Fractional Order Systems and Controllers

Figure 3.2: PFigure 3.
2: P IDfrom
ID controller: controller:
points tofrom Figure
points
plane. 3.2: P ID con
to plane.
Figure 3.2: P IDFor a wide class

controller: For points
from a wide
of toclass
controlled plane. of controlled
objects objectsFor
we recommend wethearecommend
wide class the
fractional of
P Icontrolled
nfractional
Dδ oP
CHAPTER 3. FRACTIONAL-ORDER CONTROLLERS 13
controller, which controller, which is case
is a particular a particular
of P I λ Dcase
δ of P I λ Dwhere
controller,
controller, δ which is a particular ca
controller,
λ = n, where
n∈ λ=n
δ ∈N
N andobjects
For a wide class of controlled weand
R. δ ∈ order
Integer
recommend R. the Integer
integrator order
fractional P n δ N and
isIintegrator
important
D is ∈ R. Integer
forδimportant
steady-state order inte
for error
steady-state
cancellation
controller, which is a particular P I λon
case ofcancellation
but D δthe but on
other
controller, hand thethe
where other hand
n ∈the
λ fractional
= n, cancellation
integral is alsobut
fractional on the
integral other
is also
important hand
for importa
N and δ ∈ R. Integer order integrator
obtaining
cancellation but on the other hand for
Bode’s ideal loop transfer function
a Bode’s
thedesired
is important
obtaining
fractional
ideal a Bode’s
loop
integral
fortransfer
steady-state
ideal loop
is also
function
important
obtaining
errorresponse
transfer functionwitharesponse
Bode’s
constantideal
with
phaseloop trans
constant
margin marginfrequency
for desired range (e.g.
frequency 3, for
[1,range margin
23,(e.g.
51]).[1, 3,for23,
desired
51]). frequency range
obtaining a Bode’s ideal loop transfer function response with constant phase
Figure 3.2: P ID controller: from points to plane.
margin for desired frequency range (e.g. [1, 3,H.W. 23, Bode,
51]). Network Analysis and Feedback Amplifier Design.
Fractional order
3.2.2 Bode’s
3.2.2 ideal
For a wide class of controlled D. Van we
objects loopideal
Bode’s
Nostrandtransfer
loopfunction
transfer
3.2.2 function
recommend Company, Bode’s ideal loop
the fractional Inc.,
P I n DNew
δ
York, 1945.
controller, which is a particular case of P I λ D δ controller, where λ = n, n ∈
3.2.2 Bode’s ideal Bode loopsuggested

transfer Bodeansuggestedideal shape
function an of the shape
ideal loop transfer
N and δ ∈ R. Integer order integrator is important for steady-state error
of theBode function
loop in his
transfer
suggested work
idealonshape
function
an in his ofwo
designBode’s ideal loopIdeal transfer function:
systems and controllers
cancellation but on the other hand the fractional integral is also important for
design of feedback amplifiers
of feedback in amplifiers
1945. inloop
obtaining a Bode’s ideal loop transfer function response with constant phase 1945. transfer
Ideal of
design function
loop hasamplifiers
transfer
feedback form:
function in has19fo
Bode suggested an ideal shape of the loop transfer function in his
margin for desired frequency range (e.g. [1, 3, 23, 51]).
! work "α on
s ! "α
design of feedback amplifiers in 1945. Ideal loop transfer function
3.2.2 Bode’s ideal loop transfer function L(s) = has form: , = s (3.6)
! "α ω L(s) , L(s)
Bode suggested an ideal shapes of the loop transfer function in his work on
gc ωgc
design ofL(s)
feedback=amplifiers in 1945., Ideal loop transfer function has form: (3.6)
Hendrik Wade
where ωgc iswhere Bodeωdesired
(1905-1982) gc ω!gccrossover
"α frequency and α is
s is desired crossover frequency whereslope ωof
andgc α
the ideal
slopecut-off
is isdesired of the ideal
crossover c
freq
L(s) = , (3.6)
characteristic. characteristic. ωgc
where ωgc is desired crossover frequency and α is slope of the ideal cut-off characteristic.
Phase marginPhase is Φmmargin = π(1 + isα/2)
Φm =forπ(1
where ωgc is desired crossover frequency and α is slope of the ideal cut-off
all+values
α/2) of fortheall gain.
values The amplitude
of the
characteristic. characteristic. Phase margin is Φgain.
m = Theπ(1 +ampα/
margin
Phase margin mis
AismΦfor = infinity. The
π(1 + α/2) for all
margin A
values
is constant phase
of the gain. The
infinity. The
amplitudemarginphase
constant 60o , 45margin
o
and 30 60
o
ocorrespond
, 45o and o
Phase margin is Φm =margin
π(1 + α/2) all values m of the gain.
o o Theo
Am is infinity. The constant phase margin 60 , 45 and 30 correspond amplitude margin A m is infinity. The30 corre
constan
to to
margin Am is infinity. The the the αslopes
constant
slopes phase
= −1.33,
to−1.5=and−1.33,
α margin
the −1.66.60o−1.5
slopes ,α45= o and −1.66.
and
−1.33, 30o correspond
−1.5 and −1.66.
The Nyquist curve for ideal Bode transfer function is simply a straight line to the slopes α = −1.33, −1.5 and
−1.5 The
to the slopes α = −1.33, through and
the
Nyquist
−1.66.
origin
curveαπ/2
The= Nyquist
with arg(L(jω))
for(seeideal
e.g. curve
Bode transfer function is simply a straight line
[1, 39]). for ideal Bode transfer function is simply a straig
The Nyquist curve for ideal Bod
through
The Nyquist curve forfollowing
ideal form: the
Bode’s transfer origin
function
Bode transfer with
(3.6) can be used
function arg(L(jω)) =
as a reference system
is simply απ/2in the (see e.g. [1, 39]).
1 through the origin witha arg(L(jω))
straight line = απ/2 (see e.g. [1,
through the origin4 with 39]). arg(L(jω))
Bode’s
through the origin with arg(L(jω)) = απ/2 transfer
Gc (s) = (see
K function (3.6) can be used as a reference system in the
e.g.transfer
(0 [1,
< α <39]).2)
Bode’s
sα + K function(3.7) (3.6) can be used transfer
Bode’s as a reference
function system
(3.6)
Bode’s transfer functionfollowing
(3.6) can form:be used
= α as(0
K a< αreference system(3.8)in the
following
Go (s)
s form: < 2),
K following form:
following form: where Gc is transfer function of closed loop Gcand (s)Go= (s) is transfer function in(0 <K α < 2) (3.7)
K characteristics of Bode’s ideal transfersαfunction +GKcare:
(s) = α (0 < α < 2) K
open loop. General
Gc (s) = α (0 < α < 2) s +K
(3.7) Gc (s) = α
s +K K s +
Go (s) = α (0 < αK< 2), (3.8) K
K s Go (s) = α (0 < α < 2),
Go (s) = α (0 < α < 2), (3.8)
s Go (s) =
where sGc is transfer function of closed loop and Go (s) is transfer function in s
where Gc is transfer function of loop. where
closedGeneral
loop and GcGiso (s) transfer
is transfer function
function of closed
in where loopGand Go (s) is function
is transfer transfer funct
of cl
open characteristics of Bode’s ideal transfer cfunction are:
open loop. General characteristics of Bode’s open ideal loop.transferGeneral characteristics
function are: ofopen
Bode’s ideal
loop. transfer
General function are:
characteristics
Fractional-order systems
Fractional order systems and controllers Bode’s ideal loop transfer function
CHAPTER 3. FRACTIONAL-ORDER CONTROLLERS
14
14
W(s) Y(s)
K
G(s) = s!
W(s) Y(s)
K
G(s) = s!
W(s) + E(s) U(s) Y(s) CHAPTER 3. FRACTIONAL-ORDER CONTROLLERS 14
Gc(s) Gs(s) Figure 3.3: Bode’s ideal loop.
W(s) Y(s)
– G(s) =
K
Figure
(a) Open loop:
s ! 3.3: Bode’s ideal loop.
• Magnitude: constant slope of −α20dB/dec.;
(a) Open loop: • Crossover frequency: a function of K;
General characteristics
•Figure 3.3: Bode’s
of the Bode’s
ideal loop.
ideal line
• Phase: horizontal
slope of −α20dB/dec.;
transfer
of −α ; function: π
2
1 Magnitude: constant
Gs ( s ) = βn
• Nyquist: straight line at argument −α π2 .
+ an −1s βn −1 + ! + a1s β1 + a0 s β0
• Crossover frequency: a function of K;
an s Start (a) Open loop: (b) Closed loop:
!! "" • Phase: horizontal line of −α π2 ;
• Gain margin: Am = infinite;
βn
an D y (t ) + an−1D βn −1 β0
y (t ) + ! + a0 D y (t ) = u (t ) ! " • Nyquist: straight line at argument
−α π2 . ! "
• Phase margin: constant : Φm = π 1 − α2 ;
63 / 90 • Phase:
(b)horizontal line of −α π2 ;
Closed loop: • Step response: y(t) = Ktα Eα,α+1 (−Ktα ) ,
• Gain margin: AmFor a wide class of controlled objects we recommend the fractiona
Back • Nyquist: straight line at argument −α π2 . where Ea,b (z) is Mittag-Leffler function of two parameters [43].
= infinite;
Full screen (b) Closed loop: ! " λ δ
• Phase margin: controller,
constant : Φmwhich
= π 1 −is α
2
;a particular case of P I D controller, where λ =
Close • Gain margin:• AStep
3.2.3 Illustrative example
m = infinite;
N and
response: y(t)
! =
α
"δ
Kt ∈
α
E R.
α,α+1 Integer
(−Kt α
), order integrator is important for steady-sta
We can illustrate the fractional order control properties by an example. As-
End • Phase margin: where
constant : Φ = π 1 − ;
Ea,b (z) is Mittag-Leffler
m 2 function of two parameters [43].
cancellation but on the other hand the fractional integral is also impo
• Step response: y(t) = Ktα Eα,α+1 (−Ktα ) ,
suming that the transfer function of the DC motor is
2 where Ea,b (z) is Mittag-Leffler function of two parameters [43]. Km 5
obtaining a Bode’s ideal loop transfer function response
G(s) =
Js(s + 1)
, (3.9) with consta
3.2.3 We can illustrate

Illustrative example
margin for desired frequency
with J being range
the payload inertia. (e.g. [1,
Our specification
the fractional order control properties by an example. As-
is 3,
the 23, 51]).
constant phase
margin independent of the payload changes.
suming that the transfer function of the DC example. motor that
We can illustrate the fractional order control properties by an Assume
isAs-we would like to have a closed loop system that is insensitive
suming that the transfer function of the DC motor is Kto gain variations with a constant phase margin of 60o. Bode’s ideal loop
Km
G(s) = 3.2.2
m
Bode’s ideal loop transfer function
transfer, function that gives this phase
Js(s + 1)
(3.9)
margin is
G(s) = , (3.9)
Js(s + 1) 1
with J being the payload inertia. Our specification is the constant Go (s) = √
phase . (3.10)
with J beingmargin
the payload inertia. Our specification
Bode suggested an ideal shape of the loop transfer function in his
is the constant phase
s3s
independent of the payload changes.
margin independent of the payload changes. design of feedback amplifiers in 1945. Ideal loop transfer function has
Assume that we would like to have a closed loop system that is insensitive
Assume that we would like to have a closed loop system that is insensitiveo
to gain variations with a constant phase margin of 60 . Bode’s ideal loop
to gain variations with a constant phase margin of 60o. Bode’s ideal loop ! " α
transfer
transfer function function
that gives that margin
this phase gives this
is phase margin is s
L(s) = ,
1
G (s) = √ .
o
1
Go (s) = √ . (3.10) (3.10) ωgc
s3s s3s
where ωgc is desired crossover frequency and α is slope of the idea
characteristic.
Phase margin is Φm = π(1 + α/2) for all values of the gain. The am
margin Am is infinity. The constant phase margin 60o , 45o and 30o co
PI!Dµ controllers Bode’s ideal loop transfer function

to the slopes α = −1.33, −1.5 and −1.66.
The Nyquist curve for ideal Bode transfer function is simply a stra
through the origin with arg(L(jω)) = απ/2 (see e.g. [1, 39]).
Can be used as a Bode’s
reference system
transfer
14
in (3.6)
function the form:
can be used as a reference system
following form:
W(s)
K
Y(s) K
G(s) = s ! Gc (s) = α (0 < α < 2)
s +K
K
Figure 3.3: Bode’s ideal loop. Go (s) = α (0 < α < 2),
CHAPTER
CHAPTER 3. 3. FRACTIONAL-ORDER
FRACTIONAL-ORDER CONTROLLERS
CONTROLLERS 15
15 s
(a) Open loop: 20
20log where Gc is transfer function of closed loop and Go (s) is transfer fun
log1010 |G(j
|G(j!)|
!)|

open loop. General characteristics of Bode’s ideal transfer function a
--20
20 "" dB/dec
dB/dec
• Phase: horizontal line of −α π2 ;

• Nyquist: straight line at argument −α π2 .
log
log !!
(b) Closed loop: arg
arg((G(j
G(j!))
!))
• Gain margin:
## Am = infinite;
22 ! "
##
• Step response:
""
22 y(t) = Ktα Eα,α+1 (−Ktα ) ,
where Ea,b (z) is Mittag-Leffler function of two parameters [43].
##
log
log !!
3 3.2.3 Illustrative example 6

