil, and vacuum
45
46 pump fluid were dispersed with the two types of nano-particles and examined. The effect of
47 the mixture preparation technique on its thermal conductivity was also investigated. The three
48 different techniques, namely mechanical blending, coating particles with polymers and
49 filtration, were tested and the measured thermal conductivity was compared with the
50
51
predictions of various theoretical methods [190-195] shown in Table 5. It was reported that
52 the measured thermal conductivity differed from data reported in the literature, due to the
53 different particle sizes used in the study. The results further indicated that the thermal
54 conductivity of the mixture increased with decreasing particle size and also depended on the
55 dispersion technique used.
56
57
58
59
60 Table 5: Effective thermal conductivity of a mixture [189].
61
62 56
63
64
65
 Author Theoretical expressions Remarks
1
2 Maxwell ke 3   1  Applicable
 1
3
4
[190] kf   2     1   1or   1 1
5 Jeffrey ke  3 2 9 3   2 3 4  Accurate to order
6
[191]  1  3   2  3 2     .. 
7 kf  4 16 2  3 26 
8
9
Davis 3   1 Accurate to order
  f    2  0  3  
10 ke
 1
      f    2.5 for   10
11 [192]
12 kf   2    1 
13
14
f    0.5 for   
15 Lu et al. ke For spherical particles
16 [193]  1  a.  b. 2 a=2.25, b=2.27.
kf
For   10 ; a=3, b=4.51
17
18
19 for   
20
21
22 Shaikh et al. [196] carried out an experimental and numerical study of the latent energy
23
24
storage with a PCM containing dispersed single wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs), multiwall
25 CNTs (MWCNTs) and carbon nano-fibers (CNFs). The numerical model results were
26 compared to experimental results and a good agreement between them was found. Figure 24
27 illustrates the physical model and the 2-D arrangement of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) used in
28 the theoretical model. From the experimental results, the maximum value of the latent heat
29
30 enhancement was found to be in the wax/SWCNTs composite followed by that of the
31 wax/MWCNTs composite, whilst the minimum enhancement was found in wax/CNFs
32 composite. The theoretical model also examined the effect of nanoparticle mass fraction, size
33 and type on the intermolecular attraction within the mixture. It was concluded that the
34
35
molecular density of the SWCNTs was higher compared to those of the MWCNTs and CNFs,
36 resulting in the enhanced latent energy. A considerable number works were published on the
37 heat transfer enhancement in PCMs using nanoparticles, as summarised in Table 8.
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 57
63
64
65
 Figure 24: Physical model (a) and CNT arrangement (b) [196].
1
2
3
4 4.3.2 Nano-fluids
5 Nanofluids are dilute liquid suspensions of solid nanoparticles or nanofibres with sizes of 1-
6
7 100 nm [197]. Recent developments in the field of heat transfer have led to a renewed interest
8 in nanofluids because of their enhanced thermo physical properties and heat transfer. Ding et
9 al. [197] reviewed the relevant literature which covered heat conduction using nanofluids,
10 convection heat transfer for both natural and forced flow conditions, and boiling heat transfer
11
12
in the nucleate regime. In an extensive study, Godson et al. [198] summarised the results of
13 experimental and theoretical studies on the enhancement of heat transfer using nanofluids,
14 improvements in thermal conductivity, Brownian motion, and free convection in heat
15 transfer. Recent developments in the enhancement of heat transfer using nanofluids have
16 been reviewed by Trisaksri and Wongwises [199].
17
18
Ho et al. [200] numerically examined different models of the effect of the dynamic viscosity
19
20 and thermal conductivity of nanofluids in natural convection heat transfer. Numerical 2D
21 modelling was carried out for a vertical square enclosure (Figure 25), with a water-alumina
22 (AL2O3) mixture chosen as the working nanofluid. Results indicated that the heat transfer
23 across the enclosure was improved with respect to the base fluid. Vajjha et al. [201]
24
25
experimentally measured the density of three different nanofluids containing aluminium
26 oxide (AL2O3), antimony-tin oxide (Sb2O5:SnO2), and zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles in a
27 fluid mixture consisting of 60% ethylene glycol and 40% water. The experimental results for
28 density compared favourably with the theoretical results of Pak and Cho [202] and it was
29 concluded that there was an excellent agreement between them, demonstrating that the
30
31 density was increased with rise of nanoparticles content.
