CHRISTIAN COLLEGE OF NURSING, NEYYOOR

SEMINAR
ON
STANDARDIZED TEST

GUIDED BY: PRESENTED BY:

Mrs. Jega Juliet J. Asir Dhayani

Lecturer M.sc Nursing 1st Year

Mental Health Nursing Medical Surgical Nursing

Christian College of Nursing Christian College of Nursing

Neyyoor . Neyyoor.

PRESENTED ON

11-01--2013

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 STANDARDIZED TEST
INTRODUCTION
“Standardized tests equal standardized students”
- Amanda parsons.

“Real learning is difficult to measure through standardized test “

- Angela Harding.
Standardized assessment is a lens into the classroom. Standardized tests are designed to
measure learning and testing abilities at a point in time. Standardized testing plays a prominent
part in our education system every year. Standardized testing (ST) is prevalent and pervasive in
education, training and most aspects of modern life. Standardized test drives educational
programming, teaching and decision making to an unprecedented extent. Due to its centrality
standard conditions, often proctored, with scores interpreted in a ‘standard’ or ‘consistent’
manner. Many tests produced by government, commercial test publishers, and professional
organizations procedures; condition, time limits, and scoring procedures are strictly observed.
These tests may be either group or individually administered. Score interpretation may be either
norm or criterion referenced.

Achievement tests measure an examinee’s relevant current level of knowledge and/or

skill. An aptitude (or ability test) measures estimates potential. Interest inventories (E.g. Strong
interest inventory) broadly measure an examinee’s vocational or academic interests. Attitude
scales measure an examinee’s disposition concerning an issues or object of interest. (E.g. Social
beliefs, love, marriage, values, etc.). Personality scales or indexes measure personality type
behavioral tendencies or mental health.

Standardized testing has long been used to monitor student progress in the classroom as
well as for placement purposes. Standardized tests are perceived as being fairer than non-
standardized tests. The consistency also permits more reliable comparison of outcomes across all
test takers. Standardized tests are developed with the help of professional writers, reviewers and
editors of test items.

A standardized test is one that is administered, scored and interpreted in identical fashion
for all examinees. Nationally known standardized test include CAT, CTBS, ITBS, MAT,
PRAXIS I and II.

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TERMINOLOGIES
 Standardized
Formulation, publication, and implementation of guidelines, rules, and specifications
for common and repeated use, aimed at achieving optimum degree of order or uniformity in
a given context, discipline, or field.

 Norm
A designated standard of average performance of people of a given age, background, etc.

 Bluffing
To impress, deter, or intimidate by a false display of confidence.

 Ambiguous
Doubtfulness or uncertainty of meaning or intention to speak with ambiguity .

 Score
Test score is a piece of information, usually a number that conveys the performance of
an examinee on a test.

CONTENT
HISTORY
2000 BC

In china the government administered written exams to candidates interested in

being in the civil service, a highly respected occupation.

1803 (19 th
centuary)

The use of written test was widespread throughout Europe because of problems
with the oral exam system.

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Mid-19 th centuary

In the United States, standardized tests didn’t appear until the mid-19 th centuary.
Written exams for government funded school was introduced in Boston in 1845 and Harvard
started the first entrance exams in 1851.

Mid 1860’s

George fisher of green which England in order to standardize writing tests, collected
samples of writing and graded each one on a scale of 1-5.

1916

Lewis Terman expands the intelligence test created by Alfred Binet (forefather of
standardized test) developed the Stanford- Binet intelligence test in 1916.

1921

Roschach developed famous inkblot test in 1921.

DEFINITION
TEST
1. A test is a set of questions, each with a correct answer, to which the student responds in
written form or orally.
-Ebel and Frisbie, 1991.
2. Test – instrument, protocol, or technique that measures attribute of interest.
3. A test is an instrument that requires subject to complete a cognitive task by responding to a
standard set of question.

-Wps.ablongman.com.

STANDARDIZED TEST
1. Standardized tests are those tests with carefully designed procedures, questions and
administration.

-Jerry Webster (2012).

2. A test administered and scored in a consistent or standard manner is a standardized test.

-definitions.uslegal.com.

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 3. A test in which all the questions, format, instructions, scoring and reporting of scores are
the same for all test takers. Procedures for creating such tests are standardized, as are the
procedures for creating, administering and analyzing the test.

- timeoutfromtesting.org.

4. Any test in which the same test is given in the same manner to all test takers is a
standardized test.
-enwikipedia.org.
5. It’s a test administered and scored deliberately designed to provoke the maximum amount
of stress and anxiety in its victims.
-answers.yahoo.com.

6. Standardized tests are exams composed administered and scored in the same for everyone
taking them. Each test taker receives the same exam in the same format and is given the
same materials and the amount of time to complete it with special exceptions for
disabilities.
-Elizabeth Jennings.

MEANING
Standardized test is a measure of student achievement in which a student’s score is
compared to a standard of performance.

Standardization means that whenever the test is given the control, conditions, scoring etc.,
have to be as close to the same for every person. Standardized tests are ordinary objective tests
with questions such as “true” or “false” and contain no essays.

To standardize a test, the test has to be given over time to many people, and the results have
to be studied by experts. Then revisions are made to improve the test. The tests is then given
again and the whole process repeats itself until test results prove to be unvarying and average
scores and norms have been verified.

Scoring for standardized tests has very specific instructions that must be followed. So that
any person scoring a test will come up with the same score as anyone else who scores the same
test. Scoring is interpreted in comparison to an established “norm” or average for a similar group
of people. For example intelligence tests are scored against the average intelligence of “100”. So
if the score is above 100, they are considered above average in intelligence, and if the score is
below 100, they are rated as below average. Norms are created when a test is in the process of
being designed. The test is given to a large sample population with similar characteristics. The
sample population scores are added up and then divided by the number becomes the average
score, or “norm”. But it’s not as easy as easy as it sounds.

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 Standardized tests are designed, norms are established and scores are interpreted by using
complex statistical methods. (Diane Peters Mayer).

Standardized test or large scale assessment have some limits due to their reliance on easy-
to-score and easy to administer kind of items such as multiple choice and short answer. It
describes two major types of standardized tests achievement tests (designed to measure students
specific knowledge and skills) and aptitude tests (designed to predict how well students are likely
to perform in another setting like in institutions). It explains the two major ways of scoring tests
norm referenced scoring (scoring is based on comparing a student’s score that of other students)
and criterion referenced scoring (scoring is based on how well the student has mastered the
content of the test).

PURPOSE OF TEST
 Instructional
Enabling the teacher to identify content areas learned effectively by students and ones
requiring further instruction.
 Grading
For which tests serve typically as one type of data.
 Diagnostic
To identify the student’s strengths and weaknesses.
 Selection
Using test data to accept or reject applicants to nursing programs.
 Placement
After the individual has been admitted to the program such as placement testing for
registered nurses.
 Counseling
Involving the use of test to recommend appropriate programs of study for the student.
 Programs and curriculum evaluation
Using test data as one source of information for program and curriculum evaluation.

PURPOSE OF STANDARDIZED TEST

1. To provide information for planning instruction
2. Policy tools – To provide data to policy makers that help them make decisions
regarding funding, class size, curriculum adjustments, teacher development and more.
3. To provide information about student progress and program placement.
4. To diagnose students strengths and weaknesses. To identify learning disabled students
indeed of remedial assistance

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5. To measure a student achievement against a particular set of learning criteria.
6. To measure the same skill set every time which means using questions that are
designed according to certain standards, patterns and rules. To monitor student learning
overtime.
7. To ensure consistency in the development and application of examining standards
throughout the institution
8. To provide fair, valid and reliable assessments that produce meaningful results.
9. Licensure or certification - To verify whether someone has the necessary knowledge
and skills to be a qualified practitioner or to be given advanced standing in an
occupation or profession
10. Curriculum-based end of course testing – To determine whether students have
mastered the objectives of the course taken. Accountability – Hold various levels
of the education system responsible for test results that indicate if students learn what
they should have learned.
11. Exit testing – To find out whether students have learned the amount necessary to
graduate from a level of education.
12. Course credit – To indicate whether a student should receive credit for a course he or
she didn’t take through demonstration of course content knowledge.
13. Help in program evaluation and contribute to accountability.
14. To inform professionals and the public on some of the strengths and weaknesses of the
learning system.
15. To review, modify, revise and implementation of existing curricula and supporting
instructional resource materials.
16. To assist in decisions concerning allocation of resources.
17. To identify areas of need and provide directions for change in both pre-service and in-
service teacher education.
18. To provide directions for educational research.
19. Admissions To ensure that graduating students from all institutions in the province will
be treated equitably when applying for admission to universities. To inform decisions
about which people should be selected for entrance to an educational institution
20. To respond to strong public concerns for improved standards in education.
21. To compare the abilities and skills of students from different universities.To allow
comparison of test takers from different areas of the state the country and the world.
22. Placement - To determine which courses or level of a course a student should take.
23. Employment - To inform decisions on the hiring, placement and promotion of potential
and current employers.

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF STANDARDIZED
TEST
A standardized test has certain distinct characteristics.

 Designed by people with specialized knowledge and training in test

construction.
 Every person who takes the test responds to the same items under the same
conditions.
 A fixed set of test items, designed to measure clearly designed sample of
behaviors.
 Specific direction for administering and scoring the test.
 The answers are evaluated according to the same scoring standards.
 Standard test norms provide a standard frame of reference for determine an
individual level of performance on a particular test and for comparing different
level of performance on different tests.
 Users must carefully read study the content and material of the test in light of
the functions to be measures and uses to be made of the result.
 The scores are interpreted through comparison to the scores obtained from a
group that took the same test under the same test under the same conditions or
through comparison to a predetermined standard.

TYPES OF STANDARDIZED TEST

Based on the number of persons involved
(i) Individual test.
Individual tests are designed for administration in a one-on-one situation. Individual tests
are typically used for clinical purposes, such as making a diagnosis of a disability or disorder or
determining strengths and weaknesses, in a specific area of functioning. These tests are
administered to one student at a time. The test user should have considerable training in test
administration, scoring and interpretation.
For e.g. intelligence, achievement.
(ii) Group test.
Group tests are designed primarily as instruments for mass testing. They are largely pencil
and paper measures suitable for administration to large or small groups of students at the same
time. The majority of tests in schools are group tests. The recent large- scale tests used by states
are also group tests. Group tests are fairly easy to administer and score and their use does not
require much special training.

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Based on the purpose to measure
I. Achievement test
Achievement tests measure the extent to which a person has “achieved” something,
acquired certain information or mastered certain skills- usually as a result of planned instruction
or training. It is designed to efficiently measure the amount of knowledge and/ or skill a person
has acquired as a result of classroom instruction. A standardized test (usually multiple choices)
that measures content area knowledge and academic skills.
II. Aptitude test
A standardized, multiple choice tests that measures students verbal and math reasoning
abilities and is used by college admissions departments to predict how well a student will
perform in college.
An aptitude is the ability to learn or to develop proficiency in an area (if provided with
appropriate education or training. It is like talent. Examples are various types of reasoning,
artistic ability, motor co-ordination, musical talent.
III. Attitude test
Attitude test assess an individual’s feelings about an event, person or object. Attitude scales
are used in marketing to determine individual (and group) preferences for brands, or items.
Typically attitude tests use either a Thurston scale, or likers scale to measure specific items.
IV. Personality test
Psychological measures of personality are often described as either objective or projective
tests. The terms “objective test” and “projective test” have recently come under criticism. The
more descriptive “rating scale or self-report measures” and “free response measures” are
suggested rather than the terms “objective tests” and projective tests respectively. Personality
tests are used by psychologists for a number of different reasons such as tracking changes in
personality and to diagnosing psychological problems.

V. Interest inventory

A test that determines a person’s preferences for specific fields or activities. An interest
inventory is a testing instrument designed for the purpose of measuring and evaluating the level
of an individual interest in, or preference for, a variety of activities, also known as interest test.
Testing methods include direct observation of behavior, ability tests, and self-reporting
inventories of interest in educational, social, recreational and vocational activities. The activities
usually represented in interest inventories are variously replaced to occupational areas, and these
instruments and their results are often used in vocational guidance.

VI. Intelligence test

Intelligence is often defined as a measure of general mental ability of the standardized

intelligence tests; those developed by David Wechsler are among those most widely used.

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Wechsler defined intelligence as “the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally and
to deal effectively with the environment.

VII. Prognostic or diagnostic test

This test is a measure which predicts how well a person is likely to do in a certain school,
subject or task.

Based on consideration.
a. Norm – referenced test

Norm- references tests (NRTs) compare a person’s score against the scores of a group
of people who have already taken the same exam called the norming group.

b. Criterion (or) Domain referenced test

A criterion-referenced test is a test that provides a basis for determining a candidate’s

level of knowledge and skills in relation to a well-defined domain of content. Often one or more
performance standards are set on the test score scale to aid in test score interpretation.

c. Standard based test

A standards based test is one that assesses student’s mastery of a set of content standards
(that is knowledge and skills) approved by a state or school district. However most of today’s
standard-based tests neither satisfactory assess those content standards or provide educations
with instructionally useful test based reports.

Based On The Speed Of Performances

a) Speed test

A speed test is designed to measure the speed or rate of performance rather than the
acquisition or mastery of knowledge. Typically speed tests include very easy items. So every test
taker knows the answers. This way only speed of response is measured by the test.

b) Power test

Power test is designed to measure the knowledge of the test taker, regardless of his or her
speed of performance. Power tests contain items with varying degrees of difficulty and allow
enough time for test takers to attempt all items.

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Based on disability
A. Test for Physical Disabilities

Standardized testing is defined as an evaluate process in which the procedure of

administration and scoring is dictated and followed strictly and consistently for the purpose of
comparing with normative samples especially for individuals with severe physical and/or
cognitive disabilities.

B. Test for Intellectual disabilities

Standardized psychological tests are used during the assessment of intellectual disabilities
(intellectual development disorder, formerly mental retardation). These tests may assess
intelligence (IQ), learning abilities, and practical life skills. A standardized test means a test has
been uniformly designed and administered. So that an individual’s score may be compared to an
average score for people of the same age, culture, socioeconomic backgrounds, etc.

TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS OF EVALUATION

Techniques
 Written examination.
 Oral examination.
 Practical examination.
 Interviews
 Observation.
 Projective techniques.
 Sociometric techniques.

Tools
 Achievement tests like written test, oral test and practical or performance test.
Achievement tests may be teacher made test or standardized test.
 Diagnostic tests.
 Intelligence tests.
 Aptitude tests
 Anecdotal records
 Check lists
 Cumulative records.
 Interview schedules.

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  Inventories.
 Questionnaires.
 Rating scales.

1.INDIVIDUAL TEST
Process of administering tests to individuals.
Certain tests however, can be given only on an individual basis. Individual tests are often more
appropriate to assess a candidates style of problem solving. Individual testing formats are also
appropriate when the examiner needs to establish an international rapport with the test taker.
Individual tests as the name implies are these which are administered by the
examiner to one person at a time, usually without an audience.
Individual tests provide detailed information about the individual .Financially
institutions cannot afford to test all students individually and it is unethical to collect the type of
detailed, private information on students unless there is a professionally sound reason.
Individual tests should only be used when there is a need (based on the results of
a group test, parent/teacher referred etc.) unless such need exists, the use of an individual test
may constitute an unwarranted invasion of privacy.
Individual tests are typically used for clinical purposes, such as making a
diagnosis of a disability or disorder of determining strengths and weaknesses in a specific area
of functioning (e.g. Intelligence achievement). These tests are administered to one student at a
time. The test user should have considerable training in test administration, scoring and
interpretation.

Examples:

 Interviews
 Test of hand-eye coordination,
 Elaborate assessment of candidates for a high level executive position
based on interviews, work samples
 Individually administered personality tests.

DEFINITION
A test administered to one student at time.

PURPOSES
 To show specific learning disabilities underlie school difficulties.
 To rule out cognitive problems in cases where emotional disturbance is suspected.

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  To identify the underachiever who may benefit from counseling or tutoring.
 To identify their special strengths and weaknesses.
 To evaluate treatment programs for children with speech problems.
 To identify behavioral problems and help teachers develop proper behavior management
techniques in classroom.
 To identify gifted and talented students (ability tests) who would benefit from an
enriched learning program.
 To diagnose difficulties in reading spelling, mathematics and spoken language.
 To evaluate delayed performance.
 To identify personality disturbances, mood, attitude, anxiety, self-image, imagination,
maturation and perception of reality.

CHARACTERISTICS
 It takes less time with accuracy.
 It is impossible to teach to the test.
 Measure and educationally relevant aspect of the student.
 Takes special circumstances into account.
 It has less anxiety.
 Measure program (or lack of) in very specific areas.
 Requires single examiner for single subject.

ADVANTAGES
 Direct one to one attention allows the student and examiner to establish solid rapport,
which is essential for obtaining valid results.
 The examiner has direct control of the testing environment, which includes ensuring
that the environment itself is conducive to optimal student performance. E.g. Making
sure the temperature of the room is not too hot or cold eliminating, non-relevant
stimuli that would distract the student.
 Ono to one attention allows the examiner to observe student behaviors that may be
interfering with task performance but not reflected in the score. (E.g. fatigue) or assist
in diagnosis (E.g. difficulty remaining in seat).
 Most test items are orally administered by the examiner; little reading is required by
the student, which makes it possible to test young students or these with limited
reading skills.
 It yield detailed information on a student’s cognitive or achievement functioning
that is not typically obtained from group administered tests.
 Provide a wealth of information about a subject beyond the test score.

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  Differences observed in behavior and attitudes most likely reflect differences in the
individuals taking the test. One person may respond quickly and enthusiastically when
correct but become hesitant or withdrawn following failure. Another person may react
to failure by trying harder and may actually do better in the face of frustration and
failure.
 It is used in assessment and diagnosis of psychological or medical problems.

DISADVANTAGES.
 Cost and time consuming, it places a financial burden on schools especially those with
limited economic resources.
 Learning to administer and interpret the results from the tests requires extensive
training, and administration time ranges from one to four hours.

2. Group test
Many students will be administered a group administered cognitive or achievement test
during their studies. Indeed, of the millions of cognitive tests that are administered to students
annually, only a small fraction of these are individually administered (cohen and swerdik 2002).

Considering their practicability group tests are used across a variety of environments
including military, industrial/ organizational and educational. This group administered tests
have a broader application than individual tests (Aiken, 2006). Like their individually
administered tests consist of subtests that assess a variety of cognitive or academic domains and
are either timed or power tests.

However, the scoring format for most group administered tests is multiple-choice, which
is less flexible and yields much less diagnostic information school- based group administered
tests are used as screeners to determine whether further evaluation (often using an individually
administered test) is warranted.

Group tests are used to screen large groups of people to identify possible candidates for
individual testing. Group tests are compared to individual ones, inexpensive with respect to time
and money, the tradeoff for being less expensive if they do not provide great deal of information.

Group tests are designed primarily as instruments for mass testing. Group tests are fairly
easy to administer and their use does not require much special training on the part of the
examiners. Some group tests may also be computer administered and scored.

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DEFINITION
It is the process of administering tests to groups.

-www.education.com.

A test designed to be administered to more than one individual at a time.

-www.mondofacto.com.

PURPOSES
 Screening-It is a screening measure to consider whether further testing is needed.
 Judgment of achievement during the process of learning or training.
 Feedback-Provides feedback during the process to both the learner and teacher.
 Placement- Allow a professional to group students into instructional or training
groups according to their abilities.
 Diagnosis- To determine weaknesses or deficiencies in students.
 Prediction- To predict feature events or results from present or past data.
 Motivation- Necessary for motivating the students and program participants.
 Evaluation- The achievement level will be evaluated and grade will be assigned on
the basis of performance.
 Program Evaluation- To conduct program evaluation in the future to justify
treatment, instruction and training programs.

CHARACTERISTICS
 A single examiner can administer group tests to more than one person at the same
time.
 Group tests can be characterized as paper- and-pencil or booklet- and-pencil tests
because the only materials required are a printed booklet of test items, a test manual, a
scoring key, an answer sheet and a pencil.
 Most group tests are multiple choice but some require a free response such as
completing a sentence or design or writing.
 Group tests may be in verbal ,nonverbal or a combination.
 Group tests group items by type. (E.g. all verbal analogy problems are in the same
section, with items arranged in order of increasing difficulty.
 Group test scores can be converted to a variety of units. Most produce percentiles or
some type of standard score, but a few produce ratio or derivation IQs.

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ADVANTAGES
 Cost effective- Because they involve less expensive materials.
 Minimize professional time for administration and scoring. They minimize the time
needed for administration and scoring.
 Require less examiner skill and training.
 Scoring of group tests is more objective and hence typically more reliable than the
subjective scoring of many individual tests.
 Group tests can be used with large numbers of individuals.
 Group tests results can yield information that is as useful and meaningful as that
obtained from individual tests.
 Have especially broad application, group tests are used in school at every level. The
military, industry and researchers also use them extensively.
 Group test results can be used for screening and selection purposes, to assess mental,
vocational or special abilities to assess learning in a particular discipline or aptitudes
for specific occupations or job duties.
 With exams student will be able to know his performance and knowledge.
 For most people exams may encourage them to work and learn.
 Sometimes with exams it can create competition, which pushes the competitioners to
do their best in themselves.
o .
 The results of group administered tests can be used appropriately. For Example. The
data obtained from such tests can be used to diagnose and place students.
 It helps in developing one’s own personality and confidence.
 If people pass the exams and got a good result, it helps to get a scholarship which will
bring to have a good job. (Good future).

DISADVANTAGES
 For some people, exams make them stress. This is because there is too much pressure of
their parents and teachers or if a person is sick or a dear one of his/her die.
 During the exam a person may also have problems with questions bad choice of
questions, irrelevant answers.
 For most failure, which has got bad result, it will affect their future. For some it can
change their character or lead to suicide. But most lose confidence.
 Achievement is the accomplishment or proficiency of performance in a given skill or
body of knowledge. Therefore it can be said that achievement implies the overall mastery
of a pupil on a particular context. Any measuring instruments that measure the
attainments or accomplishments of a pupils achievement must be valid and reliable.

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  The format does not allow for in-depth observations of individual students as they
complete the test. Thus behaviors such as fatigue, low motivation, anxiety, interferes with
performance are not observed.
 The examiner may be less trained in the nuances of the test, the examiner may break
standardization and inadvertently (inappropriately) answer students queries or not be able
to monitor the testing environment with the same fidelity testing be given to the
individual testing environment.
 Group administered items may unduly penalize creative or original thinkers.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INDIVIDUAL AND GROUP TEST

INDIVIDUAL TEST GROUP TEST
Sl.no

1. One subject is tested at a time. Many subjects are tested at a time.

2. Examiners records responses. Subjects record own responses.

3. Scoring requires considerable skill. Scoring is straight forward and objective.

4. Examiner flexibility can elicit There are no safeguards.

maximum performance if permitted by
standardization.

3. ACHIEVEMENT TEST
INTRODUCTION
Achievement is the accomplishment or proficiency of performance in a given skill or body of
knowledge.Therefore,it can be said that achievement implies the overall mastery of a pupil on a
particular context. Any measuring instruments that measures the attainments or accomplishments
of a pupil’s achievement must be valid and reliable.

A standardized test used to measure acquired learning in a specific subject area such as
reading or arithmetic in contrast to an intelligence test, which measures potential ability or
learning capacity. It was developed to measure skills and knowledge learned in a given grade
level usually through planned instruction, such as training or classroom instruction.

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Under No Child Left Behind, achievement tests have taken on as additional role of assessing
proficiency of students. Proficiency is defined as the amount of grade appropriate knowledge and
skills a student has acquired up to the point of testing.

Achievement test is an important in school evaluation and has a great significance in

measuring instructional progress of the students in the subject area. Achievement means one’s
learning attainments, accomplishments, proficiencies, etc. It is directly related to pupil’s growth
and development in educational situations where learning and teaching are intended to………so
on……….

HISTORY
1845-Educator Horace Mann encouraged public schools to test student’s knowledge of spelling,
geography.

1900-the college entrance exam board developed a series of written exams that would test a
potential student’s knowledge of math,science,literature and latin.

1909-Public schools in America began using Thorndike handwriting scale.

1914-Frederick Kelly invented the multiple-choice test.

1926-colleges began using Stanford achievement test, a multiple-choice test.

1941- The college board did away the written entrance exams and opted to use only the SAT

1950’s –the average public-school student took three standardized testing before graduation.

Before 1957-Standardized testing in the United States as college entrance exam.

1962-in 1962,the scholastic aptitude test replaced the essay test used by the college entrance
examination board. This test, and the advent of machine scoring led to a rapid increase in the
use of standardized achievement tests in the U.S.

1988-National Assessment Governing board set new standards for public school standardized
tests.

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2002-President George. W.Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Bill into law, which
mandated annual tests for all public-school students and threatened schools that consistently
performed poorly on standardized tests with loss of federal funding.

In the united states five main types of standardized achievement tests are used

 California achievement tests

 Comprehensive tests of basic skills
 Iowa tests of basic skills
 Metropolitan achievement tests
 Stanford achievement tests.

DEFINITION.
 Any test that measures the attainments or accomplishments of an individual after a period
of training or learning.
-N M.Downie.
 The type of ability test that describes what a person has learned to do.
-Throndike & Hagen.
 A systematic procedure for determining the amount of a student learned through
instruction.
-Groundland.
 Achievement test is a test of knowledge or proficiency based on something learned or

taught.

-www.education.com

 Achievement tests are often administered by the state to measure specific areas of
learning such as math, reading, writing, science and social studies.
 An achievement test is a standardized test that is designed to measure an individual’s
level of knowledge in a particular area.
-www.alleydog.com

TYPES OF ACHIEVEMENT TEST.

It can be

Norm referenced- individual scores are interpreted relative to the scores of others in a well-
defined norming group. (E.g. John’s scores place him in the 95 th percent. Sally’s score is in the
bottom quartile.)

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 Criterion referenced – individual scored are interpreted in terms of the student’s performance
relative to some standard or criterion.E.g. Jeanne passed the Louisiana high school .

Achievement tests employed in nursing education can be classified as follows.

Achievement Tests

Standardized Test Teacher Made Test

Oral Test Written Test Performance Test

(Practical Exam)

Essay Test Short answer Type Objective Test

Extended Response Restricted Response Selected Type Supply

Type. (Long Essay) 1. Short Essay. 1. True False Item. 1. Short Answer

2. Short Answer. 2. Multiple Choices. 2. Completion type.

3. Very Short Answer. 3. Matching Type.

4. Extended Matching.

5. Multiple Response Item.

6. Assertion Reason Item.

7. Interpretive Item.

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ACCORDING TO FUNCTION
1. Mastery test.
Mastery test measures the knowledge, skill and other learning outcomes that all
pupil must acquire. Mastery tests sets a minimum as standard which all students are
expected to achieve. This test is concerned with minimum achievement.
2. Survey test.
In survey test the emphasis is on general achievement. The aim is to measure the
extent of difference in various pupils’ achievement. Individual students score is compared
with the general achievement scores survey tests are concerned with maximum
achievement.
a. Survey Test Batteries
Commonly used to determine general standing with respect to group performance.
Battery is a group of subject area tests, usually containing a fairly limited sample
of questions with in each subject area.
Test batteries usually have lower reliabilities than single subject survey tests be of
the limited question within each subject area.
b. Single Subject Survey Tests
Longer and more detailed than batteries, but only one subjects are covered by the
test. Greater sampling of questions means higher levels of reliability than survey
batteries
3. Diagnostic tests.
Diagnostic tests are constructed. So that past scores and individual item response reveal
special disabilities and deficiencies in achievement. Allows for the identification of
specific strengths and weaknesses within a subject area by subsiding the subject are into
the undergoing components. Diagnostic tests are common in the areas of reading,
mathematics, spelling and foreign languages are most common.
Graduate exit exam, someway did not make the cut off for being promoted to the
7th grade.