Figure
Figure 3.4:
3.4: Bode
Bode plots
plots ofof transfer
transfer function
function (3.8). (3.8).
suming
Since
Since G Goothat
(s)
(s) =
=the transfer function
C(s)G(s),
C(s)G(s), we
we can of the
can find
find theDC
the motor transfer
controller
controller istransfer function
function in
in the
the
following
following form form
!! G(s) = " " Km ! !, "
" (3.9)
JJ 11 11
C(s)
C(s) = = ss2/3
2/3 +
+ 1/3 Js(s =
= +
KK1) ss2/32/3 +
+ ,, (3.11)
(3.11)
K ss1/3 1/3
ss1/3
Kmm
with Jis abeing
which the payload inertia. Our specification isλ the
δ constant phase
which is a particular
particular case
case ofof the
the transfer
transfer function
function of the PPII λD
of the D δ controller
controller (3.1),
(3.1),
marginKindependent
where of the payload changes.
where K = = J/K
J/Kmm isis the
the controller
controller constant.
constant.
Assume that
The we would like to have systema closed loopa system that is insensitive
The phase
phase margin
margin of of the
the controlled
controlled system with with a forwardforwardo
loop
loop controller
controller
Gto
Gcc(s)
(s) isis variations with a constant phase margin of 60 . Bode’s ideal loop
gain
transfer function that gives Φ this phase
Φm = arg[C(jω0 )G(jω
= arg[C(jω margin
)G(jω0 )])]is++π,π, (3.12)
(3.12)
m 0 0
where
where ωω00 isis the
the crossover
crossover frequency.
frequency. 1
Go (s) = √ . (3.10)
The
The obtained
obtained phasephase margin
margin isis s3s
## $$
11 44ππ ππ
Φmm =
Φ = arg[C(jω)G(jω)]
arg[C(jω)G(jω)]+ +ππ =
= arg
arg + = ππ −
+ππ = − =
= .. (3.13)
(3.13)
(jω)4/3
(jω) 4/3 33 22 33
• Nyquist: straight line at argument −α .
• Step response: y(t) = Ktα Eα,α+1 (−Kt2 α
),
(b) Closed loop:
• Gain margin: Am = infinite;
! "
• Step response: y(t) = Ktα Eα,α+1 (−Ktα ) ,
PI!Dµ controllers
suming that the Illustrative
transfer function of the DC motor is
3.2.3 Bode’s ideal loop transfer function: example
example
Kmproperties by an example. As-
We can illustrate the fractional order control
The
suming that the transfer G(s) of=theofDC
function
transfer function a DC ,is
motormotor is (3.9)
Js(s + 1) Fractional-order PID controllers:
G(s) =
Km
, J is payload inertia
(3.9) from points to plane
with J being the payload inertia. Our+specification
Js(s 1) is the constant
phase CHAPTER 3. FRACTIONAL-ORDER CONTROLLERS 13
margin independent of the payload changes.
with J being the payload inertia. Our specification is the constant phase
Assume that we would like to have a closed loop
Assume that
margin we would
independent like
of the to have
payload a closed
changes.
gainloop systemwith thata is insensitive
Assumesystem that
that we would is
likeinsensitive to loop
to have a closed variations
system thatois insensitive
to gain variations with
constant
to gain variations
a constant
withphase
phase
margin
a constant
margin
phaseofmargin
60 . Bode’s
o of 60
of 60o. ideal
. Bode’s
Bode’sloop
ideal loop
ideal loop
transfer function that
transfer
CHAPTER
transfer function gives
3. this
that function phase
FRACTIONAL-ORDER
gives this phase margin
that margin
gives this isphase margin is
CONTROLLERS
is 15
20 log 10 |G(j !)| 1 1.

Go (s) = √ (3.10)
Go (s) =s s√
CHAPTER 3. FRACTIONAL-ORDER .
3 CONTROLLERS
3
15 (3.10)
s s - 20 " dB/dec
20 log 10 |G(j !)|
20 log 10 |G(j !)|
- 20 " dB/dec 7 10
For a wide class of controlled objects we recommend the fractional P I n D δ
20 log 10 |G(j !)| - 20 " dB/dec
log ! controller, which is a particular case of P I λ D δ controller, where λ = n, n ∈
arg ( G(j !))
N and δ ∈ R. Integer order integrator is important for steady-state error
#
2
- 20 " dB/dec
log !
cancellation but on the other hand the fractional integral is also important for
arg ( G(j !)) obtaining a Bode’s ideal loop transfer function response with constant phase
#
" #
22 log !
margin for desired frequency range (e.g. [1, 3, 23, 51]).
arg ( G(j !))
## # log !
arg
" ( G(j
2
!))
log !
3.2.2 Bode’s ideal loop transfer function
2
#
2 # Bode suggested an ideal shape of the loop transfer function in his work on
Figure 3.4:# Bode plots of transfer function (3.8).
#
"
2
log ! design of feedback amplifiers in 1945. Ideal loop transfer function has form:
"
Since Go (s) = Figure
C(s)G(s),
2 ! "α
3.4:# we
Bode can findofthe
plots controller
transfer transfer
function (3.8). function in the s
following form L(s) = , (3.6)
PI!Dµ controllers
#
! " !log ! " ! ωgc
Bode’s ideal loop transfer function: example
log
Since Go (s) = C(s)G(s), J we can find1 the controller transfer
1 function in the
C(s) = s2/3 + 1/3 = K s2/3 + 1/3 , (3.11) where ωgc is desired crossover frequency and α is slope of the ideal cut-off
following form Km s s
Figure
Figure 3.4:!plots
3.4: Bode Bodeof plots" of function
transfer transfer
! function
(3.8). " (3.8).
which is a particular case Jof the2/3 1 function of
transfer 2/3the P1I λ D δ controller (3.1), characteristic.
C(s) = s + 1/3 = K s + 1/3 , (3.11)
Kcontroller s controller transfer s function in the Phase margin is Φm = π(1 + α/2) for all values of the gain. The amplitude
Since
where
Since GK(s)==J/K
Sinceo Go (s) =mC(s)G(s), , we
is thewe
C(s)G(s), m
the
cancontroller
constant.
can find the transfer
find the controller function
transfer is in the
function o
which
The is
following a particular
phase
form margincase of the
of the transfer function
controlled system with I λ D δ controller
of theaPforward (3.1),
loop controller margin Am is infinity. The constant phaseComparison
margin 60of 45o and
, unit 30o correspond
step responses
following form ! " ! "
Gwhere
c (s) is
K = J/Km is the J controller
2/3 ! 1
constant. "2/3 1! " to the slopes α = −1.33, −1.5 and −1.66.of the fractional-order “reality” and
C(s)
The phase margin = s +
J controlled = K1 s + , (3.11)
1 controller its integer-order “model”
C(s)Kmof=Φthe
m = arg[C(jω
2/3
ss1/3 + 0system
)G(jω with
0=)] K a forward
+s1/3
π,s2/3 + loop , (3.12) (3.11) The Nyquist curve for ideal Bode transfer function is simply a straight line
Gc (s) is Km s1/3 s1/3
which
where is ω
a 0particular case of the
is the crossover transfer function of the P I λ D δ controller (3.1),
frequency. through the origin with arg(L(jω)) = απ/2 (see e.g. [1, 39]).
Φm = this
is is
of arg[C(jω a 0particular case of fractional PID (3.1),
)G(jω0 )] + π, (3.12)
which
where K=
The is a particular
J/K m is phase
obtained case
the controller
margin the transfer
constant. function of the P I λ D δ controller
where ωK0 is the crossover frequency. #constant. $ Bode’s transfer function (3.6) can be used as a reference system in the
The phase =margin mofisthethecontrolled system
where J/K
The obtained phase margin is 60 : controller 1with o a forward loop 4 πcontroller
π following form:
Gc (s)ΦisThe
m =obtained phase margin
arg[C(jω)G(jω)] is arg = π −a forward
The phase margin of +the π= controlled
# (jω)4/3 system
$
+ π with
32
= . loop
3
(3.13)
controller K
Φm = arg[C(jω0 )G(jω10 )] + π, 4π π(3.12) Gc (s) = α (0 < α < 2) (3.7)
G (s)
Φ
The constant
c mis= arg[C(jω)G(jω)] + π =
phase margin is not dependent arg + π =
4/3 of the payload
π − =
changes. (3.13)
and the s +K
where ω0 is the crossover frequency. (jω) 3 2 3
system gain K and phase curve Φm =isarg[C(jωa horizontal 0 )G(jωline0at)] + π,
−2π/3. (3.12) K
The constant
obtained phase margin
margin isis not dependent of the payload changes and the
Step response:
The
Step response
where
system ωgain0 is K
of
theand closed control
crossover
phase
# loop can
frequency.
curve is a
$ be expressed as:
horizontal
1 line at −2π/3.
4π π
Go (s) = α
s
(0 < α < 2), (3.8)
ΦmThe %
= arg[C(jω)G(jω)] = arg& is 4/3 + π = π − ' = . ( (3.13)
+1πmargin
Step obtained phase
y(t)response
= L−1 %of closed control loop
1+1/3 + 1) &
(jω)
= canEbe expressed
t1+1/3# 1+1/3, 2+1/3 $
as:1+1/3
3 2−t 3 , (3.14) where Gc is transfer function of closed loop and Go (s) is transfer function in
The constant phase s (s '
of the1 payload changes ( 4 πthe π
−1 margin is 1 not dependent 1+1/3 1+1/3 and open loop. General characteristics of Bode’s ideal transfer function are:
my(t) = L = targ E1+1/3, 2+1/3+ −t −, (3.14)
whereΦgain
system step=Kresponse
arg[C(jω)G(jω)]
and phase is
s (s independent
curve
1+1/3 is
+ 1)
+
a π = of the
horizontal payload
line
(jω) at inertia
−2π/3.
4/3
π =andπ α =
32
=
4/3. 3
. (3.13)
Step response of closed independent
control loop can be payload
expressed as: 8
where
The step response
constant %phaseis margin & is not of the
dependent inertia
of the and α = 4/3.
payload changes and the
1 ' 1+1/3 (
systemy(t) = L−1 K and
gain phase curve = t1+1/3is aE1+1/3, 2+1/3 −t
horizontal line at, −2π/3. (3.14)
s (s1+1/3 + 1)
Step response of closed control loop can be expressed as:
where step response is %
independent of the
& payload inertia and α = 4/3.
1 ' (
y(t) = L−1 = t1+1/3 E1+1/3, 2+1/3 −t1+1/3 , (3.14)
s (s1+1/3 + 1)
where step response is independent of the payload inertia and α = 4/3.
PI!Dµ controllers PI!Dµ controllers

Control of the “reality” and the
“model” using a classical PD
controller, which is optimal
for the “model”
9
ss
being developed is the method of dominant roots [37], based on the given
stability measure and the damping ratio of the closed control loop. Assuming
that, the desired dominant roots are a pair of complex conjugate root as follows:
s1,2 = −σ ± jωd ,
designed for the damping ratio ζ and natural frequency ωn . The damping
constant (stability measure)
! is σ = ζωn and the damped natural frequency of
oscillation ωd = ωn 1 − ζ 2 . The design of parameters: Kp , Ti , λ, Td and δ
PI!Dµ controllers PI!Dµ controllers: design

can be computed numerically from characteristic equation. More specifically,
for simple plant model P (s), this can be done by solving
min ||C(s)P (s) + 1||s=−σ±jωd .

Kp ,Ti ,λ,Td ,δ
Control of the “reality” and the

The design of PI!D" controllers can be based on gain
Another possible way to obtain the controller parameters is using the tuning
“model” using a classical PD and
formula, phase
based margin
on gain specifications:
and phase margins specifications [52]:
controller, which is optimal
for the “model”,

after detuning (aging) of the  " [C (jωp )] " [P (jωp )] − # [C (jωp )] # [P (jωp )] = − A1m ,
controller (when TD = 1). 


