JOURNAL OF CONSUMER PSYCHOLOGY, 1(4), 365-376

Copyright @ 1992, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

The Influence of Music on

Consumers' Temporal Perceptions:
Does Time Fly When You're
Having Fun?

James J. Kellaris
Department of Marketing
University of Cincinnati

Robert J. K e n t
Department of Marketing
Drexel University

The perceived duration of a time period may be influenced by properties of

environmental stimuli that fill the period. Because music is often present in
consumer environments, we conducted an experiment to explore the influence
of a musical stimulus property (modality) on listeners' estimates of the duration
of a time period. Findings suggest that perceptions of duration are influenc~i by
music in a way that contradicts conventional wisdom (i.e., the "time flies when
you're having fun" hypothesis). Perceived duration was longest for subjects
exposed to positively valenced (major key) music, and shortest for negatively
valenced (atonal) music, Thus, time did not fly when an interval was filled with
affectively positive stimulation. An alternative hypothesis based on attentional
and retrieval processes is ~supported. Implications for the design of consumer
environments and for future research are discussed.

P o p u l a r utterance holds that " t i m e flies when y o u ' r e having fun." Conversely,
" a w a t c h e d p o t never boils." These expressions o f conventional w i s d o m sug-
gest that the subjective d u r a t i o n o f a time period d e p e n d s in p a r t on w h a t fills
that period. Stated as a psychological principle, these sayings suggest that a

Requests for reprints should be sent to James J. Kellaris, Department of Marketing, 433
Carl H. Lindner Hall, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0145.
366 KELLARISAND KENT

time interval filled with affectively positive stimulation will be perceived as

relatively shorter than an interval of equal objective duration devoid of positive
stimulation.
The subjective experience of time has important implications for consumer
psychology (Bergadaa, 1990; Graham, 1981; Hirschman, 1987; Hornik, 1984;
Jacoby, Szybillo, & Berning, 1976; Kaufman, Lane, & Lindquist, 1991). As an
example of a practical problem related to temporal perception, consumers
frequently experience unproductive delays in check-out and teller lines, wait-
ing rooms, and other contexts. They are often placed on hold when they
telephone a business for information or to place an order. Given that time is
considered a valuable resource by many people (Feldman & Hornik, 1981;
McGrath & Kelly, 1986), the experience of long delays may lead to dissatisfac-
tion among consumers and lost business for sellers and service providers
(Kellaris & Altsech, 1992). In addition to the (perceived) length of a delay, the
consumer's affective state during the delay should influence satisfaction. Envi-
ronmental stimuli encountered during delays may influence both temporal
perceptions and affective states.
Thus, one way to mitigate the problem of dissatisfaction due to delays may
be to manipulate environmental characteristics to diminish the perceived dura-
tion of waiting periods. Controllable elements of the stimulus environment can
influence consumers' thoughts and feelings, and this may contribute to time
perception and satisfaction. Music may be one such environmental factor. It
is present in many retail settings and is easily controlled by those who use it.
Because music has been shown to influence listeners' thoughts and feelings in
many contexts (Bruner, 1990), it may be expected to influence time perception
as well.
Given that music may provide a tool for influencing consumers' temporal
perceptions, the question remains as to what type or types of music will
produce desired effects. Although conventional wisdom suggests that per-
ceived duration may be shortened by music which generates positive feelings
(the "time flies when you're having fun" hypothesis), cognitive theories suggest
that the opposite may occur. Listeners may selectively devote greater attention
to liked music (Eysenck, 1982). As a result, the increased cognitive processing
associated with liked music could lead to the perception that more happened
during the hearing of liked music, and thus augment perceived time (Block,
1990).
The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of music on listeners'
perceptions of duration. We propose that time perception varies across musical
modalities; however, given the contradictory predictions offered by conven-
tional wisdom versus recent cognitive models of psychological time, we did not
anticipate the exact nature of music's effect. Rather, we tested these rival
hypotheses empirically.
 MUSIC AND TIME PERCEPTION 367

CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND

Consumer research has begun to recognize and explore the role of time as a
consequential aspect of the consumptive experience (Bergadaa, 1990; Kauf-
man et al., 1991). Time is an important and increasingly scarce resource for
many consumers. These consumers may consider time to be a significant
component of the total cost of a transaction. Sellers and service providers thus
have an incentive to minimize consumers' perceptions of time passage during
unavoidable waiting situations (e.g., check-out lines, physicians' waiting
rooms). Conversely, sellers might benefit from increasing the perceived dura-
tion of ad exposure or entertainment events.
The experience of time pervades every aspect of consumers' lives (Bergadaa,
1990). Duration is an important, basic aspect of the temporal experience
(Ornstein, 1969). The perceived duration of a time interval can seem shorter
or longer relative to real time (i.e., clock time) depending on what fills that time
interval.
Several cognitive models of time perception relate properties of the stimulus
environment to the subjective experience of duration (e.g., Block, 1990;
Fraisse, 1984; Levin & Zakay, 1989; Ornstein, 1969; Zakay, 1989). For exam-
ple, Ornstein's (1969) storage size model suggested that perceived duration is
a function of the amount of memory dedicated to storing stimulus information
encountered during a given interval. Larger allocations of memory space are
associated with longer perceived durations. Zakay's (1989) model of psycho-
logical time is based on attentional processes. Attending to (nontemporal)
stimulus information creates distraction from the internal clock or cognitive
timer responsible for the perception of time passage. Fraisse's (1984) model
emphasized the contribution of environmental change to time perception. The
greater the number of changes in the state of the stimulus environment during
a time period, the greater the perceived duration of that period.
Although these models offer slightly different explanations, they generally
predict that when more stimulus information is encountered/processed/stored
during a time interval, that interval will be perceived as longer in duration. The
process underlying this prediction involves using the amount of information
retained and/or the number of events that transpired to formulate inferences
about the duration of a time period.
Parties wishing to influence consumers' perceptions of duration may be able
to do so by manipulating features of the stimulus environment. Music is a
feature of many consumer environments in which sellers and service providers
would like to influence time perception (Bruner, 1990; Yalch & Spangenberg
1990). Cognitive models of subjective time suggest that the duration of a time
interval filled with music should be perceived differently than an empty time
interval; however, not every piece of music should produce the same effect.
368 KELLARIS AND KENT

There may be a tendency to devote more attention to liked music or to retain

more information from familiar types of music, both of which may influence
perceived duration. The effect of a given piece of music is a function of its
specific aesthetic character.
Music is composed of many component properties, such as tempo, rhythms,
melody, and harmony (Dowling & Harwood, 1986). The influence of music
on listeners' thoughts and feelings stem (in part) from the unique combination
of variables that gives each piece of music its distinctive character (Bruner,
1990).
Modality was selected for examination in this study because previous re-
search suggests that it is an important determinant of responses to music
(Heinlein, 1928; Hevner, 1935; Kellaris & Kent, 1991). Furthermore, it can
be easily used in selecting or creating music for commercial use. Modality
refers to the configuration of intervals between pitches that comprise a scale
(Apel, 1973). Each mode has a unique character. The most common modes
in western culture are the conventional major and minor keys. Whereas major
keys tend to evoke generally positive feelings, minor keys are often perceived
as sentimental, melancholy, or plaintive (Hevner, 1935). There are also
modalities that are neither major nor minor that can be classified as atonal.
Examples include serialistic, polytonal, microtonal, and minimalistic music,
such as new age "space music," and pieces based on wholetone or other
unconventional scales. Atonal modalities are generally perceived as less pleas-
ant than conventional (major and minor) modes by untrained listeners (Kella-
ris & Kent, 1991; Roberts, 1986).