4. Prognostic Tests
Aptitude tests which are designed to predict achievement in specific school
subjects.
EXAMPLES OF ACHIEVEMENT TEST

Woodcock Johnson III test of achievement

The woodcock Johnson III tests of achievement (WJ III ACH) contains a
set of Notes referenced tests that are administered individually. The WJ III ACH is used to
measure academic achievement. It is composed of 22 tests that make up five clusters:

21
 reading, oral language, math, written language and academic knowledge. The WJ III ACH
can be used for educational, clinical or research purposes (Mather, 2001).
The WJ III ACH can be administered from preschool to above average adult
level to over 90 years of age. It’s primary application for school aged population. It takes
approximately 60 to 70 minutes to administer the entire achievement test since each subject
takes about five minutes. The
WJ III ACH tests of achievement can also be used to determine if students are
eligible for special services as defined by the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA).
Wechsler Individual Achievement Test
The first WIAT was published in 1992. The Wechsler Individual Achievement Test
second edition (WIAT – II, Wechsler 2005) developed by David Wechsler. It is suitable for use
in various researches, educational and clinical settings, including schools, clinics private
practices and residential treatment facilities.
It is designed to improve the diagnostic power and sensitivity of subtests and provide
maximally informative scores, skills analysis and intervention goal statements. It is administered
by paper and pencil. The completion time varies by grade level and number and sub tests
administered. The WIAT III presents one item at a time, without time limits, except for the
written expression sub test.
It is band scored and it includes the sub test word reading, pseudo word, Decoding, reading
comprehension, spelling, written expression, numerical operations, Math reasoning Listening
comprehension, Oral expression and the scores made are fall, winter and spring grade based
standard scores, age based standard scores, percentile ranks, stains , NCES and grade
equivalents. The scores based on students age (four month intervals for ages 4 through 13, One
year interval for ages 14 and 16, and one interval for ages 17 through 19) or the students grade
(fall , winter and spring norms for grades Pre kg through 8, full year norms for grades 9 through
12, and separate collage norms).
The scholastic ability test for adult(SATA)
The scholastic ability test for adult is between the age group of 16 through 70. Testing
time is form 1 to 2 hours. It can be administered as individual of group. The Data measured the
scholastic competence of persons from the ages of 16 through 70. Subject raw scores are
converted to estimated grade equivalents, Standard scores (M-10 , DS-3) and percentiles . The
SATA’s aptitude and achievement components can provide an aptitude – achievement
discrepancy analysis needed for LD placement. The SATA is technically sound, with
reliabilities generally in the 80s and 90s.

Stanford Test of Academic Skills (TASK)

The Stanford achievement Test series is used to measure academic knowledge of
elementary and secondary school students. The reports include narrative summaries, process
and cluster summaries and graphic displays to clarify the students’ performance and guide

22
planning and analysis administrators obtain critical data to document and monitor the progress
of all children and to disaggregate results according to federal mandates. Teachers receive
specific information to support instructional planning for individual students and the class as
well as to improve their teaching parents better understand their child’s achievement level and
get direction for home involvement. The SAT 10 is one of the few tests in the United States
which continues to use stanines to report scores.

SPECIFIC ACHIEVEMENT TEST

Nelson – Denny Reading Test
Nelson Denny Reading test was created in 1929 by M.S.Nelson and E.C Denny.
The Nelson – Denny Reading Test is a standardized reading test that measures the reading
ability of high school and college students.
The first part of the test, vocabulary is made up of 80-100 multiple choice items, each
with five response options. The time allotted for this part of the exam is 15 minutes, The second
part, comprehension, requires student to read 5-8 passages and to respond to 36-38 multiple-
choice questions based on the content of those passages. The time allowed for this part of the
exam is 20 Minutes.
The final score on the Nelson – Denny is made up of the total vocabulary
questions answered correctly. This means that the comprehension part of the exam is worth
twice more than the vocabulary part. After the two scores are added together, the score is then
converted into a grade level equivalent sample test scores might look like 9.8, 11.2, 12.8 etc. If
a student receives a final score of 9.8 this means that the students reading ability is between the
9th and 10th grade reading level. The nine refers to 9th grade and the eight refers to 8th month
of the year. Since many Nursing textbooks are written at the 16th grade reading level, students
with Nelson Denny reading scores below the 12th grade reading level might find the text book
too difficult to comprehend.

Stanford Diagnostic Mathematic Test

The Stanford Diagnostic Mathematics Test ( SDMT) was designed to identify those
specific mathematical concepts and skills on which a student is making less than satisfactory
progress covering the mathematical content of grades, through 8 the test is divided into four
levels (two grades per level) and three areas including number system and Numeration,
Computation and applications. The three subsets produce raw scores that can be converted into
percentile ranks; stains grade equivalents and scaled scores for each of the three subtests and for
the total score. It is recommended for use in the assessing mathematical achievement in
educational and research settings.

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Test of Written Language – 4 (Towl-4)

It tests the ages 9-0 through 17-11. The testing time is 60 to 90 minutes. This is a norm
referenced, comprehensive diagnostic test of written expression. It is used to identify students
who write poorly and therefore need special help, determine student’s particular strengths and
weaknesses in various writing abilities, document students’ progress in special writing programs
and measure writing in research.
It includes two forms (Form A and Form B), each of which contains 7 subtests.
The Subtests represent the conventional, linguistic and conceptual aspects of writing. Subtests
1-5 use contrived formals subtests 6-7 use a spontaneously written story to assess important
aspects of language. The subtests are vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, logical sentence,
Sentence combining, contextual conventions, story composition. The composites are overall
writing, contrived writing and spontaneous writing.

Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests – Revised

It is a commonly used educational achievement test. The WRMT-R has two forms and
includes several subtests.

Letter Identification
Children are required to name a random selection of upper and lower case letters that are
written in a variety of fonts.

Word Identification
Children are required to read words in a list format aloud. They have five seconds to
identify each word before they are prompted to move on to the next word.

Non Sense Words

Children are required to read words that are not real. Non sense words allow the
evaluator to determine how the child recognizes words without using compensatory strategies
(looking at pictures, guessing based upon context or reading words by sight) children have five
seconds to respond before they are prompted for a response and then moved on to the next
word.

Word Comprehension
This subtest has three sections: antonyms (word opposites) synonyms (Words with the
same meaning) and analogies (up is to down as slow is to fast) Children have fifteen seconds
before they are prompted for a response and then moved on to the next item. Children who
have weaknesses in word finding or word retrieval may have difficulty with this task.

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Passage Comprehension
Children are required to read passages to them, and then fill in the blanks to demonstrate
their understanding. This type of reading comprehension test can be challenging for children
with expressive language disorders. The fill in the blank format requires a precise
understanding of sentence structure and grammar, and the ability to retrieve the exact word
needed children have approximately thirty seconds after reading the passage to respond.

Other Reading Test

 Gray Oral Reading Test (GORT -4)
 Kaufman Test of Educational, Achievement (KTEA-2)
Mathematics Test
 Test of mathematical Abilities (TOMA)
 Woodcock Johnson Psycho Educational

Battery Revised Tests Of Achievement

Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT)
It is an achievement test which is administered individually to students. Using a flip
book and a record sheet, it is easily administered and requires little time the results can be very
helpful in identifying strengths and weaknesses. The PIAT is a criterion based test, which is
also normed. It provides age equivalent and grade equivalent scores.

Brigance Comprehensive Inventory Of Basic Skills

It is another well known, well accepted criterion based and normed individual
achievement test. The Brisance provides diagnostic information on reading math and other
academic skills.

PURPOSES
o Assess level of competence.
o Diagnose strength and weaknesses.
o Assign grades.
o Achieve certification of promotion
o Advanced placement/college credit Exams
o Curriculum Evaluation.
o Accountability
o Informational purposes.
o Screening -To identify students who need further assessment.
o Determining eligibility -It provides basis for promotion to the next grade.

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 o Program planning - achievement tests can aid in instructional planning and
can be helpful is identifying what the students knows and can do.
o Monitoring Progress:- To regularly monitor students’ progress frequent
monitoring assess the teacher in modifying instruction to meet the needs of the
student.
o To find out where each student stands in various academic areas.
o To motivate the students before a new assignment has taken up.
o To know how effectively the student is performing in the theory as well as the
clinical areas.
o To expose pupils difficulties which the teacher can help them to solve.
o Program evaluation - Shows the progress that a class, grade, school or the
school district has made over a period of time.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD ACHIEVEMENT TEST

Various tests and procedures used for evaluation of programme should possess certain
common characteristics. It should be constructed by test experts or specialists [with the help of
professional writers,reviewers and editors of test items.
When any instrument is used, its validity and reliability for evaluation should be ensured.
Special procedures can be used to determine reliability and validity of instruments used for
clinical evaluation, program evaluation and examinations given to measure classroom
achievement.
 It includes a fixed set of test items designed to measure a clearly defined
achievement domain.
 It includes specific directions for administering and scoring the test.
 Norms has to be developed based on representative groups of individuals like
those for whom the test was designed. Norms has to be developed so that
various age groups can use at various levels.
 It can be tried out and selected on the basis of its difficulty level and
discriminating power.
 Directly related to educational objectives.
 It should possess description of measure behavior in realistic and practical
terms. It should be divided into different knowledge and skills according to
behavior to be measured.
 Contains a sufficient number of test items for each measured behavior
concerned with important and useful matters, comprehensive brief, precise end
clear.
 Standardized the items and made instruction clear so that different users can
utilize it.
 It provides equivalent and comparable forms of the test.

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  A test manual has to be prepared which can be act as a guide for administering
and scoring.

ACHIEVEMENT TOOLS
These test assess learners’ achievement particularly in the cognitive domain. In nursing
education the achievement test is used to assess the students’ knowledge common types of tests
are
 Essay type test
 Short answer type test
 Objective type test
 Oral test

QUALITIES OF TOOL
OBJECTIVITY
A test that is objective has high validity and reliability. It is based on content and
objectives common to many institutions throughout the country. Objectivity means that if the
test is marked by different people the score will be the same. In other words, marking process
should not be affected by the making person’s personality. The fairness of a test to the testee,bias
test does not portray objectivity and hence is not reliable.
A test is said to be objective if it is free from personal biases in interpreting its scope as
well as scoring the response objectivity of a test can be increased by using more objective type
test items and the answers are scored according to model answers provided.
Objectivity refers to the way items are scored not to the type of item or their content
(Miller et al , 2009) Objectivity means that once the scoring key is prepared, it is possible for
multiple teachers on the same occasion or the some teacher on multiple occasions to arrive at the
same score.
Objectivity of a test refers to the degree of most equally competent score obtain of the
same result with standardized test of aptitude and achievement are high by objectivity because of
the resulting score judgment or opinion. Assessment through the traditional essay is particularly
weak on this respect.

OBJECTIVE BASEDNESS
The test should be based on pre-determined objectives. The test setter should have defined
idea about the objective behind.

VALIDITY
One of the most important criteria of good evaluation device is validity. Validity refers
to the ability of the instrument to measure what it is supposed to measure criteria for the

27
relevance of the test, no of test items are only a representation sample of the subjects. When the
number of test items is more the assessment is more valid.

Validity is the extent (degree) to which the test used really measures what it is intended to
measure. A test is said to valid if it measures what it intends to measure.

The three requirement of a valid test are

 relevance of the tasks,
 proper representation of the essential elements of the thing
knowledge / or skill being tested
 reliability.
The reliability is the degree to which a test measures anything and measures it
accurately is the reliability of the test reference. If the instrument is constructed on the basis of
contest determined by objectives it will be relevant (Guilbert). As the reliability of a test
increases it becomes more valid (Ebel) Validity refers to the appropriateness of the
interpretations made from test scores and other evaluation results, with regard to a particular use.

TYPES OF VALIDITY

Types of validity have been identified and used in educational and psychological
measurements.

Content validity (Logical or Rational Validity)

Content validity may be defined as the extent to which a test measures a representative
sample of the subject matters and behavioral changes under consideration.
If the items in the test constitute a representative sample of the total course content to be
tested, the test can be said to have content,
Content validity is of primary concern in achievement testing. Content validity also
means the measurements include attitude, interests, personal and social adjustments of students.
All major aspects of the content area must be adequately covered by the test items and in
correct position. The content of a course will include both subject matter content and
instructional objectives and behavioral changes expected as a result of learning in psychometrics.
content validity refers to extent to which a measure represents all facts of a given social
construct.
For Example a depression scale may lack content validity if it only assesses the
affective dimension of depression but fails to take into account the behavioral dimension.

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 An educational test with strong content validity will represent the subject actually taught
to students, rather than asking unrelated questions content validity is qualitative in nature and
asks whether in specific element enhances or detracts from a test or research program.

For surveys and test, each question is given to a panel of analysts and they rate it. They
give their opinion about whether the question is essential, useful or irrelevant to measuring the
construct under study. Their results are statistically analyzed and the test modified to improve
the national validity.

Face Validity

A test that appears to be a relevant measure on superficial examination is said to have

face validity. When one thinks at the test he thinks of the extent to which the test seems logically
related to what is being tested.
Face validity is a simple form of validity in which researchers determine if the test seems
to measure what is intended to measure. Essentially, researchers are simply taking the validity of
the test at face value by looking at whether a test appears to measure the target variable. On a
measure of happiness ,for example ,the test would be said to have face validity if it appeared to
actually measure level of happiness. There is a high reliance on face validity and relatively little
systematic evaluation is carried out.
Face validity sometime referred to as representation validity is a weak measure of
validity; its importance cannot be underestimated. This common sense approach often shares a
lot of time, resources and stress.
Especially in the social and educational sciences, it is very difficult to measure the
content validity of a research program often there are so many interlinked factors that it is
practically impossible to account for them all. Many researchers send their plans to a group of
leading experts in the field, asking them if they think that is a good and representative program.
Conducting a literature review and sift through past research papers, apply this principle or
face validity.

Criterion – Related Validity

A test is said to have criterion related validity when the test has demonstrated its
effectiveness in predicating criterion or indicators of a construct. There are four different types
of criterion validity.
a) Predictive Validity
b) Concurrent Validity
c) Convergent Validity
d) Discriminant Validity

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A. Predictive Validity
Most educational and employment tests are used to predict future performance, So
predictive validity is regarded as essential in these fields.
The extent to which a test can predict the future performance of the students. The test,
which are, used for classification and selection purposes.
The most common use for predictive validity is inherent in the process of selecting
students for University. Most universities use high school grade point averages to decide which
students to accept, in an attempt to find the brightest and most dedicated students. In this
process, the basic assumption is that a high school pupil with a high grade point average will
achieve high grades at University.
Example of test with predictive validity is career or aptitude tests, which are helpful in
determining who is likely to succeed or fail in certain subjects or occupations.
Predictive validity is the effectiveness of one set of test or research results as a predictor
of the outcome of future experiments or test.

B. Concurrent Validity
Concurrent Validity is a measure of how well a particular test correlates with a previously
validated measure. It is commonly used in social science, psychology and education.
This tests are for the same, or very closely related , constructs and allow a researcher to
validate new methods against a tried and tested stalwart.
For Example, IQ , Emotional quotient and most school grading systems are good
examples of established test that are regarded as baring a high validity. One common way of
looking at Concurrent Validity is as measuring a new test or procedure against a gold standard
benchmark.
Concurrent Validity relies upon tests that took place at the same time. If the test takes
place a considerable amount of time after the initial test, then it is regarded as predictive validity.
Concurrent Validity is a good guide for new testing procedure. Ideally, researchers
initially test Concurrent Validity and then follow up with a predictive validity based experiment
to give a strong foundation to their findings.
The Concurrent Validity is often quantified by the correlation coefficient between the two
sets of measurements obtained for the same target population the measurements performed by
the evaluating instrument and by the standard instrument.

C. Convergent Validity
Convergent Validity occurs where measures of constructs that are expected to correlate do
so.
Convergent Validity refers to the degree to which scores on a test correlate with (or are
related to) scores on other tests that are designed to assess the same construct.

30
For example, if scores on a specific form of a aggressiveness tests are similar to peoples scores
on other aggressiveness tests, then convergent validity is high (there is a positively correlation
between the scores from similar tests of aggressiveness.
D.Discriminant Or Divergent Validity
Discriminant or Divergent Validity test that constructs that should have no relationship
do, in fact not have any relationship.
For Example. If a test is supposed to measure suitability of applicants to a particular
job, then it should not exhibit too strong correlation with ,say, IQ – Scores.

E.Construct Validity
A Construct is a quality that is devised by psychologists to explain aspects of human
behavior that cannot be directly observed.
It refers to the extent to which a test reflects and seems to measure a hypothesized trait.
Construct validity refers to the ability of a measurement tool ( e.g. a survey test, etc.) to actually
measure the psychological concept being studied construct validity involves explaining the test
scores psychologically. A test is interpreted in terms of numerous research findings. E.g.
Intelligence, critical thinking reasoning ability.
Construct validity is concerned with how well test performance can be interpreted as a
meaningful measure of some characteristic or quality. When an examiner has to do is to
operationally define the traits by associating them with certain observable behaviors that might
project the trait. In other words the trait is associated with something constructed by the tester to
represent the traits that is constructing.

F.Operational Validity
A test will have Operational Validity if the tasks required by the test are sufficient to
evaluate the definite activities or qualities.

G.Internal Validity
Causal relationships can be determined Internal Validity occurs when it can be concluded
that there is a causal relationship between the variables being studied. A danger is that changes
might be caused by other factors. It is related to the design of the experiment, such as in the use
of random assignment of treatments.

H.External Validity.
Conclusions can be generalized, External Validity occurs when the causal relationship
discovered can be generalized to other people, times and contexts. Correct sampling will allow
generalization and hence give External Validity.

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I.Conclusion Validity
Any relationship can be found conclusion validity occurs when you conclude that there
is a relationship of some kind between the two variables being examined. This may be positive
or negative correlation.

FACTORS AFFECTING VALIDITY

In the test itself – Factors in the test itself are unclear directions, difficult words and
sentence structure used, items that are too easy or difficult, poorly constructed test items,
ambiguity and Inappropriate item improper arrangement of items , test being too short and test
and suitable to measure what is expected.

In Test Administration and Scoring

The factors affect validity are

 insufficient time given to answered questions
 unclear directions
 Inadequate weightage to sub-topics or objective form in the examinations
 errors in scoring and adverse physical and psychological conditions at the time of the test,
failure to follow the standard directions
 time limits – inappropriate time limits if no time limit is given the results will be
invalidated giving pupils unauthorized assistance
 errors in scoring quiz items.

Factors in Pupils Response

 Personal factors affecting pupil such as
 poor reading vocabulary
 Medium of expression
 fear and anxiety about the test
 emotional disturbances affect the performance of the students in the tests.
 Influence of extraneous factors such as
 style of expression, legibility,
 mechanics of grammar,
 handwriting,
 length of the answer method of organizing the matter.
 Nature of group and criterion such as
 age,
 sex ,
 ability level,
 cultural and educational background of a group affect validity.

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THREATS TO VALIDITY
Validity as concludes is not always accepted by other and perhaps rightly so. Typical reasons
why it may not be accepted include.

 Inappropriate selection of constructs or measures.

 Insufficient data collected to make valid conclusions.
 Measurement done in too few contexts.
 Measurement done with too few measurement variables.
 To great a variation in data.
 Inadequate selection of target subjects.
 Complex interaction across constructs.
 Subjects giving based answers or trying to guess what they should say.
 Experimental method not valid.

Measures to Improve Validity

o Validity can be improved by carefully matching the test with learning
objectives, content and teaching methods.
o Increasing the sample of objectives and content areas included in any given
test.
o Using methods that are appropriate for the objectives specified.
o Employing a range of methods.
o Ensuring adequate security and supervision to avoid cheating in examinations.
o Improving the reliability of the tests.
RELIABILITY

 Reliability of a test refers to the degree of consistency and accuracy with which it
measures what it is intended to measure. Theoretically, a reliable test should produce
the same student on two separate occasions.
 A test score is valued reliable, when we have reasons for believing it to be stable and
trustworthy.

Methods of Estimating Reliability

The different methods of estimating reliability.

Test re-test Method

A measure of consistency for tests and other instruments. If a test is administered to a
class and then re administered either immediately or after an interval of time and the scores are

33
similar on both occasions, then the test is said to have high test-retest reliability. Intra class
correlation is used to analyze trial – to- trial (internal) consistency. Through ANOVA procedures
the tester can determine the amount of variance accounted for the separate days of testing, test
trial difference, participant differences and error variance.

Parallel Form Method

Reliability is determined using two equivalent forms of the same test contest. These
prepared tests are administered to the same group one after the other the test forms should be
identical with respect to the number of items, content, difficult level etc. Determining the
correlation between the two sets of scores obtained by the group in the two tests. If higher the
correlation, the more the reliability. If a group is given a different test in the retest phase, but one
that measures the same thing, then a positive correlation indicate parallel form reliability.

Split – Half Reliability

A Measure of consistency where a test is split in two and the scores for each half of the
test is compared with one another. The scores of the odd and even items are taken and the
correlation between the two sets of scores determined.
Flanagan method and Spearman Brown Prophecy formula was used to estimate the
reliability spearman brown reliability corrected reliability.

Spearman Brown Prophecy

reliability corrected reliability coefficient= 2 × reliability for 1/2 test

1.00 + reliability for ½ test

Rational Equivalence Method

The method of rational equivalence represents and attempt to get an estimate of the
reliability of a test, free from the objections raised against the method outlined above. One of
two formulas (Kudar Richardson 20 or 21) is used for item scores dichotomously (right or
wrong). Only one test administration is required and no correlation is calculated. The resulting
coefficient represents an average of all possible split half reliability co efficient.

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K-R20r = K 1- £pq
K-1 2

KR20r = K 1 x[k-x]
K-1 ks2

Coefficient alpha is probably the most commonly used method of estimating reliability for
standardized tests. The coefficient alpha sometimes referred to as the cronbach alpha coefficient
(cronbach, 1951) is a generalized reliability co efficient that is more versatile than other methods.
One particularly desirable feature of coefficient alpha is that it can be used with items that have
various point values such as essay tests and attitude scales that have possible answers strongly
agree, agree and so on.

Crohbach Coefficient Alpha

r=K 1-£2

K-1 S2

Si– Standard deviation of single item, S- Standard

deviation of the total score of each examinee

Equivalent Forms Method (Without Time Interval)

Medium to large reliability co-efficient reported for a given test equivalent forms method
(with time Interval)
Equivalent Forms Method(With Time Interval)
Smallest reliability co-efficient reported for a given test become smaller as time interval
between form is increased.

Inter Tester (Interrater Reliability)

The degree to which different testers can obtain the same scores on the same participants,
also called objectivity .ANOVA designs are used for establishing reliability.
FACTORS INFLUENCING RELIABILITY
A number of factors have been shown to affect reliability and these factors must be
considered when interpreting reliability coefficient.
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Time Interval Between Testing
Test- re-test reliability coefficient is influenced by the time interval between testing. The
shorter the time interval between two administrations of a test, the less likely that changes will
occur and the higher the reliability will be.

Conditions
Conditions under which measurements were obtained will also influence reliability
favorable conditions will give the high reliability co-efficient.

Data Collecting Method

Reliability of the date collection instruments (questionnaires and surveys) must be
determined before the date collection method (group and individual interview) is performed.

Length Of Test
The longer the test, higher the reliability due to the fact that longer test will provide more
adequate sample of the behavior being measured. A long test tends to lessen the chance factors
such as guessing.

Difficulty Of The Test

Tests which are too easy or too difficult for the group members, taking it will tend to
provide scores of low reliability.

Speed Of The Method

When a test is a speed test, reliability can be problematic. It is in appropriate to estimate
reliability using internal consistency, test- re-test or alternate form methods this is because not
every student is able to complete all of the items in a speed test. In contrast a power test is a test
in which every student is able to complete all items.

Group Homogeneity
In general the more homogenous the group of students who take the test, the more
reliable the measure will be

Difficulty Of The Items

Too easy or too difficult tests for a group will tend to be less reliable because the
differences among the students in such tests are narrow.

Objectivity
Objectivity scored tests, rather than subjectively scored tests, show a higher reliability.

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Test – Re Test Interval
The shorter the time interval between two administrations of a test, the less likely that
changes will occur and the higher the reliability will be.

Variation With The Testing Situation

Errors in the testing situation (eg.Students misunderstanding or misreading test directions,
noise level, distractions and sickness) can cause test scores to vary.
Ambiguous wording of items is less reliable deviations in timing, procedure,
instruction, fluctuation in interest and attention of pupils, skills in emotional attitude, make a test
less reliable.

Optional Questions
In optional questions are given the same student may not attempt the same items
on a second administration thereby the reliability of the is reduced.

MEASURES TO IMPROVE RELIABILITY

Reliability can be improved by
 Limiting subjectivity of all kinds.
 Ensuring that questions are clear suitable for the level of students and based on pre-
determined behaviors.
 Ensuring that the expected answers are definite and objective.
 Developing a scoring scheme of high quality.
 Checking to make sure time limits are realistic.
 Giving simple, clear and unambiguous instructions.
 Keeping choices within a test paper to a minimum.
 When using less reliable methods, increasing the number of questions, observations or
examination time.
 Conducting tests under identical are ideal examination conditions.

PRACTICABILITY[USABILITY]
It is important that a test is practical for its purpose. This implies such factors as the time
taken to conduct the test, the test of using it and the practicability for everyday use. It is the
overall simplicity of use of a test both for test construction and for students. Usability includes
such practical features.

Time
The required time to answer items should be provided to avoid hurry, guessing, taking risks or
chances etc.

37
Ease of Administration
 Provision should be made for the preparation, distribution, and collection of test
materials.
 Instruction should be simple, clear and use
 Practice exercise will be illustrated.
 Illustrations should be clear cut an easily tied up with the appropriate test items.

Ease of Scoring
Simple scoring is good. No algebraic manipulations should be required to get the scores.

Ease of Interpretation
The raw scores of a test should be easily converted into meaningful derived scores

Comparability
A test possesses comparability when scores resulting from its use can be interpreted in
terms of a common base that has a natural or accepted meaning.
Comparability of results used for standardized tests are
Availability of equivalent (parallel) forms of test.
Availability of adequate norms. `

Economy
It should be computed in terms of validity of the tests per unit of cost economy refers to
the lost as well as the time required for administering and scoring a test.

Relevance
The degree to which the criteria established for selecting the item so that they conform to
the aims of the measuring instrument.

Equilibrium / Equity
Achievement of the correct proportion among questions allotted to each of the objectives
and teaching content.

Specificity
The items in a test should be specific to the objectives.

Discrimination
The discriminating power of a test item refers to the degree to which it discriminates between
good and bad students in a given group or a variable. This suggests that pupils with superior
ability should answer the item correctly more often than pupils who do not have such ability.

38
Efficiency
It ensures the greater possible number of independent answers per unit of tim

Length
The number of items in the test should depend upon the objectives and content of the topic.

Test Usefulness
Grading or ranking of the student can be possible with items in the test.

Precise and Clear

Items should be precise, clear so that students can answer well and score marks.

Comprehensiveness
The total content and objectives has to keep in mind while preparing items for the kept in
mind while preparing items for the test. The test should covers the whole syllabus. Due
importance should be given all the relevant learning material.The test should cover the entire
anticipated objective.
Adequacy
A measuring instrument should be adequate in balanced and fair . The test should include
items, measuring both the objectives and the content. A blue print will be very useful.

