60 Towers Pylons Unit 6A-B 17

Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Surrey
UNIT 6A
PYLONS AND TOWERS
(Study time allocation = 90 minutes)
6.1 Introduction
The cable supporting structures of cable-stayed bridges are often referred to as
pylons, and in the case of suspension bridges, they are usually known as towers. In
this unit the design and analysis of pylons for cable stayed and towers for
suspension bridges is investigated.
6.2 Types of Pylons and Towers
Figure 6.1 illustrates the principal difference between the operating modes of the
towers of cable stayed and suspension bridges. The towers of suspension bridges
primarily support the vertical compression component of the suspension cable loads
which is in turn transferred into the ground via the tower foundations. The tension in
each of the two cables is transferred into the surrounding ground via the large cable
anchorages. The pylons of cable stayed bridges act as anchors for the stays and
consequently support the vertical compression component arising from the tensile
force in the stays. The lower end of the stays is normally anchored in the bridge
deck and the horizontal component arising from the tension in the cable is
transferred into the bridge deck as an axial compression force.
PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.1

Compression component of the tensile cable load supported by the bridge deck.
Cable stayed bridges
Tensile cable load supported by the end anchorages.

Suspension bridges
Figure 6.1 Cable stayed v suspension bridges.
6.2.1 Pylons
The pylons in a cable stayed bridge has three principal functions namely:
• To transmit to the ground the forces arising from anchoring the stays. These
forces will dominate the design of the pylon. The pylon should ideally carry
these forces in axial compression where possible so that any eccentricity of
loading is minimized. The requirement to carry heavy compressive loads on a
tall, elegant, and slender structure results in the significant risk of geometric
instability.
• The pylon is the main feature that expresses the visual form of any cable-
stayed bridge, giving an opportunity to impart a distinctive style to the design.
• The design of the pylon must be such that it can support the desired stay
cable layout, accommodate the topography and geology of the bridge site,
and carry the forces economically to ensure minimum cost and maximum
performance.

6.2.2 Examples of Pylon Configurations
Figure 6.2 Typical Pylon configurations (Courtesy of BBR Systems Ltd).
Courtesy of VSL Systems UK Ltd
Figure 6.3 Single leg pylons.
Courtesy of Hyder Consulting Ltd

Foss Waterway Bridge, USA.

Courtesy of VSL Systems UK Ltd
Twistvliet Bridge, Netherlands Courtesy of VSL Systems UK Ltd

Figure 6.4 Twin ‘I’ arrangement.

Courtesy of Hyder Consulting Ltd Courtesy of New Civil Engineer
Figure 6.5 ‘H’ pylon arrangement.
Courtesy of Dywida-Systems International
Courtesy of Freyssinet
Figure 6.6 ‘A’ and diamond frame pylons.

6.2.3 Pylon Classification

Pylons can be classified in terms of the way that the superstructure is supported.
Pylon Configurations in the Transverse Plane of the Bridge

The configuration of pylons in the transverse plane of the bridge depends mainly on
whether the superstructure (deck) of the bridge is supported by single plane of
cables (central suspension) or by two or more planes of cables (lateral suspension).
Central Suspension
Central suspension is normally used when the deck supports two carriageways in
different directions, separated by a central reservation. The advantages are mainly
aesthetic. Bridge users have a clear view looking outward from the deck and
bystanders looking diagonally do not see double lines of cables. However, for this
central cable arrangement, it is essential that the bridge deck must have a significant
torsional stiffness as this is necessary to support eccentric loadings from vehicle.
Examples of central suspension pylons can be seen in Figure 6.7. The pylons range
from a single slender pylon to the modified inverted Y structure. The cable stay
arrangement will dictate the form of pylon used with the inverted Y configuration
requiring a harp cable pattern.
Fig 6.7 Central suspension systems.
One advantage of single pylon axial suspension is the small footprint required for the
pylon foundations, which may be an important consideration in terms of cost and in
addition advantageous with regard to reducing the size of any hazard to navigation.