Proposition
Variations in musical modality can sculpt the stimulus environment and in-
duce changes in listeners' feeling states. In turn, these variations should influ-
ence temporal perceptions. Based on music's ability to fill a time interval with
stimulus information, and based on the ability of music's modal property to
shape the character of the music and induce feelings in listeners, we formulated
the following general proposition: Listeners' perceptions of the duration of a
time interval filled with music will vary across musical modalities.
As for the specific nature of this variation, popular wisdom would lead us
to anticipate shorter duration estimates for the more pleasant sounding modes
due to the generation of positive affect. However, psychological theory sug-
gests that listeners may devote more intensive attention to the more pleasant
sounding modes (Eysenck, 1982). This would result in more musical informa-
tion being processed and remembered, and hence in longer duration estimates
(Block, 1990). Furthermore, preexisting cognitive structures for pleasant, fa-
miliar, conventional musical modes may facilitate their storagein and retrieval
from memory (Dowling, 1982). This processing advantage could promote an
 MUSIC AND TIME PERCEPTION 369

illusion that more auditory information is encountered during exposure to

music pitched in such modes. Because both the popular wisdom and cognitive-
psychological explanations seem plausible, we designed an empirical test that
pits the rival hypotheses against each other in a theoretic competition.

METHOD

Overview
We conducted an experiment to test our proposition. Three levels of musical
modality (major, minor, atonal) were manipulated using original pop-style,
electronically synthesized music in a between-subjects design. Retrospective
estimates of the music's duration served as the dependent variable. The proce-
dure involved randomly assigning subjects to treatment groups, exposing them
individually to the stimulus music via headphones, and having them fill out
a questionnaire.

Subjects
Subjects were 150 upper level business students at a midwestern university.
Extra course credit was offered as an incentive. The gender distribution of the
sample was 62% male and 38% female. Ages ranged from 20 years to over
40 years, with an average age of 22.6 years. The majority (79.3%) reported
listening preferences for pop/rock music. The mean self-reported extent of
formal musical training was 3.5 on a 7-point scale ranging from very limited
(1) to very extensive (7).

Stimuli
The stimulus materials consisted of recordings of an original pop-style musical
composition written specifically for this experiment and produced in a digital
sound studio. This composition was carefully designed to imitate the type of
music commonly featured in youth-oriented ads and retail settings, so as to
represent commercial music targeted at consumers within the age group repre-
sented in our sample.
Three versions of this composition were created to represent major, minor,
and atonal modalities. This was done by entering the musical score through
an electronic keyboard and storing it as digital information in a computer. The
digital information was edited to create major, minor, and atonal versions, and
then output through a bank of synthesizers that simulated the sound of various
instruments. The synthesized musical sounds were routed through a mixer and
an effects unit to a stereo-cassette tape recorder. The result of this process was
370 KELLARIS AND KENT

a set of professional quality stimulus tapes that were identical in every respect
(e.g., tempo, loudness, melodic contour, instrumentation, etc.), except for
modality. This technology was described by Bruner (1990), and was recently
used by Kellaris and Kent (1991).
Major and minor versions were created by changing the key signature to
produce different patterns of intervals between notes of the scale (Piston,
1941). The atonal version was created by pitching each instrument's part in
a different major or minor key and randomly altering selected pitches in the
accompaniment track.
The composition was scored for soprano sax, synthesizer, brass section,
chorus of synthesized human voices (vocalizing on the syllable "ah"--there
were no distinguishable words), electric bass, and drums. The beat could be
described as a Paula Abdul-style dance beat (4/4 meter at 140 beats per
minute). The piece played for about 2.5 min, and concluded with a repeated
rhythmic pattern that faded to silence.

Procedure
Subjects were told at the time of recruitment that their participation was
sought for a study that would involve going to a lab, listening to a tape, and
filling out a brief questionnaire. The purpose of the study was not disclosed.
Subjects were processed individually in a listening lab. Each subject was
given a randomly assigned audiocassette tape, a questionnaire, and a set of
headphones. A lab assistant directed each subject to an audio carrel, and told
them to follow the instructions printed on the questionnaire. The instructions
told subjects to rewind the tape, listen to it once, then break the seals placed
around the questionnaire and complete the items. The instructions also said
"The tape you are about to hear contains a brief excerpt of instrumental music.
Please relax, and listen as you would normally listen to music.'" The entire
procedure took about 20 rain.