" [C (jωp )] # [P (jωp )] + # [C (jωp )] " [P (jωp )] = 0,
 " [C (jωg )] " [P
 (jωg )] − # [C (jωg )] # [P (jωg )] = − cos Φm ,

 " [C (jω )] # [P
g (jωg )] + # [C (jωg )] " [P (jωg )] = −sinΦm ,
where Φm is a phase margin, Am is a gain margin, ωp and ωg is 0dB (crossover)

frequency.
Last but not least we should mention the optimization algorithm based on
the integral absolute error (IAE) minimization [44]:
& t & t
IAE (t) = |e(t)|dt = |w(t) − y(t)|dt,
0 0
where w(t) is the desired value of closed control loop and y(t) is the real value
of closed control loop.
This method does not insure the desired stability measure of the closed
control loop. Measure of stability has to be checked out additionally. We can
use a frequency method described in [39].
PI!Dµ controllers PI!Dµ controllers: design

IV.2 A Design Approach
Control of the „reality“
• The plant model is assumed to be
using the PD controller,
which is optimal for the
„model“, and using the
PD" controller.
• and the fractional order PID controller is
• It is expected that the gain and phase margin of

the compensated systems are and
• Question: how to choose parameters
FOC tutorial III 27
©Dingyu Xue, NEU, PR China
PI!Dµ controllers: design PI!Dµ controllers: design

Requiring
Design of fractional-order PID controller it can be found that
parameters is determined by given requirements.
These requirements can be, for example:
• the damping ratio,
• the steady-state error,
• dynamical properties,
• etc.
• For
• It is found that
PI!Dµ controllers: design PI!Dµ control: MATLAB

I. General Description of Linear
We• have
Fourfour
equations, withwith
equations 7 variables
seven variables: Fractional Order Systems
I.1 The normal form
FOC tutorial III 28
The rest of the variables can be determined

by minimizing the ISE criterion • Thus compared with IO LTI’s, information on
orders are also used
• A FOTF model class/object can be defined in
MATLAB to describe the system model
FOC tutorial III Courtesy: Dingyü

3 Xue, YangQuan Chen

II. MATLAB Class Design
Sample plots for
• For different µ, various combinations of ! and µ:
! combinations II.1 Create a @fotf directory
• The fotf class can be defined as
FOC tutorial III 4

FOC tutorial III 30

©Dingyu Xue, NEU, PR China Courtesy: Dingyü Xue, YangQuan Chen

• A fractional order PID controller can be II.2 Other Overload Functions
The designed
optimal PI!Dµ controller:
such that
• Function call
• A display function
FOC tutorial III 31

©Dingyu Xue, NEU, PR China FOC tutorial III 5
Courtesy: Dingyü Xue, YangQuan Chen
PI!Dµ control: MATLAB PI!Dµ control: MATLAB
II.3 Define a fotf Object in MATLAB
• Feedback function
• Example
• MATLAB command
• Display
• These functions are suitable for

interconnections of fractional order systems
FOC tutorial III 6
FOC tutorial III 9 Xue, YangQuan Chen

Courtesy: Dingyü Xue, YangQuan Chen Courtesy: Dingyü

II.4 Overload functions for block
• A common function unique
• Plus function for parallel connections
FOC tutorial III 7

©Dingyu Xue, NEU, PR China FOC tutorial III 10
Courtesy: Dingyü Xue, YangQuan Chen Courtesy: Dingyü Xue, YangQuan Chen

• Multiplication for series connection II.5 ofAn
Example Example for interconnection
interconnection:
• Unity negative feedback system with
• Minus The closed-loop system can be

• The closed-loop system can be established
• Uminus obtained as
• The closed-loop system
• Inv
FOC tutorial III 11
FOC tutorial III 8

©Dingyu Xue, NEU, PR China Courtesy: Dingyü Xue, YangQuan Chen
• The closed-loop systems with even more
complicated structures can easily be obtained
with the overloaded functions
FOC tutorial III 12

CHAPTER 4. CONTINUED FRACTION EXPANSION (CFE) 22
+ + + + + +
1
- - - + + +
Y2n* (s)
Z2n -1(s)
Y2n -2 (s)
Z2n-3 (s)
Y2 (s)
Continued fractions (CFE)

CHAPTER 4. CONTINUED FRACTION EXPANSION (CFE) 18
CFEs and nested multiple loops Z 1 (s)
Figure 4.6: Nested multiple-loop control system of the first type.
can be expressed in the form: expansion, which is identical with the equation (6.1):
1
b1 (s) Z(s) = Z1 (s) +
1
G(s) ! a0 (s) + Y2 (s) +
CHAPTER 4. CONTINUED FRACTION EXPANSION (CFE) 22 Z3 (s) + 1
b2 (s)
a1 (s) + b3 (s) Y4 (s) +
1
a2 (s)+ a (s)+... + + + + + + .................................
3
CHAPTER 4. CONTINUED FRACTION EXPANSION (CFE) 19 - - -
1
+ + +
1
b1 (s) b2 (s) b3 (s) 1
Y2n−2 (s) +
= a0 (s) + ... (4.1) Y2n* (s) 1
Z2n−1 (s) +
a1 (s)+
+ a2 (s)+ a3 (s)+ Y2n (s)
G(s) Z2n -1(s)
- Similarly to the above considerations, we can obtain a continued fraction
where ai s and bi s are rational functions of the variable s, or are constants. Y2n -2 (s)
expansion of the transfer function of the other interesting type of a nested
H(s)
The application of the method
CHAPTER yields a rational
4. CONTINUED FRACTION function,
EXPANSION ! (CFE)which is19an
G(s), Z2n-3 (s) multiple-loop control system, depicted in Fig. 4.7:
approximation of the irrational

Figure 4.1:function
A controlG(s).
loop
+ with a negative feedback. Z(s) =
Y2 (s)
1
1
Nested loop of type I (4.9)
G(s) Z1 (s) +
1
On the other hand, for interpolation purposes, - rational functions are some- Z 1 (s)
CHAPTER 4. CONTINUEDY 2 (s) + FRACTION EXPANSION
1
(CFE) 22
Z3 (s) +
The rational function R(s)
times superior to polynomials. This is, roughlyH(s)should be written
speaking,in thedue
formtooftheir
a continuous
ability + + + . . . . . . . . . . . .+. . . . . .+. . . . . . . . +
.......
Figure 4.6: Nested multiple-loop control system of the first type. 1 1
fraction: - - - + 1+ +
to model functions with poles. (As it can be seen 1 later, branch points can be Y2n−2 (s) +
Figure
R(s)4.1:
= A control loop with a negative feedback. (4.3) expansion, which is identical with the equation (6.1): Y2n* (s) 1
considered as accumulations of interlaced 1 Z2n−1 (s) +
b1 s + poles and zeros). These techniques Z(s) = Z1 (s) +
1 Y 2n (s)
1 1 Z2n -1(s)
are based on the approximations of an irrational
The rational function R(s) b 2 s +
should befunction, G(s), by a rational
written in the form of a continuous Y2 (s) +
Z3 (s) +
1
fraction: ............ Y4 (s) +
1
function defined by the quotient of R(s)two =polynomials 1 in the variable s:
(4.3)
................................. Y2n -2 (s)
1 1
1 1
b1 s + bn−1 s +1 Y2n−2 (s) +
1 Z2n-3 (s)
b2 s + Pµ (s) bn s Z2n−1 (s) +
Y2n (s)
k = 1,!
If bk > 0,G(s) . . . ,R
n,i(i+1)...(i+m)
then the system = is. . .stable.
.........
Qν (s) If some bk is negative, Similarly to the above considerations, we can obtain a continued fraction Y2 (s)
then the system is unstable. µ 1
p0 + p1 s + . . . + pbn−1 µ ss + b s
Considering the = continued fraction (4.3) as a tooln for designing a corre- (4.2) multiple-loop control system, depicted in Fig. 4.7: Z 1 (s)
q + q s + . . . + q s ν
If b >
sponding LC circuit,
k 0, k = 1, . . . ,
we can0 conclude n, then
1 the systemν
that stability is stable. If some
of a linear bk is negative,
system is equiv- Z(s) =
1
(4.9)
1 Figure 4.6: Nested multiple-loop control system of the first type.
then the system is unstable. Z1 (s) +
alent to realizability
m + 1 =of its µ +test ν+ function
1 R(s) with the help of only passive Y2 (s) +
1
Considering the continued fraction (4.3) as a tool for designing a corre- 1
electric components. Z3 (s) +
. . . . . . . . . . . . . .expansion,
. . . . . . . . . . . . .which
. . . . . . is identical with the equation (6.1):
sponding LC circuit, we can conclude that stability of a linear system is equiv-
1
passing through the alent
points (si , G(si)),
to realizability of its. .test
. , (s i+m , G(s
function with)).
R(s)i+m the help of only passive Y2n−2 (s) +
1
Z(s) = Z1 (s) +
1
1 1
electric components. Z2n−1 (s) + Y2 (s) +
4.4 CFE and nested multiple-loop Y2n (s)
Z3 (s) +
1
1
Y4 (s) +
4.3 control
CFE and
4.4 CFEsystems
stability of linear
and nested systems
multiple-loop
.................................
1
1
Y2n−2 (s) +
control
CHAPTER systems
4. CONTINUED FRACTIONbetween EXPANSION (CFE)frac- 20 1
Let us now establish an interesting new relationship continued Z2n−1 (s) +
Y2n (s)
CFEs and nested multiple loops CFEs and nested multiple loops
It is also knowntionsthat continuous
and nested fraction
multiple-loop expansions
control systems. can be used for investi-
Let us now establish an interesting new +relationship between continued frac-
gating
CHAPTER stabilityFRACTION
4. CONTINUED of
Welinear
first
tions systems.
recall
and the known
nested
EXPANSION Forfact
this,
that
multiple-loop
(CFE) thethecharacteristic
control
19 transfer
-
systems.
1
function polynomial Q(s)
R(s) of the control Similarly to the above considerations, we can obtain a continued fraction
loop with
of the differential aWe
equation negative feedback
firstofrecall
the system
the shown
known in Fig.
should
fact that 4.1
thebe is *given
divided
transfer by [8]
inR(s)
function twoof parts, the
the control multiple-loop control system, depicted in Fig. 4.7:
Y (s) 2n
+ loop with a negative feedback shown in Fig. 4.1 is given by [8]
“even” part (containing
-
G(s) even powers of s) and G(s) the “odd” part (containing odd Z(s) =
1
(4.9)
R(s) =
Figure 4.2: Nested multiple-loop
G(s) . (4.4)
control system – level 1. 1
powers of s): H(s) R(s)1 =+ G(s)H(s) . (4.4) Z1 (s) +
CHAPTER 4. CONTINUED FRACTION EXPANSION (CFE)Y2 (s) + 23 1
1 + G(s)H(s)
+ + 1
Q(s) = m(s)
From (4.4) it immediately + n(s).
follows 1
that thetransfer function of the circuit Z3 (s) +
Figure 4.1: A control loop with From
a negative
(4.4)feedback. +
it immediately follows that the transfer function of the circuit + + + + + .................................
Y2n(s)
CHAPTER 4. CONTINUED shown in Fig. 4.2 is (CFE) - - - 1
FRACTION EXPANSION 20 + +
Then this two parts of the characteristic
CHAPTER 4. CONTINUED FRACTIONshown in Fig.(CFE)
EXPANSION 4.2 is 20 polynomial
Y * (s)are used for creating 2n
Y2n−2 (s) +
1
The rational function R(s) should be written in the form of a continuous Z2n -1(s) 1
1 1 11 Z2n−1 (s) +
fraction: its test function + - in1 the
+ form of Pa2nfraction, =(s) = in which
(s)P2n ∗ ∗ = =
the highest
Z2n -1(s) ,, power of(4.5)s is
(4.5) Y2n (s)
1 1 11 ·+Y12n
1 +(4.3) · (s)
Y2n (s) Y2n
Y(s)
R(s) = - 2n (s) Y2n -2 (s)
contained in bthe
1 s +
denominator:
Y * (s)
2n
1
Y2n* (s) where Y 1 Y(s) ∗ = Y ∗ (s) +"1. 4.3: Nested multiple-loop
where b2 sY +2n (s) =2n 2n (s) + 2n1.Figure # control system – level 2. Z2n-3 (s)
. m(s)
. . . . . . .system
Figure 4.2: Nested multiple-loop control . . . . – level 1. n(s)
R(s) =
Figure 4.2: Nested multiple-loop control system – level 1. or R(s) = .
1 Using the equations (4.4) and (4.5) we obtain the transfer function of the
Y2n-4 (s)
+
+
-
- 1
1
+
bn−1
+ s + bsystem
+ ns
n(s)
shown in Fig. 4.3:
m(s) Nested loop of type II
If bk > 0, k = 1, . . . , n, then theY2nsystem
* (s) is +stable. If some bk is negative, 1
Z 1 (s)
then the system is unstable. Y2n* (s) Q2n−1 (s) = Z2n−1 (s) + P2n (s) = Z2n−1 (s) + . (4.6)
Y2n (s) Figure 4.7: Nested multiple-loop control system of the second type.
Considering the continued fraction Z (s) (4.3) as a tool for designing a corre-
Z2n2n-1-1(s)
sponding LC circuit, we can conclude that stability of a Combining linear systemthe equations (4.4) and (4.5) we find the transfer function of
is equiv-
Figure 4.3: Nested multiple-loop control system – level Both types of nested multiple-loop systems, presented in this section, can
alent to realizability
Figure 4.3: of its test
Nested function control
multiple-loop R(s) with the
systemthe help2.2.ofmultiple-loop
–nested
level only passive system shown in Fig. 4.4:
be used for simulations and realizations of arbitrary transcendental transfer
electric components.
Using the equations (4.4) and (4.5) we obtain theCHAPTER transfer function 4. of
CONTINUED
the Q2n−1 (s)
FRACTION 1
EXPANSION (CFE) 20 functions. For this, the transfer function should be developed in a continued
Using the equations (4.4) and (4.5) we obtain the transfer function P2n−2of(s)the = = fraction, which after truncation can be represented by a nested multiple-loop
system shown in Fig. 4.3: 1 + Q2n−1 (s)Y2n−2(s) 1
system shown in Fig. 4.3: Y2n−2 (s) + system shown in Fig. 4.6 or Fig. 4.7.
4.4 CFE and nested multiple-loop 1 +
1
Q2n−1 (s)
Q2n−1 (s) = Z2n−1 (s) + P2n (s) = Z2n−1 (s) + 1 . (4.6)
Q2n−1 (s) = Z2n−1 (s) + P2n (s) = Z2n−1 (s) + Y2n (s). (4.6) - 1
control systems Y2n (s) =
CHAPTER 4. CONTINUED FRACTION EXPANSION 1 (CFE) 20
(4.7)
4.5 CFE and rational and irrational numbers
Combining the equations (4.4) and (4.5) we find the transfer function of Y2n−2 (s) + Y2n* (s)
Combining the equations (4.4) and (4.5) we find the transfer function of 1
the
Letthe nested
usnested multiple-loop
now establish system shown
an interesting new in Fig. 4.4:
relationship between continued frac- Z2n−1 (s) +
multiple-loop system shown in Fig. 4.4: + Every rational and irrational number may be written in CFE form. Basically
tions and nested multiple-loopQ2n−1 control 1 Y2n (s)
(s) systems. 1 -
Figure 4.2: Nested multiple-loop control system – level 1. the process of finding a continued fraction development consists of two steps:
Q2n−1 (s) 1
2n−2 (s) =
We firstPPrecall
2n−2 (s)the= known
1 + Qfact that2n−2
2n−1 (s)Y
=
the(s)transfer
= function R(s) 1 of the control
1 + Q2n−1 (s)Y2n−2 (s) Y2n−2 (s) + The1 transfer function of the system Y2n* (s)
shown in Fig. 4.5 is then given by the if the fraction m/n is greater than 1, then divide. Otherwise, write the fraction
loop with a negative feedback shown in Fig. 4.1 Y2n−2 is (s) + Qby
given (s)
[8] + + m/n as 1/(n/m) and proceed with the first step. Continue until a numerator
relationship
2n−1
Q2n−1 (s) 1
=
=
1
1
G(s)
1
(4.7)
Figure (4.7)
-
4.2: Nested multiple-loop control system + – level 1. CHAPTER 5. APPROXIMATION OF FRACTIONAL OPERATOR
of 1 is obtained. Continued fractions are often used to get good rational
CHAPTER 5. APPROXIMATION OF FRACTIONAL OPERATOR 25 25
Y2n−2R(s)
(s) += 1 . Q2n−3 (s)(4.4) = Z2n−3 (s) + P 2n−2 (s) approximations for real numbers. Let us consider the numbers written in the
CHAPTER 5. APPROXIMATION OF FRACTIONAL OPERATOR 25
Y2n−2 (s) + 1 + G(s)H(s)
Z (s) + 1
1 Y2n* (s)
CHAPTER 4. CONTINUED FRACTION + 1 form: a0 + b1 /(a1 + b2 /(a2 + b3 /(a3 + . . . ))). In ”simple” continued fractions,
Z2n−1 (s) +EXPANSION
2n−1
Y2n (s)
(CFE) 21
= Z (s) 1 +
+
(4.8)
Y2n (s)
transfer function of the circuit 2n−3 - + 1 all the bi , ∀i, are 1 and the number can be re-written as [a0 ;5.
a1 , aAPPROXIMATION
2 , a3 , . . . ].
From (4.4) it immediately follows that the
The transfer function of the system shown in Fig. 4.5 is then given by the Z2nY-12n−2
(s) (s) + nominator polynomials. nominator Probably,
polynomials. this Probably,
fact wasthis
CHAPTER noted fact forwas the first
OF FRACTIONAL OPERATOR
noted time
for the firstintime[17],in [17], 25
shownThe transfer
in Fig.
relationship
4.2 function
is of the system shown in Fig. 4.5 is then given by the Y2n* (s)
Z (s) +
1 nominator polynomials.
Example 4.5.1.
where Probably,
theappeared:
following this fact
idea was noted
appeared: for the
a CHAPTER
dense 5.first
interlacing timeofinsimple
APPROXIMATION [17], OF poles and
FRACTIONAL OPERATOR 25
relationship 2n−1
Y2n (s) where where
the following
the
The CFE idea
following
for π, which
idea
gives the ”best”aapproximation
appeared:
dense
nominatorinterlacing
polynomials.
of a given order, is of simple
Probably, this fact waspoles
noted for andthe first time in [17],
Q2n−3 (s) P
(s) = 2nZ(s)
= Z2n−3 =(s)+
1
+ P2n−2∗(s) =
1
, Figure 4.3: (4.5)
Nested multiple-loop
Z2n -1(s) control system – level 2. [3, 7, 15, zeros along
1, 292, 1, 1, 1, 2,a1,line
3, 1, in the1,a1,swhere
14, 2,
dense
plane
2, 2, 2,the
interlacing
2,is,...]. inThesome
following very
of simple
way,
idealarge
appeared: equivalentpolesinterlacing
a dense toanda branch of wascut;poles and
simple
Q2n−3 2n−3 (s)
1 +P12n−2
· Y2n (s)(s) Y12n (s)
1
Continuing this process, we obtain the transfer function of the nested multiple- zeros along a
zeros along line
term 292 in
a line
and
the
meansin α the
sthat
s
, 0the
plane
sα plane
<following
is, in
< 1,convergent
viewed
some
is, in iszeros
some
asa good
an
way,
way,
approximation
operator,
along a line
equivalent
nominator
equivalent
[13].
has
in the s aplane
to
polynomials. a
tois,ainidea
branch branch
cut
some
branch
Probably,
along
way,cut;
thiscut;
the
fact
negative
equivalent
noted for the first time in [17],
tointerlacing
a branch cut;
= Z2n−3 (s) + (4.8) where the following appeared: a dense of simple poles and
= Z (s) + loop
1 control system
(4.8) shown in Fig.
(4.5)4.6 we in the form of a2. continued fraction
where Y2n (s) = Y2n ∗
(s) ++1. 2n−3+ Y2n−2 (s) ++
1
1 Using the
1
Figure 4.3: Nested
equations multiple-loop
(4.4) and control system
obtain the– transfer
level function of and sαand
the , 0 <sαα
, 0< < 1,α< viewed
1,axis
real viewed as
for an
as an
argumentsoperator,
355 and
operator,
[3, 7, 16] = of= s
has
on
sα , 0 <
has(−π, aa. .α.branch
branch
< 1, viewed
π) but is
zeros cut
alongcut
as along
otherwise along
aanline
operator,
inthe
free
the the
has
of
a negative
branch cut along the negative
snegative
poles
plane is, inand
somezeros.
way, equivalent to a branch cut;
- - Y2n−2 (s) + Z+2n−1system (s) + 1shown in Fig. 4.3: [3, 7, 15, 1] = 3.14159292
113 real axis for arguments αof s on (−π, π) but is otherwise free of poles and zeros.
Z2n−1 (s) + Y2n (s) and s free
, 0 < ofα <poles
1, viewed
CHAPTER 4. CONTINUED FRACTION EXPANSION
Y * (s)
(CFE)
Using
Y 2n (s) 21 (4.4) and (4.5) we obtain the transfer function of the
the equations real axis
realfor
axisarguments
for arguments of sof on s on (−π, (−π,π)π)but but isis otherwise
otherwise free of poles andasand
an operator, has a branch cut along the negative
zeros. zeros.
Continuing this process, we obtain the2ntransfer function system shownmultiple- 1 real axis for arguments of s on (−π, π) but is otherwise free of poles and zeros.
of the nested Qin2n−1
Fig.(s)
4.3:
= Z2n−1 (s) + P2n (s) = Z2n−1 (s) + . (4.6)
CFEs and nested multiple loops General CFE method