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55 Figure 25: Schematic of a vertical enclosure system [200].
56
57
In another major study, Vajjha and Das [203] experimentally developed a correlation for the
58
59 thermal conductivity of three nanofluids over a temperature range of 298-363K, taking into
60 account the effect of Brownian motion on the thermal conductivity as a function of
61
62 58
63
64
65
 temperature. They compared their experimental results with those of several existing models
1 [204-212] and found a good agreement. The results indicated that the thermal conductivity of
2 nanofluids increased with the volume fraction of nanoparticles as well as with the increase in
3
4 the temperature. A subsequent paper [213] examined the impact on heat transfer of nanofluid
5 circulating within the flat tubes of an automobile radiator. Using the thermo physical
6 properties of nanofluids derived in their previous work [201, 203], the problem was solved
7 using the control volume method in FLUENT software. They demonstrated that the average
8
9
heat transfer coefficient significantly increased as the particle volumetric concentration
10 increased. Nevertheless, increasing nanoparticles resulted in an increase in the local skin
11 friction, which caused a large pressure drop across the flat tube.
12
13 Khanafer et al. [178] performed numerical simulation to analyse the heat transfer behaviour
14 of the nanofluid inside a two-dimensional enclosure for a range of Grashof numbers and
15
16
volume fractions. The findings seemed to be consistent with those of other researchers [214-
17 217]. The study found that the addition of nanoparticles considerably increased the heat
18 transfer rate for any given Grashof number. Furthermore, heat transfer increased with the
19 nanoparticle volume fraction. A correlation was proposed for the average Nusselt number as
20
21 a function of the Grashof number (10 Gr  10 ) and the nanoparticle volume
3 5

22 fraction (0    0.25) . Li and Xuan [218] also established a new convective heat transfer
23
24 correlation for Cu-water nanofluid under single-phase fluid model. These correlations are
25 presented below:
26
27 Nu  0.5163  0.4436  1.0809  Gr 0.3123 [178] (27)
28
29
30 Nunf  0.4328(1  11.285 0.754 Ped0.218 ) Renf0.333 Prnf0.4 (for laminar Flow) [218] (28)
31
Nunf  0.0059 1  7.62860.6886 Ped0.001  Renf0.9238 Prnf0.4  For turbulent flow  [218]
32
33
(29)
34
35 Abdulhassan et al. [219] experimentally studied the heat transfer performance of nanofluids
36 circulating through a horizontal tube. Experimental measurements of the nanofluids thermo
37
38
physical properties were compared with results of several studies [189, 202, 205, 220-223]
39 with deviation not exceeding 3.5%. The results indicated that the presence of nano-particles
40 significantly increased the heat transfer rate as well as the thermo physical properties of the
41 nanofluid. The most interesting finding was that circulating nanofluids through the tube did
42 not result in a large drop in pressure, because nanoparticles did not affect the flow behaviour.
43
44 Gavtash et al. [224] obtained similar results from a numerical study of the nanofluid in a
45 cylindrical heat pipe. A 2-D model of the heat pipe was created using FLUENT software.
46 They found that the nanofluid improved the heat transfer rate in the heat pipe and reduced its
47 thermal resistance. A preliminary work on heat transfer enhancement was undertaken by
48
Xuan and Roetzel [223]. Two methods were presented to analyse the convection heat transfer
49
50 with nanofluids. The first considers the nanofluid as a single phase fluid, while the other
51 considering nanofluid as a multiphase fluid made of the nanofluid and the particles.