Measures
The dependent variable was perceived duration, measured retrospectively.
Subjects were asked to estimate the duration of the time period during which
they heard the music. Blank spaces with minutes and seconds labels were
provided for the free responses. This measure is commonly used in time
perception research in psychology and psychomusicology (Block, 1990;
Fraisse, 1984; Levin & Zakay, 1989), and recently in consumer research (Kel-
laris & Altsech, 1992). It is important to note that whereas subjects expected
questions about the music they heard, they did not anticipate the duration
estimation task.
Because popular wisdom holds that the experience of duration may be
 MUSIC AND TIME PERCEPTION 371

influenced by the pleasantness of an event, an atfective evaluation scale was

included in the questionnaire. The scale was composed of four 7-point seman-
tic differential items preceeded by the prompt "The music I heard w a s . . . "
The items, adapted from Kellaris and Kent (1991), were unpleasant (I) to
pleasant (7), unappealing (1) to appealing (7), ugly (1) to beautiful (7), and
unlikeable (1) to likeable (7). The scales were summed after appropriate
reverse scoring. Cronbach's alpha reliability for the composite scale was 0.90.
Even though modality is an objective property, we were interested in sub-
jects' subjective perceptions of the mode manipulation. Two manipulation
check items appeared after the dependent measure and affect items. One was
a 7-point semantic differential scale with items ranging from dissonant (1) to
consonant (7). The other was a 5-point agreement scale that read "'To my ear,
the music I heard did no__ttseem to be in any particular key," with ratings
ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). In the absence of
extensive musical training, subjects may detect differences in modality, but
lack the vocabulary to describe what they hear. For this reason, we avoided
the terms major, minor, and atonal in the manipulation checks, and used
consonnant, dissonant and key to capture modal distinctions as broadly and
simply as possible. Based on music theory (Dowling & Harwood, 1986), we
expected the major key version to be rated the most consonant and the atonal
version to be rated the least consonant. We also expected stronger agreement
with the "not in any particular key" statement in the atonal treatment group.
Although these manipulation check items capture gross distinctions between
conventional versus atonal modalities, we did not expect them to capture the
more subtle differences between conventional major and minor keys.
The last page of the questionnaire contained items on gender, age, extent
of musical training, and listening preferences for use in confounding checks.

RESULTS

Manipulation and Confounding Checks

We performed two manipulation checks on the musical modality treatment.
Analyses of variance (ANOVAs) found modality to have a significant main
effect on the consonance-dissonance scale, F(2, 148) = 7.70, p < .001, and
on the "'not in any particular key" item, F(2, 148) -=- 4.32, p < .015, in the
expected directions. Whereas major and minor modes were perceived as
equally consonant (M = 4.7 for both), the atonal mode (M = 3.8) was
perceived as significantly less consonant, t = 3.70, p < .001. As we had
anticipated, there was stronger agreement with the "not in any particular key"
statement in the atonal group (M = 3.2) than in the major and minor groups
(M = 2.7 for both). These findings confirm that different musical modes
372 KELLARISAND KENT

produce differential perceptions in listeners. Specifically, atonality is clearly

distinguished from conventional major and minor keys and is perceived as
significantly more dissonant.
We also performed two confounding checks. Because previous studies have
shown that both age (Holbrook & Schindler, 1989; LeBlanc & Cote, 1983;
Rubin-Rabson, 1940) and extent of musical training (Davidson, Power, &
Michie, 1987; Roberts, 1986; Rubin-Rabson, 1940; Wagner & Menzel, 1977)
influence responses to music, we wanted to verify that these variables were
evenly distributed across treatment groups. Random assignment to treatment
groups should assure this, but we tested this assumption statistically.
ANOVAs found no confounding of modality with either age of subject, F(2,
148) < 1, or extent of musical training, F(2, 148) < 1.