Continuing this process, we obtain the transfer function of the nested multiple-
Y2n (s) 5.2 method
General CFE method
loop control system shown in Fig. 4.6 in the form of a continued fraction
loop control system shown in Fig. Z4.6 in the form of a continued fraction
2n -1(s) Q2n−1 (s) = Z2n−1 (s) + P2n (s) = Z2n−1 (s) +
1
. (4.6) 5.2 General CFE
CHAPTER 5. APPROXIMATION OF FRACTIONAL OPERATOR 25
Combining the equations (4.4) and (4.5) we findY2nthe (s) transfer function of 5.2 approximation
General CFE method
5.2 5.2 General CFEmethod method −α
Y2n -2 (s) the nested multiple-loop
Combining system
the equations shown
(4.4) and in we
(4.5) Fig. 4.4:
find the transfer function of General CFE
In general [10],nominator
In general [10], a rational
a rationalpolynomials.
approximation of the
(the fractionalProbably,
integral function
operator
In generalthis
in the
[10],fact was
of the function
G(s)
Laplace
a rational noted
−α
= sdomain)
approximation
G(s) = s , 0 < α < 1
for ,the
0< can αbe<
first
of
1 in G(s)
obtained
time
the function
by
[17],=s −α
,0<α<1
the nested multiple-loop system shown in Fig. 4.4: performing the CFE of the functions:
Q2n−1 (s) 1
+
Figure 4.4: Nested +
multiple-loop +
control system – level 3. (s) =
P2n−2 = In general [10],(the fractional
a rational integral
where the operator
approximation of thein
following the
function
idea Laplace
G(s) a=
appeared:
(the domain)
fractional dense
integral can
< αbe
s−α , interlacing
0operator <in1obtained
simpleby
of Laplace
the poles and
domain) can be obtained by
A rational approximation sfor
1 Q2n−1 (s) 1 1
- - + P2n−2 (s) = 1+Q 2n−1 (s)Y2n−2=
1 + Q2n−1 (s)Y2n−2(s)
(s)
Y2n−2 (s) +
1 Q In general
(the [10], a rational
fractional integralapproximation
performing thezeros
CFE
operator inofthe
along a of
the the function
functions:
line in the
Laplace G(s)
performing
plane is,
domain) thesome
in
can
H be
h (s)
sof−α
==obtained
CFE the,1functions:
way, 0equivalent
<by α < to1 a branch (5.1)cut;
Y2n−2 (s) + 2n−1 (s) (1 + sT )α
Y2n* (s)
the can betheobtained by< 1,CFE ofasthe 1 following expressions:
α
Q2n−1 (s)
(the fractional
performingintegral
CFEoperator and in
s , 0the
< αLaplace vieweddomain)
an operator,
can has be!aobtained
branch
"α cut along 1 the negative
= 1
1
(4.7) of functions: H1 h (s) = by α
(5.1)
real axis for arguments
Hh (s) of
= s on (−π, π) but =is otherwise (1 + sT
free of )
Z2n -1(s) = 1 (4.7) Hl (s) 1+ ! poles"αand zeros.
(5.1) (5.2)
Y2n−2
Y2n−2 (s)(s)
++
1
1 performing the CFE of the functions: 1 (1 + sT )α s
1
Z2n−1 (s) +1 ! "α Hl (s) = 1+ (5.2)
Y2n -2 (s) Z 2n−1 (s) + Y2n (s)
Y2n (s) α
Hh (s) = 1
where Hh (s) is the approximation (5.1) (ωT >>s 1), and Hl (s)
for high frequencies
(1Happroximation
+l (s)
sT )= for 1+ 1 CFE method (5.2)
The
Thetransfer functionofofthethe
transfer function system
system shown
shown in 4.5
in Fig. Fig.is 4.5
thenisgiven
thenbygiven
the by the
the
! 5.2 low General
frequencies (ω << 1).
"α where Hsh(s) is the approximation for high frequencies (ωT >> 1), and Hl (s)
Figure 4.4: Nested multiple-loop control system – level 3. h H (s) =
Example 1 α the approximation for low frequencies (ω << 1). (5.1)
relationship
relationship Hgeneral
l (s) = + 5.2.1.
(1 + sT )
1rational (5.2) −α
Q2n−3 (s) = Z2n−3 (s) + P2n−2 (s) where Hh (s) isInthe [10], aPerforming
!
approximation " s forαapproximation
the CFEfrequencies
high
Example
of the(ωT
of the function
5.2.1.
function
(5.1), G(s)
with 1),
>> 1,=α s=
T =and H0.5,, 0we
l (s)
< obtain:
α<1
+ +
1
+ + Q2n−3 (s) = Z2n−3 (s) + P2n−2 (s)
1 (the fractional 1
integral
the approximation for low frequencies operator
(ω << in the the
4 1).
Performing Laplace
3 CFE ofdomain)
the
2 functioncan+be
+ 0.1574s(5.1),
obtained
with T = 1, by
α = 0.5, we obtain:
- - H (s) = 1+ 0.3513s + 1.405s + 0.8433s 0.008995 (5.2)
Example:
+ + = Z2n−3 (s) + 11 (4.8) l Hof
where Hh (s) is the approximation for the
performing high CFE 1 (s)
frequencies
the= functions:
(ωT >> 1), and H (s)
Y2n* (s)
= Z2n−3 (s) Y+2n−2 (s) +
1
(4.8) s 4 3 2
s + 1.333s + 0.478s4 + 0.064s l + 0.002844
0.3513s + 1.405s3 + 0.8433s2 + 0.1574s + 0.008995
Y2n−2 (s) + (s) + 1
Z2n−1 Example
the approximation for low5.2.1.
frequencies (ω << 1). H1 (s) =
Y2n (s) 1 1 s4 + 1.333s3 + 0.478s2 + 0.064s + 0.002844
Z2n−1 (s) + Example 5.2.2.
Performing the CFE of the function H (5.1),
Z2n -1(s) Y2n (s) h (s) with
= T = 1, αα = 0.5, we obtain: (5.1)
Continuing this process, we obtain the transfer function of the nested multiple- where H h (s) is the
Example approximation
5.2.1. for highPerforming
frequencies
the CFE of(ωT >>
(1 + sT
the function 1),
) and
(5.2), with TH (s)
= l1, α = 0.5, we obtain:
loop controlthis
system shown
Example 5.2.2. ! "α
Y2n -2 (s) Continuing process, weinobtain
Fig. 4.6
theintransfer
the form of a continued
function fraction
of the nested multiple- 4 3 24 1 2of
loop control system shown in Fig. 4.6 in the form of a continued fraction
the approximation
Performing for
the low
CFE frequencies
of the
H (s) =
0.3513s(ω
function +<<
(5.1), 1).
1.405s
with+ 0.8433s
T =
Hl (s)
H (s) = 1, sα=+
Performing+= 0.1574s
4sthe
3 CFE
0.5, we+
1++2.4s 0.008995
the function
+obtain:
0.448s (5.2), with T = 1, α = 0.5, we obtain:
+ 0.0256 (5.2)
1 s0.002844
2
9s40.064s
s4 + 1.333s3 + 0.478s2 + + 12s3 ++4.32s 2 + 0.576s + 0.0256
+ + +Z2n-3 (s) + s4 + 4s3 + 2.4s2 + 0.448s + 0.0256
- - +
1
+ Example 5.2.1. 0.3513s4 +where
1.405s 3
+ 0.8433s
Hh (s)
2
+ 0.1574s +
is the approximation
H2 (s) = 4
for0.008995
high frequencies
3 + 4.32s2 + 0.576s + 0.0256
9s + 12s(ωT >> 1), and Hl (s)
H1 (s) =
Example
Figure 4.5: Nested multiple-loop
*
Y2n(s) control system – level 4.
Performing the CFE of +5.2.2.
s4 the function
1.333s
the (5.1),
3 + 0.478s with
5.3 2 for
approximation +Carlson’s
0.064s T+=0.002844
1, α(ω=<<0.5,
method
low frequencies 1). we obtain:
Performing the CFE of the function (5.2), with T = 1, α = 0.5, we obtain:
Z2n -1(s) Example 5.2.1.
The method 5.3 Carlson’s method
2 proposed by Carlson in [4, 5], derived from a regular Newton
0.3513s4 + 1.405s
Example 5.2.2. 3
+ 0.8433s
sprocess
Performing 3 +
+ 4sused
4the CFE
+for
of 0.1574s
iterative
the
2.4s 2 function+ (5.1),
0.008995
approximation of the
with T α-th
= 1,inroot, can
α[4,=5],
0.5,bewe
considered
obtain:
Y2n -2 (s) 1 (s) =
HPerforming The + 0.448s
method + 0.0256
proposed by Carlson derived from a regular Newton
thesCFE of the
4 + 1.333s (s)
+=
H23function as(5.2), with
belonging T
to this
4 2 + 30.064s
0.478s = +1,used
group.
2
αThe
= 0.5, we
starting
0.002844 obtain:
point of the method is the statement
process 9sof + 12s +44.32s + 0.576s + 0.0256
for iterative approximation of the α-th root, can be considered
the0.3513s
following 1.405s3 + 0.8433s2 + 0.1574s + 0.008995
relationships:
+
Z2n-3 (s) H1 (s) = as belonging to this group. The starting point of the method is the statement
s4 + 4s3 + 2.4s2 + 0.448s +the
of 0.0256
s4 + 1.333s
(H(s))
3 + 0.478s2 + 0.064s + 0.002844
following
1/α relationships:
− (G(s)) = 0; H(s) = (G(s))α (5.3)
Figure 4.5: Nested multiple-loop control system – level 4. Example 5.2.2. H2 (s) = 9s4 + 12s3 + 4.32s2 + 0.576s + 0.0256
Performing the 5.3
CFE ofCarlson’s method 1/α
(H(s)) − (G(s)) = 0; H(s) = (G(s))α (5.3)
the Example
function5.2.2.
(5.2), with T = 1, α = 0.5, we obtain:
Performing the CFE of the function (5.2), with T = 1, α = 0.5, we obtain:
The method proposed by Carlson in [4, 5], derived from a regular Newton
5.3 Carlson’s s4 + 4s3 + 2.4s2 + 0.448s s + 0.0256
= usedmethod
4 3 2
+ 4s + 2.4s + 0.448s + 0.0256
process
H (s) 2 for iterative approximation
H (s) = of the α-th root, can be considered 2
4 3 2 9s4 + 12s3 + 4.32s2 + 0.576s + 0.0256
CHAPTER 6. GENERAL APPROACH TO FRACTANCE DEVICES 32
CHAPTER 6. GENERAL APPROACH