Where the structure is of moderate dimensions, with central cables in the harp pattern,
the upper part of the pylon is generally designed to be a single central arm. This
solution can be extended to larger spans with central, semi-harp-pattern cables. The
transverse slenderness of the central arm is kept within reasonable limits by the
presence of a horizontal adjusting force introduced by the cables.
With a large span structure, calling for a considerable height of pylon above the deck,
the transverse stability of the pylon may be enhanced by splitting the pylon into two
separate sections below the anchorage zone. Where clearance is required for shipping
the diamond shaped frame shown in Figure 6.7( right hand side ) may be preferable to
other layouts in terms of cost.
Lateral Suspension
Lateral suspension comprises of two planes of cables, which may be aligned with either
the deck edges, or positioned within the pavement. In this case, no part of the deck is
restricted but the transmission of forces from the deck structure to the stay cables
requires the use of outrigger beams, which can be expensive.
Figure 6.8 Lateral suspension systems.

The simplest form of lateral suspension takes the form of twin pylons or a portal
frame. The portal frame has relatively poor aesthetics.

Figure 6.9 Lateral suspension ‘A’ frame.
Where cable anchorages are connected directly to the deck webs vehicles are
restricted from using the portion of the deck reserved for the anchorages. The two
cable planes can be parallel and vertical or inclined towards each other, thus
intersecting above the bridge axis at the top of an A-frame tower. Lateral suspension
improves the aerodynamic stability of a cable-stayed bridge by increasing the
torsional stiffness of the structure. The resistance of the cables to torsional
oscillation of the deck is even more enhanced in the case of A-frame towers where
differential longitudinal movement of the anchorages of the two cable planes is
impossible.
Where a cable stayed bridge of moderate dimensions is required, the pylon can be
constructed as two independent vertical arms. By locating the stays in the same
vertical plane, care has to be taken to ensure that the pylons are sufficiently stiff to
carry all of the transverse forces primarily due to the wind. This solution also leads
to an increase in the width of the deck, which can adversely affect the economy of
the whole bridge structure. Where the cables are in an inclined vertical plane the
individual arms of the pylon are subjected to significant transverse bending under
permanent loads. When the span of the bridge increases and hence the height of
the pylons above the deck become greater, it is generally necessary to use
horizontal beams, together possibly with cross bracing, to tie the two vertical arms of

the pylon together. In large-span structures, the height of the pylon above the deck
is sufficient to make it possible to slope the arms sufficiently so that they join at the
top. If carefully designed the system thus produced offers all the strength and
stability needed to take up the forces arising from the stays and cross winds. The
wind loading can, in fact, become the governing factor in the design, due to the
significant effect which it has on the stays and pylons.
Pylon Configurations in the Longitudinal Plane of the Bridge

The longitudinal arrangement of pylons depends on the lengths of spans required
and the proposed cable-anchoring scheme. The pylon can be of a flexible type and
comprise of a single vertical member as shown in the upper picture of Figure 6.10, or
where a greater rigidity is required take the form of an A-frame tower Figure 6.10
(lower picture).
Figure 6.10 Longitudinal arrangement of pylon.

6.2.4 Pylon and Cable arrangements
Single Plane System

This arrangement shown in Figure 6.11 requires that the bridge deck is constructed
as a hollow main box which has considerable torsional rigidity in order to keep the
change of cross –section deformation due to eccentric live load within allowable
limits. Using this type of bridge deck construction offers the advantage of relatively
small piers.
Figure 6.11 Single plane system- fan cable configuration.
Two Vertical Planes System

This arrangement of two vertical planes of cables shown in Figure 6.12 is used for
many medium span bridges. It has the disadvantage that longitudinal and torsional
vibration modes are often similar.
Figure 6.12 Two vertical planes system.

Two Inclined Planes System

This arrangement shown in Figure 6.13 is recommended for very long spans where
the A-shaped tower has to be very high and needs the lateral stiffness given by the
triangular shape and the frame action.
Figure 6.13 Two inclined planes system.
6.2.5 Support arrangement of pylons
There are three different solutions possible regarding the support arrangement of
towers outlined below:
• Pylons Fixed at the Foundation

In this case, large bending moments are produced in the pylon. The majority
of cable-stayed bridges in Germany have been built with the pylons fixed at
the base. This configuration has the advantage of an increased rigidity of the
structure and the disadvantage of high bending moments especially at the
base of the pylon.
• Pylons Fixed at the Superstructure