Modality Effects on Time Perception

We tested our proposition using an ANOVA. Results indicate a significant
main effect of musical modality on perceived duration, F(2, 148) = 3.62, p
< .029. The magnitude of this effect (omega squared) was estimated at 0.03
(Keppel, 1982). Across all modes, actual time was overestimated by about 42
sec (26%). This finding is consistent with previous research that has found
time intervals to be generally overestimated by experimental subjects (e.g.,
Loftus, Schooler, Boone, & Kline, 1987).
Mean duration estimates were 3.45 rain for the major-mode treatment
group, 3.07 min for the minor-mode treatment group, and 2.95 min for the
atonal-mode treatment group. The difference between actual time and per-
ceived time was statistically significant for all three treatment groups: 38%
for the major mode, t = --5.45, p < .001; 23% for the minor mode, t =
--4.04,p < .001; and 18% for the atonal mode, t = --3.73, p < .001. The
major-minor, t = 1.81, p < .037, and major-atonal, t = 2.57, p < .006,
differences were statistically significant, but the minor-atonal difference was
not, t = .66.

The Role of Affect

The perceived duration differences observed across modes may be due to the
general affective character of each mode. We explored the possible contribu-
tion of affect to the mode effect on perceived time in a series of process analyses.
First, we performed an ANOVA using affective evaluation as the dependent
variable to verify the music-affect relationship. Consistent with theory and
previous research, affective evaluation was significantly associated with musi-
cal modality, F(2, 148) ---- 8.81, p < .001. Not surprisingly, the atonal treat-
ment produced the lowest positive affective evaluation (M ---- 3.9), whereas
major and minor treatments were rated higher (M ---- 4.8 for both).
 MUSIC A N D TIME PERCEPTION 373

Given the relationship between musical modes and affect, we performed an

analysis of covariance using affective evaluation as the covariate term. Affect
was statistically unrelated to perceived time, Fco,~riate(1, 147) < 1, and its
presence in the equation did not meaningfully alter the relationship between
musical modality and perceived time, Fmode(2, 147) = 3.29, p < .04, to2 =
.03.

Summary
These findings appear to favor the cognitive-psychological explanation of
musics influence on perceived time over conventional wisdom. Time estimates
varied significantly across musical modes. However, whereas musical modality
influenced affective evaluations, the affective character of the music did not
influence time perceptions.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The experimental findings suggest that music can influence listeners' subjective
experience of time. The data support our proposition: the perceived duration
of a time interval varied significantly across the same music played in different
modes. Music pitched in a major key produced the longest duration estimates
and the greatest disparity between actual (i.e., clock) time and perceived time.
Music pitched in a minor key produced a significantly shorter average duration
estimate. Atonal music produced the shortest, and most accurate, average
duration estimates. However, these estimates differed significantly from actual
time. Through follow-up analyses, we found the conventional major and minor
modes to produce more positive affect than the atonal mode.
Contrary to conventional wisdom, time did not fly under the condition or
conditions that produced the most positive affective evaluations. Rather, the
shortest average duration estimate was produced under the condition that
generated the least positive affective evaluation. This finding can be explained
parsimoniously in terms of cognitive models of psychological time. It is possi-
ble that the relative pleasantness of the conventional modes (relative to the
atonal condition) motivated listeners to devote more attention to the music.
The allocation of greater cognitive resources to processing the more pleasant,
conventional-sounding music (a) reduced the allocation of processing re-
sources to the internal clock used in judging the duration of events, and (b)
created the perception that more stimulus information was heard. According
to Ornstein's storage size model, remembered events seem longer when more
information is stored in memory.
Alternatively (or additionally), the music pitched in conventional major and
minor modes may have been easier for listeners to store and retrieve than the
374 KELLARISAND KENT