52
53 Maïga et al. [225] have also reported that nanoparticles substantially increase the heat transfer
54 compared to base fluid. They attempted to provide correlations for the Nusselt numbers of
55 nanofluids in terms of Reynolds and Prandtl numbers. Syam Sundar et al. [226] numerically
56
57 investigated the laminar flow and heat transfer characteristics with three different nanofluids,
58 namely AL2O3, CuO, and TiO2, in a circulating tube using FLUENT software. Particle
59 concentrations were in the range from 0.3 to 2%, and the results revealed that the heat
60 transfer coefficient increased with the particle concentration. In addition, the highest heat
61
62 59
63
64
65
 transfer coefficient was provided by AL2O3 nanoparticles, followed by CuO, with the lowest
1 for TiO2. Sasmito et al. [227] also studied the laminar flow heat transfer problem in square
2 cross-section tubes with two different nanofluids, namely AL2O3 and CuO in water. The heat
3
4 transfer was improved with nanofluids and AL2O3 provided a better performance than CuO.
5 According to Wen and Ding [228], particle migration is the reason for the enhancement of the
6 convection heat transfer and results in a non-uniform distribution of the thermal conductivity
7 and the viscosity field as well as a reduction in the thermal boundary layer thickness.
8
9 Two-dimensional turbulent flow and heat transfer with three different nanofluids (AL2O3,
10
11 CuO and SiO2 in water) circulating through a circular tube under constant heat flux was
12 numerically investigated by Namburu et al. [229]. They developed a new correlation for
13 Nusselt number and viscosity for nanofluids with up to 10% volume fraction of nanoparticles.
14 They compared their model’s results with the correlation presented by Gnielinski [230] and
15
16
found a good agreement. Based on their results, they stated that the heat transfer coefficient
17 of nanofluids increased with volume fraction of nanoparticles and Reynolds number. The
18 analysis indicated that CuO nanofluid had a higher heat transfer performance than AL2O3 and
19 SiO2. Figure 26 shows the computational grid used in this study. Several methods were used
20 to calculate the dynamic viscosity and thermal conductivity of the nanofluid, as summarised
21
22 in Table 6 and Table 7, respectively.
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
Figure 26: Computational grid used in [229].
37
38
39
40 Table 6: List of methods used to determine the nanofluid dynamic viscosity.
41
42 NO Model Dynamic viscosity Remark
43
μ nf  μ f 1    
2.5
44 1. Brinkman ∅ is nanoparticle volume fraction
45 [231]
μ nf   μ f 1  7.3  123 2 
46 2. Maïga et al. ∅ is nanoparticle volume fraction
47
48
[225]
49 3. Vajjha [201] μ nf   μ f A2eC2 293K  T  363K
50 0.01    0.1
51
52
4. Ashrae [232]  B4 
T  293K  T  363K
53 μ nf   μ f A4e  
B4=2664
54 5. Namburu et log nf  Ae  BT A and B are cubic polynomial
55 al. [233] functions of the particles volumetric
56
57 concentration T  50℃
58 6. Sahoo et al.  B1 
 C1  T  90℃
59 [234] μ nf   A1e T 

60
61
62 60
63
64
65
 1
2
3
4
5
6 Table 7: A list of methods used to determine the nanofluid effective thermal conductivity.
7
8 No Model Thermal conductivity Remarks
9
10 1. Maxwell [190] K nf K s  2 K L  2  K s  K L   s : solid volume fraction

11 KL K s  2K L   K s  K L  s
12
13
14 2. Charunyakorn Ke  Km  1  bPep 
15 et al. [235]
16
17 3. Hamilton and K nf K s   n  1 K L   n  1  s  K L  K s  n dependent on particle shape and
18  Ks/KL, n=3/ψ
19
Crosser [221] KL K s   n  1 K f   s  K L  K s 
20
21
4. Jeffrey [191] Kn f  K / KL 1  2  Ks / KL 1  1  Ks / KL 1 
22
 1  3s  s   3s   .[1   
 Ks / KL  2   Ks / KL  2  4  Ks / KL  2 
23 KL
24
25 3  K s / K L  1  K s / K L  2 
26     ..]