Where a single-box has been used for the main bridge deck, the pylons are
generally fixed into the box. With this arrangement, it is necessary not only to
reinforce the box at this critical region but also to provide strong support
bearings. The supports also may resist the additional horizontal forces
caused by the increased friction forces in the bearings

• Hinged Pylons
For structural reasons, the pylons may be hinged at the base in the
longitudinal direction of the bridge. This arrangement reduces the bending
moments in the pylons and the number of redundant reactions which have to
be determined, simplifying the analysis of the overall structure. In addition, in
cases with poor soil conditions, linear hinges are provided at the base of the
pylon support which allow for longitudinal rotation, so that longitudinal bending
moments are not carried by the foundation.
6.2.6 Limiting Designs

Figures 6.14 – 6.16 represent three limiting cases of system design.
Figure 6.14
Figure 6.14 illustrates a bridge having a very stiff deck and represents the first
development in cable-stayed design. Because of the stiff deck the pylons are
slender, as they are only subjected to relatively small bending moments. In today’s
conditions, this represents an uneconomic solution.
igure 6.15
Figure 6.15
Figure 6.15 is characterised by very stiff pylons that must take up the longitudinal
moments due to live loads acting on the deck. The deck, in contrast, is only
subjected to moderate moments, particularly if the cables are not spaced too far
apart. The result is a slender deck section, the minimum dimensions of which are

governed by transverse bending and direct forces. This configuration is most

suitable for multi-span bridges.
Figure 6.16
Figure 6.16 introduces the stays themselves as the determining stabilising element.
The lengths of the side spans must be less than half the length of the main span to
ensure major tensile forces in the backstays. This design leads to relatively slender
pylons and deck.

6.2.7 Suspension Bridge Towers

Function of Suspension Bridge Towers
Cable saddles
Tower legs
Cross-beams
Foundations
Figure 6.17 Typical suspension bridge tower.

Courtesy of Nigel Hewson
Suspension bridge towers are designed to be practical and economical structures to

transfer loads from the suspension cables to the ground. Because suspension
bridges tend to be landmark structures, the towers need to be designed with
aesthetics in mind as well as for structural requirements.

Their whole life costs are also very important. Towers usually cannot be replaced
during the life of the bridge if problems occur, or if the bridge is to be refurbished to
take larger traffic volumes.
Examples of Suspension Bridge Towers
Figure 6.18 Principal suspension bridge tower types.
Suspension bridge towers are usually substantial structures carrying large loads from
the suspension cables. Stability is an important issue. The legs may be braced
horizontally in the form of a portal frame as in the Humber Bridge, or diagonally as in
the Forth Bridge shown below. Or using combination of both as shown in Figure
6.18.
Figure 6.19 Forth road bridge Courtesy of Hyder Construction.

Humber Bridge Tsing Ma Bridge

Courtesy of Cleveland Bridge Courtesy of Tony Gee
And Clarke Chapman Group and Partners
Figure 6.20 Examples of concrete suspension bridge towers.
High strength concrete has now become the preferred material for the construction
of suspension bridge towers. Although construction times are longer than for steel
towers, the overall costs are generally lower. In addition, the leg cross-section shape
can be made more aesthetically pleasing and aerodynamically efficient.
In the UK steel suspension bridge towers have waned in popularity. However, they
can be erected in a shorter time than concrete towers, and they are lighter which can
be important if foundations costs are likely to be high due to poor ground conditions.

Severn Bridge Forth Road Bridge

Courtesy of Hyder Consulting Ltd Courtesy of Hyder Consulting Ltd
Figure 6.21 Examples of steel suspension bridge towers.