Utility
It serves a definite need in the situation in which it is used.

Consistency
Consistency is integral to standardized testing .Questions on standardized tests are usually
objective, such as multiple choice or true and false. This allows for easy and efficient computer
grading. Although not as common, short answer or essay questions may be used . All students
receive the same prompt on these standardized tests. Essay and short answer questions require
more time and man power for grading. Trainers teach graders to have consistent grading using a
standardized rubric. Along with consistent questions, the administration, scoring and
interpretation of the test must be standardized.

Simplicity
Simplicity means that the test should be written in a clear, correct and simple language, it
is important to keep the method of testing as simple as possible while still testing the skill you
intend to test (Avoid ambiguous questions and ambiguous instructions)

39
Measurability
Standardized tests are quantifiable however; standardized tests cannot accurately assess
subjects such as creative writing, which are skills that are not easily measurable. This leaves non
standardized tests as the better option for these skills.

Unbiased
The test should not place students at a disadvantage because of gender, ethnicity ,
Language or disability .

Norms
This refers to the comparison of a student’s score in a test to the scores of a reference group
of students. A norm that can be followed with confidence results in a good comparison. On the
other hand, if the norms of a verbal ability test were based on a reference group composed of
native English speakers and if the examiners English in his second language, his score could not
be compared to the norms established by the test.
Unlike teacher- made -tests that are regularly administered to students often in a weekly
basis, standardized tests are scheduled in advance. The four aspects are an individual score on a
standardized test is compared to some kind of normal group.
A individual score on a standardized test is compared to some kind of ‘normal’group.
Norming group: the representative group of individuals whose standardized test scores
are compiled for the purpose of constructing national norms.
National Norms: Scores on standardized tests earned by representative groups of students
from around the nation to which an individual’s score is compared.

Test Construction and evaluation

The test should be constructed in a way that eliminates the influence of guessing as well
as misunderstandings of the items question. This is where a well-structured format is crucial in
test construction. At the same time, the items should be based on observation and experience
rather than theory.

Test Use
The method of utilizing the test should meet professional and ethical considerations.
For example
Some tests are inappropriate for children who are younger than two years old and some
tests cannot be used for students who are suffering from particular disabilities.

Particular Applications
The use of scores obtained from the standardized test should be clearly specified. One
standardized test that measure intelligence and achievement should not be used to measure social
skills.

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Administrative Procedures
Each standardized test should have a systematic procedure in administration scoring and
interpretation.
SCORING
Both human scoring and automated scoring to are used to score standardized tests.
Human scoring
Human scored tests are scored manually rather than by machine and require human
judgment. Since test score can impact future student learning or opportunities such as placement,
licensure or professional advancement, successful scoring is critical. Test scores are carefully
selected and go through rigorous training to ensure accuracy of their work.
Automated scoring
There are two types of automated scoring
Machine scoring of multiple choice test questions
automated scoring of open ended responses such as short written answers essays and recorded
speech.
Automated scoring technologies
 The e-rater engine
 The c-rater system
 The m-rater engine
 The speech rater engine
 The test adaptor tool
GRADING OF ANSWER PAPERS
There are two methods of grading of answer papers
1. Absolute grading
2. Relative grading
Absolute grading
This is the system of assigning grades by which the student get the marks for the answers,
depending on how well he was met the requirements of the model answer and is expressed as
percentage. When using absolute grading, it is useful to use the analytic method of marking. A
marking key is prepared in advance and marks are allotted to the specific point of content in the
model answer. This is a more reliable method.
Relative grading
This type of grading tells the statement how his answers rated in relation to other students
doing the same test, by indicating whether or not he is average, above average or below average.
Relative grading, uses a literal scale A,B,C and F with relative grading it is better to use the
global method of marking. The global method of marking also requires a model answer, but
serves only as a standard of comparison. The grade used are scales and points are given as per
scale.

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MARKING SYSTEM OF EVALUATION
Most of the schools and colleges adopt the marking system in the class rooms as well as
in the final examinations whereas some professional colleges and few western oriented schools
use grading system. There are many teachers who favor the marking system and the others who
favor grading system. Most of the parents of children is in support of marking system because
they can see what exactly has been the marks received by a child in the examination and his
place in the class or state.
The reported more of the central board of the secondary education(CBSE) recently to
adopt the grade system for evaluation of answer papers for the class X board Examination has
generated a controversy in the country, reported the daily (Hindu, march 2000)
In the marking system, the answer papers are assessed and given a number on the 0 to 100 scale
and percentage of marks obtained by the student is clearly marked. The position of the candidate
in the class or in the university examination can be decided exactly in the marking system and
top rankers easily identified.
GRADING SYSTEM
The grading system that student is evaluated on the five or seven scale pattern and given
a grade. Eg O,A+,A,A-,B-,B,B- and C etc. The grade is given according to a criteria decided by
faculty of the school as between 90 to 100.
‘O’- outstanding 81 to 90, A+, very good A, 70 to 80 so on. Advocates because it does not allow
ranking of the candidates and medals and prizes cannot be awarded to the deserving students. It
is also pointed out that in the grade system there is little zeal and competition among students to
strive for higher percentage of marks.Atmaram (Hindu daily march 2000) emphatically supports
the marking system in his article, “what is wrong with the marking system”. In terms of pure
theory and academic considerations, the grading system may sound effective and desirable, but it
does not suit the socio-economic conditions prevalent in our country.
SCORING OF OBJECTIVE TEST
Test items that can be evaluated objectively have one right answer (or one correct
response pattern, in the case of more complex item formats). Scorers do not need to exercise
judgment in the marking responses correct or incorrect. They generally mark a test by following
an answer key. In some cases objective tests are scored by scanning machines and computers
objective tests are often constructed with selected response item formats, such as multiple
choice, matching and true false. An advantage to including selected response items in objectively
scored tests is that the range of possible answers is limited to the options provided by the test
writer –the test taker cannot supply alternative acceptable responses.
Evaluating responses objectively can be more difficult with even the simplest of
constructed response item formats. An answer key may specify the correct answer for a one word
gap filling item but there may infect be multiple acceptable alternative responses to that item that
the teacher or test developer did not anticipate. In classroom testing situations teachers may
perceive some responses as equally or partially correct and apply some subjective judgment in

42
refining their scoring criteria as they mark test. Informal scoring criteria for short answer items
probably work well for classroom testing as long as they are applied consistently and are
defensible.
SCORING OF ESSAY QUESTIONS
Adequate appraisal of student achievement with an essay teat requires sound and
consistent judgment of the quality of the answers. In order to obtain accurate land dependable
scoring of answers we should maintain consistent standards for all students regardless of who
scores the paper. The common criticism of essay test is that it is difficult to score and generally
unreliable.
The following suggestions are offered to improve the scoring
1. Prepare an outline of the expected answer in advance
This should contain the major points to be included the characteristics of the answer to be
evaluated and the amount of marks to be allotted to each. Preparing a scoring key (checklist)
provides a common basis for evaluating the students answers and keeps the standard stable
throughout the scoring. An itemized checklist of what you are looking for will help to check
accordingly. You can allot marks for organization, accuracy of information comprehensiveness
and relevance of ideas. Consider any other areas such as spelling, neatness etc. if you think they
are important as they are irrelevant to the learning outcomes. Preparing a scoring key provide a
common basis for evaluating students answers.
2.Using the scoring method which is most appropriate
Commonly used methods are the point method rating method. Each answer is scored,
giving certain points according adequacy of answers and as per the scoring key. This is the point
method. The other method, rating method the answers are compared and given points according
to quality. The highest quality answers are given more points, and rate according to the level of
performance. The extended response questions usually requires rating method.
Heidgerken describes scoring methods as “absolute” and “relative”. Absolute scoring
means that the teacher arbitrarily determines the standards that will be used in assigning scores
or grades.
Absolute score compared to specified performance standards (critron-refrenced) eg pass-fail
Relative scoring means that standards relating to a curve of performance will be used.
Relative score is the score compared to other students (norm-referenced) eg Rank

3.Decide how to handle factors that are irreverent to the learning outcomes being measured
Several factors influence our evaluations of answers to essay questions that are not
directly pertinent to the purpose of measurement. Prominent among these are legibility of hand
writing, spelling, sentence structure, punctuation and neatness. We should make an effort to keep
such factors from influencing our judgment when evaluating the content of the answers. In some
instances, such factors may of course, be evaluated for their own sake. When this is done you
should obtain an separate score for written expression or for each of the specific factors. As far
as possible however we should not let such factors contaminate the extent to which our test

43
scores reflect the achievement of other learning outcomes. Another decision concerns the
presence of irrelevant factors is to decide in advance approximately how much the score on each
question is to be lowered when the inclusion of irrelevant material is excessive.
4.Evaluate all answers to one question before going to the next one
One factor that contributes to unreliable scoring of essay questions is a shifting of
standards from one paper to the next. A paper with average answers may appear to be of much
higher quality when it follows a failing paper than when it follows one with near perfect answers.
One way to minimize this is to score all answers to the first question, shuffle the papers, the
score all answers to the second question and so on, until all the answers have been scored. A
more uniform standard can be maintained with this procedure, because it is easier to remember
the basis for judging each answer and answers of various degrees of correctness can be more
easily compared.
Evaluating all answers to one question at a time helps counteract another type of error
that creeps into the scoring of essay questions when we evaluate all of the answers on a single
paper at one time, the first few answers create a general impression of the students achievement
that influence our judgment concerning the remaining answer. Thus if the first answer are of high
quality, we tend to overrate the following answers, where as if they are of law quality we tend to
underrate them. This “halo effect is less likely when the answers for a given student are not
evaluated in continuous sequence.
5. If especially important decisions are to be based on the results, obtain two or
more independent ratings.
Sometimes essay questions are included in tests used to select students for awards,
scholarship, special training and the like in such cases, two or more competes persons should
score the papers independently and their ratings should be compared. After any large differences
have been satisfactorily arbitrated the independent ratings may be averaged for more reliable
results.
Prepare an answer guide or model answer in a dance showing what points to be cornered
.After the preliminary guide has been prepared it should be checked against a sample of student
responses to determine the adequacy of souring guide and decide on what represent acceptable
answer for that group of students, making a score guide help to provide a common frame of
reference.
Write comments and correct errors on answer to easy questions. Thus will help the
students and teacher regarding weak and strong are as in learning. Feedback to student is
necessary to impair their learning. A class hour can be utilized too discussion of answer and to
point out common errors.
Construction and scoring of essay questions are interrelated processes which require
careful attention if valid and reliable maskers of achievement is to be obtained.
Bluffing A special scoring problem:
It is possible for students to obtain higher scores on essay question than they deserve by
means of clearer scuffing. This is usually a combination of writing skill, general knowledge and

44
the use of common “tricks of the trade” following are some ways that students might attempt to
influence the teacher and thus, increase their marks.
1.Writing something for every question:
Even if it is only a restatement of the question (students took that they might get some marks if
they fill the space)
2.Stressing the importance of the topic covered by the question, especially when short of facts
(e.g. This disease is a major health problem.
3.Agreeing with the teacher’s views leaner if seems appropriate (e.g.” the recovery of the patient
depends upon the quality of the nursing care rendered:.
4.Being a name dropper (e.g.,” The above said paints are supported by the viewpoints of
Florence nightingale. The teacher assures that student knows about views of Florence
Nightingale.
5.Writing on a related topic and fitting if to the question (e.g. prepared to write on congestive
cardiac failure but asked to write about myocardial infarction , the student might start with “
myocardial infarction occurs due to cessation of blood supply to myocardia’s from here in on
there is more about congestive cardiac failure.
6.Writing in general forms that can fit many situation (e.g., when writing nursing diagnoses
students always include knowledge deficit, am deficit anxiety etc. .
Although bluffing cannot be completely eradicated, carefully phrasing the question and
following clearly defined scoring procedures can reduce it.
COMMON DEFECTS OF WRITIEN EXAMINATIONS
Triviality-Asking very simple, unimportant questions, learning out important areas cornered in
the course. It is essential for each question to be important and useful.
Error: error in phasing the questions, especially multiple choice.
Bias:- examiner’s preference for an answer when other options or correct answer are available.
Complicated instructions:- This makes it difficult to understand instruction especially when
students are expected to take examinations in a language than mother tongue.
Ambiguity:- this lead to the risk of questions gyring an irrelevant answer to question asked use of
language which may lead the student to spend more time in toying to understand the questions
than in answering it , it is said to be an ambiguous questions objects test items are especially
subject to misinterpretations where long sentences are used, where vocabulary unnecessarily
difficult, and where which lack precise meaning are used present ambiguity by careful choice of
woods, which are easy to read, his precise meaning and use of brief and concise sentences.
Complexity: Expecting students to answer very difficult questions which only can be answered
by the best students.
Obsolescence: forcing the student to answer in terms of the outmoded ideas of the examiner, a
bias after aggravated by the traditional teaching methods.

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SCORES
Raw score
First known use of raw score is 1920 any number as it originally appears in an
experiment. For example, in evaluating test results the raw scores express the number of correct
answers, uncorrected for position in the reference population.
An individual’s actual achievement score (as on attest) before being adjusted for relative
position in the test group. The number of items an individual answered correctly.
This is a number that has not been interpreted. The statistical procedure which follow
allow us to interpret a raw score in relation to other people who have taken the test.
It is difficult to interpret the simple raw score, it needs to follow the information in order to
interpret the score. It is not useful for norm referenced tests. Score must be transformed in order
to be useful for comparisons.
Scores expressed in their original form without statistical treatment, such as the number of
correct answers on a test.

Percentile Score
Test percentile scores commonly reported on most standardized assessments a child takes
in school percentile literally means per hundred. Percentile scores on teacher made tests and
homework assignments are developed by dividing the student’s raw score on her work by the
total number of points possible converting decimal scores to percentiles is easy. The number is
converted by moving the decimal point two places to the right and adding a percent sign. A
score of 0.98 would equal 98%
A percentile rank is typically defined as the proportion of scores in a distribution that a
specific score is greater than or equal to.
Percentile or percentile rank: a ranking that compares an individual’s score with the
scores of all the others who have taken the test. The percentile rank tells how the student did in
relation to others. A percentile rank of 80 means how well the student did as well or better that
80% of those who took the test percentile is not the same as percentage ( the number of correct
out of the total number of items) Percentile is a comparison of people percentile bands are ranges
of percentile scores on standardized tests. They allow for the fact that test scores are on
estimation rather than a perfect measure.
It is a single number that indicates the percentage of norm group that scored below a raw
score. It ranges from 1 to 99 much more compact in middle of distribution (doesn’t represent
equal units) often misinterpreted as percentage raw scores.
For example
If Ann earns a percentile rank of 70 on a particular test it means she scored better than 70
percent of the pupils in the norm group and 80 percent scored as well or better than she.

46
How to calculate percentile rank
Organize the date in numerical order from lowest to highest, where the rank of each datum
represents For example the third lowest score will be ‘’i3’’ when plugged into the formula
Calculate ‘’n’’, the number of observations for example in a classroom test it would be the
number of test takers compute percentile using the formula.
P= (100(i-0.5)) in where ‘’i’’ equals the rank from step 1 and ‘’n’’ is the total number of
observations. For example on a seven person test, to figure out the percentile for the third lowest
score, you would calculate (100(3-0.5)) in which equals 35.7, or the 35.74 percentile.

Grade Equivalent Score

The grade in the norm group for which a certain raw score was the median performance.
It consists of two numerical components. The first number indicated grade level and the second
indicates the month during that school year (ranges from 0 to 9 ) for example grade equivalent
score of 42.
Often misinterpreted as standard to be achieved. Although scores represent months they do not
represent equal units.
A score that is determined by comparing an individual’s score on a standardized test to
the scores of students in a particular age group. When a student scores above grade level on a
test, that does not mean the student is ready for higher level work. It simply means that the
student has mastered the work at his/her grade level.

Standardized score.
Score that result from transformation to fit normal distribution.It overcomes previous
limitation of unequal units. It allows for comparison of performance across two different
measures. It reports performance on various scales to determine how many standard deviations
the score is away from the mean.A description of performance on a Standardized test that uses
standard deviation as a basic unit.

Z Score
Z score is a statistical measurement of a scores relationship to the mean in a group of
scores. Z score of O means the score is the same as the mean. A Z score can also be positive or
negative, indicating whether it is above or below the mean and by how many standard
deviations.
More than 99% of scores fall in the range of 3.00 to +3.00 ;sign indicates whether above or
below mean; number indicates how many standard deviations away from mean. Half the
students will be above; half will be below.
Z score is the number of standard deviation units from the mean (average)

T Score

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 T Scores are Standardized scores on each dimension for each type. A score of 50
represents the mean. A difference of 10 from the mean indicates a difference of one standard
deviation. Thus a score of 60 is one standard deviation above the mean, while a score of 30 is
two standard deviations below the mean.
Provides location of score in distribution with mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10
(over 99% of scores range from 20 to 80) can be misinterpreted as percentages.

Stanines
A stanine (standard nine) is a description of an individuals standardized test performance
that uses a scale ranging from 1-9 points. These 9 points are spread equitably across the range of
the bell curve and are standardized in terms of how many standard deviations they cover.
While stanines are a simple way to report scores and they reflect the fact that students
who score closely in percentile ranks are really not much different, they also may be overly
reductive – they reduce a whole test to a single digit.
Provides the location of a raw score in a specific segment or ban of the normal
distribution. Mean of 5 and standard deviation of 2; range from 1 to 9 represents course
groupings does not provide very specific information.

SAT/GREscore.
Provides location of score in distribution with mean of 500 and standard deviation of
100(over 99% of scores range from 200 to 800)

Normal Curve Equivalent (NCE Score).

Mean of 50 and standard deviation of 21.06, matches percentile ranks at three specific
points (1, 50 and 99) unlike percentile ranks, represents equal units.
Deviation IQ Score
Provides location of score in distribution with mean of 100 and standard deviation of 15
or 16. Primarily used with measures of mental ability.

NORMS
Norms provide a basis for comparing the individual with a group.
Numerical values called centiles (or percentiles) serve as the basis for one widely
applicable system of norms. From a distribution of groups raw scores the percentage of subjects
falling below any given raw score can be found. Any raw score can then be interpreted relative
to the performance of the reference (or normative) group – eighth graders, five year olds,
institutional inmates, job applicants. The centile rank corresponding to each raw score, therefore
shows the percentage of subjects who scored below that point. Thus, 25 percent of the normative
group earns scores lower than the 25th centile and an average called the median corresponds to
the 50th centile.

48
 Another class of norm system (Standard scores) is based on how far each raw score falls
above or below an average score the arithmetic mean Negative and fractional values can,
however, be avoided in practice by using other types of standard scores obtained by multiplying
Z scores by an arbitrarily selected constant (Say,10) and by adding another constant (say , 50
which changes the Z score mean of zero to a new mean of 50 ) such changes of constants do not
alter the essential characteristics of the underlying ser of Z scores.
The test scores of the standardization samples are called norms, which includes as variety
of types of scores. Norms are the scores obtained by the standardization sample and are the
scores to which students are compared when they are administered a test. For e.g. Age
equivalent, grade equivalent, skill equivalent.
Norms allow for comparisons of children’s test performance with the performance of a
reference or norming group. The norming group is chosen to reflect the making of the
population for whom the test is designed. Norms are periodically updated in order to make sure
that the scores are being standardized to the most recent contest group.

INSTRUCTIONS TO NORM A STANDARDIZED TEST

Administer the standardized test to a representative group of students. This group
is called the norm group. Make sure norm group is representative of other students that will
later take the test in terms of age, skill level, disabilities and socio economic background. It is
also required that the norm group be large enough to give a good sample. The size of the norm
group, however, should depend on the number of students that will ultimately take the test on the
other hand, a standardized test that hundreds of thousands of students will take may require a
norm group of 10,000 students.

Score the test results for the norm group . Assign a numeric score to every student based
on the number of questions answered correctly. For example if the standardized test has 100
questions and a student answered 90 questions correct assign the student a score of 90.

Plot all the scores from the norm group on a graph. Assign percentiles to the graph based
on a bell curve model. In a traditional bell curve Gaussian curve ( after Carl Friederich Gauss )
10 percent of the test takers should score in the 90th percentile or higher ; 20 percent should
score between the 80th and 90th percentile; 40 percent should score between the 70th and 80th
percentile; 20 percent should score between the 60th and 70th percentile; and 10 percent should
score lower than the 60th percentile.
Assign a percentile to every possible numerical score based on the bell chart.

CENTRAL TENDENCY
Mean – Add up all the scores, divide the total by the number of scores
Median – the middle score
 Scores must be in rank order

49
  Count up or down to the middle for even number of scores.
 Average the two middle scores
Mode – The most frequently occurring score looks at the frequency distribution. Identify
which scores occurs most often.
Range – Report the high and low score or report the difference between the highest and
lowest score.
Standard deviation – Indicates how much the scores vary from the mean, based on the
mean score. The average of the deviation from the average score.
Range standard deviation, variability are measure of variability.

S.D = Normal Distribution with Standard Deviations

The ‘’ Bell Curve’’ Mean, Median, Mode all at the center of the curve 50% of scores
above the mean, 50% of scores below the mean 68% of scores within one standard deviation
from the mean

Percent of population

14% 34% 34% 14% 2%

2%

-3S.D -2S.D -1S.D 0 +1S.D +2S.D +3S.D

Created For example a score of 77 may equate to the 93rd percentile. This means that a student
that takes the standardized test in the future and answers 77 questions correctly will receive a
score in the 93rd percentile.

METHODS OF REPORTING SCORES ON STANDARDIZED TEST

Norm Reference Tests
Permit comparisons to well define norm group (intended to represent current level of
achievement for a specific group of students at a specific grade level.

50
Answer the following questions
What is the relative standing of this student across this broad domain of content?
How does the student compare to other similar students?
Scores are often transformed to a common distribution – normal distribution or bell
shaped curve. Three main characteristics
 Distribution is symmetrical.
 Mean, median and mode are the same score and are located at center of
distribution.
 Percentage of cases in each standard deviation is known precisely.

CONSTRUCTION OF AN ACHIEVEMENT TEST

Any test designed to assess the achievement in any subject with regard to a set of
predetermined objectives.
Achievement tests are well suited to provide educators with objective feedback as to
how much students are learning and understanding. Commercially published achievement tests,
if used carefully, can provide not only evaluations of the knowledge levels of individual students,
but also information about how those students compare with students in other schools. They
seldom provide feedback on the mastery or non-mastery of the full range of specific skills taught
in any given classroom.
The most instructionally-relevant achievement tests are those developed by the individual
teacher for use with a particular class. Teachers can tailor tests to emphasize the information they
consider important and to match the ability levels of their students. If carefully constructed,
classroom achievement tests can provide teachers with accurate and useful information about the
knowledge retained by their students.
Major steps involved in the construction of achievement test.
1. Planning of Achievement Test
2. Developing Test design
3. Preparation of Blueprint for Test
4. Construction of Items
5. Organization of the Test
6. Preparation of the scheme for evaluation

1) Planning an achievement test

This step is concerned with determining the maximum time, marks and nature of the test.
Theses should be decided in terms of the nature and scope of the unit or units involved in the
testing. A test for a single unit may be generally of 40 to 45 minutes duration, with a maximum
of 20 to 25 marks. But in the case of test conducted at the end of a term a semester or a session,
the duration may be about 2 to 3 hours and the maximum marks may be 50, 80 (or) 100.

2) Developing Test Design

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 The objective, content ,form of question and the weightage of difficulty level is the most
important factors to be considered while designing the test. What is required is to analyse the
syllabus in terms of the objectives and the content area and determine the relative weightage to
each of the pre-determined objectives as well as the subunits into which the contents have been
divided . In the same way, the weightage for the different forms of the questions to be included
and for the difficult levels to be maintained also are considered while finalizing the design. This
will be followed by the scheme of option (choice of questions) if any and scheme of sections into
which the test has to be divide in case it is required.

The first step in constructing an effective achievement test is to identify what the students
learn from a unit of instruction consider the relative importance of the objectives and include
more questions about the most important learning objectives. If, however ,the test focuses on a
few objectives to the exclusion of others students will not have the opportunity to demonstrate
their understanding of other aspects of the material and may not able to make an accurate
assessment of each students knowledge.

The learning objectives that want to emphasize will determine not only what material to
include on the test, but also the specific form the test will take. For example, if it is important
that students be able to do long division problems rapidly, consider giving a speeded test.The
types of questions to be used will also depend on the learning objectives. If it is important to
understand how historical events affected one another, then short answer or essay questions
might be appropriate. If it is important that students remember dates, then multiple choice or fill
in the blank questions might be appropriate.
Design For A Unit Test
Important factors to be considered in the design of the test are
 Weightage to objectives
 Weightage to content
 Weightage to form of questions
 Weightage to difficulty level

(a) Weightage to instructional objectives

S.NO OBJECTIVE MARKS PERCENTAGE

1 Knowledge (information) 10 20

2 Understanding 20 40

3 Application 8 16

4 Analysis 5 10

52
5 Synthesis 5 10

6 Evaluation 2 4

Total 50 100

(b) Weightage to content areas

S.No Sub Unit Marks Percentage

1 I 15 30

2 II 10 20

3 III 10 20

4 IV 5 10

5 V 10 20

Total 50 100

( c) Weightage to form of questions

S.No Form of questions No of Questions Marks Percentage

1 Objective – type 25 25 50

2 Short answer type 5 15 30

3 Long essay type 1 10 20

Total 31 50 100

53
(d) Weightage to difficulty level

S.No Level of difficulty Marks Percentage

1 Easy 10 20

2 Average 30 60

3 Difficult 10 20

Total 50 100

(e) Scheme of option

There will be no option for any type of questions.
(f) Scheme of sections
The test will be in two sections A and B. A will contain all the objective type items and
section B is meant for short answer and essay type questions.
Guidelines for preparing test design
The design should reflect the
 Predetermined objectives envisaged at the time of instruction.
 It should consider the affective and psychomotor domains.
 The weightage for content, there is no final ruling regarding the number of subunits into
which the contest has to be divided. It depends on the total content area as well as its
nature.
 For fixing the weightage is the scopes of each subunit in the curriculum, as indicated by
the time allotted for its instruction.
 Regarding the number of questions under each form also there cannot be any uniformly
acceptable design. Whether more weightage has to be given to a particular form of
question depends on factors like the nature of the content, the possibility for coverage etc.
 Time is another factor determines the nature of questions.
 Regarding the weightage to difficult level what is suggested in the sample is an
acceptable pattern. Sixty percent of items of average difficulty with twenty percent on
either side is a distribution that will suit to students of all levels.
 Modern Trend is to avoid option.