6.2 Domino TO FRACTANCE DEVICES
ladder circuit 32
General Approach to Fractances 6.2 General

Domino Approach
ladder circuit to Fractances Z1 Z3 Z 2n -3 Z 2n -1
Z(s) Y Y4 Y2n -2 Y2n

6.2 Domino ladder circuit 2
Z1 Z3 Z 2n -3 Z 2n -1
A devices or a circuit exhibiting fractional-order
Z1 Z3 Z 2n -3 Z 2n -1
behaviour is called a fractance. Figure 6.2: Finite ladder circuit.
Z(s) Domino Y2ladder lattice 4

Y2 networks
Y
Y4 can approximate Y 2n -2
fractional Y
Y2n more 2n
operator Y
Z(s)
effectively than the lumped networks [10, 30].
2n -2
• domino ladder circuit network, Let us consider the circuit depicted in Fig. 6.2, where Z2k−1 (s) and Y2k (s),
k = 1, . . . , n, are given impedances of the circuit elements. The resulting
• a tree structure of electrical elements, impedance Z(s) of the entire circuit can be found easily, if we consider it in
Figure 6.2: Finite ladder circuit.
the right-to-left direction:
• transmission line circuit Z(s) =ladder
Domino
Figure 6.2: Finite ladder
1 circuit.
Z1 (s)+ lattice networks can approximate fractional operator more
1
(6.1)
Y2 (s) +
effectively than the lumpedZ3networks [10, 30]. 1
(s) +
Domino ladder Let lattice
us considernetworks
the circuit depicted
can in Fig. 6.2, where1fractional
Y4 (s)approximate
+ Z2k−1 (s) and Yoperator 2k (s), more
k = 1, . . . , n, are given impedances of the . . . .circuit
. . . . . . . . .elements.
. . . . . . . . . . . . The
. . . . . .resulting
..
Design of fractances can be using a truncated CFE, effectively than the lumped
impedance Z(s) of the networks [10,
entire circuit can30].
1
be found easily, if1we consider it in
Y2n−2 (s) +
1
the right-to-left
Let us consider the circuit direction:
depicted in Fig. 6.2,Zwhere 2n−1 (s) + Z2k−1 (s) and Y2k (s),
which gives a rational approximation. k = 1, . . . , n, Z(s)
are =given 1
Y (s)
2n
Z1 (s)+ impedances of the circuit elements. The (6.1) resulting

1
Y2 (s) +between the finite domino ladder network, shown in Fig. 6.2,
The relationship
impedance Z(s) of the entire circuit can be found 1 easily, if we consider it in
Z3 (s) +(6.1) provides an easy method for designing a circuit
and the continued fraction
1
the right-to-left direction:
with a given impedance Z(s). Y4 (s)
For+ this one has to obtain a continued fraction
.................................
expansion for Z(s). Then the obtained particular expressions
1 for Z2k−1 (s) and
Y2k (s), k = 1, . . . , n, will give the types 1 1
of necessary components of the circuit
Z(s) = Z1 (s)+ Y2n−2 (s) + (6.1)
and their nominal values. 1 Z2n−1 (s) + Y 1(s)
Y2 (s) + 2n
Example 6.2.1. 1
Z3 (s)
To design + with the impedance
a circuit
The relationship between the finite domino ladder network,1 shown in Fig. 6.2,
and the continued fraction (s) provides
Y4(6.1) + s4an 4s2 +method
+ easy 1 for designing a circuit
Z(s) .=. . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (6.2)
......
with a given impedance Z(s). For this ones3has + s to obtain a continued fraction
1
expansion for Z(s). Then the obtained particular expressions for Z2k−1 (s) and
1
Y2n−2 (s) +
Y2k (s), k = 1, . . . , n, will give the types of necessary components of the circuit
1
and their nominal values. Z2n−1 (s) +
Example 6.2.1. Y2n (s)
To design a circuit with the impedance
The relationship between the finite domino s4 + 4sladder
2
+1 network, shown in Fig. 6.2,
Z(s) = , (6.2)
and the continued fraction (6.1) provides an s3 +easy
s method for designing a circuit
with a given impedance
CHAPTER 6. GENERAL Z(s). For this one has
APPROACH TOtoFRACTANCE
obtain a continued fraction 33
DEVICES
expansion for Z(s). Then the obtained particular expressions for Z2k−1 (s) and
Y2k we
(s),have
k = 1,
to .develop
. . , n, will giveinthe
Z(s) types offraction
continued necessary components of the circuit
General Approach to Fractances General Approach to Fractances
6.1.2 Negative impedance converters
It can be shown that the use of CFE for analogue realization of arbitrary
and their nominal values.
s4 + 4s2 + 1 1
transfer functions may lead to the appearance of negative impedances. This Example 6.2.1. Z(s) = s3 + s
=s+
1 1
. (6.3)
observation is not unknown. For example, in the paper [10] S. C. Dutta Roy wedesign
have to develop with
Z(s) the
in continued fraction s +
recalls Khovanskii’s continued fraction expansion for x1/2 found 1/2
in [19] and Example
To a 1: design
circuit a domino
impedance ladder 3 circuit with
9 1
S. C. Dutta Roy on Khovanskii’s CFE for x :
makes a remark that
CHAPTER 6. GENERAL
CHAPTER s6.
APPROACH
4 GENERAL
+ 4s2 +4 1 4s APPROACH
2
TO FRACTANCE s+
2
2 FRACTANCE
1TO
DEVICES
DEVICES 3333
Z(s) = Z(s)3 = s += s+ +1 .s (6.3)
s + s 3 1, 1 3 (6.2)
“. . . if x is replaced by the complex frequency variable s, then we have to develop
we have Z(s) Z(s) sin continued
in continued
to develop +fraction
s s+ fraction
From this expansion it follows that 3 9 1
the realization would require a negative resistance. Thus, the [Kho- s+
s4 1+ 4s2 + 1
s4 + 4s2 + 2 12 1
vanskii’s] CFEs do not seem to be useful for realization of fractional
Find a CFE: Z(s) =
9 Z(s) = =s+ s 1. .
s3=+ ss + 1 1 1 s 3+1 2 (6.3)
(6.3)
CHAPTER 6. inductor
GENERAL or capacitor.”
APPROACH TO FRACTANCE DEVICES 31 Z3 (s) =s3 +
Z1 (s) = s; s;s Y2 (s) =s +s; 3 9Y4 (s)1= s.
2
From this expansion it follows that 3 3 9 1 2
s + 3
Then he describes a method for circumventing this difficulty, which gives s+2
Therefore, for the analogue 9realization in the 2 2 3s
6.1.2 Negative impedance
a continued fraction converters
expansion with positive coefficients. 1 form 3ofs the2 first Cauer’s
However,However,the possibility
the possibility of realization
of realization of negative
of negative impedances in electric canonic LCZ1 (s) = s;From
circuit Z 3 (s)
[20] this
we = s;
have Y2 (s)that
2 to itchoose
expansion follows the 3
s;
= followingY4 (s) = s.of coils and
values
3
It can be circuits
shown hasthatbeen
thepointed
use ofoutCFE for analogue realization inof1970s,
arbitrary
impedances
transfer functions may
in electric
lead to the
circuits
by Bode
appearance of
hasIX].
[3, Chapter been
negative
Later,pointed
impedances. This
out
opera- From this expansion it follows that 9
capacitors:
Therefore,
Therefore, for the analogue
Z1 (s) = s; realization
Z3 (s) = in
1
s; theY2form
2
(s) = ofs; the Yfirst Cauer’s
4 (s) = s.
tional amplifiers appeared, which significantly simplified creation of circuits ex-
by hibiting
observation H. W.negative
is not Boderesistances,
unknown. inFor
1945.
example, in the paper [10] S. C. Dutta Roy
negative capacitances, and negative inductances. canonic LC Zcircuit
L1 = 11 (s)
[20]
s; LweZ=have
[H];=Therefore,
9 =to9choose
3 (s)the
[H]; s; CY
2
the
2=
1
(s)1following
=[F ];s;
3
values
CY4 (s)
= =
2 3 and
2 coils
of
[Fs.].first Cauer’s
recalls Khovanskii’s
Such circuitscontinued fraction expansion
are called negative-impedance for x1/2[9].
converters found in [19] and For the first
capacitors: Cauer’s3 for
canonic LC circuit 2canonic
analogue
2 LC
2
3circuits
realization
[20] we have to choose
3 in the
we
form
4
must
of
3 3 oftake
the
the following values coils and
Thethat
makes a remark simplest scheme of a negative impedance converter (or current inverter) Therefore,capacitors:
for the analogue realization 1in the form of 2the first Cauer’s
9
is shown in Fig. 6.1. The circuit consists of an operational amplifier, two Example L16.2.2.
canonic =
LC1 [H]; L3 =
circuit [20] we have C2 = the
[H]; to choose C4 =
[F ];following [F ].of coils and
values
“.resistors
. . if x is
of replaced by theR,complex
equal resistance frequency
and a component variable
with s, then Z. The
the impedance 2 9 3 1 3 2
The function Z(s) given
capacitors: L1 = 1by [H];equation
L3 = (6.2)
2
[H]; canCbe 2 = written
3
[F ]; also
C4 =in [F
3
the]. form
entire circuit,
the realization considered
would requireasa negative
a single element, has Thus,
resistance. negative [Kho- −Z.
theimpedance Example 6.2.2.
This means that I = V /(−Z)). 4 29 1 2
vanskii’s] CFEs do not seem to be useful for realization of fractional
in in Example
L1 = Z(s)
1Z(s)
[H];= +
s6.2.2.
Lby4s +[H]; 1 1 C = [F1 ];
The function given 3 = equation = (6.2)
+ 2can 3be .4 = in [F
writtenCalso the]. form (6.4)
For example, taking a resistor of resistance RZ instead of the element Z, we
inductor or capacitor.” + s2 given bys equation
s3 Z(s)
The function 1 (6.2) can 1 be written3 also in the form
+
obtain a circuit, which behaves like a negative resistance −RZ . The negative
s4 + 4s2 + 1 s4 +14s2 + 13s 1 1 9 11
Then he resistance means
describes that if such
a method an element of negative
for circumventing resistance,which
this difficulty, for instance,
gives Example 6.2.2. Z(s) = Z(s) = = 3 + 1 = +2s1+ 2. . (6.4) (6.4)
s3 + s ss + s(6.2)+cans 1 1
a continued−10 kΩ is connected in series with a classical 20 kΩ resistor, then the resistance
fraction expansion with positive coefficients. The function Z(s) given by equation
3s
be written
+
9 3s 1 3s 9 1
also in the form
of the resulting connection is 10 kΩ. + 2s + 2
However, the possibility of realization of negative impedances in electric s4 + 4sthat
2
+1 1 2s 1 2
circuits has been pointed out by Bode [3, Chapter IX]. Later, in 1970s, opera-
From this expansion Z(s)it=follows = + . 3s (6.4)
s3 + s s 1 3s1
Iin R
tional amplifiers appeared, which significantly From this expansion it follows that +
+simplified creation of circuits ex- From 1 9 3s 1 9 1 2
hibiting negative resistances, negativeVincapacitances, and negative inductances. Z1this
(s) =expansion
; Zit3 (s)
follows
= that
; Y (s)
29 = ; + Y 4 (s) = .
_ s 1
Z1 (s) = ; 2s Z3 (s) = ; 3s 2s 1 ;2 Y4 (s)3s= 2 .
1 s 9 2s 1Y2 (s) = 3s3s 2
Such circuits are called negative-impedance converters [9]. Z1 (s)for
Therefore, = the Z3 (s) =
; analogue ;
realization Y2 (s)
in =the ;
form Yof4 (s) =
the . 3sCauer’s
second
Z
The simplest scheme of a negative impedanceRconverter (or current inverter) s Therefore, 2s 3s
for the analogue realization in the form of the 3s second Cauer’s
canonic From
LC this expansion
circuit [20] we ithave
follows
to that
choose the following values of coils
is shown in Fig. 6.1. The circuit consists of an operational amplifier, two Therefore, for canonic LC circuitrealization
the analogue [20] we haveintothe choose
form theoffollowing
the second of coilsand
valuesCauer’s and
capacitors:
canonic LCZcircuit 1 we have to 9choose the following
capacitors:
[20] 1 2 and
resistors of equal resistance R, and
Figure 6.1: aNegative-impedance
component with converter.
the impedance Z. The 1 (s) = ; Z3 (s) = ; Y2 (s) = ; values Y4 (s)of= coils.
entire circuit, considered as a single element, has negative impedance −Z. capacitors: s 2s 2 3s 3s
3
C1 = 1 [F2]; C3 = [F ]; L = 3 [H]; L34 = [H].
General Approach to Fractances General [F ];Approach L to Fractances