6.3 Tower Loading and Conceptual Design
The conceptual design of a long span bridge will be dictated by location and
purpose. Whether it will span a small river and carry local traffic, or be a major river
crossing carrying both road and rail traffic will determine if the bridge will be a cable
stayed or suspension bridge, The loading and surroundings will also determine if the
chosen bridge is single or multi span and what form of construction should be
adopted i.e. the choice of a flexible or rigid system.
All the possibilities mentioned above will influence the initial choice of the
configuration and thus the height and form of tower or pylon adopted. One
overriding factor is that of tower location. The location should be chosen for ease of
pylon construction without compromising the lengths of main and side spans. Where
possible, pylons and towers should be located out of the water. If this is not
possible, then shallow water is to be preferred. Construction the tower or pylon in
deep water involves great expense in the cost of constructing the foundations,
having to provide caissons or building artificial islands. If the pylon is to be located
close to or within shipping lanes then the foundations structures will be required to
survive ship impact.
6.3.1 Tower Height

The initial height and form of the tower is normally chosen in the light of experience.
The height of the tower influences the amount of stay material required and the
longitudinal compression in the deck. In the case of suspension bridges, the height
of the towers will be influenced by the desired sag of the suspension cable. In
general, the height of the pylon for a cable-stayed bridge is usually 20-25% of the
central span whereas for a suspension bridge a height of between 6-11% of the span
is used. Table 6.1 gives the height to span a ratio of a number of modern
suspension bridges. Figure 6.22 gives a pictorial representation of the table and it
can be seen that many modern bridges have used a ratio of approximately 10%.

Table 6.1 Details of recent suspension bridges.
Bridge Country Date Main Tower Tower Height %

Span Type of main
span
m (above deck m)
Forth UK 1964 1006 steel 92 9%
Humber UK 1981 1410 concrete 155.5 11%
2nd Bosporus Turkey 1989 1090 steel 103 9%
Askoy Norway 1992 850 concrete 90 11%
Xiling China 1996 900 concrete 88 10%
Tsing Ma China 1997 1377 concrete 135 10%
Humen China 1997 888 concrete 90 10%
Storebaelt Denmark 1998 1624 concrete 11%
Akashi-Kaikyo Japan 1998 1990 steel 216 11%
Kurushima Japan 1999 1030 Steel 115 11%
Yong Jong Korea 2001 300 Steel 62 21%
Suspension Bridge
Tower Height to Span ratio
0.25
Tower Ht/ span ratio
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500
Span /m
Figure 6.22

Figure 6.
Figure 6.23
An interesting study by Leonhardt (ref. 5) gives a relationship for suspension and
cable stayed bridges in which the amount of steel cable required for a given cable
force is considered to be a function of the ratio of the tower height to the length of
the centre span. The effect of the weight of the cable and any load concentrations
are neglected. The equation for the resulting weight of cable required to support a
given tensile force is:
qλL2
W= C (6.1)
σ
where W = the weight of steel.

q = the total load (dead load plus live load).
λ = the specific weight of steel cable.
σ = the allowable cable stress.
L = the length of main span.
C = a dimensionless coefficient depending on the bridge type.

The cable weight equation is applicable to the classical suspension bridge and the
cable-stayed harp and fan types. The constant, C, varies for each type of bridge and
takes the following forms:
For a suspension bridge:
2 L1 + L  1  1 2u 2  2u 
CS =  16 + 2  + + 
2L  u 4 3  3 
 
where L = is the centre span length.

L1 = is the side span length.
For the cable stayed harp bridge:
1
CH = u +
4u
For the cable stayed fan bridge (referred to as radiating in Leonhardt's paper)
1
C R = 2u +
6u
where u is the ratio of the tower height above the deck to the length of the centre
span expressed as h/l.
To provide comparative cable weights, it was necessary to assume the hanger

weights were included in the total weight of cable for the suspension system, but to
exclude the small quantity of cable steel from the far ends of the side spans to the
anchorages.
In a comparative study of the cable weights for different systems, the only term
bridge type specific in equation 6.1 is the constant C. Therefore, the variation of the
coefficient C for varying values of u ( the ratio of tower height to the centre span
length h/L ) is illustrated in Figure 6.23, for the three types of structures discussed.