54
 3.Preparation of Blueprint for Test
The next important step in the construction of an achievement test is preparing a blueprint
according to the design. Normally a blue print for a test is prepared as a three dimensional chart,
indicating the distribution of questions, objective wise content wise and form wise.
It depicts the true nature and purpose of the test It describes feasibility of items guides to
select correct questions, helps the students to advance plan for development of study / learning
experiences.
For example
A test blue print for unit on oxygenation can be prepared

Content Level of knowledge Total

Knowledge Application Analysis Evaluation Items
comprehension
Principles 2 2 2 6
Factors affecting 3 3 4 10

Pathophysiology 3 3 4 10
Assessment 1 3 4 2 10
Warding Measures 3 3 4 10
Evaluation of care 1 1 2 4
Total items 9 15 18 8 50

Test blue print for unit on oxygenation source Sandra DE young

55
 Under Grand
Objectives Knowledge standing Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation Total
Form of
question
content O SA E O SA E O SA E O SA E O SA E O SA E

Sub topic 1 2 1 2 2 4 2 2 15
(4) (2) (4) (1) (1) (1) (1)

Sub
Topic2 1 1 2 4 2 10
(2) (2) (1) (2) (1)

Total
Marks 3 0 0 2 0 0 2 4 0 0 4 4 0 4 0 0 2 0 25

Grand
Total 3 2 6 8 4 2

NOTE
O-Objective Type, SA short answers type – E Essay type.
The number outside the bracket indicates the marks and those inside indicates the number of
questions.
4. COSTRUCTION OF TEST ITEMS
 The paper setter writes items according to the blue print.
 The difficulty level has to be considered while writing the items care has to be taken to
maintain the weightage of difficulty level suggested by the design.
 It should also check whether all the questions included can be answered within the time
allotted.
 It is advisable to arrange the questions in the order of their difficulty level.
For constructing the effective achievement test
 Make the instructions for each type of question simple and brief
 Use simple and clear language in the questions. If the language is difficult, students who
understand the material but who do not have strong language skills may find it difficult to
demonstrate their knowledge. If the language is ambiguous even a student with strong

56
 language skills may answer incorrectly if his or her interpretation of the question differs
from the instructors intended meaning.
 Write items that require specific understanding or ability developed in that course not just
general intelligence or test wideness.
 Do not suggest the answer to one question in the body of another question. This makes
the test less useful, as the test wise student will have an advantage over the student who
has an equal group of the material but who has less skill at taking tests.
 Do not write questions in the negative, if you must use negatives, highlight item, as they
may mislead students into answering incorrectly.
Multiple choice questions.

The most commonly used type of question in the multiple choice question. Multiple
choice questions are more easily and objectively graded than essay questions and more difficult
to answer correctly without the required knowledge than true-false questions. Multiple choice
questions however are probably the most difficult type of question to construct. The following
are a few guidelines for multiple choice questions.
 State clearly in the instructions whether you require the correct answer or the best answer
to each item.
 Instead of repeating words in each alternative include these words in the main body of the
question. This will make the question easier to read and the options easier to compare.
 The grammar or structure of the main part of the question must not contain clues to the
correct response; however make incorrect alternatives attractive to students who have not
achieved the targeted learning objectives.
 Vary randomly the placement of correct responses.
 Make all choices exactly parallel .
 Novice test writers tend to make the correct answer longer and more carefully worded
and by doing so may provide a clue to the correct answer.
 Never offer ‘’ all of the above’’ or ‘’none of the above’’ as an alternative in a best
response Multiple choice questions.
 Whether none of the above is chosen as a better response than one of the other options
may depend on what evidence the student considers rather than how well he or she
understands the material.
 Control the difficulty of a question by making the alternatives more or less similar or by
making the main part of the question more or less specific. If the alternatives are more
similar, the student will have to make finer distinctions among them. If the main part is
or specific, the student will be required to draw on more detailed knowledge
.5.ORGANIZATION OF THE TEST
After finalizing the items, these have to be arranged according to the scheme of section as
suggested in the design before that the
 Preliminary details such as

57
  name of the examination,
 maximum marks and
 time instruction for answering each part etc.
have to be written at the appropriate places.
 Next concern is the arrangement of question. Psychologically it will be advisable to
arrange the items in the order of difficulty level. Normally, the hierarchical order of the
objectives as given in the taxonomy of objective is an indication of the difficulty level
also. That is an information item will normally be easier than an understanding item,
which is turn may be easier than an ‘application item’. This need not be always true, but
may be taken as a clue for arranging items in a test.
 Finally review the test is the instructions straight forward?
 Are the selected learning objectives represented in appropriate proportion?
 Are the questions clearly and carefully worded?
 Special care must be taken not to provide clues to the test wise student.
 Poorly constructed questions may actually measure not knowledge but test taking ability.
For example if two options on a multiple choice question are redundant a test wise
student will realize that neither can be the correct answer. By eliminating two choices
the student increase his or her chances of answering the question correctly.
6.PREPARATION OF THE SCHEME OF EVALUATION
One of the steps suggested for maintaining objectivity is to make the scoring strictly in
accordance with a predesigned scheme of evaluation. In the case of the objective type items, a
scoring key showing the number of the question and its correct answer is to be prepared. Point
method is used to evaluate short answer type questions. Point method or rating method or rating
method is used to evaluate essay questions.
Preparation of the Scoring Key and Making Scheme.
In the case of objective type items where the answers are in the form of some letters or
other symbol a scoring key is prepared
Scoring Key
Q.NO ANSWER MARKS
1 A ½

2 C ½

3 A ½

4 D ½

5 B ½

In the case of short answer and essay type questions, the marking scheme is prepared.

58
 In preparing marking scheme the examiner has to list out the value points to be credited and
fix up the mark to be given to each value point.

Marking Scheme.

Q.NO VALUE POINTS MARKS TOTAL MARKS

1 Value Point – 1 ½
2
Value Point – 2 ½

Value Point – 3 ½

Value Point – 4 ½

2 Value Point – 1 ½
2
Value Point – 2 ½

Value Point – 3 ½

Value Point – 4 ½

TEST ADMINISTRATION
The steps to be followed in the administration of group tests are
 Motivate the students to do their best
 Follow the directions closely
 Keep time accurately
 Record any significant event that might influence test scores
 Collect the test materials promptly
 All students must be given a fair chance to demonstrate their achievement
of the learning outcomes being measured.

59
  Provide physical and psychological environment conducive to their best
efforts and the control of factors that might interfere with valid
measurement.
 If they are tense and anxious during testing the antidote to anxiety is to
convey to the students, by word and deed that the test results are to be
used to help them improve their learning.
 Reassure that the time limits are adequate to allow them to complete the
test. This, of course assumes that the test will be used to improve learning
and that the time limits are adequate.

The things to avoid while administering a test are

 Do not talk unnecessarily before the test.

 Keep Interruption to a minimum during the test
 Avoid giving hints to pupils who ask about individual items.
 Discourage cheating.

Preparing Question Wise Analysis

After the question paper and marking scheme are finished, it is desirable to prepare a
question wise analysis. This analysis helps in tallying the questions in the test with the blueprint.
It also enables us to know the strengths and weaknesses or the test better.
E.g. Through the analysis we can know how may topics have been covered in the syllabus, what
is the difficulty level of each question and what specifications are being tested by each question.
The analysis is done in following points.
 Number of the questions
 Objective tested by the question
 Specification on which the question is based
 Topic covered
 Form of the questions
 Marks allotted
 Approximate time required for answering
 Estimated difficulty level
 Provide negligible feedback
 Take a long time to score
 Present difficulties in obtaining consistent judgment of performance

60
Question Wise Analysis.

Q.N CONTENT OBJECTIVE FORM OF DIFFICULT MARK ESTIMATEDE

O T S QUESTION Y LEVEL S D TIME (IN
S Mts)
1. Sub topic 1 Knowledge Objective Easy ½ 1
type
2. Sub topic 2 Understandin Objective Average ½ 1
g type
3. Sub topic 2 Application Objective Easy ½ 1
type
4 Sub topic 1 Knowledge Objective Easy ½ 1
type
5 Sub topic 2 Understandin Objective Average ½ 1
Subtopic2 g type
6. 3
Analysis Short answer Average 2

6 Sub topic1 Syntheses Short answer Easy 2 3

7 Sub topic 2 Application Short answer Easy 2 3

8. Sub topic 1 Analysis Essay Average 4 10

ITEM ANALYSIS (APPRAISING THE TEST)

Technique to improve test items and instruction
Introduction:
Item analysis is a process which examiners student responses to individual test items (questions)
in order to assess the quality of those items and of the test as a whole. Item analysis is especially
valuable in improving items which will be used again in later tests but it can also be used to
eliminate ambiguous or misleading items in a single test administration. In addition, item
analysis is valuable for increasing skills in test construction, and identifying specific areas of
course content which need greater emphasis or clarity.
The quality of a test depends upon the individual items of a test (Freedom, 1962:113,
Sharma, 2000:197)
In construction a new test (or shortening or lengthening an existing one), the final set of
items is usually identified through a process known as item analysis.
-Linda Croker.
Definition:

61
 o The process of examining each question on a test to see how it is related to the
objectives being tested.
o A prescribed process used to examine the quality [e.g. the difficulty and the
discrimination] of individual items on a written test.
o Item analysis determines which items will be retained for the final version of the
test.
o The procedure used to judge the quality of an item is called item analysis.
o The effectiveness of each test item can be determined by analyzing the pupil’s
response to the item.
Purpose:
 To identify the difficulty of the items, the effectiveness of distracters and how
well the item discriminate between high and low achievers.
 To improve tests by revising or eliminating ineffective items.
 To increase understanding of a test (why a test is reliable, valid or not).
 Item analysis relates specifically to achievement tests.
 Item analysis can provide important diagnostic information on what examiners
have learned and what they have not learned.
 To expose the technical defects in constructing the questions, poor quality
questions as were as questions that were too difficult for the students.
 To provide data for the general improvement of classroom instruction since, it
provides insights into instructional weaknesses and clues to their improvement.
 It provide a basis for efficient class discussion of the results.
Approaches of item analysis
Quantitative Analysis:
It includes the consideration of content validity (content and from of items) as well as the
evaluation of items in terms of effective item writing procedures.
Qualitative item analysis procedure include careful proof reading of the exam poor to its
administration of typographical errors , for grammatical cues that might inadvertently tip off
examinees to the correct answers and for the appropriateness of the reading level of the material.
Such procedures can also include small group discussions of the quality of the exam and its item
with examinees who have already taken the test or with departmental student assistants, or even
experts in the field .Some faculty use a “ think-aloud test administration” in which examinees
are asked to express verbally what they are thinking as they respond to each of the items on an
exam. This procedure can assist the instructor in determining whether certain students (such as
those who performed were or those who performed poorly on a previous exam) misinterpreted
particular items, and it can help in determining why students may have interpreted a particular
item.

62
Quantitative Analysis:
It includes principally the measurement of item difficulty and item discrimination and
distracter power statistics (distracter effectiveness)
1. Item Difficulty:
Item difficulty is a measure of the proportion of individuals who responded correctly to
each test item. The item difficulty statistic is an appropriate choice for achievement or aptitude
tests when the items are scored dichotomously ((i.e.) correct vs. incorrect). Thus it can be
derived for true-false, multiple choice and matching items, and even for essay items, where the
instructor can convert the range of possible point values into the categories “passing” and
“failing”.

The formula is P = R x100 (For dichotomous scored items)

N
P is the difficulty of certain item

R is the number of examinees, who get that item correct,

N is the total number of examinees.
The percentage of students that correctly answered the item. Also referred to as the P-
value. The range is from 0% to 100%; or more typically written as a proportion of 0.0 to 1.00.
the higher the value, the easier the item. P values below 0.20 are very difficult items and should
be reviewed for possible confusing language, removed from subsequent exams, and/or identified
as an area for re-instruction. If almost all of the students get the item wrong, there is either a
problem with the item or students were not able to learn the concept.
Higher the difficulty index- the easier the item.
0 to 100% -Difficulty index or easiness index
Above 90% -very easy items
50-60% -good
30 to 70 % -acceptable
Below 20% -very difficult items
Above 70%, below 30% -need modification.
Item difficulty:
Difficulty index P = P=(H+L) x100
N

H-number of correct responses in higher group

L-number of correct responses in lower group
N-total number of responders from both the group
P is usually expressed as percent.
The lower the percentage figure, the more difficult is the item.

63
Difficulty Level = (Average on the test) x100
(Maximum possible score)

Facility value of objective test

Facility value=(Number of students answering questions correctly) x100

(Number of students who have taken the test)

If the facility value is 70 and above, those are easy questions,

if it is below 70, the questions are difficult ones.
Item Analysis Procedure
Arrange the test papers in rank order from the highest score to the lowest score. A
practical, simple and rapid method is to perforate on the answer sheet the boxes corresponding to
the correct answer, placing the perforated sheet on the student’s answer sheet the raw score can
be found almost automatically

A B C D

Select one third of the papers with high score and call them the higher group.
Select another one third of the papers with low scores and call them lower group.
Set aside the middle third (thus will not be used in analysis)
Prepare a frequency table by counting the number of students in the higher group who selected
each alternative similarly count for lower group also. Tabulate item wise analysis as follows.
ITEM NO:
Number of responses
Alternatives x
Higher group Total (H) Lower group Total (L)
A
B
C
D
E
No response

Encircle the correct response for each item.

Total Response T=
64
 Method for polytomously scored items.
P=
X
Xmax

X The mean of total examinees score on one item

X max, the perfect scores of that item.
Grouping Method (use of extreme groups)
P=PU+PL
2
PU is the proportion for examinees of upper group who get the item correct.
PL is the proportion for examinees of lower group who get the item correct.
Correct chance effects on item difficulty for multiple choice item
Cp = (KP-1)

(K-1)

CP= corrected item difficulty

P= uncorrected item difficulty
K= the number of choices for that item
Discrimination Index (point-Biserial Correlation (PBS))
The index of discrimination is a useful measure of item quality whenever the purpose of a
test is to produce a spread of scores, reflecting differences in student achievement, so that
distinctions may be made among the performs of examinees. This is likely to be the purpose of
norm-referenced tests. A basic consideration in evaluating the performance of a normative test
item is the degree to which the item discriminates between high achieving and low achieving
students .
The index of discrimination is simply the difference between the percentage of high
achieving students who got an item right and the percentage of low achieving students who got
the item right
. The high and low achieving students are usually defined as the upper and lower 27% of the
students based on the total examination sure.
Item discrimination refers to the degree to which an item differentiates correctly among
test takers in the behavior that the test is designed to measure.
The extent to which an item differentiates people on the behavior that the test is designed
to assess.
The computed difference between the percentage of high achievers and the percentage of
low achievers who got the item right.

65
 Compares the performance of upper group (with high test scores) and lower group (low
test scores) on each item, % of test takers in each group who were correct.

Discrimination index d=2x H-L(G ronlund 1993)

N

H- number of correct responses from the upper group.

L-Number of correct responses from the lower group.
N- total number of pupils who tried them
d is reported as a decimal fraction.
Maximum positive discriminative power is indicated by 100. It varies from -1 and +1
The higher the value, the more discriminating the items.
Highly discriminating item indicates that the students who had high exams scores got the
item correct whereas students who had low exam scores got the item incorrect.
Items with discrimination values near or less than zero should be removed from the
exam. This indicates that students who overall did poorly in the exam did better on that item than
students who overall did well. The item may be confusing for the better scoring students in some
way.
0.20 or higher- acceptable questions
0.35 and over- excellent questions
0.25 to 0.34- good questions
0.15 to 0.24- marginal questions to be revised
Under 0.15- poor questions, to be discarded
Closer to 1.00-ideal value
Discriminating power of the items:
The discriminating power of a test item refers to the degree to which success or failure of
an item indicates possession of the ability being measured. In other words, the ability of the test
items. measures the better and poorer examinees of items.
According to Marshall Halis(1972) the discriminating power of the item may be defined as
the extent to which success or failure on that item indicates the possession of the achievement
being measured.
Blood and Budd (1972) defined the index of discrimination as the ability of an item on
the basis of which the discrimination is made between superiors and inferiors. On the basis of
discriminating power, items are classified into three types (Sharma, 2000’201).
Positive discrimination
If an item is answered correctly by superiors (upper groups) and but not answered
correctly by inferiors (lower group) such item possess positive discrimination.

66
Negative discrimination
If an item is answered correctly by the same number of superiors as well as inferiors
examinees of the same group. The item cannot discriminate between superior and inferior
examinees. Thus the discrimination power of the item is zero.
Calculate item analysis and discrimination index

Size of Diff Discr

group Chosen Answer index[p] Index[d]
SEM Date Group

A B C D NR
4 20-1- HIGH 30 2 20 5 3 0
2009 LOW 30 8 3 1 15 0

Distractor Analysis or choice Analysis

Compare the performance of the highest and lowest scoring 25% of the students on the
distracter options (i.e.) the incorrect answers presented on the exam. Fewer of the top performers
should choose each of the distracters as their answer compared to the bottom performers.
choices.
 Whether the examinees who choose the correct choice is more than who choose the
wrong choices
 Whether a lot of examinees of upper group who choose the correct choice is more than
the examinees of lower group.
 Whether the examinees of upper group who choose the wrong choice is more than those
of lower group.
 Whether there is any choice that few examinees choose.
 Whether there is any item that quite a number of examinees make no choice .
Features:
1.persons who know the answer pick the correct answer.
2.person who do not know the answer guess among the possible responses.
Distractor is to identify:
 Partial knowledge
 Poorly constructed item
 Distractor outside the domain content.

67
Item 1 A* B C D E OMIT

% of
students in 20 5 0 0 0 0
upper ¼

% of 10 5 0
students in 15 1O 10
the middle

% of
students in 5 5 5 10 0 0
lower ¼

Corelation Indices Of Item Discrimination

1.Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
Correlation coefficient is a statistical measure of relationship between two variables. It
indicates strength of relationship 0.00 to 1.00 (r=+0.37) indicates direction of relationship
(positive or negative)
Pearson’s r is the most common correlation coefficient r=the Pearson coefficient r
measures the amount that the two variables (X and Y) vary together.
r=(degree to which X and Y vary together)
(degree to which X and Y vary separatly)

X[hours] Y[score]

68
 X X2 Y Y2 XY

TOTAL

Substituting in formula.

r= SP [sum of products]

SSXSSY

r= £XY- £X£Y
n

£X2-[£X]2 £Y2-[£y]2

n n
Correlation coefficient interpretation.
Coefficient Range Strength Of Relationship

0.00-0.20 Practically None

0.20-0.40 Low
0.40-0.60 Moderate
0.60-0.80 High
0.80-1.00 Very High
Point Biserial Correlation:

69
 The total test score as criterion and test item is scores 0 to 1, then use the following
formula,
Rpbi=Xp-Xt p/q
St
(Xp) i̅ s the mean test scores for those who answer the item correctly.
Xt is the mean scores for the entire group.
St is the standard derivation of test scores too entire group.
p is the pass ratio of that item (difficulty).
q is fail ratio of that item.
(Eg):
P=8/15=0.533
,q=1-p

(Xp ) ̅ =(test score mean(only for pass item))/8

(Xt) ̅=(mean test score)/(total number)

St= √(〖⅀(X-(X)) ̅〗2

n

Substituting in formula.
Biserial Correlation Coefficient:
rb=Xp-Xt . p
St y
rb=Xp-Xq .pq
St Y
Correlation Between Items
(a)Tetrachoric correlation coefficient
Each variable is created through dichotomizing an underlying normal distribution.
rt =cos( √AD .1800)
(√AD+√BC)

Item j
A B
C D

70
(b) PHI coefficient
rφ = (BC-AD)
√((A+B)(C+D)(A+D)(B+D
Application case of Item Analysis
Select a representative sample of examinees and administer the test.
Differentiate the examinees into upper 27% group and lower 27% group according to
their test scores.
Calculate PU and PL, then estimate P and D for each item.
Compare the responses on different choices for each item between the upper group and
lower group.
Revise items

Item Group Number of

Examinees
on each
choice
A B C D Omit Key P D rb

1. Upper B
Lower

2. Upper
Lower A

3. Upper
Lower D

Uses of item analysis

 It helps the judge the worth or quality of a test.
 Aids in subsequent test revisions
 Lead to increase skill in test construction
 provides diagnostic value and help in planning future learning activities.
 Provides a basis for discussing test results.
 For making decisions about the promotion of students to the next higher
grade.

71
  To bring about improvement in teaching methods and techniques.
 For making decisions about the promotion of students to the next higher
grade.
 To bring about improvement in teaching methods and techniques.

STANDARD ERROR OF MEASUREMENT

This is the method of estimating the possible amount of variation to be expected in
test scores. Standard error of measurement is given for standardized tests. If a teacher wants to
measure this, she will have to give the test to her pupils over and over again under identical
conditions, the same test. The test scores will vary somewhat on each test. The amount of
variation in her test scores would be directly related to the reliability of the testing procedures. It
will be noted that as the reliability coefficient increases for any standard derivation the standard
error of measurement decreases. Thus high reliability coefficients are associated large errors.
It is possible to estimate the amount of variation to be expected in test score by standard
error of measurement. “true” score is one that would be obtained if the test were perfectly
reliable. The standard error of measurement makes it clear that a test score should be interpreted
as a “band of scores”.
On norm referenced tests, confidence intervals are presented around student’s obtained
percentile rank score, known as national percentile bands can be used to compare sub tests by
examining the bunds for difference between estimates of true achievement on subtests.
An estimate of the amount of variation to be expected in test scores.
If the reliability correlations are poor, the standard error of measurement will be large. The larger
the standard error of measurement, the less reliable the test.
Variables that affect the standard error of measurement
The following affect test reliability
Population sample size:
The large the population sample the more reliability the test.
Test length:
Longer tests are usually more reliable because there are more test items, resulting in a
better sample of behaviors.
Range of test scores:
Range of test scores of the norming group-the wide the spread of scores, the more
reliably the test can distinguish between good and poor students.

The standard error of measurement (SEM) is an estimate of error to use in interpreting an

individual’s test score. A test score is an estimate of a person’s “true” test performable. Using a
reliability coefficient and the test’s standard derivation, we can calculate this value.
SEM=So(1-r)
S- Standard derivation for the test.
R= reliability coefficient for the test
72
 confidence interval: purpose of confidence interval is to determine range of scores that we are
reasonably confident represent a student’s true ability.
68% interval-test score ± 1(SEM)
95% interval- test score ± 2(SEM)
99% intervals- test score ± 3(SEM)
The scores that fall within a given confidence interval of two standard deviation above the mean
or two standard deviation below the mean.
Assembling the Question Paper

After questions are prepared they are to be assembled in a question paper form for these
instructions are to written. General instructions for the paper may be given on top whereas
instructions for specific questions may be given just before the questions.

The order of questions is also to be decided while assembling the question paper
sometimes it is according to the forms of questions (i.e.) objective type questions may be put
first, then very short , short answer and essay type questions or it may be according to the content
as in the case of a language question paper where we may have structure questions first, then
questions on unseen passage and then composition questions.

The assembling and editing of the question paper is important from the point of view of
administration.

For example
If the question is divided with two sections, one of which is to be collected within a
specific time limit, clear instructions to do so should be mentioned and also the arrangements of
questions should be such that both the sections are easily demarcated.

i. Objective type
ii. Short answer type
iii. Essay type
iv. Multiple Choice Questions (M.C.Q)

I. Objective Type
An objective type of test item is one which the response will be objective. Objective type
test item broadly classified into tow

Supply Type (Recall Type)

The respondent has to supply the responses

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Selection Type (Recognition Type)
The respondents have to select the responses from among the given responses.

Objective Type – 4 Types

True – False Items (Alternate Response type)
Multiple choice items
Matching type items
Completion type test items

Advantages of Objective Type Items

 A Large amount of study material can be tested in a very short period time.
 Economy of time
 Objectivity of scoring
 No bluffing
 It reduces the subjective element of the examiner to the minimum.
 It carefully planned; it can measure the higher mental process of understanding,
application, analysis, prediction and interpretation.

Limitations of Objective Type Items

 Difficulty in preparing good items
 Problem of guessing
 Problem of cheating
 Inefficiency in testing complicated skills
 High printing lost
 Emphasis on testing superficial Knowledge.

II. Short Answer Type

1. A question requiring three value points at most may be defined as a short answer
question.
2. Value point diminishes the subjectivity.
3. Help in ensuring wide coverage of content.

Principles
 Use action oriented peruses verbs.
 Deal with important content area.
 Question long but answer short.
 Precise, simple and accurate language.
 Provide necessary space for the answers below each question asked.
 Avoid phrases like briefly short notes on etc.

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Advantages of Short Answer Type Items
 Easy to score
 Reliability of score is improved.
 Response is quick.
 Large portion of the content can be covered in a test.
 No opportunity for guessing.
 Easy to construct, because it measures, a relatively simple outcomes.
 It can be made guit objective by carefully fixing the value points.
 Useful in evaluating the ability to interpret diagrams, charts, graphs etc.
 It carefully prepared deep level objectives understanding, application and problem
solving skill can be evaluated.

Limitations of Short Answer Type Items

 Difficult to construction of reliable items.
 It is costly to prepare these tests.
 It is more subjective than the objective type of items.
 It may encourage student to memories fact and develop poor study habits.
 Mechanical scoring is not possible.

III. Essay Type

We have come across one single question to be answered in 3 hours which used to be
of essay type of question. Invariable even today many question paper are uncounted
containing 3 questions to be answered in 3 hours either for grading or for marking. There
is a change of traditional essay type to answer with reasoning and for lucid expression.
General Principles for Preparing Essay Type Test
- No lengthy questions
- Avoid phrases
- Well-structured question
- Well worded questions
- Limited choices
- Set the questions as per the level of the students.
Structure of Essay Questions
Modified essay questions
- Modified essay questions are another face of answer questions, certain amount of data is
provided and a question is asked to elicit the answer.
- Physical examination of patient
- Investigation of disease
- Line of management of case

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Patient management problem
- This is similar to simulated patient management problems in the teaching learning
process along with illustrations.
Traditional style
Write an essay on health for all by 2000 AD
Write an essay on family planning
Modern style
Explain the concept of health for all by 2000 AD and ways and means of achieving
it in India
How would you organize in a taluk headquarters of your district.

Designing Essay Questions

• Have syllabus on hand and view it fully
• Select a few topic, in random to have good coverage.
• Have a checklist and specific points for a good marking system
• Suggest no options
• Avoid few question for long answer
• Prefer few questions requiring short answers
• No ambiguous definitions in questions
• Questions should be completed in stipulated time

Advantages of Essay Type Questions

 It is easy to construct.Framing is not a difficult task
 Allows free expression
 May allow effective expressions
 It test knowledge gained by learner
 It brings out learners reasoning capacity
 It brings out learners organize ideas and planning.
 Answerable in given time duration
 Standardized
 Above lines of approach, systematically done, definitely improve question paper setting
in the examination.
 Useful in measuring certain abilities and skills.
 Promote originality and creative thinking
 Possibility of guess work can be eliminated
 Reduce chance on the spot copying
 Low printing cost
 Test the ability to communicate in writing
 Test depth of knowledge and understanding

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  Provide an opportunity to the students to demonstrate her ability for independent thinking
 The student can demonstrate her ability to organize ideas and express them effectively
 Take comparatively short time for the teacher to prepare the test.

Disadvantages
 Minimum validity
 Lack of reliability
 No objectivity
 Rote memory is encouraged
 It is a time consuming test item
 Cover only a limited field of knowledge in one test.
 Double positive and double negative and abbreviations are avoided.
 When numbers are answers they should appear either in ascending or in descending
order.
 Item should be homogenous in matching, better if more response is given.
M.C.Q
In every field M.C.Q s is more commonly used method of evaluation for some response.
 M.C.Qs are becoming popular
 M.C.Q are more available for reliable evaluation system.
 M.C.QS are more valid system.
 M.C.QS accepted norms in evaluation.
 Easy for examiner.

Types of MCQ

Single Answer Type

This format calls for recalling of facts, if there is a component of interpretation, analysis
and problem solving, then it really serves the purpose examiners should find proper plausible
alternatives.