27 16  K s / K L  2  K s / K L  3 
28

3  K s / K L  1 .  s  f . s 2  O   s 3 
29
30
5. Davis [192]
K nf Accurate to order  2
 1
 K s / K L  2    K s / K L  1 s
31
32 KL
f    2.5 for   10 , f    0.5 for   
33
34
35
36 6. Bruggeman K nf  K  Spherical particles
37
[204]   3 s  1 s   2  3 s     / 4
38 K L  Kf 
39
   3 s  1  K s / K L    2  3 s   2  2  9 s  9 s 2   K s / K L 
40 2 2 2

41
42
43
44
45
46
47
61
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 7. Yu and Choi  2 1     1   3 1  2   
  
 
K nf K pe  2 K L  2 K pe  K L 1     s
3 h is nano-layer thickness
7 [205] K pe  Ks Klayer is nanolayer thermal
8
9
 1     1    1  2 
3
KL  
K pe  2 K L  K pe  K L 1     s
3

conductivity
10 r is particles radius
11   Klayer / Ks ,   h / r , 10KL  Klayer  100KL
12
13
14 8. Xuan et al. K nf K s  2 K L  2  K s  K L   s  s Cps KT rc is the mean radius of gyration of
15 [206]   cluster
16 KL K s  2K L   K s  K L  s 2 3 L rc
17
9. Koo and K nf K s  2K L  2  K s  K L  s KT  is fraction of liquid volume
f T , , etc.
18
Kleinstreuer   5 104  LCpL
K s  2K L   K s  K L  s s d s
19
20 [207, 208] KL
21

   K nf  K L   K nf  K 2   2 K 2  K s     K s  K 2   2 K 2  K nf 
22 10. Xue and Xu K2: is thermal conductivity of the
23
[209] 1     0 interfacial shell. T: is the
   2 K nf  K L   2 K nf  K 2   2 K 2  K s   2  K s  K 2   K 2  K nf 
24
25 thickness of interfacial shell
26 3
 r 
27  s 
28
29
 rs  t 
30
31 11. Chon et al. K nf  dL 
0.3690
 Ks 
0.7476
lL is mean-free path for the fluid
32 [210]  1  64.7  
0.7460
  Pr 0.9955 Re1.2321
33 KL  ds   KL 
34
Cp   KT
35 Pr  L L , Re  L 2
36 KL 3L lL
37
38
12. Prasher et al.   K s 1  2   2 K m   2  K s 1     K m   A  4  10 4
 1  ARe Pr   
39 K nf
[211] m 0.333

40
KL   K s 1  2   2 K m     K s 1     K m   Rb is the interfacial thermal
41      
42 resistance between nanoparticles
43 and fluid
44
45
46
47
62
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 1 18KT
7 Re  , Km  K L 1  1/ 4  Re.Pr  ,   2 Rb K m / Ds
8 v  s d s
9
10
13. Jang and Choi Knf dL C1  18 106
 1     1K p  C1
11
12 [212]
2
K L Redp Pr
KL ds
13
14
15 CR.M d s KT
16 Redp  , CR . M 
17 v 3 L d s lL
18
K s  2K L  2  K s  K L  s
19 14. Vajjha and Temperature range
K nf KT
20
Das [203]   5 104  LCpL f T ,   298  T  363K
21 KL K s  2K L   K s  K L  s s d s
22
23
24 T 
25 f T ,     2.8217 102  3.917 103      3.0669 102   3.91123 103 
26  T0 
27
28
for AL2O3particles,   8.4407 100 
1.07304
29 , 0.01    0.1
30
31
for Zno particles,   8.4407 100 
1.07304
32 , 0.01    0.07
33
34
for CuO particles,   9.881100 
0.9446
35 , 0.01    0.06
36
15. Wang et al. Ks  r  n  r 
 n  r  is the radius distribution
1     3  0
37
dr
38 [185] K nf K s n  r   2K L function
39 
KL  Ksn  r 
1     3  0
40
dr
Ks  r   2K L
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
63
48
49
 1
2
3
4
5
6 16. Keblinski et Knf d1 CR.M is the random motion
7 al. [236]  1     K s  3C K L Red2 Pr
8 KL ds velocity of nanoparticles
9 CR.M d s
10 Redp 
11 v
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
64
48
49
 4.3.3 Microencapsulation
A microencapsulated phase change material (MEPCM) is obtained by placing a micro-size
1 solid/liquid PCM core within a solid structure (shell/wall) [237]. A wide range of materials
2 can be used to make the shell, including natural and synthetic polymers [238]. MEPCM can
3 be prepared by two methods, namely complex coacervation and spray drying, details of
4
5 which can be found in [238-242]. Figure 27 shows an SEM image of MEPCM prepared in
6 [240].
