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WHAT IS
MINING?

Extraction of minerals & fossil fuels from

the Ear th’s crust.
These may be metallic minerals, like gold, silver,
copper and uranium, or non-metallic minerals, such
as sand and gravel, or fossil fuels like oil and coal.

Extraction methods var y widely in their costs, level of

safety and impact on the environment.
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 CL ASSIFICATION
OF MINERAL
RESOURCES

The US Geological Sur vey classifies

mineral resources into 4 categories:
• IDENTIFIED: where location, quality and
quantity is known properly
• UNDISCOVERED: resources which are assumed
to exist
• RESERVES: identified resources which could be
extracted profitably
• OTHER: presently not classified as reser ves 3
 CL ASSIFICATION
OF MINERAL
RESOURCES

The
economics of
mineral
RESERVES
and
RESOURCES

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 MINERAL
DEPOSITS

Mineral deposits are formed in the

Earth's crust by different geological
processes and concentrate minerals or
ores in such quantities that it is
technologically possible and
economically viable to mine the
resources.
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 MINERAL
DEPOSITS

Mineral deposits
may be found in
the three main
t y p e s of r o c k :

- S E D I M E N TA R Y

- M E TA M O R P H I C

-IGNEOUS

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 CONSTRAINTS

The type of mining depends upon:

• Depth of resources
• Stability and nature of material which must be
removed (overburden)
• Topography
• Safety
• Economics – profit margins
• Environmental considerations?
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 TYPES OF
MINING

SURFACE (STRIP) MINING:

• Removes deposits which lie in horizontal beds
close to ear th’s sur face
• Vegetation is clear-cut
• Over-burden is removed
• Mineral deposit is removed
• Over-burden (should be) replaced
• Can leave long-lasting environmental damage
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 TYPES OF
MINING

STRIP MINING:
Area strip mining Contour strip mining

Both leave highly erodible spoil banks or dir t walls

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 Surface mining

Manganese mine
in South Africa

http://lithium-news.com/2018/07/25/transnet-signs-manganese-capacity-allocation-contract-with-assmang/ 10
 TYPES OF
MINING

MOUNTAIN TOP REMOVAL:

• Most commonly for coal
• Heavy machiner y and explosives are used to
expose the coal seams
• Over-burden is dumped somewhere close
• Coal is removed
• 1977 Sur face Mining Control and
Reclamation Act requires site reclamation
• Original topography can never be restored 11
 Mountain top
removal

Mine in US State of
West Virginia

https://www.breakthechainva.com/mountaintop-removal-mining 12
 TYPES OF
MINING

OPEN PIT MINING:

• Heavy machiner y and explosives are used to
dig a huge hole
• Mineral resources are removed
• Pit generally stays behind and fills with water
• Water is often made toxic and acidic by mine
wastes and tailings
• Often preferred form of mining because it is
easier, safer, quicker 13
 Open pit mining

Open pit mine

after extraction

https://sciencing.com/advantages-open-pit-mining-7218839.html 14
 Open pit mining

Uranium mine in
Australia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranium_mining_in_Australia 15
 TYPES OF
MINING

SUB-SURFACE MINING:
• When deposits are far underground
• Deep ver tical shaf ts are dug with horizontal
extraction shaf ts
• Less environmental destruction or evidence
• Often highly dangerous – collapse of shafts,
flooding, explosions, build-up of poisonous
gases
• Risky, ar tisanal mining
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 Sub-surface
mining

Old tin mine in

Cornwall, England

https://www.exeter.ac.uk/csm125/cornish-mining-tradition.html 17
 Sub-surface
mining

Underground gold
mine in Australia

https://shutdownsaustralia.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/underground-mining.jpg 18
 TYPES OF
MINING

DRILLING:
• Used for underground deposits of oil or gas
• Deep shafts are drilled to reach deposits,
often trapped between different geological
formations
• Gas or oil rise to sur face due to their pressure
• Water or steam may be injected to add
pressure
• Contentious for many environmental reasons 19
 Drilling

How offshore
drilling works

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 Drilling

Drilling for oil in Drilling

Colorado

https://thehill.com/business-a-lobbying/415415-colorado-rejects-new-oil-drilling-restrictions 21
 Drilling

Environmental issues with drilling:

• Oil spills and gas leaks – air, water and soil
pollution
• Habitat destruction by location of platforms
and drilling sites
• Pipelines lead to habitat loss and irreversible
changes of natural habitat
• Loss of access to land
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 TYPES OF
MINING