Multiple Answer Type Question

This is an improved version of type of single answer type, it requires higher level of
cognition.
This contain two statement
A- Statement is true and related.
B- Statement is true but not related
C- First statement are true, the second is false
D- First statement is false, second is true.
E- Both statements are false
Nill to full type

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 The multiple true false, any combination is possible starting from true or false to
all true to all false. To each of the alternatives of the item given below indicate true or
false in appropriate bracket.
Parameters matching type
The direction given to candidate shall be to match list A by writing appropriate letter against
numbered headings.
Pictorial type
Any type with delineated pathology marking dose the job of assessing the
knowledge of the candidate about structure, function, course of clinical situation or data
interpretation.

Multiple facet type

It is method to assessing multiple abilities about one topic for testing higher order
of intellectual ability, multiple facets M.C.Q is very useful.

Key Elements in MCQ

 Precise and proper direction for item
 Use of clear and simple language
 Stem should have one formulated problem
 Alternatives should be grammatically consistent with the skill.
 Should have a clear answer
 Word like expert not always etc are made easily visible
 As for as possible negative form of stem is avoided.
 A compact item is prepared out of common elements
 Length of response and distracters should be same
 No clue should be given
 Distracters should have meaning and should be related to question
 Extra care should be used when words like “all of the above “ and “none of the above”
are used.
Principles in MCQ Preparations
1. No overlapping items should be selected. It must be an independent item.
2. Item should be such that it should be possible to correctly answer by student with good
preparation and analytical skills.
3. Item must be such that it should be wrongly answer by students despite good preparations
but with lower analytical skills.
4. Design should be measured a major learning outcome
5. The standard of M.C.Q should be appropriate to the level of student.

Disadvantages

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  Range of application of knowledge is limited
 Question lack objectives
 They may not be consistent
 Time allotted like 1 hour, 3 hours etc. too much and is improper for scoring system
 Teacher may not get feed back
 If there is no in-depth knowledge, whole answers will be just a guess work.

QUESTION BANK PREPARATION, VALIDATION, MODERATION OF PANEL

Question Bank Preparation

Introduction
Question paper is an instrument which is used in theory examination. It has four
characteristics relevance, objectivity, reliability and validity. Without adequate preparation of
question paper will be an unless tool in summative evaluation.

Definition
A question bank is a planned library of test items designed to fulfill certain predetermined
purposes. Question bank should prepare with at most care so as to cover the entire prescribed
text. Question bank should be exhaustive and cover entire content with different types.
Purposes
• To improve teaching learning process
• Through instructional efforts the pupil’s growth will be obtained
• To improve evaluation process
• A pool of test items can be used for formative and summative evaluation of the pupil’s
performance.
• It is a pool of readymade quality question is made available to teachers and examiners.
So that they may select appropriate questions to assess predetermined objectives.
Specification of Paper Settings
This is a two dimensional tables by concerned university given quantum of questions where
objective tested are also noted.
Paper setting should have a model answer where marks for the points specified. Estimated
time should be sufficient for answering all questions

Area Question type Marks

Objective/content Long essay, short essay, short
answer

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Recall type Long essay, short essay, short Marks
answer
Long essay, short essay, Marks
Interpretation type short answer

Problem solving type Long essay, short essay, Marks

short answer

Model Question Paper

This is usually supplied by universities to question paper setter which specifies the requirement.
This is also called item card to its contains of items.
Procedure of question paper setting
a.Plan design for question paper
b.Make list of specification
c.View model question paper sent by the university
d.Specify types of questions, marking and possible model answer
e.Read again for any corrections
f.Give final review of question paper
g.Write dispatch and maintain confidentiality

 Planning and design

o This needs syllabus review, duration of question paper, marks allotted, scheme of
examination and objectivity of recall, interpretation as well as problem solving,
weighing for all type of questions and for content topic given. Guideline and
instructions are noted.
 Specification
o Objectives sorted out to elicit knowledge understanding and application.
 Model Question Paper
o After view of model question paper sent by university,tally with the design and
specifications,at this stage we can rectify the design and specification suiting to
affiliated universities.
 Types of Questions and Marking
o By reforming sample U.G and P.G question paper can give this information.
 Corrections
This helps in refining, editing to question paper clarify and spelling mistakes are got
corrected.
 Review
This helps in checking options, sections, difficulty level of the paper, grouping,
numbering and instructions are checked.

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  Confidentiality
All precautions for maintaining confidentiality as required. Suggested checklist to
review the question paper
 Within curriculum
 Syllabus covered
 Weightage to topics
 Not too easy

Validation

DEFINITION
It is defined as make or declare legally valid.
PREVALIDATION
It starts even before the construction of MCQ what educational outcome in terms
objectively required is answered.

USES OF PRE VALIDATION

 Relevance is obtained
 Grammatical correction done
 Plausibility of distracters checked

USES OF POST VALIDATION

 Development of MCQ question bank can be used as affective tool in classroom teaching.
 Avoid dangerous situations
 A feedback to teachers
 Create better learning process

Moderation of panel
DEFINITION
Moderation is the process of controlling topics and its associated information in discussion,
administrators can assign moderation and configure the required moderation permission to
manage every forum in the portal
GUIDELINES FOR MODERATING A PANEL

Before the event

After reviewing information on the event, sponsoring organization and attendees,
determine the purpose of panel presentation.

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 Invite individual presenters based on the following criteria, standing in the company or
industry, ability to speak on the topic and complement perspectives to speak with in the
designated time limit.
Once an individual has accepted your invitation to speak, confirm his or her participation
in writing, providing information regarding the day time and place of the panel with instructions
on how they can get to the facility.
Confirm spelling and pronunciation of speakers, names, titles, affiliations, request
biographies, background information and visual equipment required.
After confirming individual speakers and before the presentation follow up to answer
questions and as necessary, assist with presentation development.
Ask if the speakers will have materials distribute to attendees before the event.
Write your introduction for the panel which relates the panel presentation the event as a
whole.
Write your introduction for the speakers its recommended that each speakers be
introduced briefly at the beginning of the event before the actual presentation.
A day or two before the event call panelist to confirm time and place of a meeting on the
day of the event to meet each other and review panel logistics.
On the day of event
 Check the setup of the room and make sure that microphone and audio visual equipment
work.
 Conduct a final briefing with panelist review the flow of panel, speaking order
 Time the individual speakers establish a signal that informs speakers when they should
conclude their remarks.
 Introduce the panel
 Introduce the individual speakers as outlined
 At the conclusion of the prepared remarks, solicit questions. If a microphone is available
for the attendees to use, it may be wise to repeat questions.
 At conclusion on the question and answer period, thank the speakers mention that each
will be available to answer additional questions immediately after the event, or in the
future.
 As soon as possible after the conclusion of the event, send thank you notes to the
individual panelists.
Meetings
Moderation panel meet 12 times a year normally for around 3 hours, if more than 12 cases
are due to be conducted, then moderation panel may meet for up to a full day.
During august each year, dates are fixed for the following years meetings. Panel members are
sent the relevant papers prior to each meeting.

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DEVELOPING A SYSTEM FOR MAINTAINING CONFIDENTIALITY
Conventional
Management of question paper dispatch to the respective colleges affiliated to the
university on the evening of the exam and pooling of answer scripts at close, under the
conventional system. Conventional system had to ensure that paper do not leak,amidst of
rumors and reports of purported attempts.
New system
Under the new system, the controller of examinations, after obtaining the question papers from
experts will upload the same in the server just before the commencement of the exam.
Examination management system in MGR Medical University where the question paper is
transmitted via e-mail or the online exams.
For implanting the EMS, the university will serve as a networking center. Each
affiliated college will have an Examination Data center in 1000 sq. space provided by the
college. The college will appoint a faculty as EMS co-coordinator to liaise between the college
and the university through the EDC.
From start to finish
The EMS implementation starts from issue of e-hall ticket and generation of question
papers to conduct of exams online. It is a five-phase process. Take, for instance, generation of
question papers. under the new system, the controller of examinations, after obtaining the
question papers from experts, will upload the same in the server just two hours before the
commencement of the exam. The paper will be delivered a few minutes before the scheduled
time of the exam, using the 128 bit encryption technology to the respective address at the EDC in
each college. Since the question papers are sent through a secured network, confidentiality is
maintained.

Ethical, Legal and Professional Issues

Ethics are a body of principles that address proper conduct laws are related to a body of rules
that address proper conduct

Ethics in standardized test

Sources for ethical decisions who is responsible for appropriate use.
 Cross cultural sensitivity
 Invasion of privacy
 Obtain informed concent
 The right to results
 Right to confidentiality
 Right to the least stigmatizing label
 Test security, scoring and interpretation

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Sources for Ethical Decisions

o ACA code of Ethics (ACA, 2005)

o Ethical principles of Psychologists and code of conduct (APA, 2002)
o Code of professional Ethics for Rehabilitation counselors (CRCC 2001)
o Standards for educational and Psychological Testing (AERA, APA and NAME,
1999)
o Code of Fair Testing practices in education (ICTP, 2003)
o Responsibilities of Test users in standardized Tests (AAC, 2003) RUST
o Responsible Test use : case studies for assessing human behavior (Eyde etal,
1993)
o Test takers Rights and Responsibilities (ICTP, 1998)
o Standards for school counselor competence in Assessment and Evaluation
(ASCA, AAC)
o Standards for Multicultural Assessment 2nd edition (AAC, 2003)
o Standards for the qualifications of Test Users (ACA, 2003)

Kitchner's Moral Model

o Autonomy
o Beneficence
o No maleficence
o Justice or Fairness
o Fidelity (Loyalty)

Autonomy : - freedom to act independently

Beneficence – action done for the benefit of others
Non maleficence – a principle of bioethics that asserts an obligation not to inflict harm
intentionally
Justice or Fairness – is a concept of moral rightness based on ethics, law, religion or equity
Fidelity – is the quality of faithful or loyal
Invasion of Privacy-Assessment can invade clients privacy
Informed consent-Informing the nature of information being collected, purposes for which results
will be used using language understandable to test taker.

Relevance-Is the information gathered through assessment relevant.

Able to clearly state the purpose of appraisal.

Right to Results-Test taker have the right to an explanation of their assessment results, in terms
they can understand

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Right to Confidentiality-Results may only be released to a third party (who has expertise to
interpret the results) with the consent of the client. Secure assessment information and
communicate any limits to confidentiality. Records and results can be subpoenaed. Keep test
content secure.

Right to the Least Stigmatizing Label-When diagnosing or categorizing individuals, use the least
stigmatizing label consistent with accurate representation.
Incorporate effects of contextual factors culture, socio economic status, Linguistics.

Legal issues
Legislation-Concerning governmental bodies passing laws.

Civil Rights Act – 1991 -Outlaws discrimination in employment based on race, color,
religion, sex or national origin.

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990-States individuals with disabilities must have tests
administered to them using reasonable and appropriate accommodations.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004Children from birth through age 21 with
disability. States parental consent is needed to perform evaluation of a child suspected of having
disability.

Family Educational RightsAnd Privacy Act Of 1974 (FERPA)

Provides parents access to their children's educational records. Provides students over 18
years of age access to their own educational records.

Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 (HIPAA)

States clients must be notified how psychological and medical information may be used
and disclosed and how to get access to information.

Carl Perkins Act

Assure rights of select, disenfranchised group to access vocational assessment,

Counseling and placement.

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 Freedom of Information Act

Allow access to federal records states have adopted similar laws.

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA)

Children 2 to 21 suspected of having disability must be tested at school's expense.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act

Testing for federally funded programs must be a reflection of individuals ability, not
disability.

Professional Associations

ACA – Association for Assessment in Counseling and Education (AACE)

APA – Division, Evaluation, Measurement and Statistics
MAINTAINING CONFIDENTIALITY IN MGR MEDICAL UNIVERSITY

Assent of the cancellor

These status have received the assent of the chancellor communicated in
Lr.No.4124/02/2011 dated o6.03.2012
LAWS OF THE UNIVERSITY STATUTES OF THE TAMILNADU FOR ENFORCEMENT
OF DISCIPLINE IN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS
In exercise of the powers conferred by section 42 of the Tamilnadu Dr.MGR Medical University,
Chennai, Act,1987 (Tamilnadu Act 37 of 1987)the governing council of the Tamilnadu Dr.MGR
Medical University, Chennai the existing statutes of the Tamilnadu Dr.MGR Medical University
for enforcement of Discipline in university examinations are hereby repealed and makes the
following statutes
1. Short title and commencement
These statutes shall be called statutes of the Tamilnadu Dr.MGR Medical University for
Enforcement of Discipline in University Examinations.
They shall come into force from the date of assent of the chancellor.
2. Disciplinary control of the chancellor
During the examination, candidates shall be under the disciplinary control of the chief
superintendent of the center. If any candidate disobeys the instructions or misbehaves with any
member of the supervisory staff or with any of the invigilators at the centre, on notice by the
chief superintendent from the examination for that particular forenoon/afternoon session, as the
case may be.

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 The chief superintendent shall immediately report the fact of such case with fall details of
evidence to the controller of examinations. The controller of examinations will place the matter
before the vice chancellor for ratification and for farther action.
In emergent or extra-ordinary circumstanses the chief superintendent shall have the power of
changing the examination hall within the same campus in consultation with the Head of the
Institution and report such change of hall to the controller of examinations.
Every day before examination begins, the invigilators shall give instructions to all the candidates
to search their persons, tables, desks etc., and to hand over all papers, books, notes or other
reference material which they are not allowed to have in their possession or accessible to them
in the examination hall. The candidates must be present half an hour earlier before the
commencement of the examinations, late comers will be allowed only with the approval of the
chief superintendent. Where a late comer is admitted, these instructions may be repeated to him
at the time of entering to the examination hall. The invigilators shall also check up everyday
whether candidates have their hall tickets with them.
4. Indulging in malpractices/use of unfair means.
No candidate shall indulge in any malpractice or use of unfair means mentioned in statute 5 in
connection with examinations.
5(a). The acts/conduct which will constitute malpractice/ use of unfair means and the
corresponding punishment liable to be improved therefore are specified in the Annexure to these
statutes.
The university may declare any other act of omission of commission/ conduct other than
those referred to in the Annexure to be a malpractice/ use of unfair means in respect of
examinations.
If the vice chancellor is satisfied based on the report of the chief superintendent or otherwise that
there has been copying or use of unfair means on mass scale at a particular examination center(s)
he may cancel the examination of all the candidates concerned.
Note : Where 20% or more students present were involved in copying/ any malpractice or
malpractices or using unfair means in a particular hall/room, it shall be deemed to be a case of
mass copying.

DUTIES AND RESONSIBILITIES OFTHE CHIEF SUPERINTENDENT

The chief superintendent is fully responsible for the smooth conduct of the theory examinations.
He has to take all precautionary measures to prevent any kind of malpractice by the candidates
and keep strict vigil during the examination hours.
The invigilators shall work under the direct control of the chief superintendent. They should
exercise proper control and extend their fullest support to the instructions of the chief
superintendent.
The chief superintendent appointed for the examination is requested to announce in the
examination hall on every day of the examination that the candidate should write their register

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number correctly only on the space provided in the front sheet. They should not write their
Register Number elsewhere either in the main answer books or in the additional books.
The chief superintendent should give instructions to the invigilators to verify the correctness of
the Register Numbers of the candidates with galley to the answer scripts during the examination
day itself.
The chief superintendent should verify the part and paper of each specialty of the galley issued.
The candidates should be informed about the total number of pages written should be corrected
counted by the candidates and should be mentioned in the front page.
The candidate and the chief superintendent/invigilator should put their signature at the reverse
page of the first bar coded sheet only in the space provided at the top portion. No entry should be
made in the rectangular boxes UNIVERSITY USE ONLY. No other portion in the bar coded
sheets attached to the main answer book should be damaged or detached (as specified in the
Annexure III)
He umber additional books issued to the candidates should be made as record and sent to the
university for any verification. The chief superintendent/Invigilator should ensure that the
candidate has completed the previous answer book before issuing a new one.
While sending answer scripts to the university, the year, month and date of the examination
should be noted at the left side top corner of the cloth cover for easy identification.
The secrecy and confidentiality for the conduct of the examination shall lie with the chief
superintendent.
While encoding/decoding the question paper, the chief superintendent should see that no outside
other unconnected staff members/concerned subject teaching staff be present at the examination
hall.
The chief superintendent is responsible for the dispatch of answer sheets, unused covers,
attendance sheet, absentee statement as and when the examination is over on the same day
through speed post. Failure to dispatch the answer sheets will entail action against the chief
superintendent.
The chief superintendent should not entreat any outsider other than the flying squad or university
observers appointed for the specific purpose.
Any discrepancy noticed shall be taught to the notice of the controller of examinations of this
university with facts and detailed report.
7(a) The chief superintendent of the examination center shall report to the controller of
examinations each case of suspected or discovered malpractice/shall use of unfair means in the
examination immediately such report shall be in the format prescribed or form supplied by the
university for the purpose . it shall contain full details of evidence and the statement of candidate
concerned if any.
(b)A candidate shall be asked to give statement in connection with the suspected or discovered
malpractice or use of unfair means but shall not be forced to give the statement if he refused to
do so. The fact of his haring refused to make a statement shall be recorded by the chief

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 superintendent and got attested by the two members of the supervisory staff. Invigilator on duty,
at the time of occurrence or detection of the incident or immediately thereafter.
(a) The answer book of the candidate suspected of indulging in malpractice/using unfair means in
the examination shall be seized by the chief superintendent. However, he may permit the
candidate to continue to write the examination in a separate answer book. The chief
superintendent shall send both the answer books to the controller of examinations in a separate
sealed along with his report. This will not affect the concerned candidate appearing in the rest of
the examinations.
(b) The chief superintendent may expel the candidate detected of indulging in malpractice/using
unfair means in the examination hall depending on the gravity of the malpractice or unfair means
and may also score off the answer sheet of the candidate concerned is front of the candidate in
the hall and forward it to the controller of the examinations in a separate scaled cover along with
his report. This will not affect the concerned candidate in the rest of the examinations.
(c) All cases of malpractice/use of unfair means suspected or detected shall be reported immediately
to the controller of examinations by the question paper setter examiner/evaluator, moderator,
tabulator or any person connected as the case may be with all the relevant materials.
(d) On receipt of the report mentioned in sub statute (a)(c)(d) or (e) above as the case may be the
controller of examinations shall contain the explanation of the candidate concerned through the
head of the institution. He shall then forward the report the report and the explanation mentioned
above to the examination Discipline Committee referred to in statue 8 for its decision.
(e) The examination discipline committee after the examination of the records placed it by the
controller of examinations and after enquiring the concerned candidate/invigilator / any other
person connected with the case if necessary shall forward its findings on whether the suspected
or detected or not to the vice-chancellor for approval.
(f) The vice-chancellor on his approval of the findings of the examination Discipline Committee
referred to in substitute (g) of statute 7 shall pass orders regarding the punishment, if any to be
imposed as provided in the Annexure to these statutes. The controller of examinations shall
communicate the orders of the vice chancellor to the candidate concerned.
(g) A candidate may within fifteen day of the receipt of the above orders, file a petition in writing to
the vice-chancellor for a review of the case. If the vice-chancellor is satisfied that the
representation merits consideration he may refer the case to the examination Discipline
Committee for reexamination.
(h) The Examination Discipline Committee on receipt of the petition for review, shall reexamine the
records and further evidence, if any adduced or available and submit its report on its findings to
the vice-chancellor there on will be communicated to the candidate concerned by the controller
of examinations.
Examination Discipline committee
The controller of examinations shall initiate action to constitute the examination
Discipline Committee before the commencement of every examination session. The members of

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 the said committee shall be appointed by the vice-chancellor for a particular session of
examinations and shall be eligible for reappointment.
The examination Discipline committee shall consist of at least three but not more than
five members drawn from amongst the Governing Council members, officers and (teachers not
below the rank of readers of this university/ affiliated colleges of this university.
The controller of examination shall be the convener of the examination Discipline
Committee . however he shall not be a party in the findings of the committee regarding the
malpractice/use of unfair means (and punishment proposed thereafter by the committee)
Three members present shall constitute the quorum of the Examination Discipline
Committee.
All decisions taken by the Examination Discipline Committee shall be by simple
majority. If the members are equally divided, vice-chancellor shall decide the case. The decision
of the vice-chancellor shall be final and it shall be communicated to the candidate concerned by
the controller of Examinations.
THE ACTS/CONDUCT WHICH WILL CONSTITUTE MALPRACTICE/USE OF UNFAIR
MEANS IN UNIVERSITY EXAMINATIONS AND PUNISHMENTS THEREFOR
Nature of malpractice/use of unfairment Punishments
1. Minor malpractice/use of unfair means by the
students
(a) Talking to another candidate or any person (i) Cancel the entire Examination of that
inside or outside the examination hall during the session taken by the candidate and also to
examination hours. debar him for subsequent one session.
(b) Deliberately disclosing one’s identity or (ii) If the malpractice/use of unfair means is
making any distinctive marks in the answer books repeated for the second time cancel the
for the purpose entire examination of that session and also
(c) Making an appeal to the to debar him for subsequent two sessions
Examiner/Evaluator through the answer book
(d) Passing on or attempting to pass on during
the examination hours, a copy of a question or a
part of thereof or solution to a question or a part
of thereof to any other candidate or to any person.
(e) Writing or drawing diagrams/pictures
irrelevant to the question asked for reflecting ill-
temper or bad taste or bad humour or criticizing
the colleges/teachers/university etc. or aiming to
impliedly threaten or warn the examiners, making
any derogatory statements in the answer paper.
(f) Possession by a candidate or haring access
to books, notes, paper or any other material,
whether written inscribed or engraved which

90
could be of help or assistance to him in answering
any part of the question paper.
(V) major malpractice/use of unfair means by the
students
(a) Reading out the answer to the questions or
communicating in any manner answers or
information’s in the examination hall so as to
benefit the other candidates taking the
examination (i) Cancel the entire examination of that
(b) Learning the examination hall without session taken by the candidate and also to
delivering the answer book and /or continuation debar him for three subsequent sessions.
sheet, if any, in the superintendent or supervisor
(ii) If the malpractice/use of unfair means is
concerned and taking away tearing off the same repeated for the second times cancel the
or any part thereof. entire examination of that session and also
(c) Found copying with bits of papers or leaves of to debar him for six subsequent sessions
textbooks or any other source or from the answer
book of the any other candidate.
(d) Canceling , destroying, disfiguring, rendering,
illegible running away with causing
disappearance of or attempting to do any of these
things in respect of any book notes paper or other
material or device used or attempted to be used
for assistance or help in answering question or a
part of thereof.
(e) Smuggling into the examination hall an
answer book or a continuation sheet or taking out
or arranging to send an answer sheet or
continuation sheet or replacing or attempting to
get replaced the answer book or continuation
sheet, during or after the examination with or
without the help of any person or in connivance
with any person connected with the examination
or through any other agency, what soever.
(f) Approaching or influencing directly or
indirectly a question paper setter, examiner,
evaluator, moderator, tabulator or any other
person connected with the university examination
to leak out the question paper or any paper
connected with the university examination to leak
out the question paper or any part thereof or to

91
enhance marks or favorably evaluate, or to change
the award in favour of the candidate.
(g) Attempting to interfere with directly or
indirectly the discharge of duties of the
invigilators, chief superintendent and other
examination officials/personal
(college/university)
(h) A busing
/Insulting/intimidating/associating/mishandling
injuring the chief superintendent, invigilator and
other examination officials/ personnel
(college/university)
(i) presenting a thesis dissertation, practical or
classwork notebook not prepared by the candidate
himself.
(j)Impersonating any candidate at the
examination.
(k) Insertion of the pre-written answer papers
(l)For offering or actually giving in cash or in
kind any form of inducement to anyone connected
with the conduct of university examinations or the
valuation of the answer books or others tests to
secure unfair or unlawful advantage.
(m) Forging a document or using a forged
document knowing it to be forged in any matter
relating to the examination.

(n) Tampering in the statement of marks

provisional and degree certificates issued by the
university.

III MALPRACTICE/ USE OF UNFAIR MEANS

BY THE INVIGILATOR/ (a) If the person involved is a
STAFF/SUPERVISOR Government servant the competent authority
Helping the candidates to copy by any means. shall be informed to proceed against the
individual under disciplinary rules. He/she
will not be appointed as
invigilator/supervisor by the university for a
period of two years.
(b) If the person involved is employed

92
 as faculty in the private affiliated colleges,
he/she will not be recognized as a faculty
by the university from any of the affiliated
colleges thereafter.
(c) If the person involved is employed
as a non-teaching staff of the private
Affliated College the constitution
permanently and he/she will not be
recognized as a faculty from any of the
affiliated colleges by the university
V Malpractice/use of unfair means by the thereafter.
institution
Any institution through its
officials/staff/representatives approaching or
influencing directly a question paper setter,
examiner, evaluator, moderator, tabulator or any The institution concerned shall be
other person connected with the university disaffiliated by the …..years (period will be
examination to leak out the question paper setter decided by examination disciplinary
examiner, evaluator, moderator or any other committee)
person connected with the university examination
to leak out the question paper or any part thereof
or to enhance marks or favorably evaluate or to
change the award in favour of the candidate or to
help the candidates in mass copying by any
means.

After the recent investigation found that nine students of stanly medical College had
cheated using Bluetooth technology, the Tamilnadu Dr.MGR Medical University has decided to
install jammers, cameras and metal detectors at examination centers. The system will be in place
for all the exams the university conducts. Centers which don’t have the stipulated equipment for
screening and monitoring will not be allowed to conduct exams.
As a part of the new rule, the university did not allow students to apply and get copies of
their answer sheets for reevaluation instead, two teachers will evaluate the answer papers and
only the higher score will be considers.
As PR MCI UG Regulation 1997 every student is supposed to pass by getting at least 50% marks
in theory and in practical separately one then he/she is declared passed.
The supreme court (August 2009) said that the students have the right to inspect and get
photocopy their answer sheets after their evaluation under the Right To Information (RTI) Act.
The university will not share the answer sheets of the examine.