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34 Figure 27: SEM image of microencapsulated PCM [240].
35
36
37
38 Xuan et al. [243] investigated experimentally the effect of microencapsulated PCM
39 components on the specific heat capacity and thermal conductivity of an MEPCM
40
41 suspension. The MEPCM core was paraffin while the shell was made of melamine urea
42 formed from aldehyde resin and iron particles. It was reported that the specific heat of the
43 MEPMC depends on the temperature inside the MEPCM and the volume fraction of the
44 MEPCM particles. In addition, the specific heat capacity of the suspension in the solid region
45
46
was smaller than that in the liquid region for the same volume of MEPCM. On the other
47 hand, the thermal conductivity increased linearly with the volume fraction of the MEPCM
48 and it also increased with increasing iron nanoparticles inside the MEPCM.
49
50 Salaün et al. [244] used microcapsules filled with paraffin and nanoparticles of polyvinyl
51 alcohol/hydrated salt to decrease the thermal conductivity of PCM. They also found that
52
53
polymer nanoparticles did not affect the latent heat, but that the phase change took place over
54 a wide range of temperatures compared to pure paraffin. Hu and Zhang [245] carried out a
55 numerical investigation of the enhancement of convective heat transfer in microencapsulated
56 PCM. The model analysed the effect of various factors on the heat transfer enhancement in a
57 laminar flow in a circular tube with the constant wall temperature. This numerical simulations
58
59 compared favourably with the results of the experimental investigation in [246]. In [247]
60 authors conducted similar analysis for a circular tube with the constant heat flux, using the
61
62 65
63
64
65
 effective specific heat capacity model. The numerical simulation results were supported by
findings of Alisetti and Roy in [248]. Namely that the Stefan number, the mass flow rate of
1 HTF, and the volumetric concentration of microcapsules can improve the heat transfer rate.
2
3 Alvarado et al. [249] experimentally studied the enhancement of heat transfer in
4 microencapsulated PCM under constant heat flux and turbulence conditions. The results
5
indicated that microencapsulated PCM substantially increased heat transfer even with a low
6
7 mass fraction. The analysis of results further indicated that the material’s melting point was
8 affected by a slurry velocity more than heat flux. Su et al. [250] investigated the influence of
9 the core/shell ratio of microPCMs, their average diameter and the thermal conductivity on the
10 phase change behaviour. They found that shell thickness did not have a strong effect.
11
12
However, higher volume fractions of microPCMs and smaller enhanced the thermal
13 conductivity of the composite.
14
15 Özonur et al. [251] used a microencapsulated natural coco fatty acid mixture as a PCM for a
16 thermal storage system. The transition temperature and the stability of the thermal energy
17 storage of the PCMs were investigated during both charging and discharging processes. It
18
19
was demonstrated that the thermal properties of the microencapsulated PCM were stable after
20 50 cycles. Rao et al. [252] experimentally investigated enhancement of the convective heat
21 transfer in microencapsulated PCM-water additives flowing through rectangular
22 minichannels. It was found that an increase in the mass flow rate and MEPCM volume
23 substantially increased the heat transfer rate. The analysis also indicated that the thermal
24
25 performance of the suspensions with a higher mass concentration was less effective at high
26 mass flow rates due to the shorter residence time of the MEPCM additives.