FRACKING:
• The hydraulic fracturing of underground
rocks, to release the gas or oil contained
there.
• Pressurised fracking fluid is injected into the
rocks, to create cracks in the rock formations.
• The gas or oil comes up to the sur face under
its own pressure, or by induced pressure.
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 Fracking

FRACKING:

HIGHLY CONTENTIOUS!
Here’s what you should know:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Uti2niW2BRA

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 PROCESSING

• O n c e m i n e r a l o re s a re re m o v e d f ro m t h e g ro u n d , t h e y
n e e d p ro c e s s i n g .
• M e t a l o re s a re s m e l t e d , u s i n g of te n tox i c c h e m i c a l s , to
extract the metal.
• Gold is treated with a cyanide compound which produces a gold-cyanide
complex which is soluble. Toxic hydrogen cyanide results.
• Copper is smelted with sulphuric acid in ‘leak-proof’ holding ponds
• Ta i l i n g s a re w h a t a re l e f t b e h i n d . O f te n h i g h l y tox i c .
• G a n g u e i s a n a m e g i v e n to c o m m e rc i a l l y w o r t h l e s s
m i n e r a l s l e f t b e h i n d a f te r a m i n i n g o p e r a t i o n

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 Processing

Roasted gold ore

In this process, toxic
SO2 is released into the
air.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roasting_(metallurgy)#/media/File:Roasted_Cripple_Creek_gold_ore.jpg 26
 ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACTS OF
MINING
SOME IMPACTS – just a few!
• Acid mine drainage
• E ro s i o n a n d S e d i m e n t a t i o n
• Tox i c c o n t a m i n a t i o n of s e a w a te r f ro m l e a k s a n d s p i l l s
• Subsidence and sinkholes
• C y a n i d e a n d o t h e r tox i c re l e a s e s , h e a v y m e t a l s
• C o l l a p s e of m i n e s a n d s h a f t s
• Dust Emissions, black lung disease
• Habitat modification or loss
• Biodiversity loss
• S u r f a c e a n d g ro u n d w a te r c o n t a m i n a t i o n
• C l i m a te c h a n g e 27
 LEGISL ATION

The General Mining Act of 1872 is a United States

Federal Law that authorizes and governs prospecting
and mining for economic minerals, such as gold,
platinum, and silver, on federal public lands. This law,
approved on May 10, 1872, codified the informal
system of acquiring and protecting mining claims on
public land, formed by prospector s in California and
Nevada from the late 1840s through the 1860s, such
as during the California Gold Rush.
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 LEGISL ATION

The Sur face Mining Control and Reclamation Act

1977 (SMCRA) stated that mined land must be
returned to pre-mined state:

• Disposal of wastes
• Re-contouring land to re-establish original
topography
• Replant native vegetation
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 RESTORATION

Since 1978 the mining industry has reclaimed more than 2 million acres
(8,000 km²) of land in the United States. This reclaimed land has renewed
vegetation and wildlife in previous mining lands and can even be used for
farming and ranching.

Re s t o r a t i o n
of M o n t a n a
G r a ve l M i n e s

https://www.asla.org/2016awards/171899.html 30
 DWINDLING
RESOURCES

When the availability of a mineral

becomes limited, there are 4 possible
ways ahead:
• Find more sources
• Recycle and re-use
• Reduce consumption
• Find a substitute
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Dwindling
resources

DEPLETION CURVES
for the use of non-
renewable resources,
using three different
assumptions.

80% depletion is
shown by the dashed
lines.
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 WHAT TO DO?
• U s e m i n e w a s te :
SOME SOLUTIONS
• Backfill for roads
• Incorporate into building materials
• Extraction of other minerals
• E x p l o i t h y d ro - t h e r m a l d e p o s i t s
• Re s e a rc h a n d d e v e l o p s u b s t i t u te m a te r i a l s
• Re c y c l i n g s c a rc e a n d va l u a b l e m e t a l s h a s l o w e r
e n v i ro n m e n t a l i m pa c t t h a n m i n i n g
• Re s e a rc h a n d d e v e l o p s u s t a i n a b l e te c h n o l o g i e s
• F u l l c o s t p r i c i n g - i n c l u d e s c o s t s of e n v i ro n m e n t a l i m pa c t
• E m p l o y m i n e r a l w a s te s a s r a w m a te r i a l s f o r o t h e r
p ro c e s s e s
• L a n d re c l a m a t i o n a n d re s to r a t i o n

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