2
This means that Iin = Vin /(−Z)). C1 = 1 [F ];
Therefore, for the analogue C3 = [F ]; 9L2 = 3 [H]; L4 = [H].
2
29 realization in the form of the
3 2second Cauer’s
For example, taking a resistor of resistance RZ instead of the element Z, we canonic = 1 circuit
C LC C we
[20] [F ]; to choose
= have
Example 6.2.3.
1 3 = 3the
[H];
following
2 [H].of coils and
L =values 4
9 2
obtain a circuit, which behaves like a negative resistance −RZ . The negative Example 6.2.3.
capacitors:
CHAPTER
To design a circuit with the impedance
6. GENERAL APPROACH TO FRACTANCE DEVICES 34
resistance means that if such an element of negative resistance, for instance,
Example II: design a domino ladder circuit with
Example
To design6.2.3.
a circuit with the impedance
2 s4 + 3s2 + 8
= = 33 [H]; , L = 3 [H].
Z(s) L (6.5)
−10 kΩ isNegative
connected inimpedance converters
series with a classical are then
20 kΩ resistor, available:
the resistance To has C
onedesign =circuit
1 [Fa];continuous
to1aobtain with Cthe [F ]; representation
3 =impedance
fraction 2 2s + of4s the function
4 Z(s),
CHAPTER 6. GENERAL APPROACH 9 s4 + 3s TO2 + FRACTANCE
8 DEVICES 2 34
of the resulting connection is 10 kΩ. CHAPTER 6. GENERAL s4 +Z(s) 2
3sAPPROACH
+= 8 41 TO 2 FRACTANCE 1 DEVICES 34
Z(s) = =s 2s+s+3s
3
+ +
4s 8 , (6.6) (6.5)
Example 6.2.3. 2s 3
Z(s)
+ 4s =
one has to obtain a continuous fraction representation 2 , 1of the function Z(s), (6.5)
3 2s +
one has to obtain a continuous fraction 2srepresentation
+ 4s 1 of the1function Z(s),
R To design a circuits4with 2the impedance − s1 +
4+ 3s 2+ 8 1
Iin
+ We have: Z(s) Z(s)== s + 3
3s + 8 = 1 s +
= s +
12
1 − s
1 1 2
3
(6.6)(6.6)
2s2s3++4s 22s4 +2s 2
Vin _
4s
Z(s) = 2s3s
+++ 81, 1 (6.5)
From this expansion it follows that 1 1
2s3 + 4s −− s + s+
3 3
1 1 1212
Z1 (s) = s; Z3 (s) = − s; Y2 (s) = 2s; − 2Y− s(s)s = − 3 s.
Z 42
2 12 2
R From Fromthisthis expansionititfollows
expansion follows that
that
Therefore, for the analogue realization in the form of the first Cauer’s
1 1 11 3 3
canonic Z1 (s) LC
Z
=circuit
1 (s) = s; [20] Zwe
s;2 3 (s)have
Z3 (s) ==− − to s;choose
Y2the
(s)=following
Y2 (s)
=2s;2s; Y4values
(s) = −of s.coils and
Y4 (s) =2 − s.
12 s;
Figure 6.1: Negative-impedance converter. capacitors: 2 12 2
Therefore, for the analogue realization in the form of the first Cauer’s
Therefore, 1 for the analogue 1 realization in the form of the 3first Cauer’s
canonic
L1 = LC[H]; circuit [20]
L3 = we−have[H]; to chooseC the following values
C4 = of − coils
[F ].and
2 = 2 [F ];
canonic LC 2circuit [20] we have
capacitors: 12 to choose the following values2 of coils and
capacitors:
Here we see 1 negative inductances 1 and capacitance. Such elements 3 cannot
Notice negative values - can be done using OpAmps
be realized
LHere
1 =
L1 = using
1 2
[H];
[H];passive = − components.
L3electric
112
[H];
− [H]; and
L =inductances
C2 = However,
2 [F ];
C2 =operating
2 [F ]; Such
C 4 = −
they
C
can [F ]. realized
2 be 3
4 = − [F ].
with the help
2we see active3 components,
of negative 12 namely
capacitance. amplifiers.
elements We can
2cannot
be realized
realize
Here this
we see byusing passive
negative
negative electric components.
inpedance
inductances converter However,
which
and capacitance. was theySuchcanelements
described beinrealized
previous
cannot
with theusing
besubsection.
realized help of active electric
passive components, namely operating
components. However, amplifiers.
they can We be can
realized
realize this by negative inpedance converter which was described in previous
with the help of active components, namely operating amplifiers. We can
subsection.
realize
6.3 thisTransmissionby negative inpedance lines converter
circuitwhich was described in previous
subsection.
Let6.3us consider Transmission
the circuit depicted linesin Fig.circuit
6.3, where Z2k−1(s) and Y2k (s), k =
1, . . . , n, are given impedances of the circuit elements. This structure is known
6.3 Let usTransmission
consider the circuit depicted
as a1, transmission line or a symetricallines in Fig.circuit
6.3, where Z2k−1(s) and Y2k (s), k =
domino ladderThislattice network as well.
. . . , n, are given impedances of the circuit elements. structure is known
Theasresulting impedance Z(s) of the entire circuit canlattice
be expressed as as a CFE
Let us consider the circuit depicted in Fig. 6.3,ladder
a transmission line or a symetrical domino where Z2k−1network(s) and Y2kwell. (s), k =
described by (6.1) with symetrical distribution of elements, Z
The resulting impedance Z(s) of the entire circuit can be expressed
2k−1 as a CFE
2k (s) = Z (s)
From this expansion it1follows that L3 = − [H]; 3 C2 = 2 [F ]; C4 = − [F ].
subsection. 1 L1 = [H];
1 L1 = [H]; 1 L3 = − [H]; 2 C2 = 2 1[F ]; 312C4 = − [F1]. 2 3
Z1 (s) = s; 2 = − s;
Z3 (s) Y212Here=we
(s) 1Y=(s) [H];
2s;see Lnegative inductances
4 2 = − s.
L3 = 2− capacitance.
and [H]; C 2 = elements
Such 2 [F ]; cannot C4 = − [F ].
2 Here we see negative 12 2 components. 12 2
inductances
be realizedand using capacitance. Such
passive electric elements cannot However, they can be realized CHAPTER 7. REALIZATION OF FRACTIONAL CONTROLLERS 40
Hereofwe thesee negative inductances and capacitance. Such elements cannot
Therefore, for
be realized using6.3
the analogue realization
passive Transmission
within the
electric thehelp
form
components. lines
first
However,
of active circuit
Cauer’s
they
components, cannamely
be realized
operating amplifiers. We can
canonic LC circuit be realized usingof passive electric components. However, they can be realized
with [20] we have
the help to choose
of active the this
components,
realize following
namely
by negativevalues
operating coils and
amplifiers.
inpedance converterWe can was described in previous
which 1k ! 1k !
capacitors: realize this by negativeLet us inpedance
consider the with the
circuitwhich
converter help
depicted of
was inactive components,
Fig. 6.3,
described in where
previous namely
Z2k−1 operating
(s) and Y2k (s), amplifiers.
k= We can
subsection. R 1k ! 1µF
1 subsection. realize
11, . . . , n, are given impedances of the this by negative inpedance
3 circuit elements. converter which was
This structure described in previous
is known 1µF 1k !
L1 = [H]; L3 = − [H]; C2 = 2 [F ];
subsection. C4 = − [F ].
2 12as a transmission line or a symetrical 2 dominocircuit
ladder lattice network as well.
Here we see negative inductances
6.3 Transmission
and capacitance. Such
lines 1µF
6.3 The resulting