27
28 The effect of several microencapsulated products on the heat transfer in gas-fluidized beds
29 has been examined by Brown et al. [253]. Paraffin and octadecane were used as MEPCM
30 cores while the shells were made of polymethylene-urea, cross-linked nylon, and gelatine.
31
32 The results revealed that the octadecane/gelatine MEPCM exhibited better heat transfer
33 performance. The heat transfer was enhanced by 85% during the phase transition compared to
34 that of the single phase.
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62 66
63
64
65
 Table 8: Literature on PCM heat transfer intensification using filling materials.

1 No Author Methods PCM Enhancement Process Validation

2 method
3
4
1. Ho and Experimental N-octadecane Nanoparticles Charging and Yes [169]
5 Gao [168] discharging
6 2. Wu et al. Experimental Paraffin wax Nanoparticles Charging and Yes [168,
7 [170] discharging 254-258]
8 3. Zeng et al. Experimental Tetradecanol Nanoparticles Charging No
9
10 [171] (TD) process
11 4. Arasu Numerical Paraffin wax Nanoparticles Charging and Yes [168,
12 [172-174] discharging 177]
13 5. Khodadadi Numerical Cyclohexane Nanoparticles Discharging Yes
14
15
and Fan and water process
16 [175]
17 6. Fan and Experimental Cyclohexane Nanoparticles Discharging Yes
18 Khodadadi and water process
19 [176]
20
21 7. Khodadadi Numerical Water Nanoparticles Discharging Yes [178-
22 and process 181]
23 Hosseiniza
24 deh [177]
25
8. Putnam et Numerical Polymethylm Nanoparticles - No
26
27 al. [259] ethacrylate
28 9. Ranjbar et Numerical - Nanoparticles Discharging Yes [14,
29 al. [182] process 177-179]
30 10. Kim and Experimental Paraffin Nanoplatelets Charging No [186]
31
32
Drzal of exfoliated process
33 [183] graphite
34 (xgnp)
35 11. Liu et al. Experimental Bacl2 Nanoparticles Charging and No
36 [184] discharging
37
38 12. Wang Numerical Water Nanoparticles Charging Yes
39 [185] modelling (melting)
40 process
41 13. Seeniraj Numerical N- Dispersed Charging No
42
43
[187] Octadecane particles process
44 14. Siegel Numerical N- Dispersed Discharging No
45 [188] Octadecane particles process
46 15. Wang and Experimental Distilled Nanoparticles Yes [190-
47 Choi [189] and water, 195]
48
49 Numerical ethylene
50 glycol,
51 engine oil,
52 and vacuum
53
pump fluid
54
55 16. Shaikh Experimental Paraffin wax Nanoparticles Charging Yes
56 [196] and process
57 Numerical
58
59
60 17. Halte et al. Experimental - Nanoparticles - No
61
62 67
63
64
65
 [260]
18. Elgafy and Experimental Paraffin wax Nanoparticles Discharging Yes
1 Lafdi and process
2 [261] Numerical
3 19. Zeng et al. Experimental Nitric acid Nanoparticles Charging No
4
5 [262] process
6 20. Zeng et al. Experimental Tetradecanol Nanoparticles Charging No
7 [263] process
8 21. Wu et al. Experimental Water Nanoparticles Discharging Yes [265,
9
[264] process 266]
10
11 22. Ho [200] Numerical Water Nanofluids Charging Yes [216,
12 process 217]
13 23. Vajjha Experimental Ethylene Nanofluid Charging Yes [202]
14 [201] glycol and process
15
16
water
17 24. Vajjha and Experimental Ethylene Nanofluid Charging Yes models
18 Das [203, and glycol and process [204-212]
19 213] Numerical water
20 25. Khanafer Numerical - Nanofluid Charging Yes [214-
21
22 [178] process 217]
23 26. Abdulhass Experimental Water Nanofluid Charging Yes [189,
24 an [219] process 202, 205,
25 220-223]
26
27
27. Gavtash et Numerical Water Nanofluid Charging No
28 al. [224] process
29 28. Maïga et Numerical Water and Nanofluid Charging Yes [267]
30 al. [225] ethylene process
31 glycol
32
33 29. Syam Numerical Water Nanofluid Charging Yes [268]
34 Sundar et process
35 al. [226]
36 30. Sasmito Numerical Water Nanofluid Discharging Yes [269]
37
[227] process
38
39 31. Wen and Experimental Water Nanofluid Charging Yes [268]