The end spans are assumed to be 0.4 times the centre span for each of the three
types of bridges. The lowest part of each curve indicates the optimum minimum
value for the coefficient C, which is also indicative of the minimum cable steel weight.
The value of u for both the suspension bridge and cable stayed fan type is
approximately equal to 0.28, and the cable-stayed harp type has a minimum value of
u equal to 0.5. These values do not include the weight of the towers and the
stiffening girders. When these additional weights are included, the most economical
ratio of h/l for the cable-stayed bridges is approximately 0.2 or 1/5, while that for the
suspension bridge is 0.125 0r 1/8. However, to obtain greater stiffness for
suspension bridges, a value of u of 0.111 or 1/9 is preferred.
6.3.2 Choice of materials

Until the 1970s both cable-stayed and suspension bridge towers were mainly
constructed from steel. Since the 1970s reinforced concrete has become popular
and now accounts for a large proportion of pylons and towers. There are a number
of reasons for this:
• Towers are subjected to high compressive stresses and concrete is ideal in

such circumstances.
• Advances in concrete construction and the use of slip forming techniques
which have reduced construction times.
• The advantages of low maintenance for the towers and good durability,
assuming they have been constructed correctly, reducing whole life costs.
Concrete towers are usually designed as hollow shafts. Their cross-section may be
rectangular but rounded edges and more complex shapes are easy to achieve with
modern slip forming techniques. Consequently, aesthetically pleasing tower forms
having aerodynamically useful shapes can be created. Concrete towers are
generally cheaper to construct than steel, but still have the overall disadvantage of
longer construction times.
Towers designed in steel will be lighter than towers designed in concrete, thus giving
a potential for savings in foundation costs. Much of the steel fabrication can be

carried out in a covered fabrication shed where it is easier to ensure good quality
control. The cross-section are generally rectangular and of cellular construction.
Units up to twelve metres long are welded up from steel plate and shipped to the
tower site where they can be bolted into position. However, steel towers require
periodic painting which adds significantly to the whole life cost of the bridge.
The choice of material to be adopted depends principally on the following factors:

• Whole life costs
• Contractors experience
• Equipment and materials availability
• Aesthetics
6.3.3 Tower Loads

The design of towers and pylons requires the analysis of many different loading
cases. The main loading cases will be related to the global behaviour of the whole
bridge and address problems of the adequate load bearing capacity, serviceability,
stability, and the dynamic behaviour of the bridge. In addition, tower specific loading
cases are required to allow the investigation of the tower during the various stages of
construction. This may be of particular importance when the legs are free standing
where stability may be an issue and to check whether vibrations may occur and if
temporary damping is required.
The loads can be grouped into two categories:
i) Stay forces or suspension cable forces
ii) Direct loads on the tower or pylon.
• Dead Loads
• Wind Loads
Wind loading will include the forces induced in the stays or hangers from wind
acting on the deck, in addition to wind forces on the cables themselves. There is

also a component from the wind blowing on the towers which act as a bluff body.
For large bridges, wind tunnel testing is usually required to allow reliable wind
loads to be derived. It may also be possible to generate a model of the bridge in
a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) program to investigate wind effects. At
present, generating a sensible numerical CFD model is a lengthy process. In
locations where high winds are expected wind loads are taken as dynamic loads.
The wind may also excite vibrational modes in the tower legs.
• Thermal
Thermal loads are generated due temperature differences between the deck and
stays and hangers (a temperature difference of approximately 100C may be
used). In addition, different solar radiation on opposite sides of the tower (a
gradient of 100C may be used) will induce displacements in the legs (Ref 5).
• Seismic Loads
In areas, which are prone to earthquakes, seismic loads may control the design
of towers. Seismic effects are treated as dynamic displacements applied to the
structure and may excite the various modes of vibration of the towers. Not all
finite element programs are suitable to analyse this sort of problem.
• Ship collision
Ship collision is another dynamic load case that may need to be included in the
bridge analysis.
6.3.4 Initial Sizing

The pylon height is determined from consideration of the overall design of the bridge
as mentioned in section 6.2. The cross-section shape of the pylon will also have
been selected at this time, being chosen in the light of the material to be used and
the arrangement of cables to be supported. For the global analysis, an initial size of
pylon cross-section and any necessary cross-beams that are required to provide a
sensible tower stiffness must be considered in the numerical model. The vertical
load on the pylon can be estimated from the stay loads or suspension cable loads
together with the self-weight of the legs and beams. The longitudinal moments can