93
TEST DEVELOPMENT – STEPS AND IMPLEMENTATION.
Selecting appropriate tests.
 Standardized tests must show evidence of reliability, content and predictive validity and
evidence of fairness and equality as shown by test performance across test taking sub
groups based on culture, race or gender.
 Tests should be appropriate to their purpose and have good technical quality.
 Tests should be screened for offensive content or sceneries.
 Tests should be reviewed regularly for content accuracy and relevance to practice.
 Test vendors should provide technical manuals that provide information in the tests blue
print, test development procedures, psychometric testing and norms.
 Informed test takers.
 Students should be notified as early as possible about the nature and content of the test
and any consequences of taking the test (ie) how test scores will be used.
 Students should be informed about the tests different modalities (print, web, verbal) and
available accommodations.
 A process should be implemented to document that students have read, understood and
accepted the guidelines.
ADMINISTERING AND SCORING TESTS.
 Detailed test administration procedures should be clearly outlined a head of time and
adhered to (timeframe, use of books/notes)
 Scoring procedures for evaluate measures (clinical performance. Simulation. Case
analysis) should be delineated.
 Interpreter reliability should be regularly assessed.
 Psychometric analysis should be used when possible to assure that the test is valid and
internally consistent.
 Methods of protecting the integrity of test items for standardized tests or other forms of
testing in which the items will be used in more than one context, should be clearly
defined.
REPORTING/INTERPRETING TEST RESULTS.
 Detailed norming.
 Information on standardized tests should be provided.
 On tests used for predictive purposes periodic evaluation of predictive validity should be
included.
 More than one mode of learning assessment should be used to make high stakes decisions

FACTORS THAT AFFECT ACHIEVEMENT TEST RESULTS

 Grade Level
 Number of years at current school
 Age

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  Out – of - school experience
 Health and nutrition
 Self – Concept
 Socio – economic level
 School environment
 Test Content
 Test administration.
PRACTICAL OR PERFORMANCE TEST
PRACTICAL EXAMINATION
Introduction:
Practical examinations are integrating part of nursing examination. The aim of
practical examination is to evaluate the nursing competes practical skills. Practical
examination is essentially a combination of test methods like rating scales, check lists etc.
an oral examination also accompanies the practical test. In order to a supplement the
information obtained through out.
To develop appropriate professional skills over a period of time with consistent
practice. Transportation facilities should be provided to take the students to the place of
examination.
The students proceed through a series of “steps” and undertake a variety of
practical tasks like assessing the patient formulating nursing diagnosis according to
priority planning the care implementing the care and evaluating the care making sheets,
check list and rating scales are prepared in advance to improve the reliability of scoring.
All students are thus evaluated on the same criteria by the same examiners.
Purposes
The practical examination should be conducted in actual fields (i.e. ) hospital,
clinic, wards and health center’s associated with parent school of nursing to assess.
o The ability of student to give care in a practical situation.
o The attitude of the student towards client.
o Able to meet the needs of the client and work along with others.
o Expertise in nursing techniques. Ability to give the best nursing care
possible according to the facilities available in the field.
o Ability to give need based health education skills in proper recording and
reporting.
The conventional type of practical examination used to assess the performance of
some procedures at length and oral examination. Such method lacks objectivity and
standardized conditions allowing extraneous variables to action and makes it difficult to
arrange teachers to observe the procedure through out. These days more objective type of

95
tests are being used to examine the proficiency for the medical and nursing students in
their clinical areas.
METHODS OF PRACTICAL EXAMINATION
o Oral (viva voce) examination (non standardized)
o OSCE (standardized)
o OSPE (standardized)
OSPE
OBJECTIVE STRUCTURED PRACTICAL EXAMINATION
OBJECTIVE- examiners use a check list for evaluating students.
STRUCTURED- every trainee sees the same problem and performs the same task
in same time frame.
PRACTICAL-the tasks are representative of those faced in real situations.
EXAMINATION-the skills are assessed in the form of examination.

INTRODUCTION
Objective structured practical examination is a new pattern of practical
examination. In OSPE each component of clinical competence is tested uniformly and
objectively for are the students who are tasking up a practical examination at a given
place.
The term OSPE is derived from OSCE in 1975. Which was later extended to
practical examination and modified by observe in the conventional practical exam several
attempts were largely related to the adoption of appropriate measures for being the
practical exam towards objectivity so that they become valid and reliable.

More radical will be the implementation of an objective type testing pattern for
best graduate students. The objective structured clinical/practical examinations will be
introduced this academic year with guidance from foreign medical universities that are
already implementing this system. Skill laboratories, if the vice chancellor has his way,
will be set up in various medical colleges through private-pupil partnerships in order to
give students more hands on experience. Already such a lab has been set up at the
orthopedics department of Madras Medical College and preparations are on to set up a
wet lab for anatomy (July 13, 2010, The Hindu, Ramya kannan).
DEFINITION
OSPE is an assessment tool in which the competency of a student is evaluated and
were organized OSPE would test the students competence in communication skills,
psychomotor skills and knowledge competency.

96
ORGANISING OSPE
In order to organize an OSPE one has to spell objectives of practical experiences
in a given discipline related to particular subjects such as practical examination in
medical surgical nursing, each student is supposed to.
a. Demonstrate practical skills
b. Make accurate observations
c. Analysis interpret data
d. Identify the patient’s problems
e. Plan alternative nursing interventions.
TYPES OF STATION
The stations are of two types
 Procedure station
 Response station(question station)
Procedure station:
It requires a student to perform a task. Monitoring of oral temperature, observe
and identify prepared slide under microscope.
Simultaneously she is being observed and marked against the check list being
prepared in advance by a silent but vigilant examiner. Eventually the student gets a score
according to the skill demonstrated by her.
for example
Check list:
1. Places the slides correctly at the stages of microscope.
2. Adjust the binocular eyepiece to his eyes for viewing the objects.
3. Focus the slide first in low magnification
4.Uses oil immersion at high magnification
5. Uses both the course and fine adjustment to focus the object given in the slide.
Question station:
The student answers the question being asked on the answer sheet in the place
specified. The question station may have a question related to the procedure station such
as convert 39oc fever to Fo. By using a formula and on procedure station student is asked
to monitor oral temperature and record it.
Questions:
Write the name of tissues that you have identified from the slide placed under
microscope.

97
 Write the magnification which you have used it sees the tissues under the
microscope.
Write the name of oil you have used to observe tissues under microscope.
Write the name of part of microscope.
Advantages of OSPE

Demonstrate practical skills:

This may be done by assigning a student to,
 Monitor and record oral temperature.
 Convert Celsius to Fahrenheit
 Attach a cardiac monitor to a patient
 Test urine testing for sugar.
 Start an IV. drip on a patient
 Interpret the type of fever from the given graph.
 Identify the type of arrhythmias from the ECG graph provided.
 Differentiate between normal and abnormal ECG.
These questions may not require the examiner to observe the student in action.
These questions can answered on a paper which can be collected later on for evaluation.
Analyze and interpret data:
This is one of the important skill components to be judged for the continuity of
patient care. The nurse has to perform this task where she may cone across normal and
abnormal data in relation to patient’s investigation reports.
 The student is asked to interpret
 Hemoglobin normal or abnormal
 Liver function test reports.
 Renal function test reports.
 Laboratory reports.
Identity patient’s problems:
In order to organize her work the nurse has to identify the patient’s problems and
set priority so as cater to the immediate needs of the patient such as to identify.
 Dyspnea on the basis of her observations.
 Rigor following blood of her observations.
 CSF rhinorrhea following head injury.
 Plan alternative nursing intervention in a given situation.
 In order to provide need based care the nurse planes alternative. Nursing
interventions, as in case of airway obstruction the student nurse is expected to

98
  Keep the patient in sideling position.
 Do or pharyngeal suction.
 Start o2 inhalation if required.
 Keep the things ready for end tracheal intubation.
 Assist the doctor in incubating the patient
In order to assess the certain practical skills, the OSPE is organized is the from of
several stations through which the candidates rotate till they complete one full round.
SCORE IN OSPE
For each specific skills a check list is prepared by breaking the skill being tested
with essential steps and score is assigned to each step which is proportional to the
importance of the step related to a particular procedure.
The objectivity in assessment is achieved by getting each component tested at one
particular station by the same examiner and have the student’s rotate through all the
stations.
Examiner’s mark sheet:
1 Arrangement of 2 marks
equipment
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

2 Preparation of 2 marks
medicine
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

3 Communication with 2 marks

patient
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

4 administration of 2 marks
medicine
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

5 Proper 2 marks

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 replacement of
articles and
dispose
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

 FAIL  BORDERLINE  PASS

Space for comments.
The time allowed is same for all the stations 3.5 minutes (not less than 4 min) is
the length time allocated to each station.
The following are the outlines of an OSPE of 6 stations which are designed for Ist
year Bsc Nsg students.
Station Question Method of scoring
1. Procedure station Check and Record BP Observed and scored by
the examiner a using the
check list
2. Question station List 5 factors which help Answer on a sheet
in maintaining BP provided
3. Procedure station Take oral temperature and Observed and scored by
record it the examiner B
4. Question station Convert Celsius fever into Answer on a sheet
Fahrenheit by using the provided
formula
5. Procedure station Test the urine for albumin Observed and scored by
and record it the examiner C
6. Question station List five causes of Answer on a sheet
albuminuria provided
Examiner A,B,C stand in a place from where they can have a good view of what
the candidate is doing at a station. They have a check list on which they tick as they
observe. A copy of fresh check list is used for every candidate and examiner concerned
enters the roll number of each candidates so as to know the score of each candidate
separately.
Instructions to be given
Write the roll number in bold figures and display it on the white coat so that the
examiner can identify the candidate. Students are asked to report at a particular time all of
these, recollected in a room or call and explained the procedure of the examination.

100
 Students may be given instructions that they will rotate around station spending 3
minutes at each station. A bell will ring at the beginning and at the end of 3 minutes.
All each station the instructors are asked to demonstrate a skill, make observation
or make calculation from the data provided or answer the question asked.
At each station further specific instructions are given as what to do.
As the students enter the rooms are invigilator rings the bell with the help of a time
at every 3 minutes interval.
At the end of OSPE the check list of examiners A,B,C pertaining to a given
candidate and her answer sheets pet together to give her a final score.
Through OSPE one can find out at what particular step the candidate in carrying
out a specific procedure and subsequent feedback can be given to rectify his mistake,
instead of making a general comment like “performance was good” or “Most of them did
well”.

ADVANTAGE
 It is fair, objective, reliable and valid than the traditional system of examination.
 All students are subjected to the same standardized test.
 Emphasis is shifted from testing factual knowledge to testing of skills, that too in a
short time.
 It helps to ensure wide coverage of all practical skills.
 Multiple psychomotor skills and their related knowledge may be assessed at one
point within limited time.
 Scoring is done more objectively as the evaluation tool is structured,
(e.g.) check list.
 OSPE provides integration of teaching and evaluation.
 Student take more interest due to variety and keep themselves alert during the
whole process.
 Exam is modified easily as per institutional circumstances.
 Large no of students can be tested within the short time.
DISADVANTAGES
 Costly
 Time consuming to construct and administer
 Needs space
 Tracking needed to achieve reliability
 If students not familiar with OSPE’s, must be oriented to this assessment format.

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OSCE
OBJECTIVE STRUCTURE CLINICAL EVALUATION
OSCE is a kind of exam not a test .It was developed as an evaluation tool, in
Dundee and Glasgow in the early 1970’s by Dr.Harden and Colleagues. The method was
gradually picked up widely first by USA and followed by U.K.OSCE is now used in over
50 countries worldwide. It has been accepted as the main method for clinical skills
assessment in medical schools and licensure bodies across USA, Canada, UK, Australia,
New Zealand and other countries due to its accepted merits over other evaluation tools.
This approach has been established through experiments and is being used for under
graduate medical, clinical and practical evaluation in some institutions.
Definition
The OSCE is an approach to the assessment of clinical competence in which the
planned or structured way with attention being paid to the objectivity of the examination.
-Harden , 1988.
Objective structure clinical examination is a method of assessment in clinical and
practical examination where predetermined decisions are made on the competencies
being tested, where checklists are prepare for a good rating.
MODIFICATION OF OSCE
OSLER: objective structured long examination record.
OSPE: objective structured practical examination.
OSVE: objective structured video examination
OSTE: objective structured teaching evaluation
OSPRE: objective structured performance related examination.
OSSE: objective structured selection exam.
TOSCE (GOSCE): team (group) objective structured clinical examination.
The OSCE can be highly successful as in instrument to assess competence in
medicine and the approach has many advantages over more traditional methods. The
OSCE has offered a strikingly new and exciting way of making valid assessment of
clinical performance of medical student.
PURPOSE
 Provide feedback on performance.
 Evaluate basic clinical skill.
 Measure Minimal Competency.
HOW TO PREPARE OSCE
The key to a successful OSCE is careful planning.
One: selection of the examination committee.

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 An examination coordinating committee is made up of members also members
who are committee to the evaluate and educational process course on the requirement of
the licensing body.

COMMITTEE SHOULD PREPARE AN EXAM BLUE PRINT

History taking Physical Lab data Patient
examination interpretation management
(1) (1) (1) (1)

DEVELOP SCENERIO
 Define the purpose of the station
 Candidate instruction
 Scoring checklist
 Standardized patient instructions
 Instruction for station set up
DEFINE THE PURPOSE OF THE STATION
State the skill and domain to be tested
 Skill-physical examination
 Domain- cardiology
The number of members who make make-up this committee is not as important as the
intensity of the investment of each member.
Responsibility of the examination committee determined the content of the
examination, development and implementation.
It is important that this committee has the capacity and personal to address related
to reliability and validity.
Two: The examination coordinator
The function of the examination coordinator ( M.D. or Ph.D.educator) are the
catalyst that facilitates the smooth working of the committee in developing, implementing
and assessing the performance of the OSCE.
Three: lists of skills, behaviors and attitudes to be assessed.
The examination will measure objectively the competencies in specific areas of
behavior, techniques, attitudes and decision-making strategies based on the objectives of
the OSCE

103
Candidate instructions:
Candidate instructions must be clear and counsel.

Scoring checklist:
The checklist should be complete and include the main components of the skill
being assess.

Standardized patient instructions:

These instruction must be detailed enough to guarantee standardization patient
playing the same role.
Instruction for station set up :
Lists are equipment required for the station.

Four: The examinees

The examinee is the student, resident or fellow in training or at the end of training
of a prescribed course.
Five: The examiners
Most stations will require an examiner, although some stations do not. The
examiner at the station where clinical skills (history taking, physical examination,
interviewing and communication) are assessed may be a standardized person.
Six: the examination site
The examination site is part of a special teaching facility in some institutions.
When such facilities are not available, the examination may be conducted in an outpatient
facility.
Seven: examinations station
The total number of stations will vary based on a function of the number of skills,
behaviors and additional items to be tested. For most clerkships or courses, the total will
vary from 10-25.

NUMBER OF STATIONS
The number of stations in an examination refers the time allocated for each station
determines the time required to complete the whole examination. Twenty stations each of
five minutes can be complete in 1 hour 40 min’s. While 20 stations each of 10 minutes
require 3 hours 20 min’s to complete.
DURATION OF STATION

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 Times ranging from 4 to 15 minutes have been minutes have been reported in
difference examinations and a fire minute station probably most frequently chosen. This
time depend to some extent on the competencies to be assessed in the examination.
COUPLET STATION
Some competencies may best be assessed by coupled or linked stations.
The use of linked stations extends the time available to complete the task.

History Finding Treatment or

collection interpretation management

Duration of stations has been fixed. Make sure that the expected of the student
can be accomplished.
If necessary some stations which are allocated double the standard time. Such
double stations will require to be duplicated in the examination.

OBSERVER ASSESSMENT METHOD

 Checklist
 Rating scale

Checklist for assessment of a physical finding.

Do Don’t
1.Introduces self to the
patient
2.Explain the patient what
will be do
3.Demonstrate concern for
patient
4. Inspection for any
swelling, erythema
deformity
5.Inspection, standing,
anterior, posterior
6.Palpation

105
 Simple communication skill’s checklist (rating scale).
1.Interpersonal excellent Very good good Fair Poor
skill listen 5 4 3 2 1
carefully
2. Interviewing
skill user words
patient can
understand
organized

Standard patient:
A standardized patient is an individual with a health problem that is a chronic but
state condition, standardized or simulated patient usually used when properly trained for
history and physical examination.
Standardized patients may be volunteers or paid employee.
Ideally a physician will also observe the standardize patients demonstrating their
scenario before the examination.
Training for these individuals can vary from 3 minutes to 15 hour depending on
the complexity of the case.
FACTOR LEADING TO LOWER RELIABILITY
• Too few station or too little testing time.
• Checklists or items that don’t discriminate (too easy or too hard).
• Unreliable patient or inconsistent portraits by standard patient.
• Examiners who score idiosyncratically.
• Administrative problem (disorganized staff or noisy room).
RUNNING THE EXAM
Space requirements
Signaling station change
Exam day
Collecting result
Budget and dedicated
Points to consider:
Hare spare standardized patients and examiners available for the exam as life is
unpredictable.
Have backup equipment such as view box, batteries.
Have staff available during the examination to maintain exam security.

106
 Make sure the bells or buzzers can be heard from all location with closed door.
For each examination prepare an extra station which can be set up with minimal effort.

OSCE DESIGN
Student’s move from one station to the next.

Observed stations clinician examiners

EXAMPLES OF POSSIBLE STATIONS OF OSCE

Counseling Intubation

Breast palpation CPR

History taking
107
 VARIETY AND MIX OF OSCE STATIONS
 I traditional OSCE -patient based, clinical task, written task.
 Sp[standardized patient] based test -patient based.
 Station couplets -patient based, written tasks.

ASSESSMENT FORMAT
PROFESSIONALP

Behavior
DOES RACTICE

attitude/skills
SHOWS HOW OSCES

Cognition KNOWS HOW EMQS,SEQS

knowledge

KNOWS MCQ

Miller GE, assessment of clinical skills, competence performance

SPECIFIC SKILLS TESTED AT EACH STATION

 History taking
 Explanation
 Clinical examination
 Procedures
QUALITY OF AN ASSESSMENT
 Reliability
 Validity
 Educational impact
 Acceptability
 Feasibility
HARDEN’S 12 TIPS FOR ORGANIZING AN OSCE
 What is to be assessed?
 Duration of stations
 Number of stations
 Use of examiners
 Range of approaches
 New stations
108
  Organization of the examination
 Change signal records
Assessment-what is to be tested during examination?
Number of stations-within the time constraints include as many station as possible as
there is good evidence that the reliability of the examination
Duration of stations-after fixing the duration make sure that the task expected of the
student can be accomplished.
Use of examiner- makes sure that examiners are fully briefed prior to examination.
New stations-new stations should be tested with one or more student before use in
examination.
Organization of then examination-There should be co-ordinator appointed in advance
of the examination.
Resource requirement-Produce a checklist for each station in exam
Plan examination-After the exam is set up, the direction in place for students that they
can find their way easily from one station to next.
Signal-Before examination, check that the audible sound can be heard clearly at all
locations on the examination.
Records-Keep a file into which all resources required such as station numbers, master
sheets of instruction to students, check lists, rating scales and so on.
ADVANTAGES
 Every candidate does same examination
 Greater opportunity for objectivity
 OSCE stations are reusable
 Valid
 Well predetermined objective.
 Better psychometrics than traditional methods.
 Variety maintains student interest.
 There is increased faculty student interaction (feedback).
 A large number of students can be tested within a relatively short period.
To test students ability to integrate knowledge, clinical skills and
communication with the patient.
 Periods unique programmatic evaluation.
 Two activity which the department college, which promoters team work.
DISADVANTAGES
 Costly
 Time consuming to construct and administer
 Needs space

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  Training need to achieve reliability
 Need experience to administer.
 Boredom to examiners.
 If students not familiar with OSCE’s must oriented to this assessment
format.
 Offers opportunity for compromised test security.
 Provides assessment of case-specific skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes.
 Knowledge and skills are tested is compartment.
 Might be distressing to the student.
 When used correctly the OSCE can be highly successful as an instrument to
assess competence in medicine.
ORAL EXAMINATION/VIVA VOCE
Viva voce is a Latin phrase literally meaning “with living voice” but most often
translated as “by word of mouth”. The oral examination or viva voce has been the
integral part of clinical evaluation in may health professional’s education.
It is usually confined to assess only there attributes, which cannot be measured by
other methods of evaluation. Evaluator and the student sit face to face while asking the
question. Students are expected to respond almost immediately to the questions.
QUESTIONING

PRINCIPLES OF CONDUCTING VIVA VOCE

 Determine the learning outcome that is to be tested.
 White selecting the examiners ensure that a new examiner is paired with the
experienced one.
 Decide beforehand what is to be assessed by writing down the question and
deciding on the model answers in priority order.

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  Include those questions, which measure the higher cognitive abilities like
interpretation, problem solving and applications.
 Use simple and clear language in framing the question.
 Create congenial atmosphere for the students to respond at case by giving them
time to warm up.
 Ask the same similar question to all the examinees prompted the reliability of the
test.
 Start with easy questions then gradually go into difficult one.
 Give enough time to answer, but set the time limits.
 Be receptive and listen carefully to the answers.
 Avoid cross-questioning to the students and giving judgments.
 Give an alternative question if the student cannot answer a particular question.
 Use check list to mark the student’s responses.
MERITS
 It enables to test interactive skills.
 We can test all levels of knowledge.
 It provides an opportunity to depend his statement.

COMMON ERRORS
 Leniency
 Central tendency
 Halo effect
 Logical error.
TO DECREASE COMMON ERRORS
 Objective structured approach.
 List out the tasks and skills.
 Determine the duration.
 Determine the number of questions.
 Fix the % score for
(e.g.) cognitive, psychomotor, affective domain

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SCORING

3.TEST OF INTELLIGENCE
INTRODUCTION
Intelligence tests to give a numerical value to one’s mental ability by comparing
them to others one of the achievement of modern psychology is the development of
scientific devices of measuring the general mental ability or intelligence. These are called
intelligence test. These are the result of belief that intelligence exists in a certain amount
that varies from individual to individual. These are standardized tests commonly used in
schools. Proper administration of standardized tests, require special training. Many
intelligence tests are standardized. This means that they are designed to be administered
under the same conditions for all test takers.
HISTORY
Galton’s study of Hereditary Genius (late 1800’s)
Alferd Binet(1904)-1st intelligence test
Stanford Binet (1916)-intelligence Quotient
Revised by Terman
DEFINITION
Intelligence: the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal
effectively with the environment.
-Weschsler (www.cliffsnotes.com)
Intelligence test: A standardized test used to establish an intelligence level rating by
measuring a subjects ability to form concepts, solve problems, acquire information,
reason and perform other intellectual operations.
- www.answers.com
A test designed to determine the relative mental capacity of a person to learn.
-www.Merriam.webstar.com

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Intelligence tests are psychological tests that are designed to measure a variety of mental
functions, such as reasoning, comprehension, and judgment.
-www.minddisorders.com
Intelligence testing is the estimation of a student’s current intellectual functioning
through performance of varies tasks designed to assess different types of reasoning. IQ is
typically measured by standardized testing with norm referenced tests.
- Ann Logsdon (2012).
Intelligence tests are psychological tests used to measure a parent’s ability to perform
intellectual tasks.
An intelligence test is a tool used to measure thinking ability in terms of a standardized
measure. - Lachx, 2011.
TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE TEST
Individual intelligence test:
For individual test, only one individual can be tested at one time and the method
used is careful question of individual’s reaction to the testing procedure.
Verbal tests and performance tests (a typical form of non-verbal tests) are done
for individual intelligence test. It may include several types of tasks and may involve
easel test books for pointing responses, puzzles and game like tasks and question and
answer sessions. Some tasks are timed. They are considered good for intensive detailed
study of human mind.
An individual intelligence test is one which is administered to one individual at a
time.
An individual test of intelligence enable the examiner to observe subject’s work,
reactions and performance during test.
Binet intelligence Test/Binet Simon Test/Intelligence Quotient (IQ):
French psychologist Alfred Binet and Father Of Modern Intelligence Testing in
1905 published a series of intelligence tests. He introduced the term I.Q, the intelligence
Quotient (I.Q) is the ratio of MA average intellectual level of a particular age to CA
(chronological Age) multiples by 100 to eliminate the decimal point.
𝑀𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑔𝑒
Intelligent Quotient = x100
𝐶ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
An IQ of 100, or average, result when chronological and mental ages are equal.
Because it is impossible to measure age associated changes in intellectual power after the
age of 15 with available intelligence tests, higher divisor in the IQ formula is 15.
Intelligence goes on growing up to 16-20 years of age.

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Terman’s Standard Binet Test
In the revised Stanford edition of the Terman Merril test this classification has
been presented as follows.
I.Q Category
Below 70 Mentally defectives
70-75 Borderline or feeble minded
75-90 Dull and backward
90-95 Low average
95-105 Average
105-125 Superior
125-140 Very superior
140 and above Genius
Based on Indian Made Intelligence tests or Adaptations
I.Q Categories
0-25 Idiots
25-50 Imbecile
51-70 Morons or feeble minded
71-80 Borderline or dull
81-90 Low normal
91-110 Normal
111-120 Superior
121-140 Very superior
140-above Genius/near genius

Individual Performance Tests:

In these tests the contents and responses are in the form of performance and
language is not used at all in these tests the items which require responses in terms of
motor activities are included.
1.Picture Arrangement or Picture Completion
In picture arrangement tests the task is to arrange in series the given picture where
as in picture completion test the subject is required to complete the picture with the help
of given pieces cut out of each picture. The Healy pictorial completion test is a good
example of such test which provides a good estimate of the intelligence of the subject
without making use of language. Visuoperceptive defects become evident when mistakes
are made on this (picture completion) picture arrangement provides data about subject’s
cognitive style.

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2.To Fit The Blocks In The Hole
Test material of such types provides numerous blocks and a board in which there
are holes corresponding to these blocks. The subject has to fit the blocks in these
corresponding holes (in the board). Examples are Seguin form board test and Goddard
form board test.
3.Tracing a Maze
Test material consists of a series of mazes of increasing difficulty, each pointed on
a separate sheet. The subject is required to trace with pencil, the path form entrance to
exit. Porteus Maze Test is an example involving such type of activities.
4.Block Building (or) Cube Construction
Where the subject is asked to make a structure or design by means of blocks or
cubes supplied to him. The examples of the tests, involving such type of activities are
Merrill Palmer Block Building. Koh’s Block Design Test Alexander’s Pass-along test etc.
5.Block Design
This requires subjects to match coloured blocks and visual designs. Brain dys
function involving impairment of left-right dominance interferes with performance.
6.Object Assembly
Subject must assemble objects such as the figure of a woman or an animal, in the
proper order and organization, Visuoperception, somatoperception and Manual dextrity
are tested.
7.Digit Symbol:
In this subject receive a code that pairs symbols with digits. The test consists of
matching a series of digits to their corresponding symbols in as little time as possible.
8.Situation Tests:
In these tests subject is placed in some actual life situation and intelligence is
assessed through the reaction, mode of approach emotions etc.

Individual Verbal Test/ Language Test:

In these subject makes use of language for which instructions are given in words-
written oral or both. The test content is loaded with verbal material which may include
variety of items as below.
1.Information:
This subtest covers general information and knowledge and is subject to cultural
variables persons from low socio-economic groups with little schooling do not perform as
well as those from high socio-economic groups with more schooling.

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2.Comprehension:
This subject measures subjects knowledge if social conventions and common
sense and examiner qualities of a person’s reasoning and thinking by posing questions
about proverbs and how persons ought to behave under certain circumstances.
3.Arithmetic:
The ability to do arithmetic and other simple calculations is reflected on this
subtest, which is adversely influenced by anxiety, poor attention and concentration.
4.Similarities:
This subtest is a sensitive indicator of intelligence. It covers the ability to abstract
by asking subjects to explain similarity between two things.
5.Digit Span:
Immediate retentions is measured in this subtest. Subjects are asked to learn a
series of two to nine digits, which are immediately recalled both forward and backward.
Anxiety, poor attention span, and brain dysfunction interfere with recall.
6.Vocabulary:
Subjects are asked to define 35 vocabulary words of increasing difficulty.
Intelligence has a high correlation with vocabulary which is related to level of education.
Wechsler Adults Intelligence Scale (WAIS):
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) is the best standardized and most
widely used clinical practice today. It was constructed by David Wechsler (1955)
American Psychologist at New York University Medical Centre and Bellevue Psychiatric
Hospital, designed in1939. The original WAIS has gone through several revisions. The
latest revision, the WAIS-III, is designed for persons 16 to 89 years of age. A scale for
children ages 5 through 15 years has been devised (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children-III) WISC III and a scale for children ages 4 to 6 ½ years (Wechsler Preschool
and Primary Scale of Intelligence).
Group Verbal Intelligence Test
The tests which necessitate the use of language and are applied to a group of
individuals at a time
o Army Alpha Test
o Army General classification Test
o Verbal Group Test of Intelligence.
Group Non-Verbal Intelligence Tests
These tests do not necessitate the use of language and are applicable to the group of
individuals at a time.
Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence scale

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Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test
This test was developed in the U.K. It is a very popular non-verbal group test of
intelligence. The test has been designed
o To evaluate the subjects ability.
o To see relationship between geometrical figures or designs.
o To perceive structure of the design in order to select the appropriate part for
completion of each pattern academic area, sometimes include a cognitive
measure.
In general, group tests are not recommended for the purpose of identifying a child with a
disability. In some cases, however, they can be helpful as a screening measure to
consider whether further testing is needed and can provide good background information
on a child’s academic history.
Group administered intelligence tests orders a series of different problems and are
generally used in mass testing situations such as the military and schools examples of
group test are
 Multidimensional Aptitude Battery
 The Cognitive Abilities test
 Scholastic Assessment Test
There has been a trend towards the use of multiple choice items. Many of these
tests have separately timed sub tests. A major distinction between types of items is
verbal and non-verbal. In recent years there has been a trend away from verbal and
mathematical items towards non-verbal represented problems in picture (Because of
cultural bias)
Reversed (WPPSI-R)
The WAIS comprises II sub tests made up of six verbal subtests (Information,
comprehension, Arithmetic, Similarities, Digit span and Vocabulary) and performance
Test (Picture completion, Block Design, picture arrangement, object assembly, Digit
symbol).
Kaufman Assessment Battery For Children
Abbreviated as the K-ABC, this test was developed in 1983 by Dr. Alan S.
Kaufman and Dr. Nadeen. L. Kaufman of the Yale child study center at the Yale School
of Medicine. The K-ABC assesses the achievement and intellectual capacity in children
and teenagers, and was specially designed for preschool children ,children who are
members of minority groups and children with learning challenges psychologists use
results from the K-ABC in conjunction with other test results to determine educational
placement, to create education plans for special needs students and to help with the
diagnosis of neurological disorders.