40 Ding [228] process
41 32. Namburu Numerical Water Nanofluid Charging Yes [230]
42 et al. [229] process
43
44 33. Xuan and Numerical Water Nanofluid Charging Yes
45 Roetzel process
46 [223]
47 34. Li and Experimental Water Nanofluid Charging Yes
48 Xuan process
49
50 [218]
51 35. Keblinski Numerical - Nanofluid Charging No
52 et al. [236] process
53 36. Wang Experimental Water Nanofluid Charging No
54
55
[270] process
56 37. Bönneman Experimental Water Nanofluid Charging No
57 n et al. process
58 [271]
59 38. Gao et al. Experimental Water Nanofluid Charging and No
60
61
62 68
63
64
65
 [272] discharging
process
1 39. Chein and Numerical Water Nanofluid Discharging Yes [274]
2 Huang process
3 [273]
4
5 40. Xuan Experimental Paraffin Microcapsules Charging No
6 [243] process
7 41. Salaün et Experimental Paraffin Microcapsules Charging No
8 al. [244] process
9
42. Hu and Numerical Water Microcapsules Charging Yes [246]
10
11 Zhang process
12 [245]
13 43. Zhang Numerical Water Microcapsules Charging Yes [248]
14 [247] process
15
16 44. Alvarado Experimental Water Microcapsules Charging and No
17 et al. [249] discharging
18 45. Su et al. Experimental Paraffin Microcapsules Charging No
19 [250] process
20 46. Özonur et Experimental Natural coco Microcapsules Charging and No
21
22 al. [251] a fatty acid discharging
23 mixture
24 47. Rao et al. Experimental N- Microcapsules Charging and No
25 [252] Octadecane discharging
26
27
48. Brown Experimental Octadecane Microcapsules Charging No
28 [253] and paraffin process
29
30
31 5. Conclusions
32
33 This paper presents an extensive review of significant studies relevant to the topic of thermal
34 storage systems. The techniques deployed to enhance the energy performance of thermal
35 storage systems and the methods used for to improve heat transfer in phase change materials
36
37
were analysed. From the review it can be seen that encapsulation and packed beds
38 technologies have been analytically and experimentally well investigated with a large volume
39 of published papers. Storage system designs and their configurations, PCM materials used,
40 heat transfer enhancement methods, the parameters which affect the performance of the
41 system were considered in detail. However, a limited number of studies have been devoted to
42
43 assessing the pressure drops observed in packed bed thermal storage systems with
44 determination of the friction factor as a function of the size, shape, and geometry of the
45 packed bed system.
46
47 Different geometries and configurations of fins or other types of extended surfaces, porous
48 media, metal foams, matrix materials and graphite materials have been extensively studied to
49
50 enhance the heat transfer process in thermal storage systems by increasing the effective
51 thermal conductivity in the mixture of phase change materials and additive components. The
52 key disadvantage with the above methods is that it is necessary to increase the system volume
53 in order to provide the same amount stored energy. A considerable number of studies have
54
55
been devoted to investigating the effect of nano-fluid, nano-particles, and microencapsulation
56 on the thermal performance of LHTS.
57
58 The outcome of the literature review is that the natural convection plays an important role
59 during the PCM solidification and melting processes. The natural convection flows are
60 extremely sensitive to the geometry and size of the enclosures and depend on the density,
61
62 69
63
64
65
 viscosity and thermal conductivity of the phase change materials used. Therefore, the detailed
study of natural convection inside the storage system with the liquid PCM is very important
1 for the designing process.
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