be estimated by considering the worst out of balance arrangement of the dead and
live loads. The transverse and longitudinal moments due to wind loading can also be
estimated. Using these forces and moments a suitable pylon cross-section can be
obtained.
6.3.5 Analysis
The full analysis of the bridge is usually carried using a 3 D finite element program.
Using modern computers the analysis of even the most complex bridge structure can
be carried out rapidly. The preparation of the finite element numerical model
requires a skilled engineer to decide on which elements are suitable for the bridge
members and to what detail the bridge should be modelled.
Because of the slender and light-weight designs adopted for many cable-stayed and
suspension bridges it is important to use a finite element program which accurately
models non-linear behaviour and also will allow the dynamic behaviour of the bridge
to be assessed. The program should also allow temperature gradients to be
simulated and the likelihood of instability to be checked.
It may be necessary to modify the initial stiffness of bridge members to achieve the
required overall performance of the bridge. The analysis should permit the following
behaviour of the pylon or tower to be assessed:
• Longitudinal bending.
• Transverse bending (in the case of single pylons).
• Transverse frame action (H, A and diamond forms).
• Vertical compression.
• Temperature Gradients.
• The effects of construction errors.
Construction errors may induce additional moments and shears in the
structure. These additional forces can arise from the lack of verticality of the
tower axes. The lack of straightness of the legs where the legs may be
curved. The inaccurate positioning of the saddles and stay anchorages.

• Buckling
• Modes of vibration (particularly during construction).
During construction, when the tower may be acting as a pure cantilever, the
wind may cause the tower to vibrate. Modes of vibration for the tower during
construction should be determiner and if the tower is susceptible to vibration it
may become necessary to incorporate some form of temporary damping
system prior to the erection of the cable systems.
When the analysis is completed, the moments, shears and torsions are used for the
final detailed design of the pylon.
Figure 6.24 The displaced shape of a cable-stayed bridge obtained from a 3D finite
element analysis.

Start
Assume Member Geometry
Cross-sectional geometry of leg and

cross-beams etc.
Analysis of Whole Structure

Reaction forces and displacements of the
main cables, stiffening girder and towers
OK
Eigenvalue Buckling Analysis

Buckling Effective lengths
XX axis YY axis ZZ axis
Flexural buckling, Torsional buckling,
Flexural - torsional buckling
Verification
Stress and Displacements

Buckling stability
End
Figure 6.25 Flowchart of tower and pylon analysis.

6.4 Cable Connections to Pylons and Towers
6.4.1 Cable Stayed Bridge Pylon Anchorages
External Anchorages
Where the structure is of moderate size, pylons with plain sections can be used and
the anchorages can be placed in recesses in the towers, accessible from the outside
as shown in Figure 6.26. This simple and logical solution is very suitable for harp
and semi-harp patterns. Care should be taken, however, to see that torsional
moments, whose cumulative effects could lead to unwanted deformations under the
action of creep, are not introduced. The splitting-up of one of the planes of cables
avoids this problem in a way that is both simple and elegant. Such a solution is
perfectly adapted for dealing with a non-symmetrical structure, which needs bigger
cable layouts in the back spans.
Figure 6.26
For a large cable stayed bridge, the anchorages at the pylon are required to transfer
very large forces to the pylon within a small part of the structure. The need to
transfer stay loads into and then down the legs can lead to a congested structural
arrangement. The essential requirement to achieve a long design life for a bridge
requires good detailed design to eliminate problems of corrosion and also to allow
easy replacement of stays, as an when required.

Figures 6.26 and 6.27 show the stays ‘crossing over’ so that the forces in the stays
balance each other across the pylon. This gives an efficient anchorage
arrangement, but can be very congested with the stays and anchors confined to a
small area. Also, with the anchors on the outside of the pylon, this can reduce the
protection to the anchor assembly which becomes more vulnerable to water ingress.
Figure 6.27
External Anchorage by “Hooking”
An elegant solution, intended to simplify the construction procedure as much as
possible, involves placing metal formers, fitted with a U-shaped opening at either
end, in the pylons. The stay anchors are then “hooked” into the U-shaped opening
during erection. These metal sections also allow automatic balancing of the
horizontal components of the forces in the stays. This solution can lead to an overall
cost saving, in spite of the expensive metal elements. This technique of hooking in
the stays, is particularly suitable for harp-pattern stay systems.