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The Pinter Patterson scale
This scale was designed in 1917 in USA manly for use with deaf children and with
linguistically backward children. It is quite a comprehensive scale which includes 15
subtests,
 Mare
 Foal picture board
 Segun Form Board
 the five figure board
 the two figure board
 the casuist board
 the triangle test
 the Diagonal test
 the Healy form Board
 Puzzle test
 Manikin test
 the Feature Profile test
 the Adaptation Board
 the cube test.
The performance on this scale is times and the marks are given for the performance
which are added up and compared with the established norms given in the manual to
interpret the subject’s general intelligence.
The Arthur,s Point Scale
This scale has been developed by Madam Grace Arthur by adopting a point scale
rather than the medium mental age for the method of scoring. Its new revised version
includes the following sub tests

 know cubes
 Seguin form Board
 Two form figure Board
 casuist Form Board
 Manikin
 Feature Profile
 Mare and Foal
 Healy Picture completion
 Koh’s Black Design Test

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The Alexander,s Battery Of Performance Tests
This scale has been designed in Edinburg University by W.P. Alexander. It
consists of three tests –
 Passalong,
 Block designs and
 cube –construction.
Passalong test consists of small coloured cubes, blue and red put in differing
numbers in small wooden shallow boxes and the position of these cubes is to be
reversed without lifting them from the boxes by removing this way or that there are
nine such patterns printed on cards and the subject is to manipulate the cubes within
the space in the wooden box without lifting so that their position is in reversed order
(i.e.) if placed towards one side indicating blue color, they bare to be shifted to the
opposite side indicate by red color. The performance is evaluated in term of the
successes in the task and the time taken.
The Koh’s Block design test, at present consists of 17 graded patterns which are printed
on cards and there are coloured cubes matching the colour of the patterns but the cubes
are coloured half blue and half yellow, red or white. The subject is required to
manipulate the cubes to match with the pattern one by one within the time limit to earn
the maximum marks or to get deductions in the marks if the time limit is executed.
The cube construction test consists of 26 cubes, some coloured on three sides,
some on two, some on one and only one on none .With the help of these cubes the subject
is required to make a square block consisting of nine cubes so that three sides are
coloured and the top side is colorless.
Similarly, there is another square block consisting of nine cubes in which all the
sides are coloured and the top side is colorless.
Similarly, there is another square block consisting of nine cubes in which all
the sides are coloured but the top and the bottom are to be colorless and the third block
consists of eight cubes of which all the four sides are colorless. The subject is to use his
judgment to place the cubes at the right positions to construct the square block with the
help of the cubes as quickly as possible and the scoring is done in terms of points in
accordance with the time taken.
Bhatia,s Battery Of Performance Test
Dr. Chander Mohan Bhatia developed a battery of performance test known as
Bhatia’s Battery of Performance Tests. It contains the following five sub tests
It contains the following five sub tests
o Koh’s Block Design Test
o Alexander’s pass-along Test

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 o Pattern Drawing Test
o Immediate memory tests for digits (with an alternative from suitable
for illiterates
o Picture construction Test
Wechsler Bellevae Intelligence Scale
This scale is available in two forms. The one form WISC is used for
children and the other WAIS for adults. It is an individual test which has a unique quality
of being named as verbal and performance scale. These test are listed below in the order
in which they are administered.
 Verbal Scale
1. Test of General information
2. Test of General comprehension’
3. Test of Arithmetic reasoning
4. Test of distinction between similarities
5. Test of Digit span
6. Test of Vocabulary.

 Performance Scale
1. Digit symbol Test
2. Picture completion Test
3. Block Design Test
4. Picture arrangement Test
5. Object assembly Test

Group Intelligence Tests

Group Intelligence tests usually consist of a paper test booklet and scanned scoring
sheet group achievement tests which assess.
Computerized Tests
Computerized tests are becoming more widely available, examiners must consider
the need of the child before choosing this format.
PURPOSE
 To obtain an idea of the person’s intellectual potential.
 Used as tools in school placement, in determining the presence of a
learning disability or a developmental delay, in identifying giftedness and
in tracking intellectual development.
 Included in neuropsychological testing to assess the brain function of
individuals with neurological impairments.

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  To assess reasoning, comprehension, working memory, and processing
speed.
 To measure verbal and quantitative reasoning, short –term memory and
other mental functions.
 Helping teacher tailor instruction to meet a student’s unique pattern of
cognitive strengths and weaknesses.
TEST CONSTRUCTION
To be useful tests, including intelligence tests must be constructed using the
established criteria of standardization reliability and validity.

DESCRIPTION
When taking an intelligence test, a person can expect to do a variety of tasks.
These tasks may include having to answer questions that are asked verbally, doing
mathematical problems and doing a variety of tasks that require eye-hand co-ordination.
Some tasks may be timed and require the person to work as quickly as possible.

INSTRUCTION
 A person should make sure that the test has been adequately developed and
has solid research to show is reliability and validity .
 It requires clinically trained examiner. The test should only be
administered and interpreted by a trained professional.
 The scores from one intelligence test, that measures a single factor, will not
be similar to scores on another intelligence test that measures a variety of
facts.
 It can be culturally biased against certain groups.
 It never exclusively measure in born intelligence.
 The scales used deviate considerably; the typical standard is that 100 equals
average, intelligence, with a standard deviation of is in either direction.
Each new revision of a test sets a new (higher) standard of norm or average
to compensate for what is known as the Flynn Effect – an increase in
average intelligence over time not completely understood but perhaps
related to nutrition, environmental stimulating and other factors of a
developing society.

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ADVANTAGES
 To compare the results of intelligence tests helps school systems determine
possible gaps in various learning areas.
 To determine which academic areas need curriculum changes.
 To category the student as low average, average, high average.
 to determine learning disability,
 To determine employee possesses the reasoning and decision – making skills
needed to perform well on job assignment.
 The scores revealed talents in many people which have led to an improvement
in their educational opportunities .
 The results of intelligence test can be used in carrying out research in the feeds
of education.

DISADVANTAGES
o Inadequate in explaining the multidimensional aspects of
intelligence.
o Some Intelligence do not measure a person’s everyday functioning,
social knowledge, mechanical skills and creativity.
o Not a perfect indicator of a person’s intellectual potential.

5.TEST OF APTITUDE
INTRODUCTION
An aptitude is a component of a company to do a certain kind of work at a certain level,
which can also be considered ‘’talent’ ’Aptitudes is not knowledge,understanding,learner
acquired abilities[skills]or attitude. The innate nature of aptitude is in contrast to
achievement, which represents knowledge or ability that is gained.
Aptitude tests are designed the logical reasoning or thinking performance. They
consist of multiple choice questions and are administered under exam conditions. They
are strictly timed and a typical test might allow 30 minutes for 30 questions. The result
will be compared to that of a control group so that judgments can be made about the
abilities.
Organizations use many methods to assess applicants, application forms,
interviews, written tests and exercises, group discussions and practical exercise. They
use these to choose the most appropriate candidate for each vacancy. Different methods
provide different sorts of information one method that is increasingly used is aptitude
tests. Aptitude tests are structured systematic ways of evaluating how people perform on

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tasks or react to different situations. They are characterized by standardized methods of
administration and scoring with the results quantified and compared with how others
have done at the same tests. They are increasingly administered on a computer.

DEFINITION
A standardized test designed to predict an individual’s ability to learn certain
skills.
www.merriam.westar.com
An exam used to determine an individual’s propensity to succeed in a given
activity.
www.investopedia.com
Aptitude test, examination that attempts to determine and measure a person’s
ability to acquire, through future training, some specific set of skills (intellectual, motor
and so on)

HISTORY
Developed during world war .Carl Brigham a psychologist developed this test.
First used in the recruitment of Army called Army Alpha. Use as a college admissions
test in 1926. In 1933 James Bryant Conant decided to start a new scholarship program.
In 1938 all the member schools of the College Board started using the SAT as a uniform
exam, but only for scholarship applicants. In 1948 the educational testing service was
chartered and the SAT was on its way to becoming the basic college admissions device
for millions.
TYPES OF APTITUDE TEST
 Verbal Reasoning
 Numeric Reasoning
 Abstract Reasoning
 Spatial Reasoning
 Mechanical Reasoning
 Data Checking
 Work Sampling
ACCORDING TO THE SPECIFIC NATURE OF THE APTITUDE TESTED BY THEM
1.Mechanical Aptitude Tests
Mechanical aptitude is a combination of sensory and motor capacities plus perception of spatial
relations,the capacity to acquire information about mechanical matters.
Mechanical aptitude tests are
 Minnesota mechanical assembly test

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  Minnesota spatial relations test
2.Musical Aptitude Tests
These tests have been devised for discovering musical talent.
Example
Seashore measure of musical talent
3.Aptitude For Graphic Art
These tests are devised to discover the talent for graphical art.The two important tests of this
nature are
The Meier Art Judgment Test
Testees are informed regarding which aspect has been altered and are asked to choose from each
pair the one that is better more pleasing, more artistic, more satisfying.
Horn Art Aptitude Inventory
It requires the subject to produce sketches from given patterns of lines and figures. The created
sketches of the subject are then evaluated according to the standard given by the author of this
test.
4.Tests Of Scholastic and Professional Aptitude
For helping in the proper selection of students for the specific courses of professions like
Engineering,Medicine,Law,Business Management,Teaching etc.the various specific aptitude
tests have been designed.Some of these aptitude tests are
 Stanford scientific aptitude test
 Moss scholastic aptitude test for medical students
 Shah’s teaching aptitude test
5.Multiple Aptitude Test Battery
a. General Aptitude Test
Battery developed by the employment service bureau of U.S.A, has 12 Tests.Eight of which are
paper-pencil tests as for
 Name comparison
 Computation
 Vocabulary
 Arithmetic
 Reasoning form matching
 Three dimensional space etc.
The other four require
 The use of simple equipments in the shape of moving pegs on boards
 Assembling and dissembling rivets and washers.
From the scores obtained by the subject ,the experimenter is able to draw inferences about the
nine aptitude factors
 Intelligence
 Verbal aptitude
 Numerical aptitude

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  Spatial aptitude
 Form perception
 Clerical perception
 Motor co-ordination
 Finger dexterity
 Manual dexterity.
The GATB has proven to be one of the most successful multiple aptitude batteries particularly
for the purposes of job classification.
b]Differential Aptitude Test[DAT]
Developed by U.S psychological corporation. It has proved more successful in predicting
academic success and found specially useful for providing educational and vocational guidance
to secondary school children. The tests induced in the battery of DAT are the following
i. Verbal reasoning
It is a measure of ability to understand concepts framed in words. It is aimed at
evaluation of the student’s ability to abstract or generalize and to think constructively,
rather than simple fluency or vocabulary recognition. The words used in these items may
come from history,geography,literature,science,or any other content area.
ii. Numerical ability
These items are designed to test understanding of numerical relationships and facility in
handling numerical concepts. This test is a measure of the student’s ability to reason with
numbers, to manipulate numerical relationships and to deal intelligently with quantitative
materials.Educationally,it is important for prediction in such fields such as
mathematics,physics,chemistry,engineering,and other curricula in which quantitative
thinking is essential. Various amounts of numerical ability are required in occupations
such as laboratory assistant,book-keeper,statistician and shipping clerk,carpentry,tool
making and other crafts as well as in professions related to the physical sciences.
iii. Abstract Reasoning
This test is intended as a verbal measure of the student’s reasoning ability.It has many
picture tests yielding ambiguous scores because they require the student to discriminate
between lines or areas which differ but slightly in size or shape.This test supplements the
general intelligence aspects of the verbal and numerical tests.
iv.Clerical speed and Accuracy
This test is intended to measure speed of response in a simple perceptual task
Perceptual ability
Ability to perceive words and numbers with speed and accuracy.
Intellectual ability
Ability to grasp the meaning of words and symbols.
Motor ability
Ability to use various types of machines and tools like type writer,duplicator,cyclostyle
machine,punching machine etc.

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 v.Mechanical reasoning
This tests to test[mechanical aptitude]which is a combination of sensory and motor
capacities plus perception of spatial relations, the capacity to acquire information about
mechanical matters and the matters to comprehend mechanical relationships.
vi. Space relations
It is the ability to visualize a constructed object from a picture of a pattern and an
ability to imagine how an object would appear if rotated in various ways for measurement of
space perception. It means that these tests require mental manipulation of objects in three
dimensional space.
vii.Language Usage
This tests has two sections
Language usage-I Spelling
Language usage-II grammar
These tests check a number of words correctly spelled and measure the student’s ability to
distinguish between good and bad grammar, punctuation and word usage.
6.Nursing Aptitude Test[NAT]
The nursing aptitude test is used to measure academic achievement level of students wishing to
enter the nursing program. This includes academic aptitude[verbal ‘arithmetic and non-verbal
sub tests],spelling, reading comprehension, information in the natural sciences and vocational
adjustment index.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS OF APTITUDE AND ABILITY TESTS

 Pencil and paper
 Online

PURPOSE
 To be fairly assessed in a competitive situation.
 To find out more about your strengths and weaknesses.
 To select a career path for which they are suited.
 To be comprehensively assessed for selection, development or
counseling purposes.
 To select people best suited to the demands of the job.
 To identify areas of weakness for staff development.
 To counsel staff appropriately.
 To place personnel appropriately within an organization.

QUALITIES[VALUES]
 They are excellent predictors of future scholastic achievement.

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  They provide ways of comparing a child’s performance with that of other
children in the same situation.
 They provide a profile of strengths and weaknesses.
 They assess differences among individuals.
 They have uncovered hidden talents in some children, thus improving their
educational opportunities.
 They are valuable tools for working with handicapped children.
CHARACTERISTICS
 Multiple choice
 Exam conditions
 Strictly timed

INSTRUCTIONS TO PREPARE FOR APTITUDE TEST:

Students and jobseeker often utilize skills and aptitude tests. Preparing for this
type of test requires taking practice tests and understanding the type of questions that will
be asked.
1. Ask what type of questions the test will cover. Skills and aptitude test cover many
different types of questions. The questions range from differential questions including
abstract reasoning, verbal reasoning, spelling and mathematical abilities to work relevant
questions which include how a person deals with meeting people, helping people
organizational skills and scientific skills. Some tests also ask questions regarding verbal
aptitude, spatial aptitude spatial aptitude and a person’s general abilities.
2. Research the type of questions that will be asked. There are multiple sites on the
Interest that describe the specific types of questions asked on these tests.
3. Practice the tests. Find sites on the interest offering free skills and aptitude tests. There
are many different free tests offered and finding a site with the specific question type is
not difficult. Practice the tests as much as you can.
4. Review the results free online tests typically come with instant results explaining the
answers given. The tests will show what your strengths and weaknesses are. It is helpful
for a job candidate to know his strengths and weaknesses prior to taking the test given by
the potential employer,
5. Turn the weaknesses into strengths. Find out the weaknesses ahead of time gives a job
candidate time to think of ways to turn the weaknesses into potential strengths.
6. Continue practicing. Practicing the tests over and over offers benefits. A person is able
to understand more clearly what the questions are asking. The questions are typically
multiple choice with slight variations in answers. Taking a lot of tests helps a person

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understand what to look for in these answers. More practice also helps with time. The
tests are timed and therefore a lot of time cannot be devoted to a single question.
Practicing the tests helps candidates take the tests quicker.

USES OF APTITUDE TESTS

Instructional
Teachers can use aptitude test results to adapt their curricula to match the level of
their students, or to design assignment for students who differ orderly. Aptitude test
scores can also help teachers from realistic expectations of students. Knowing something
about the aptitude level of students in a given class can help a teacher identify which
students are not learning as much as could be predicted on the basis of aptitude scores.
For instance, if a whole class were performing less well than would be predicted from
aptitude test results, then curriculum, objectives, teaching methods, or student
characteristics might be investigated.

Administrative
Aptitude test scores can identify the general aptitude level of a high school. This
can be helpful in determining how much emphasis should be given to college preparatory
programs. Aptitude tests can be used to help identify students to be accelerated or given
extra attention, for grouping and in predicting job training performance.
Guidance
Guidance counselors use aptitude tests to help parents develop realistic
expectations for their child’s school performance and to help students understand their
own strengths and weaknesses. These tests are found to be very useful in helping the
youngsters as well as youth in the attention of special courses of instruction fields of
activities and vocations.

6.TEST OF INTEREST
INTRODUCTION
The term interest refers to a testing tool that offers a standardized testing protocol designed to
identify and measure the sort of things that interest the test taker.
Interest is enjoyment of or liking an activity, which can vary according to situation
and environment, complexity of the activity, frequency of the activity various career
theorists have different ideas on development of interests. As we grow older, our
interests become more crystallized, because we learn more about ourselves and the world
around us. In the process of making a choice for a specific education interest tests can

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come in handy as well. Interest tests are designed to discover a person’s area of interest
and identifying the jobs that will satisfy him.

TYPES OF INTEREST
1. Expressed Interest :
What an individual says that they like to do.
2. Manifest Interest:-
What an individual does how they spend their time, or what they do well.
3. Tested Interest
Interest measured by an interest inventory.
DEFINITION
Psychological tests designed to clarify an individual’s vocational potential or to
compare an individual’s performance with the average scores of a specific population.
Medical dictionary the free dictionary com.
Interest assessment is scientifically validated to help to maximize job happiness
and avoid career mistakes. It can help to identify the interest and direct toward careers
where you can explore those interests.
For example:-
It can tell you what kind of work environment fits you best, such as whether you
prefer to work outdoors, in an office, in a school, or in a hospital setting. Do you like
teaching or social work.

INDICATIONS
o Anyone who is interested in learning about themselves and their true job
interests.
o People interested in making a career change, either because they are
dissatisfied or simply what a change.
o People evaluating different careers or considering returning to school to
pursue a campus degree or online degree.
o Individuals returning to the workforce after an extended absence due to
travel or raising a family.
o Early refers interested in finding regarding ways of spending their time or
are simply too young to entire.
o Students planning their University major or post-secondary education.
o New graduates weighing different careers and job alternatives.

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INTEREST INVENTORY
Interest inventories are only one means of assessing interest expressed and
manifest interests should never be discounted when choosing vocational goals.
Vocational maturity strongly related to stability of interests compare adolescents to
persons in their 40’S .Tested expressed and manifest interest will tend to be similar in
persons who are vocationally mature, more vocationally adjusted. Interest is essential in
making a goal career choice – persons may not “ fit” well (be well adjusted? to
work they find boring or monotonous.
Test compares the interest to those of people who are happy and successful in their
fields of work.

DEFINITION
Interest Inventories assess a person’s interests in educational programs for
job settings and provide information for making career decisions. (Because these tests
are often used predict satisfaction in a particular academic area or employment setting
they are administered primarily to students by counselors in high schools and colleges.
Interest inventories are not intended to predict success; rather they are intended only to
offer a frame work for narrowing career possibilities.
www.ehow.com.
An interest inventory is a self-assessment tool, used in career planning, that
assesses one’s likes and dislikes of a variety of activities, objects and types of persons,
the premise is that people in the same career (and satisfied in that carrier) have similar
interest
– Dawn Rosenberg McKay
Example:
The interest inventory shelly took revealed that she enjoys golf but hates tennis.

PURPOSES
 Planning, the means to accomplish such a career path.
 Applying the results of the interest inventory toward planning a college curriculum
leading toward a future career or for these changing careers later in life.
 Suggesting potential career matches based on the interests that test attributes to the
individual.
 Vocational or guidance counselor can help the test taker interpret the results more
clearly; interest inventories typically function as a self-directed test.

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METHODS.
 Direct observation of behaviour
 Ability test
 Self-reporting inventories of interest in educational, social,
recreational and vocational activities.

HISTORY
 The first widely used interest inventory was the strong
vocational interest blank, developed in 1927 by E.K. Strong.
 Strong Campell interest inventory in 1981
 Kuder preference Record in 1939.

TYPES
 Check list (Uses interest checklist, Gordon occupational checklist)
good for measuring or obtaining clearer expressed interests.
 Nonverbal inventories (Picture)
 Verbal Inventories (Holland based and others)

Other interest Inventory

 Guest ford – Zimmerman Interest inventory
 The G-S-Z Interest survey
 The California Occupational preference survey
 Jackson Vocational Interest Survey
 Ohio Vocational Interest Survey
 Interest Inventories for children for the disabled and for those in the
skilled trades.

NON VERBAL INTEREST INVENTORIES

Use with individuals who have less than a sixth grade reading capacity. Use
pictures instead of words (individuals picks the picture that they are most interest in). In
general not as practical, have less utility than verbal interest inventories.
Examples:-
 WRIOT
 Geist pictures, Reading – Free
 Vocational Interest Inventory

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 Wide Range Interest Opinion Test (WRIOT)
It is the best non-reading inventory available. It consists of 150 sets of three
pictures; individual marks answer form (bubble sheet) according to “most” and least
liked” items. If takes 1 hour for administration and hand scored. If consists of eighteen
scales of interests (office, work, Art, etc.) and on seven scales of work attitudes
(risk,ambition, agreement interest spread). There are no special norms for persons with
disabilities.

Guest Picture Interest Inventory Revised

Assesses 11 “male” and 12 “female” general interest areas (Persuasive, clerical,
musical, scientific, outdoor, literary, computational, artistic, social service dramatic,
personal service) .It consists of 44 sets of three pictures and individual circles the one
they like most. Motivational questionnaire, helping to explain why persons made the
choices they did. It is good to use with individuals who are at a lower level of cognitive
functioning.

Reading – free vocational interest Inventory Revised

It consists of 55 triads of thee pictures. It indicates interest primarily in trade areas
(automotive service, patient care etc.). Normative data is extensive (gender, grade level,
different levels of MR, learning disabilities).
VERBAL/WRITTEN INTEREST INVENTORIES
Holland based Tests (Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising,
conventional ,RIASEC profile)
It is a strong vocational Interest Inventory. It makes self-directed search, career
assessment inventory and career decision making system.
Holland believed that each person has a “work personality” based upon their
orientation to six different personal styles and occupational environments. Individuals
choose occupations based upon how well they believe their personal styles will be
satisfied by a work environment.
R: Realistic: Enjoy work with concrete outcomes like working with the hands
(construction trades, farming)
I : Investigative : Enjoy working with data, information, scientific pursuits.
A: Artistic : Enjoy creative activities (Music, art, drama, literature, technical
writing)
S : Social : Enjoy working with people (teachers, counselors, clergy)
E: Enterprising : Enjoy leadership, commerce (Business, sales, politics,
administration)

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 C : Conventional : Enjoy orderly, practical work (clerical positions)

STRONG INTEREST INVENTORY

The strong Interest Inventory reflects today’s pattern of constant change in
organizational settings. It provide a solid dependable guide for individuals seeking a job
change, a career change or help with career development opportunities. The strong
interest inventory is one of the leading instruments of choice used by practitioners in
helping individuals make informed decisions regarding their interests for jobs and
careers. The validity and reliability of the strong interest inventory exceeds those of any
other interest inventory. The strong interest inventory’s 317 items measure an
individual’s interest in a large number of occupations, work activities, leisure activities,
and school subjects.

ADVANTAGES
 Used on vocational counseling both with adolescents and adults.
 Useful in helpful high school and college students become familiar with
career options and aware of their vocational interests.
 Interest inventories are also used in employee selection and
classification.

DISADVANTAGES
 It does not come from the instruments themselves, but the
interpretation.
 It does not tell what occupation they should pursue.

NEED OF CHANGE IN INTEREST INVENTORY

 There are more and more women entering the work force, in addition to persons of
color, which will require more revisions to interest inventories.
 Every day, more people enter the work force and more and more of them are
choosing to do work that may not be considered traditional based on their gender
like women become firefighters or men becoming nurses. These changes need to
be taken into consideration as time goes on to make sure that interest inventories
reflect all the people doing a particular job.
 Another change for Interest inventory is the impact of technology. Technology
continues to advance at a rapid rate and there will be more use of interest

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 inventories online which do not require a trained professional to interpret the
results

7.ATTITUDE TEST
INTRODUCTION
An attitude is an expression of favor or disfavor toward a person, place
thing or event (the attitude object) An attitude can be defined as positive or negative
evaluation of people objects, event, activities, ideas or just about anything in the
environment.
Attitude is fundamental to the success or failure that was experienced in
life. There is a little difference in people physically or intellectually. But what does make
the difference is the attitude.
For Example.
Take two people of similar background, education, skill and intelligence
and find one is the person looking for because of a positive attitude while the other is a
complete dud-the eternal pessimist. The attitude is the big difference.
The straight forward way of finding out about someone’s attitudes would
be to ask them. However, attitudes are related to self-image and social acceptance.
In order to preserve a positive self-image, people’s responses may be
affected by social desirability.
DEVELOPMENT OF ATTITUDE
The cognitive components of attitudes are assumed to be learned in the same way as
are any facts, knowledge or beliefs.
1. Association and reinforcement
A child is exposed to certain things about the world. He is reinforced for
expressing some cognitions or attitudes or for actually acting on the basis of them, thus
he learns them.
For example
A child's parents and their friends tend to belong to one nation, same ethnic and class
origins, prefer the same party, the child would have similar views on religion and
morality, prejudices and tastes and so on.

2. Imitation / Identification
It is important in the learning process. A child spends a great deal of time
with his parents and after a while begins to believe as they do simply by copying them,

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even when they do not deliberately try to influence him. The same process works with
other figures, such as peer groups, teachers, or any important figures in a child's life.

3. Classical Conditioning
It involves involuntary responses and is acquired through the pairing of too
stimuli. Two events that repeatedly occur close together in time become fused and before
long the person responds in the same way to both events. E.g. Pleasant or Unpleasant
experiences with members of a particular group could lead to positive or negative
attitudes toward that group.
Young woman with unfortunate encounters with adult males may become worried
in the presence of any adult male.

4. Social (Observational)
Learning is based on modeling. We observe others. If they are getting
reinforced for certain behaviors or the expression of certain attitudes, makes it more
likely that we, too will behave in this manner or express this attitude.

5.Cognitive dissonance

When two contradictory feelings, beliefs or behaviors exist, it creates a state of

tension and the person tries to reduce tension by changing their feelings, beliefs or
behaviors.
For example : If a student nurse studies hard for a test, she expects to do
well. But if she studies hard and fails, dissonance is aroused.