Transmission impedance
lines circuit Z(s)elements cannotcircuit can be expressed as a CFE
of the entire 1k !
1k !
be realized using passive electric components.
described Let by (6.1) However,
6.3
us consider
with the they can be
Transmission realized
circuit depicted
symetrical oflines
in Fig. 6.3,
distribution where circuit
elements,Z2k−1 (s) and
Z2k−1 (s) Y=2k (s), k=
Z2k (s) 1µF 1µF
with the help Let
of active components,
us consider the circuit namely
depicted. ,operating
1, . .= n,
Yinare
Fig.given amplifiers.
6.3, impedances
where Z2k−1of We thecan
(s) andcircuit elements.
Y2k (s), k = This structure is known
and Y2k−1 (s) 2k (s), k = 1, . . . , n. Z F (s) 1µF 1k !
realize this by negative inpedance
1, . . . , n, are converter
given impedances awhich
as of the was
transmission
circuit
Let us described
elements.
consider in
line or athe
Thisprevious
symetrical
structure
circuit domino
is
depicted
In the case if we assume the same elements in transmision line in2k−1 ladder
known
in Fig.lattice
6.3, network
where Z as well.
series and Y2k (s), k =
(s) C
1µF
subsection. as a transmission line or a symetrical The resulting . . .impedance
1,domino ladder
, n, are Z(s)
given of the
lattice entireof
network
impedances circuit
as well.
the can be elements.
circuit expressed as a CFE
This structure is known
a (Z ) and the same in shunt (Z ), we get a structure depicted in Fig. 6.4.
b
The resulting impedance Z(s) described
of the as by a(6.1)
entire with can
circuit
transmission symetrical
beline distribution
expressed
or aline,as a CFE
symetrical of elements, Zladder 2k−1 (s) lattice
= Z2k (s)
Impedance and Y2k−1 of such (s) = kind Y2k (s), ofktransmision
= 1, . . . ,Zn. which domino can be used also as anetwork as well. Sample implementations:
described by (6.1) with symetrical
CHAPTER 6. distribution
GENERAL
The resulting of elements,
APPROACH
impedance 2k−1TO (s)FRACTANCE
Z(s) =ofZthe2k (s) entire DEVICES
circuit 34
can be expressed as a CFE Figure 7.4: RC binary tree circuit.
6.3 Transmission and Y2k−1 (s) lines
model
= Y2k (s),
of circuit
real Incablethe
k = 1, . . . , n. described
line
case (solved
if we assumeby O.the Heaviside
same in
elements 1887),
in can
transmisionbe expressed
line in as
series
CHAPTER 6. GENERAL APPROACH TO FRACTANCE DEVICES 35 by (6.1) with ! symetrical distribution of elements, Z2k−1 (s) = Z2k (s) !5
In the case if we assume the same (Z ) and the same

elements in shunt (Z ), we get a structure depicted in Fig. 6.4. !10
(s)in transmision
Z(s) = kkZ=a line
.Z . in. ,series (6.7)
a b
Let us consider the circuit depicted oneZ hasin Fig. to 6.3,
obtain where aand ZYof
continuous
2k−1 (s) =fraction
and YY2k (s),
of(s), = 1,b . . line,
representation n. which of the canfunction Z(s), !15
Magnitude [dB]
(Za ) and the same in shunt (ZbImpedance ), we get a2k−1 such kind 2k transmision be used also as a
Z Z Z
1 3
structure
5
depicted in Fig. 6.4.
2n-1
!20
1, . . . , n, are given impedances of Ifsuch

we circuit
the substitute
modelelements.ofa real In
resistance
This4thestructure
cable case
line =if8 can
Z2 a(solved Rwe
is andassume
known
by the same
a Heaviside
O.used capacitance in elements
Zb =can
1887), 1/sC,inexpressed
be transmision
then the as line in series
Impedance of kind of transmision s +
line, 3s which+ 1be also as 1 a
!25
Z(s) = = s + (6.6)
Take
Z(s) Y !
as a transmission line Y
or Y
a symetrical
Y Y
impedance Y
domino
Y Y
ladder (Z
isZ by O. Heaviside a ) and
lattice the same
network in
as shunt
well. (Z b ), we get a structure depicted in Fig. 6.4. !30
3
as 1
1 2 3 4 5 6 2n-1 2n
modelZ of realZ cable line

Z (solved 2s +
in 4s1887), Z(s) can2 be
= expressed
Z .Z . (6.7) !35
be " a"CFEkind2sof+ transmision

2 4 6 2n
a b
The resulting impedance Z(s) of the entire circuit can !Impedance expressed of as such 1 1line, which can be used also as a
!40
10
2
10
3
10
4
Z(s) =model Za .Z R
. real −1/2 R − (6.7)
If we substitute = aofbresistance (s) Z =R
(s)and a by O.s Heaviside
capacitance |+ Zb = in1/sC, then thebe expressed as Frequency [rad/sec]
described by (6.1) with

Figure symetrical
6.3: General structuredistribution
of transmission of Z(s)
line. elements, Z2k−1 s cable =aline
Z ω −1/2
2k(solved e−jπ/4
12 s=jω .3 1887), can
(6.8)
impedance is a capacitance C Zb = C !− s !30
and Y2k−1 (s) =IfY2k we(s),substitute

Za
k = Za1, . .a. ,resistance
n.
Za ZZaa = R and
CHAPTER 6. GENERAL " APPROACH 1/sC," TO then
Z(s) the
FRACTANCE
= Za .Z 2 b . DEVICES 34 (6.7) !40
CHAPTER
impedance 6. GENERAL
is the same APPROACH TO FRACTANCE R in−1/2 DEVICES R −1/2 −jπ/4 34 !50
In the case if we assume elements in transmision = line s series
Phase [deg]
From "this expansion itZ(s)
follows that
Z(s) Zb
If"we substitute aC resistance =
CZaω = Re and |of as=jω .
capacitance Z(6.8)
b = 1/sC, then the
!60
Then
Zb Zb Zb Zb Zb Zb Zb
(Za ) and the same in Za shuntZa(Zb ), we get aR one Zahas to obtain
structure depicted
R a continuous
in Fig. fraction
6.4. representation the function Z(s),
one has to obtain Z(s)
Za
a continuous
= s−1/2 1 =impedance
fraction −1/2 −jπ/41of the function Z(s),
representation
ω(s) eis 4− |s=jω 3 !70
Z1 (s) 2 . as Ya2 (s) = (6.8) 2s; 1 Y4 (s) = − s.

Impedance of such kind of transmision C 2= line, s;which CZcan 3 =
be sused+12 3ss;also
+8 " 1 "
!80
s4 of+two +28 Za1and ZZ(s)

3sinpedance = 13 = s+ 2 (6.6) !90
model ofFigure real6.4:cable

Transmission line circuit composed b.
R −1/2 R1 −1/2 −jπ/4
2 3 4
line (solved Z(s) by= O. Heaviside

Therefore, in
= 1887),
s + can be 2sexpressed
+ 4s as 2 (6.6)
10 10 10
!3 + 4s for the 2 analogue realization 1Z(s) = in sthe 2s +form = 1 of ωthe first Cauer’s Frequency [rad/sec]
2s 1 e |s=jω . (6.8)
6.4 Tree structure circuit Z(s) = LC Za .Zcircuit 2s + C − C
s +
canonic b. [20] we have 1 to choose 1 (6.7) the following
− s+ 12 values 3 of coils and Figure 7.5: Bode plots of the I 1/2 controller where half order integral was
Let us consider the total impedance of the fractance circuit as shown in Fig. 6.5, 12 3 − s
If we substitute a resistance
which has a recursive Zacapacitors:
structure with = combination
the R and aofcapacitancetwo impedances ZZ a b
= 1/sC, then − s the 2 approximated by transmission line depicted in Fig. 7.2.
and Zb . Impedance is derived as geometrical mean of Z1 From

a and Zb , this expansion1it follows 2 that 3
impedance is
From this "Z(s) expansion
! L"1 =
it follows [H]; that L 1 3 = − [H]; 1 C2 = 2 [F ]; C4 = − [F3].
R 2 −1/2 12 Y4 (s) 2= − s.
= Z .Z .
R1 −1/2a b Z1 1 (s) = s; Z 3 (s) = − s; 3Y2 (s) = 2s;
−jπ/4 2 12
Z(s) Z1= (s) = ss; Here =Z3 (s) we=ωsee − negativee
s; |Ys=jω
2 (s) . = 2s;
inductances Yand (6.8)
4 (s) = − s.
capacitance. Such elements 2cannot
C2
If we substitute a resistance Za = R and a capacitance
C Therefore, 12
Zb = 1/sC, then for the analogue realization 2 in the form of the first Cauer’s
Therefore, for bethe realized
analogue using
as canonic
passive inelectric
realization the form components.
of the first However,
Cauer’s they can be realized
the impedance shows the fractance characteristics (see also LC circuit [20] we have to choose the following values of coils and
(6.8))
canonic LC " circuit
R −1/2
with
" [20]the
R −1/2we
help
have of
capacitors: to active
choose the components,
following values namely operating
of coils and amplifiers. We can
Z(s) = s = ω e−jπ/4 |s=jω ,
capacitors: C realize
C this by negative 1 inpedance converter 1 which was described in3 previous
1 with absolute value of1impedanceL1 = propor- [H]; L3 = − [H]; 3 C2 = 2 [F ]; C4 = − [F ].
which is a fractional order integral
CHAPTER 6.−1/2GENERAL APPROACH subsection.
TO FRACTANCE DEVICES 2 C = 2 [F 35 12C = − [F ]. 2
tional to ω L1 =
and phase angle is[H];
constant −π/4, = − [H];
L3independent of the frequency. 2 ]; 4
However, it is impossible to 2 construct such an infinity12 Here we
structure see innegative inductances and
as show 2 capacitance. Such elements cannot
Fig. 6.5. Therefore,Z it seems toZ be important
Here we see negative
1
Z to study the effect
inductances
3
Z of the num-
and capacitance.5 Such elements
be realized using passive electric components. However, they can be realized cannot
2n-1
ber of stage in the recursive self infinity (binary) structure on the impedance
be realized using passive electric
characteristics [31]. with the 6.3
components.
help of active However, Transmission lines circuit
they cannamely
components,
be realized operating amplifiers. We can
AZ(s)
similarwith the
Ytree structure
Y 1 help
Y ofY active
as a fractal Ymodel ofYcomponents,
2 realize
rough
3
interface
Y this Ynamely
between
4 by two
5 negative operating
inpedance
6 amplifiers.
converterWe
2n-1 whichcan was described in previous
2n
materials of very Zdifferent conductivities, e.g.
Z an electrode and Zan electrolyte
Z
realize this by negative
2 Let us inpedance
consider
subsection.
4 the
was studied in [21]. There was described a slightly different structure of tree
circuit
converter depicted
Z which 6 was
Z in Fig.
described Z 6.3, in where
previous
2n Z Z2k−1 (s) and Y2k (s), k = 1 3 5 2n-1
subsection. 1, . . . , n, are given impedances of the circuit elements. This structure is known
Figure 6.3: General structure of transmissionZ(s)
line.
as a transmission line or a symetricallines
6.3 ZaTransmission dominocircuit
ladder lattice network as well. Y1 Y2 Y3 Y4 Y5 Y6 Y 2n-1 Y 2n
Za Za Z2 Z4 Z6 Z 2n
6.3 The Za
resultinglines
Transmission impedance Z(s) of the entire circuit can be expressed as a CFE
circuit
described Let by (6.1)us consider with the circuit depicted
symetrical distributionin Fig. 6.3, where Z2k−1
of elements, (s) and
Z2k−1 (s) Y=2k (s), k=
Z2k (s)
Z(s) Figure 6.3: General structure of transmission line.
Let
Zb us Zb consider
Zb the
Zb Zbcircuit 1, . .=
Zb depicted .Zb, n, are
YZain Zb given
Fig. 6.3,impedances
where Z2k−1of(s) theand
circuit elements.
Y2k (s), k = This structure is known
Za Za
and Y2k−1
Za
(s) 2k (s), k = 1, . . . , n.
1, . . . , n, are given impedances as a transmission
of the circuit Za line or Za
elements. a symetrical domino ladder lattice network as well.
the Thissamestructure
Za
In the case if we assume elements is known Za
in transmision line in series
CHAPTER 7. REALIZATION OF FRACTIONAL CONTROLLERS 41
as a transmission line or a symetrical The resulting impedance

domino ladderZ(s) of the
lattice entire as circuit
well.can be expressed as a CFE
Figure 6.4: Transmission line circuit (Zcomposed
a ) and the of two same in
inpedance shunt
Za and (Z ), we
Zbb.symetrical getnetwork
a structure depicted in Fig. 6.4.
The resulting impedance Z(s) described
of theZ(s) by (6.1)
entire
Zb circuitwith
Zb Zbcan be Zb distribution
Zb expressed Zb as aZbCFE of elements,
Zb Z2k−1 (s) = Z2k (s)
Impedance
described by (6.1) with symetrical and Y2k−1 of such kind
(s) = Y2k (s),
distribution Za of transmision
k = 1, . . . ,Zn.
Za
of elements, Za line, which
2k−1 (s) = Z2k (s)
Za can be used also as a Sample implementations -- transmission lines -- responses:
6.4 Tree structure circuit model of real cable
the case if we assume the same elements in transmisionexpressed
line (solved by O. Heaviside in 1887), can be as
CHAPTERand Y2k−1 (s)APPROACH
6. GENERAL = Y2k (s),TO = 1, . .In
k FRACTANCE . , n. DEVICES 36 !
line in series
0.6 0.4
(ZFigure
a ) and
6.4:
astheTransmission
same line circuit
in 6.5,
shunt (Z=b ),composed
we of structure
two inpedance Za and in
Zb .Fig. 6.4.
Let us consider the total
In the impedance
case ifofwe theassume
fractance circuit
the same shown in Fig.
elements in transmision
Z(s) Zaget.Zba. in
line series depicted (6.7)
0.4
Output signal: U [V]

0.2
0.2
which has a recursive structure with the combination

), of
(ZbImpedancewetwo getimpedances
a of such Zkind of transmision line, which can be used also as a 0
Za 0
(Za ) and the sameZa in shunt structure a

depicted in Fig. 6.4. !0.2
If we substitute
and Zb . Impedance is derived as geometrical mean6.4
Zb model
of Zaof Tree
aand
real structure
resistance
Zb ,cable = circuit
Za(solved R and a Heaviside
capacitance Zb =can 1/sC, then the !0.4 !0.2
Impedance
Za of such kind of transmision line,linewhich canby beO.used also asina 1887), be expressed as !0.6
!0.4
!
Take
!0.8 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
! 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
CHAPTER 7. REALIZATION OFTime
FRACTIONAL CONTROLLERS 44
impedance is usbyconsider
[sec]
CHAPTER 7. REALIZATION OFTime
FRACTIONAL
[sec] CONTROLLERS 43
Za. Let the total impedance
in 1887),ofZ(s) the fractance
model of realZ(s) cable= line
Zb (solved
Za .Z b O. Heaviside
"structure can
" be Zacircuit
= expressed .Zb . as asshown in Fig. 6.5, (6.7) 1
1
which has a !
recursive with the combination of two impedances Z 0.5
Input signal: E [V]

Zb a
R −1/2 R mean
0.5
Input signal: E [V]
If
andwe Z(s) = Za .Z
Zbsubstitute .derived (6.7)
Z(s) = aisbresistance
. Impedance Z=a = R and
s as geometrical ω −1/2 aofcapacitance
eZ−jπ/4 Z = 1/sC, then
a and| Zb , . b
the
sine
0
(6.8) 0
If we substitute a resistance Za Za
If we substitute a resistance
Za
= R and a capacitance
Zb
impedance
Z a = R b = 1/sC,C
Zis
and a
then
capacitance " Z b
!C
=
Z(s) = Za .Z" 1/sC,b.
then the
s=jω !0.5
unit step !0.5
!1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
the impedance shows the Zb fractance characteristics as (see also (6.8)) !1

0 0.005 0.01 0.015
Time [sec]
0.02 0.025 0.03 Time [sec]
impedance " is
R −1/2 R −1/2 −jπ/4
Zb " Za Z(s) = s = ω e |s=jω . (6.8) 0.6
1/2
R −1/2 R −1/2" " C C

0.4
Figure 7.6: Time response of the I 1/2 controller to unit-step input where half
Figure 7.7: Time response of the I controller to sin input where half order
Then
integral0.4was approximated by transmission line depicted in Fig. 7.2.