atonal music. Studies in psychomusicology have demonstrated that melodies

played in familiar systems of pitch organization are easier for untrained listen-
ers to memorize and reproduce than melodies organized according to a system
for which there is no preexisting frame of reference (e.g., Dowling, 1982;
Howell, West, & Cross, 1991). This suggests that our subjects may have stored
and retrieved more musical information under the major and minor conditions
due to the relative ease of processing. The accessibility of more information
may have created the illusion of a longer exposure to the musical stimulus.
Although we consider these findings to be preliminary, we believe that they
demonstrate a principle that may eventually be used in practical contexts. The
findings suggest that sellers and service providers may be able to influence
customers' and clients' time perceptions by selecting or designing music with
certain modal properties. In situations in which it is desirable to augment
perceived time, music pitched in major keys may be used. In situations in
which it is appropriate to diminish perceived duration, music pitched in minor
keys may be used without danger of inducing less positive affect.
Our findings also suggest that certain common practices involving music
may actually be counterproductive. For example, playing peppy music in
major keys to customers in check-out lines may actually augment their percep-
tions of waiting time. It is not certain whether the beneficial influence of
positive feelings generated by positively valenced music will offset the poten-
tially deleterious effect of longer perceived delays. Conversely, playing amodal
new age music--an increasingly common practice in yuppie restaurants--may
diminish diners' perceptions of time passage (relative to what they would
experience if exposed to more conventional music), and thus exacerbate feel-
ings of being rushed.
Our study suggests several directions for future research. First, the retro-
spective measurement of time passage used in our experiment provides only
one perspective on temporal experience. It would be interesting to investigate
the experience of duration from a concurrent perspective. The experience of
duration during an interval may be different from the retrospective remem-
brance of what was experienced during that interval. As James (1890/1952)
observed, "A time interval filled with varied and interesting experiences seems
short in passing, but long as we look back" (p. 408). Both the concurrent and
retrospective views may be necessary to gain a better understanding of psycho-
logical time.
Second, there are two distinct processes by which individuals may generate
retrospective estimates of duration: (a) They may attempt to recall their subjec-
tive experience of duration, or (b) they may infer the length of the time period
from the amount of information stored or number of events that transpired.
The use of these alternative processes (that may be experimentally induced)
could lead to substantially (and perhaps systematically) different estimates of
duration. For example, in service encounters there may be a tendency to use
 MUSIC AND TIME PERCEPTION 375

the first process for relatively long time intervals when the experience of
waiting is greatest. However, for shorter periods the second process may be
used more predominantly. Future research could vary levels of actual waiting
time and trace the processes used to generate duration estimates.
Third, because music in commercial environments is sometimes heard but
not listened to, it would be interesting to see if the effects we obtained under
a forced exposure condition could be replicated under a more passive exposure
condition. The influence of other musical properties and their interactions,
particularly those relating to music's temporal dimension (e.g., tempo,
rhythm), should be investigated. It is possible that the pace or pulse of environ-
mental music could alter the speed of the internal clock people are presumed
to use in making temporal judgments. Finally, inclusion of a no-music control
group in future studies would allow assessment of the extent to which subjects
overestimate time as a function of music rather than a function of the estima-
tion task itself.
In conclusion, this study found that music can influence consumers' percep-
tions of time passage. However, music's influence appears to operate in a way
that is contrary to popular wisdom. Time "flew" faster for listeners exposed
to music that produced the least positive affective evaluation. If the generality
of these findings is affirmed by future research, certain common practices--
such as playing appealing, major-key music to customers on "musical hold"
or in waiting lines--may prove counterproductive.