Figure 6.28 Internal Anchorages
Figure 6.29 A Typical External Anchorage
For large-span structures, where the pylons have hollow cross-sections, internal
access to the anchorages can be gained by ladder or elevator. The space available
within the section must be sufficient to receive the equipment needed for placing and
stressing the stays. In fact, stressing cables from the pylon can reduce the number
of movements required of the pre-stressing jacks and consequently reduce
construction costs.

Figure 6.30 Horizontal pre-stressing tendons at anchorage points.
To eliminate the tension in the tower walls adjacent to the anchors, pre-stressing
tendons may be used as shown in Figure 6.30.
All the above methods of connecting the stay to the pylon rely on the accurate
placement of the steel formers and any anchor prestress and reinforcement within
the concrete walls if the stay geometry and the strength of the connection intended in
the design is to be realized. The complexity of the required details will often slow the
progress of the construction throughout this critical zone of the pylon. In order to
mitigate these problems, steel fabricated anchorage modules have been
manufactured such that the required stay geometry is completely defined. This
module can then be incorporated into the concrete shaft during its construction.
Adequate shear connection, usually in the form of shear studs, is provided so that
the concentrated anchorage forces in the fabrication can be transferred into the
concrete shaft. An example of this form of construction is shown in Figure 6.31 and
was used in the Normandie bridge. A similar concept was incorporated into the
pylon of the Ting Kau Bridge, Hong Kong. However, here the fabricated anchor
modules were connected on the outside of the concrete core

Figure 6.31 Steel Framing within Concrete Tower
It is essential that any eccentricity of the stay anchor within the pylon is accurately
modelled as part of the analysis of the structure. When the inclination of the back
stay and main stay cables are identical, with both anchors at the same level, the
axes of the stay, and hence the stay forces, will intersect on the pylon centreline.
However, the inclination of the backstay and main span are rarely identical and
hence the anchors must be located at different levels if the same intersection line is
required. Alternatively, when the levels of the two anchors are maintained at the
same level the vertical resultant of the stay forces will be slightly eccentric to the
pylon. It is usually preferable to simplify the detailing of the anchor zone and accept
the small eccentricity to the pylon in the design, as shown in Figure 6.32.
Figure 6.32 Eccentricity of anchorages.

6.4.2 Tower Saddles
Saddles are the elements mounted on the top of suspension bridge towers which
locate the suspension cables and transmit their loads to the tower structure. Saddles

may also be found on cable-stayed bridges as shown in Figure 6.33. They are
grooved cable supports designed with due consideration of the bearing pressures,
bend radii, and groove diameters. All surfaces in contact with the cables should be
smooth to avoid nicks in the wires. To avoid stress concentrations and minimise
excessive bending at the end of the grooves, a generous contour is provided, which
eliminates cable chafing. Saddles are either fixed to prevent horizontal translation
with respect to the tower or supported on rollers to allow translation.
Figure 6.33 George Street bridge saddle.

(a) cross section of pylon. (d) detail of saddle.
Courtesy of the Institution of Civil Engineers.
The bridge engineer must consider both the design features of the saddle and the
requirements of the cables before designing the saddle. Because design conditions
vary for each bridge, the saddles must be designed and fabricated expressly for
each installation see Figure 6.33. The saddles may be produced from fabricated
plates or steel castings with grooves in the form of an arc for the individual cables to
rest on. The profile of the saddle transverse to the direction of the cables is formed
to suit the desired cable arrangements.

In order to ensure the proper seating of the individual cables or strands, a zinc or
aluminium filler may be used in the groove. These soft materials will flow plastically
and provide a smooth surface for the cables to rest upon. The radius of the saddle
grooves must provide a contact area between cable and saddle that results in the
permissible bearing pressures on the cables and the saddle not being exceeded.
The radius must also be selected to maintain the bending stresses in the outer fibres
of the cable within allowable limits. When movement of the saddle is not provided in
the design and construction, the unbalanced forces at the saddle must be resisted by
friction and shear on the plates between layers of strands or cables. Additional
clamping force may be provided by a clamp over the top of the cables that holds
them in a fixed position.
Figure 6.34 Lifting a saddle onto the top of a tower.