ωZb R e−jπ/4 R a−1/2
0.2
Z(s) = s = |s=jω , order integral was approximated by transmission line depicted in Fig. 7.2.
sIf−1/2
we substitute ω resistance a = R and a capacitance Zb = 1/sC, then
e−jπ/4 |Zs=jω
0.2
Z(s) C Z(s)C= = . (6.8) 0

0
C
the impedance shows C the fractance characteristics as (see also (6.8)) !0.2 !0.2
which is a fractional order integral with absolute value of impedance propor- " " !0.4
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
!0.4
0 0.005 0.01 0.015
Time [sec]
0.02 0.025 0.03
tional toFigure
ω −1/26.5: A phase
self-similar treeiscircuit composed of independent
two inpedance Z and Z b.
Time [sec]
and angle constant −π/4, ofa the frequency.R −1/2 R −1/2 −jπ/4 1
Z(s) = s = ω e |s=jω , 1
However, it is impossible to construct such an infinity structure as show in C C 0.5

Input signal: E [V]
0.5
Input signal: E [V]
circuit, where capacitance C was the same at every stage and resistance R
Fig. 6.5.increased
Therefore, it seems to be important to study the effect of the num-
saw ramp
0
0
by the ratio a at every stage of branching.which
The resulting impedance
is a fractional order integral with absolute value of impedance propor- !0.5
ber of stage in the recursive self infinity (binary) structure on the impedance !0.5
phase
characteristics [31].angle is constant !"/4, independent of the frequency
Z(s) had the form of a continued fraction expansion. tional to ω −1/2 and phase angle is constant −π/4, independent of the frequency. !1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015
Time [sec]
0.02 0.025 0.03
!1
0 0.005 0.01 0.015
Time [sec]
0.02 0.025 0.03
However, it is impossible to construct such an infinity structure as show in

A similar tree structure as a fractal model ofFig. rough interface between two
6.5. Therefore, it seems to be important to study the effect of the num- Figure 7.8: Time response of the I 1/2 controller to saw input where half order
1/2
Figure 7.9: Time response of the I controller to ramp input where half order
integral was approximated by transmission line depicted in Fig. 7.2.
materials of very different conductivities, e.g. anber electrode
of stageand an electrolyte
in the recursive self infinity (binary) structure on the impedance
integral was approximated by transmission line depicted in Fig. 7.2.
was studied in [21]. There was described a slightly different structure

characteristics [31]. of tree
A similar tree structure as a fractal model of rough interface between two
materials of very different conductivities, e.g. an electrode and an electrolyte
was studied in [21]. There was described a slightly different structure of tree
III.1 Commensurate Order Systems

General Approach to Fractances Stability of fractional order systems
• What is a commensurate order system?
An
• If one selects the greatest common divisor
Commensurate order
! ofExample
Sample implementations: the orders, suchsystems:
that
CHAPTER 7. REALIZATION OF FRACTIONAL CONTROLLERS
fractance 38
• A fractional order system

where p and q are the orders of the rational approximation, P and Q are
polynomials of degree p and q, respectively. Block diagram of the analogue
An Example
An Example
R2
ZF
Ri
_ R1
_
E +
+
• A fractional order system

+
+ U
•• A fractional
If ! orderthe
can be found, system
commensurate order
Figure 7.1: Analogue fractional-order integrator.
• It is obvious that !=1/6, thus the origina

For example:
model can easily be written

realization of fractional-order operator is shown in Fig. 7.1. 1k ! 1k !
0.47µ F 0.47µ F 0.47µ F 0.47µ F 0.47µ F 0.47µ F
0.47µ F 0.47µ F 0.47µ F 0.47µ F 0.47µ F 0.47µ F
1µF
system can be written as

R 1k !
Z (s)
7.2 Realization of fractional I λ controller 1µF 1k !
22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k !
Z F (s) F
22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k ! 22k !
7.2.1 Description of circuit 1µF FOC tutorial III 14

0.47µ F
0.47µ F
0.47µ F
0.47µ F
0.47µ F
0.47µ F
For experimental
0.47µ F
0.47µ F
0.47µmeasurement
F 0.47µ F
0.47µ F 0.47µ F
we built a fractional-order I λ controller which 1k ! 1k ! • It is obvious that !=1/6, thus the original order
can be written
It as bethat
is obvious as thus the original order
of the P I λ D µ controller, (if Kp = 0 and Td =1µF
• system
is transmission
a particularline
casecircuit. 0). The con-
1k !
1k !
Figure 7.2: RC
Figure 7.2: RC transmission
1k !
troller line
1k !1k !
transmission
1k !
1k !
wascircuit.
realized in three forms, namely by: the symetrical domino ladder or
1k !line (see
1k !
1k !Fig. 7.2)
1k !
1k ! Z F (s) ladder (see Fig. 7.3) 1µF
for n=6, the finite domino 1k !
1µF
can !=1/6,
written
C
system can be written as

for n = 6 and the tree structure (see Fig. 7.4) for n = 4, and Fractances with 1µF
where
1µF 1µF 1µF 1µFZ
1µFconnected
impedance
were 1µF to feedback
1µF in operational amplifier (Fig. 7.1).
1µF 1µF 1µF 1µF 1µFF
1µF 1µF
Z F (s)
Z F (s) It should be noted that the described methods work for arbitrary orders, but
the circuit elements with computed values are not usually available. Because
Figure 7.4: RC binary tree circuit.
of this, in our experiment we proposed and realized the integrator with order
Figure 7.3: RC domino
λ =ladder ladder circuit.
0.5. circuit.
Figure 7.3: RC domino !5
where FOC tutorial III

It should be mentioned that this simple case of the !10
controller order can
we have Ti = 1.4374. The transfer function of the realized analogue fractional- !15
Magnitude [dB]
beofrealized alsoanalogue
using the methods described in [31, 33, 38, 54], which do not
we have Ti = 1.4374. The transfer function
order I λ controller is:
the realized fractional-
!20 ©Dingyu Xue, NEU, PR China
order I λ controller is: involve explicit rational approximations.
1.4374 s−0.5.
where
C(s) = −0.5 (7.2) !25
C(s) = 1.4374 s In .the case, if we will use (7.2)
identical resistors (R-series)
!30 and identical ca-
λ
Adjustment of the integration constant
pacitors T of
(C-shunt)
i the fractional-order
in the Ifractances,
λ I con-
then the behaviour
!35 of the circuit will
Adjustment of the integration constant Ti of the fractional-order con-
troller (or half order integrator) depicted in Fig. 7.1 was done by resistor Ri .
troller (or half order integrator) depictedbe in asFig.a 7.1
half-order
was doneintegrator/differentiator.
by resistor Ri .
If we change the resistor Ri , the integration constant changes the value in the
We used the!40
resistor
10 values R = 10
2 3 4
10 FOC tutorial III 15
If we change the resistor Ri , the integration constant
(Rj = changes
R, j = the1, . .value thethe capacitor values C = 1µF , (Cj = C, j = Frequency [rad/sec]
. , n) inand
required interval.
1kΩ, ©Dingyu Xue, NEU, PR China
required interval. 1, . . . , n).
100 For better measurement
±10 V. results we used two operational amplifiers
!30
For measuremets we used frequency Hz and amplitude
For measuremets we used frequency 100 Hz and amplitude
TL081CN in inverting±10connection.
V. !40 FOC tutorial III 15
The resistors R1 and R2 are R1 = R2 = 22kΩ. The integration constant Ti
!50
Phase [deg]
7.2.2 7.2.2 Experimentalresultsresults

!
Experimental can be computed from relationship Ti = 1/ R/(Ri2 ∗ C), !60
and for Ri = 22kΩ
Transmission line approximation of the s−0.5 !70
Transmission line approximation of the s−0.5
!80
In Fig. 7.5 and Fig. 7.6 - 7.9 the measured characteristics of realized ana-
In Fig. 7.5 and Fig. 7.6 - 7.9 the measured characteristics of realized ana- !90
logue fractional-order I λ controller, where half order integral was approxi- 2
10 10
3 4
10
logue fractional-order I λ controller, where half order integral was approxi- Frequency [rad/sec]
mated by transmission line depicted in Fig. 7.2, are presented. It can be seen
mated by transmission line depicted in Fig. 7.2, are presented. It λcan be seen
from Fig. 7.5 that the realized analogue fractional-order I controller provides
from Fig. 7.5 that the realized analogue fractional-order I2λ controller provides
a good approximation in the frequency range [10 rad/sec, 5 · 102rad/sec]. (For Figure 7.5: Bode plots of the I 1/2 controller where half order integral was
a good approximation in the frequency range [102 rad/sec, 5 · 102rad/sec]. (For
comparison see expected Bode plots shown in Fig. 3.2.2.) approximated by transmission line depicted in Fig. 7.2.
comparison see expected Bode plots shown in Fig. 3.2.2.)
Stability of fractional order systems
III.2 Stability of Fractional Order Systems
• The ! curve
– if , then the stable
condition for the system is Unstable
region
with four poles in the stable region
FOC tutorial III 17


Fractional Order Systems and Controllers

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Fractional Order Systems and Controllers

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Figure 3.2: PFigure 3.

Figure 3.2: P IDFor a wide class

3.2.2 Bode’s ideal Bode loopsuggested

3.2.3 We can illustrate

PI!Dµ controllers Bode’s ideal loop transfer function

• Magnitude: constant slope of −α20dB/dec.;

• Phase: horizontal line of −α π2 ;

3 3.2.3 Illustrative example 6

20 log 10 |G(j !)| 1 1.

PI!Dµ controllers PI!Dµ controllers

PI!Dµ controllers PI!Dµ controllers: design

min ||C(s)P (s) + 1||s=−σ±jωd .

Control of the “reality” and the

where Φm is a phase margin, Am is a gain margin, ωp and ωg is 0dB (crossover)

PI!Dµ controllers PI!Dµ controllers: design

• It is expected that the gain and phase margin of

PI!Dµ controllers: design PI!Dµ controllers: design

PI!Dµ controllers: design PI!Dµ control: MATLAB

The rest of the variables can be determined

FOC tutorial III Courtesy: Dingyü

PI!Dµ controllers: design PI!Dµ control: MATLAB

FOC tutorial III 4

FOC tutorial III 30

PI!Dµ controllers: design PI!Dµ control: MATLAB

FOC tutorial III 31

• These functions are suitable for

FOC tutorial III 9 Xue, YangQuan Chen

PI!Dµ control: MATLAB PI!Dµ control: MATLAB

FOC tutorial III 7

PI!Dµ control: MATLAB PI!Dµ control: MATLAB

• Minus The closed-loop system can be

FOC tutorial III 8

FOC tutorial III 12

Continued fractions (CFE)

Figure 4.6: Nested multiple-loop control system of the first type.

approximation of the irrational

CFEs and nested multiple loops General CFE method

CHAPTER 6. GENERAL APPROACH

General Approach to Fractances 6.2 General

Z(s) Y Y4 Y2n -2 Y2n

Z(s) Domino Y2ladder lattice 4

Z1 (s)+ impedances of the circuit elements. The (6.1) resulting

General Approach to Fractances General [F ];Approach L to Fractances

6.3 The resulting

In the case if we assume the same (Z ) and the same

1, . . . , n, are given impedances of Ifsuch

modelZ of realZ cable line

be " a"CFEkind2sof+ transmision

described by (6.1) with

and Y2k−1 (s) =IfY2k we(s),substitute

Z1 (s) 2 . as Ya2 (s) = (6.8) 2s; 1 Y4 (s) = − s.

s4 of+two +28 Za1and ZZ(s)

model ofFigure real6.4:cable

line (solved Z(s) by= O. Heaviside

and Zb . Impedance is derived as geometrical mean of Z1 From

as a transmission line or a symetrical The resulting impedance

Output signal: U [V]

which has a recursive structure with the combination

(Za ) and the sameZa in shunt structure a

Input signal: E [V]

the impedance shows the Zb fractance characteristics as (see also (6.8)) !1

R −1/2 R −1/2" " C C

Output signal: U [V]