REFERENCES

Apel, W. (1973). Harvard dictionary of music (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.
Bergadaa, M. M. (1990). The role of time in the action of the consumer. Journal of Consumer
Research, 17, 289-302.
Block, R. A. (Ed.). (1990). Cognitive models of psychological time. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Brunet, G. C., II. (1990). Music, mood, and marketing. Journal of Marketing, 54, 94-104.
Davidson, B., Power, R. P., & Michie, P. T. (1987). The effects of familiarity and previous training
on perception of an ambiguous musical figure. Perception & Psychophysics, 41, 601-608.
Dowling, W. J. (1982). Melodic information processing and its development. In D. Deutsch (Ed.),
The psychology of music (pp. 413-429). New York: Academic.
Dowling, W. J., & Harwood, D. L. (1986). Music cognition. San Diego: Academic.
Eysenck, M. W. (1982). Attention and arousal New York: Springer-Verlag.
Feldman, L. P., & Hornik, J. (1981). The use of time: An integrated conceptual model. Journal
of Consumer Research, 7, 407-417.
Fraisse, P. (1984). Perception and estimation of time. Annual Review of Psychology, 35, 1-36.
Graham, R. J. (1981). The role of perception of time in consumer research. Journal of Consumer
Research, 7, 335-342.
Heinlein, C. P. (1928). The affective character of the major and minor modes in music. Journal
of Comparative Psychology, 8, 101-141.
376 KELLARIS A N D KENT

Hevner, K. (1935). The affective character of the major and minor modes in music. American
Journal o f Psychology, 47, 103-118.
Hirschman, E. C. (1987). Theoretical perspectives of time use: Implications for consumer re-
search. In Ex C. Hirschman & J. N. Sheth (Eds.), Research in consumer behavior (Vol. 2, pp.
55-81). Greenwich, CT: JAI.
Holbrook, M. B., & Schindler, R. M. (1989). Some exploratory findings on the development of
musical tastes. Journal of Consumer Research, 16, 119-124.
Hornik, J. (1984). Subjective vs. objective time measures: A note on the perception of time in
consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 11, 615-618.
Howell, P., West, R., & Cross, 1. (1991). Representing musical structure. San Diego: Academic.
Jacoby, J., Szybillo, G. J., & Berning, C. K. (1976). Time and consumer behavior: An interdiscipli-
nary overview. Journal of Consumer Research, 2, 320-339.
James, W. (1952). The principles of psychology. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. (Original
work published 1890)
Kaufman, C., Lane, P. M., & Lindquist, J. D. (1991). Exploring more than 24 hours a day: A
preliminary investigation of polychronic time use. Journal o f Consumer Research, 18, 392-401.
Kellaris, J. J., & Altsech, M. B. (1992). The experience of time as a function of musical loudness
and gender of listener. In B. Sternthal & J. Sherry (Eds.), Advances in consumer research (Vol.
19, pp. 725-729). Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research.
Kellaris, J. J., & Kent, R. J. (1991). Exploring tempo and modality effects on consumer responses
to music. In R. H. Holman & M. R. Solomon (Eds.), Advances in consumer research (Vol. 18,
pp. 243-248). Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research.
Keppel, G. (1982). Design & analysis (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
LeBlanc, M., & Cote, R. (1983). Effects of tempo and performing medium on children's music
preference. Journal of Research in Music Education, 31, 57-66.
Levin, I., & Zakay, D. (Eds.). (1989). Time and human cognition Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Loftus, E. F., Schooler, J. W., Boone, S. M , & Kline, D. (1987). Time went by so slowly:
Overestimation of event duration by males and females. Applied Cognitive Psychology, I, 3-13.
McGrath, J. E., & Kelly, J. R. (1986). Time and human interaction. New York: Guilford.
Ornstein, R. E. (1969). On the experience of time. New York: Penguin.
Piston, W. (1941). Harmony. New York: Norton.
Roberts, L. A. (1986). Consonance judgments of musical chords by musicians and untrained
listeners. Acustica, 62, 163-171.
Rubin-Rabson, G. (1940). The influence of age, intelligence, and training on reactions to classical
and modern music. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 22. 413-429.
Wagner, M. J., & Menzel, M. B. (1977). The effect of music listening and attentiveness training
on the EEG's of musicians and nonmusicians. Journal o f Music Therapy, 14, 151-164.
Yalch, R. F., & Spangenberg, E. (1990). Effects of store music on shopping behavior. Journal of
Consumer Marketing, 7, 55~3.
Zakay, D. (1989). Subjective time and attentional resource allocation: An integrated model of time
estimation. In I. Levin & D. Zakay (Eds.), Time and human cognition. Amsterdam: Elsevier.