Courtesy of Cleveland Bridge and Clarke Chapman Group.
In view of the many special features involved in the design and fabrication of
saddles, engineers and contractors need to consult a manufacturer or cable
specialist. Experience is needed in determining:
• Adequate tolerances for the saddle grooves.

• Values for the coefficients of friction to prevent sliding of the cables in the
grooves.
• Maximum allowable bearing pressures.
• The percentage reduction in breaking strength for various ratios of saddle
radius to cable diameter.
• Suitable deflection angles for live loads.
• The best method of supporting a bundle of cables.
References
Unit 6 has been based mainly on the following reference material.
1) Cable Supported Bridges Concept &Design, second edition

Author - Niels J. Gimsing
Publisher – John Wiley & Sons, 1997.
2) Cable-Stayed Bridges, second edition

Author – M.S. Troitsky
Publisher – BSP Professional Books, 1988.
3) Construction and Design of Cable-Stayed Bridges, second edition.

Authors – Walter Podolny, Jr. and John B. Scalzi.
Publisher - John Wiley & Sons, 1986.
4) Cable stayed bridges

Authors – Rene Walther, Bernard Houriet, Walmar Isler, Pierre Moia.
Publisher – Thomas Telford, London, 1988.
5) Bridge Engineering Handbook

Edited by Wai-Fah Chen and Lian Duan.
Publisher – CRC Press, 1999.

UNIT 6B
CURRENT BRIDGES
Section 1
This lecture consists of a PPT presentation of LSB currently under
construction or just completed from around the world.

60 Towers Pylons Unit 6A-B 17

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Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Physical Sciences, University of Surrey

PYLONS AND TOWERS

(Study time allocation = 90 minutes)

6.2 Types of Pylons and Towers

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.1

Tensile cable load supported by the end anchorages.

Figure 6.1 Cable stayed v suspension bridges.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.2

6.2.2 Examples of Pylon Configurations

Figure 6.2 Typical Pylon configurations (Courtesy of BBR Systems Ltd).

Courtesy of VSL Systems UK Ltd

Figure 6.3 Single leg pylons.

Courtesy of Hyder Consulting Ltd

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.3

Foss Waterway Bridge, USA.

Twistvliet Bridge, Netherlands Courtesy of VSL Systems UK Ltd

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.4

Courtesy of Hyder Consulting Ltd Courtesy of New Civil Engineer

Figure 6.5 ‘H’ pylon arrangement.

Courtesy of Dywida-Systems International

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.5

6.2.3 Pylon Classification

Pylon Configurations in the Transverse Plane of the Bridge

Fig 6.7 Central suspension systems.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.6

Figure 6.8 Lateral suspension systems.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.7

Figure 6.9 Lateral suspension ‘A’ frame.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.8

Pylon Configurations in the Longitudinal Plane of the Bridge

Figure 6.10 Longitudinal arrangement of pylon.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.9

6.2.4 Pylon and Cable arrangements

Single Plane System

Figure 6.11 Single plane system- fan cable configuration.

Two Vertical Planes System

Figure 6.12 Two vertical planes system.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.10

Two Inclined Planes System

Figure 6.13 Two inclined planes system.

6.2.5 Support arrangement of pylons

• Pylons Fixed at the Foundation

• Pylons Fixed at the Superstructure

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.11

6.2.6 Limiting Designs

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.12

governed by transverse bending and direct forces. This configuration is most

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.13

6.2.7 Suspension Bridge Towers

Figure 6.17 Typical suspension bridge tower.

Suspension bridge towers are designed to be practical and economical structures to

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.14

Examples of Suspension Bridge Towers

Figure 6.18 Principal suspension bridge tower types.

Figure 6.19 Forth road bridge Courtesy of Hyder Construction.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.15

Humber Bridge Tsing Ma Bridge

Figure 6.20 Examples of concrete suspension bridge towers.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.16

Severn Bridge Forth Road Bridge

Figure 6.21 Examples of steel suspension bridge towers.

PG Cert/PG Diploma/MSc in Bridge Civil & Structural Engineering Page ENGM052.6.17

6.3 Tower Loading and Conceptual Design

6.3.1 Tower Height