6.Unconscious Motivation

Some attitudes are held because they serve some unconscious function for
an individual. For example, a person who is threatened by his homosexual feelings may
employ the defence mechanism of reaction formation and become a crusader against
homosexuals.

7.Rational Analysis

Involves the careful weighing of evidence for and against particular attitude. The
nurses giving health education to slums will influence their attitude for personal hygiene
when informing about rationale of unhygienic conditions.

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8.Other Factors

Even after a child develops an attitude, he continues to be exposed primarily to

information that supports it. At this stage, various socio economic factors determine what
he hears. His neighborhood, newspaper, school, church, friends etc. tend to be more
homogeneous than the rest of the world. If he is wealthy, he would live in an expansive
house. His neighbors would also have money. If he attended public school, his classmates
would come from his neighborhood and have attitude similar to his. His parents would
read the nursing journal of India to keep up with nursing news and accordingly he would
be exposed to some nursing views.
Assessment of attitude, evaluation must translate into some number
system. For some purpose, it is adequate to assess attitude with two categories favorable
and unfavorable. By for the most common method of measuring attitudes is the self-
report method in which people are to respond to questions by expressing their personal
evaluation. Unfortunately, informal procedures suffer from serious drawbacks. People are
always concerned with looking good to others, so their statement may reflect what they
think will put then in a favorable light rather than their actual Views. To avoid these and
related problems, social psychologists measures or assessment of attitudes by more
formal measures generally involving the use of scales or questionnaires.
Attitude consist of their components
 Affective (feelings)
 Cognitive (beliefs)
 Behavioral (predispositions to act).
DEFINITION
A favorable or unfavorable evaluative reaction toward something or
someone exhibited in one beliefs, feelings, or, intended behavior sometimes referred to as
the ABC”s of attitude (affect, behavior, cognition).

PURPOSE
 To measure the individual’s mental and behavioral characteristics.
 To measure unobserved constructs.
 To assess individual’s feelings about an event, person or object.

TYPES
Attitude measurement can be divided into three basic categories.
 Self-Report method
It include

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  Attitude scales
 Likert scale
 Semantic differential (direct measurement)
 Questionnaires
 Interviews
 Projective tests (indirect measurement)

 Observation of behaviour
Observation techniques include
 Check list
 Rating scale
 Anecdotal notes
 Critical incidents
 Involuntary Behavioral measures (Physiological measures)
These study body’s physiological responses to attitude objects involving
 Galvanic skin response (GSR) measures the electrical resistance of the skin
 Electromyography (EM ) measures major measuring Attitude
 Ranking - Rank order Preference
 Rating - Estimates magnitude of a characteristic
 Sorting - Arrange or classify concepts
 Choice - Selection of preferred alternative.
SCALE
A scale is device designed to assign a numeric score to people to place them on a
continuum with respect to attributes being measured like a scale for measuring attitude.

TYPES OF MEASUREMENT SCALES

 Nominal scales
Scales that partition data into mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive
categories.
 Ordinal scales
Nominal scales that reflect order
 Interval scales
Ordinal scales with equal intervals between points. May include arbitrary
zero paint.
 Ratio Scale

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 Interval scales with a meaningful zero point so that magnitudes can be
compared arithmetically

ATTITUDE SCALE(COMPOSITE SCALE)

Attitude scale is used for measuring social attitudes. Generally attitudes are
measured by attitude scales which deal with an issue or set of related issues. These
depict the direction and the intensity of feeling that goes with the attitude. Sometimes
these components may be a part of questionnaire studies and interviews in which people
are asked ,first how (Pro or con) they feel about something and then how strongly they
feel. Finally these ratings are highly related.

Attitude scales typically consist of a number of statements with which person may
agree or disagree with several scale points, usually ranging from ‘highly agree’ to highly
disagree. In this way, both the direction and the degree are indicated by the response to
each statement or item. Typically, these items relate to some common social thing,
person, issue or activity. Responses are summated to provide a score indicating the
person’s overall attitude.
DEFINITION
A measure of the relative quantity of on attitude possessed by an individual
as contrasted with a reference group.
-www. meriam.webster.com
An attitude scale is designed to provide a valid, or accurate, measure of an
individual’s social attitude.
www.simply psychology. org.
A method of measuring attitudes based on the assumption that holding an
attitude leads to consistent responses to particular persons, objects, or ideas. The scale
presents statements about the topic of interest and the respondent states his or her degree
of agreement or disagreement with the statement.
www.answers.com.
TYPES OF ATTITUDE SCALES.
Single Item scale
Single Item scales are those with which only one item is measured.
Multi Item Scale
These are applied when it is difficult to measure people’s attitude based on only
one attribute.

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E.g. Ask a person whether he/she is satisfied with Nursing Profession. Overall ‘I am
satisfied’ ‘But there are many factors with which I am dissatisfied.
In such cases it is impossible to capture the complete picture with one overall question. A
number of scales here to be developed that can measure a respondent’s attitude towards
serial issues along a specified bipolar dimension, such as most important/least important.

Comparative Scale
It provides a point of comparison for respondents to provide answers.Therefore,all
respondents will have a uniform point of comparison for selecting answers.
For Example
Respondent is asked to rate the standardized test in comparison to non-
standardized test.
Excellent Very Good Good Both are same
Poor Very Poor
Rank Order Scale
They are comparative scales where respondents were asked to rate as item in
comparison with another item or a group of items on a common criterion.
For Example
Test Excellent very good Poor
Achievement Test
Intelligence Test
Paired comparison Scale
Require picking one of two objects in a set based on some stated criteria.
(E.g.) Curad is better
Band-Aid is better
They are the same
Q-Sorting
Form or rank-ordering using card sorts and assumed distributions. In Q-sort,
participants are presented with a set of cards on which words or phrases are written.
Participants are told to sort the cards along a specified bipolar dimension, such as most
important/least important.
For example
Attitudes can be studied by writing attitudinal statements on the cards and
asking participants to sort them on a continuum from “totally disagree” to totally agree.

139
Constant sum scale
A constant sum scale requires respondents to divide a fixed number of
points among several attributes corresponding to their relative importance or weight.
Divide 100 points among the following according to the preference for each
brand
Brand A
Brand B
Brand C
100 points

Non Comparative Scales

Often called monadic scales because only one object is evaluated at a time
there is no comparison to another object.
Itemized Rating Scales
It has a number or brief description associated with each response category.

Summated Likert scale

Named after Psychologist.Rensis Likert, who developed in 1932.One of the most
widely used itemized scales. End points are typically “strongly agreed” and strongly
agree” Respondents are asked to indicate their degree of agreement by checking one of
response categories.
Primarily Original version of this scale was developed with five point scale
(Strongly agree, agree, uncertain, disagree and strongly disagree) containing the mixture
of positive and negative declarative statements regarding measuring variables .However,
in recent times one can even observe the likes scale with four points (strongly agree,
moderately agree, disagree and uncertain) to seven points (very strongly agree, strongly
agree, agree, uncertain, disagree, strongly disagree and very strongly disagree.
Likert scale is a composite measurement scale used to measure attitude,
values and feelings of the people that involve summation of scores on the set of positive
and negative declarative statements regarding measuring variables to which respondents
are asked to indicate their degree of agreement or disagreement.

ADVANTAGES
 Easy to construct and administer this scale.
 Easy for the respondent to understand
 Suitable for mail, telephone personal and electronic interview.
 More reliable and vat.

140
  Less time consuming during constriction and administration

DISADVANTAGES

 Respondent may feel foxed to answer.

 Feeling may not be fully assessed. Misleading casual approach of
respondent may provide data.

Five point Likert scale

Sl. Item Responses
No. Strongly Agree Un- Disagree Strongly
Agree certain Disagree
a) Nursing is a
noble
profession
b) Nursing is a
socially
acceptable
profession
c) Nurses working
conditions are
not satisfactory
d) Nurses do not
get due wages
as
recommended

Sementic Differential Scale

In 1967 Osgood, Suci and Tannelbaum introduced this method.Semantic
Differential questions measures people’s attitude towards stimulus, words, objects and
concepts. The semantic differential is actually a series of attitude scales.
This popular attitude measurement technique consists of getting respondents to
react to some concept using a series of seven point bipolar rating scales. Bipolar
adjectives such as “good” and “bad” ,modern and old fashioned or “Clean” and “dirty”
anchor the beginning and the end (or poles) of the scale. The subject makes repeated
judgment about the concept under investigation on each of the scale. From left to right,
the scale intervals are interpreted as “extremely modern,” “Very modern”, “slightly

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modern”, “both modern and old-fashioned”, “slightly old-fashioned,” “Very Old –
fashioned” and extremely old fashioned.
Modern - ----------------------------------- Old – fashioned

Advantages
 Convenient method to assess the beliefs attitudes and values is
quantitative form
 Easy to administer.
 Provide reasonable valid and reliable Quantitative data.

Disadvantages
 It is difficult to select the relevant concepts, which are appropriate
for any given investigation.
 It is time consuming to find the appropriate adjective pairs.

HIV/AIDS
CURE DEATH
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

NO PUNISHMENT PUNISHMENT

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
SOCIAL ACCEPTABLE SOCIAL REJECTION

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
AFFORDABLE TREATMENT EXPENSIVE TREATMENT
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
NORMAL LIFE MISERABLE LIFE
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Stapel Scale
The staple scale, named after Jans Stapel, was originally developed in the
1950s to measure simultaneously the direction and intensity of an attitude. Modern
versions of the scale, with a single adjective, are used as a substitute for the semantic
differential when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives. The modified staple
scale places a single adjective in the center of an even number of numerical values

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(ranging perhaps from +3 to – 3). The Scale measure has close to or distant from the
adjective a given stimulus is perceived to be.

For Example

+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
Friendly
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Advantages
 Easy to administer and to construct.
 Administer over the telephone

Numerical Scale
An attitude rating scale similar to a semantic differential except that it uses
numbers, instead of verbal descriptions as response options to identify response positions.
For example. A scale using five response positions is called a five-point numerical scale.
A six-point scale has six positions and a seven-point scale serves positions, and so on.
Nursing Profession.
Extremely Dissatisfied Extremely Satisfied
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Simple Attitude Scale
Attitude scale requires that an individual agree or disagree with a statement
or respond to a single question.

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Thurstone Interval Scale
In 1927 attitude research pioneer Louis Thurstone developed the concept
that attitudes vary along continua and should be measured accordingly. The construction
of a Thurstone scale is a fairly complex process that requires two stages.
The first stage is a ranking operation, performed by judges who assign scale
values to attitudinal statements.
The second stage consists of asking subjects to respond to the attitudinal
statements. The Thurnstone method is time-consuming and costly. From a historical
perspective, it is valuable, but its corrent popularity is low. This method is rarely used in
applied research settings.

Visual Anologous Scale

It is a widely used psychomotor response scale, which is a measurement
instruments for subjective characteristics or attitudes that cannot be directly measured.
They consist of 10 cm lines, the ends of which mark semantic opposites, for example
alert – drowsy.
Visual analogous scale (VAS) is used to measure the intensity of certain
sensations and feelings such as pain, discomfort, anxiety, alertness, quality of sleep.
severity of clinical symptoms, functional ability, attitude, towards environmental
conditions, drug’s effect, skills, confidence, quality of team work.
Visual analogue scale for pain.

No pain Worst pain ever.

Advantages
 It is a reliable and valid tool to measure the intensity of certain
sensations and feelings.
 The quantitative assessment is highly subjective phenomenon..
 The scale is of most value when looking changes within individual.
Disadvantages
 Cannot be used for comparing results across a group of
individuals at the same time.
 In measuring pain, the scale does not afford the patient an
opportunity to record increases in pain, thereby creating a bias in
favour of treatment.

144
  In measuring pain or such sensations, the reliability of this scale is
low during to the patient need to recall their initial pain seventy.

QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaires are one of the most popular method. They provide a
convenient way of gathering information from target population. They are cost-effective
and easy to construct and analyses. A Questionnaire is a planned self-reported form
designed to elicit information through written or verbal responses of the subjects. In other
words, questionnaire is a set of questions that may or may not provide with response
alternatives which are to be answered by subject.

Definitions
A questionnaire is a structured instrument consisting of a series of
questions prepared by researches that a researcher that a research subject is asked to
complete, to gather data from individuals about knowledge, beliefs and feelings.
A questionnaire is a structured self-report paper and pencil instrument that
a research subject is asked to complete.
Types of Questions
Open format Questions
Open, ended questions are those questions which provide opportunity to
the respondents to express their opinions and answers in their own way.
For Example
State your opinion about the quality of health care services in Punjab.
Closed format Questions
These questions offer respondents a number of alternative reputes from
which the subjects must choose the one that most likely matches the appropriate answer.
Closed format questions are easily calculated, analyzed, asked to different groups at
different intervals, facilitate efficient tracking of opinion.
Closed format questions could be of the following

Dichotomous Questions
These require the respondent to make a choice between two responses such
as yes/no or male/female.
Example:
Have you ever been hospitalized?
(a) Yes (b) No.
Multiple – choice questions

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 These questions require respondents to make a choice between more than
two response alternatives.
Example:-
Which of the following disease is sexually transmitted?
(a) Diabetes Mellitus (b) Hypothyroidism (c) Syphilis (d) Hypertension
Cafeteria questions
These are special type of multiple choice questions that ask respondents to select a
response that most closely corresponds to their views
Example
What do you think about hormone replacement therapy?
(a) It is dangerous, should be avoided.
(b) One should be cautious while using it
(c) I am uncertain about my views.
(d) It is beneficial, should be promoted.

Rank Order Questions

These questions ask respondents to rank their responses from most
favorable to least favorable.
Example:
What according to you is most important for the cliff. Rank from most
favorable to least favorable.
(a) Money (b) Education (c) Family (d) Health.
Contingency Questions
A question that is asked further only the respondent gives a particular
response to precious question.
Example:
Are you stressed?
(a) No (b) Yes, if yes what are the reasons?
Rating Questions:
These questions ask respondents to judge something along an ordered
dimension Respondent is asked to rate a particular issue on a scale that ranges from Poor
to good. They may provide a number of choices.
Example:
How you rank the education quality in India?

1 2 3 4
Good Fair Poor Very Poor

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Importance Questions
In this, respondents are asked to rate the importance of a particular issue on
a rating scale of 1-5. This helps to know? that the things/issues that are important to a
respondent.

Example:
Exercising every day is ------------------------------- for the health.
1 2 3 4 5
Extremely Very somewhat Not very Not at all
important important important important important

Likert questions
Likert questions help to know how strongly the respondent agrees with a
particular statement. These questions help to assess how respondent feels towards a
certain issue services.
Example:
This community a good place to raise children

1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Agree Uncertain Disagree Strongly
agree disagree

Bipolar questions
Bipolar questions are questions that have two extreme answers. Respondent
has to mark his or her response between two opposite ends of the scale.
Example
What is your balance of preference here?

I like going ( ) () () () () () I like watching movie

For walks

Matrix questions
Matrix questions include multiple questions and identical response
categories are assigned. Questions are placed one under another, forming a matrix.
Response categories are placed along the top and a list of questions down the side.
Example:

147
 Please let us know your weekly schedule of the following.

Mon Tue Wed Thu Fri Sat Sun

(Weight training)
Aerobics
Eating
(Dinner/lunch)
Drink
(Alcoholicbeverege)

Guidelines For Designing A Good Questionnaire & General points

 The questionnaire must be developed, exactly is accordance with study
objectives.
 The questionnaire should begin with the instruction for the respondents to
provide the responses.
 The drafting of the questionnaire should be concise precise and brief because
lengthy questionnaires may lead to boredom amount respondents.
 The language of the questionnaire should be according to the respondents
knowledge about a particular language.
 Questions outside the respondents experience should not be asked.
 In asking questions about past events, too much reliance. should not be
placed in the respondents memory.
 Questions which are likely to lead to bias in the respondents should be
avoids.
 Questions should be very clear and simple. Avoid professional jargons.
 As far as possible, open – ended questions should be avoided.
 Avoid questions with difficult concepts, which are not easily understandable
for respondents.
 Controversial and ambiguous questions should be avoided.
 The structure of the questionnaire should be according to the form in which
the responses are to be recorded.
 Cross-check the respondent by asking same information in two different
ways.
 A mailed questionnaire should be accompanied by introduction to the study,
purpose and directions to fill the questionnaire.
 Abrupt ending of the questions and questionnaire should be avoided.

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Sequence Of Questions
 There should be logical sequence of the questions in the questionnaire.
 Researcher must ensure that answer to question is not influenced by
previous question.
 Questions should flow from more general to more specific.
 Questions should flow from least to most sensitive.
 Sandwich theory status that a questionnaire should generally start with
demographic profile of subjects followed by specific questions according to the
objectives of the study.

Question Construction
 Use statement which can be interpreted in same way by all subjects.
 Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give
different answers.
 Use only one aspect of the construct in which you are interested.
 Avoid asking double- barrelled questions which contain two distinct ideas or
concepts. For Example are you satisfied with pay and fringe benefits.
 Avoid leading, loaded, ambiguous and long questions.
 Avoid negative and double negative questions
 Use positive statement
 Do not make assumption about respondent
 Use clear and comprehensible wording.
 Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.

Method of Administration
A questionnaire may be administered through
 Postal
 Phone
 Electronic
 Personally.
Advantages of Questionnaire
 Questionnaires are cost-effective.
 They are easy to analyse.
 The require less time and energy to administer.
 Questionnaires offer the possibility of anonymity.
 The reduce bias as interviewer is net present.

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  Questionnaires are used for large sample size.
 Questionnaires are less intrusive than phone or face-to face interview.
Disadvantages of Questionnaire
 Questionnaires are not suitable for all. for Example, children, blind and
illiterates low response rate.
 Questionnaire sent by mail may be filled by someone other than the
intended person.
 Questionnaires provide only superficial information.
 Probing of response is not possible.
 There are chances of misinterpretation
 People can lie and answer the question vaguely.

INTERVIEW
The interview is a process of communication or interaction is which the subjects
or interviewee gives the needed information verbally in a fact-to – fact situation. It
provides information about person’s feelings, perception, and opinion. Questions are
generally open-ended and responses are documented in through detailed notes or
transcription.
Definition
An interview is a conversation between two or more people(interviewer and
interviewee)where questions are asked by interviewer to obtain information from the
interviewee.
Characteristics
 Investigator records information furnished by the respondent.
 It is a conversation with a specific purpose.
 The interaction need not necessarily be face-face, because interviews
can be conducted over telephone also.
 It is usually a conversation between two person, it is not always
limited to a single respondent.
 Interview is not a standardized process it can be modified according to
situation.

Benefits of Interview
 Provide in-depth and detailed information.
 Permits greater depth of response.
 Illiterate subjects who do not write as fluently as they speak.
 Higher response.
 Clarify misunderstandings.

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  Ask questions at several levels
 Help to gather supplementary information such as economic level, living
conditions etc.
 The interviewer can use special scoring devices, visual material etc. in order to
improve the quality of interviewing.
 Accuracy can be checked by observation.
 Interviews are flexible and adaptable to individual situations.
 People who are unable to write their response Example, persons with eye patches
or in traction etc.,

Types
Interview can be classified in following six broad categories.
 Structured Interview (Directive Interview)
Structured Interview is a means of data collection in which the
interviewer has as interview schedule in which the questions are listed in which they are
to be answered. These interviews are also known as standardized interviews with limited
set of questions. Same questions are put to all the respondents and in the same order
Interviewers are not permitted to change the specific wording of the Interviews schedule
questions.
 Unstructured Interviews (Non-directive Interview)
These interviews are also known as standardized interviews. Unstructured
interviews are a method where in the questions can be changed to meet the respondents
intelligence, understanding and beliefs. Questions are changed based on how each
individual person responds to the questions. In this type of interviews, the interviewer
encourages the respondent to talk freely about given topic with minimum prompting. In
this no preplanned schedule is used.
 Semi structured Interview
Semi structured Interview is a flexible method that allows new questions to
be brought up during the interview, depending upon the situation during the interview.

 In-depth Interview
This is an intensive and investigative interview conducted and aimed at
studying the respondent’s opinion and emotions on the basis of Interview guide. This
requires more training and interpersonal skills than structured interviewing. This
degenerately aims to elicit unconscious as well as extremely personal feelings and

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emotions. This is designed to encourage full expression of affectively charged
information.
 Focused group Interview.
Focused group interview is an unstructured group interview technique
where 80-12 members are brought together under the guidance a trained interview to
focus on a specific phenomenon.

 Telephone interview
Telephone interviewing is a non-personal method. This method of
collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone itself.
Interviewing Process
The interviewing process includes following steps
 Preparation for Interview
Fix up appointment
Interviewer should fix up the topic and time of interview with subject ahead of time. It would
save time of interviewer.
Appearance and dress
The interviewer should dress in a fashion fairly familiar and with due regards to the
sensibility of person who will be interviewed. The interviewer should be pleasant and
communicate a genuine interest.
Familiarity with Interview Schedule
The interview schedule must be studied carefully and the interviewer must practice
reading it aloud to be very familiar with all the questions. The interviewer must also be
able to list items to respondents without errors.
 Pre interview Introduction

 Researcher must introduce himself or herself to all respondents as per their

cultural practices.
 Identify the respondent by name.
 Choose a setting with as little distraction as possible.
 Explain the purpose of interview. terms of confidentiality, format of interview,
indicate how long the interview usually takes and ask them if they have any
question.
 Developing Rapport
After primary introduction, the researcher starts developing rapport with
respondents. This is developed through confidence – building and understanding the
concerns of the respondents by beginning the conversation on general topics.

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  Carrying the Interview forward
After establishing rapport, the technical task of asking questions from the
interview schedule starts. While interviewing the respondent following guidelines shared
be used.
 Start the Interview
 Ask only one question at a time.
 Repeat a question if necessary.
 Try to make sure that the subject understands the questions.
 Listen carefully to the subjects answer.
 Observe the subjects facial expressions, gestures and tone of voice.
 Allow the subject sufficient time to answer the questions.
 Do not show signs of surprise, shock or anger.
 Maintain a neutral attitude with respect to controversial issues during the
interview.
 Take notes of answers that seems to be vague or ambiguous.
 Ask additional questions to follow up clues or to obtain additional
information.
 Do not hurry the interview if silence is two prolonged, introduce a stimulus.
 Recording the Interview
 It is essential to record responses as they take place.
 Good information can be taken by note-taking
 A tape recorder should be used to record the responses of respondent.
 Shorthand should be used to record response.
 Closing the Interview
After the interview is over ,a polite leave of the respondent should be taken,
thanking him or her with a friendly smile and saying good bye.
Advantages of Interview
 Interviews are useful to obtain information about people’s feelings,
perceptions and opinions.
 Interviews allow more detailed questions to High response rate is achieved.
 Respondent’s own words are recorded
 Ambiguities can be clarified and incomplete answers are followed up.
 Interviews are not influenced by others to the group.
 Meaning of questions can be clarified.
Disadvantages of Interview
 Interviews are time – consuming and are costly affairs.

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  Different interviewers may understand and translate inteviews in different
ways. There are high degree chances of interview’s biases.

PERSONALITY TEST.
INTRODUCTION.
The word “personality” originates from the Latin word personal which means mask
first known use of personality test in 1914.personality testing is very helpful because it
tells about a person’s coping in general with stress and life, sometimes by creating a
stressful situation in the act of testing, giving the chance to watch the person react, make
sense of something that is senseless, or assign meaning to things and explain their though.
Personality testing tells about how a person copes with specific stressful situations or
demands and more about how they are handling matters (e.g. seriously depressed and
suicidal). Personality testing can answer some question others like ability to hold some
job reach some goal or like hood of behaving in some way.
DEFINITION.
Personality
Personality traits are enduring patterns of perceiving, relating to and thinking
about the environment and oneself and are exhibited in a wide range of important social
and personality context.
-American Psychiatric Association, 1987
Personality can be defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics
possessed by a person who uniquely influences his or her cognitions, emotions
interpersonal orientation, motivations and behaviors in various situations.
-en.wikipedia.org
Personality test.
Personality test any of several tests that consist of standardized tasks designed to
determine various aspects of the personality or the emotional status of the individual
examined.
-www.merriam-webster.com
An instrument as a questionnaire or serves of standardized tasks used to measure
personality characteristics or to display personality disorders.
-dictionary.reference.com

A test, usually involving a standardized series of questions or tasks used to describe

or evaluate subject’s personality characteristics.
-www.thefreedictionary.com
PURPOSE

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  To identify a potential mental problems. This is highly important in institutions
that rely on the judgment of their employees to carry out tasks that affect a large
percentage of the population (hospitals, military institutions, government bureaus)
 Value to research study relationship of personality with other variables and study
changes over time.
 Value for counseling in marital management in screening, prediction of success
and placement and counseling.
 Value to individual in self-insight.

Fewer levels of management.

Less autocratic management.

Importance of personality
More team based working.

More customer facing jobs.

More changes in working life.

TRAITS OF PERSONALITY

1) Extravasation.
How energistic one is
People who score high on this factor like to work in co-operation with others are
talkative, enthusiatic and seek excitement. People who sure low on this factor prefer
to work alone and can be preceived as cold, difficult to understand and even a bit
eccentic.

Six factors.
1. Friendliness.
2. Gregariousness.
3. Assertiveness.
4. Activity level.

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 5. Excitement-seeking.
6. Cheerfulness.
2) Agreeableness
one’s level of orientation towards other people.
Those who score high on this factor are usually co-operative can be submissive
and are concerned with the well-being of others. People who score low on this factor
may be challenging, competitive, sometimes even argumentative.

Six factors
1. Trust
2. Morality.
3. Altruism.
4. Cooperation.
5. Modesty.
6. Sympathy.
3) Conscientiousness-
how structed one is.
People who score high on this factor are usually procedure and disciplined and
‘single tasking’. People who score low on this factor are often less structured less
procedure but can be more flexible, incentive and capable of multitasking.

Six factors.
1) Self-efficacy.
2) Orderliness.
3) Dutifulness.
4) Achievement-stiring.
5) Self-discipline.
6) Cautiousness.
4) Neuroticism
tendency to worry.
People who score low on this factor are usually calm, relaxed and rational. They
may sometimes be preceived as lazy and incapable of taking things seriously people
who score high on this factor are alert, anxious, sometimes worried.

Six factors.
1. Anxiety
2. Anger.
3. Depression.
4. Self-consciousness.
5. Immoderation.

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 6. Valerability.
5) Openess to experience-
tendency to be speculative and imaginative.
People who score high on this factor are neoplile and carious and sometimes
unrealistic. People who score low on this factor are down-to-earth and practical and
sometimes obstructive of change.

Openness to experience.
 Imagination.
 Artistic interests.
 Emotionality.
 Adventurousness.
 Intellect.
 Liberalism.

SHAPING OF PERSONALITY.

Genetic Influences.

Research shows that reliable differences can be observed among infants beginning at about
three months of age. Such characteristics are activity level, attention span, adaptability to
changes in the environment and general mood. Such mood related personalitity characteristics
called temperament are building blocks for the individual’s later personality.

Environmental influence.

Child differ from one another in the degree to which they form secure attachments to their
primary caregivers in the 1 st year of life. In contrast children who are less securely attached at
the end of their first year are more easily frustrated ,and are more dependent on adults and tend
to be socially withdrawn.Stronger attachment produces enthusiasm and persistance to be self-
directed and eager to learn and to be social leader among their peers.The failure to form secure
attachments in the early years has been related to an inability to develop close personal
relationships in adulthood.

Cultural Influence

Independent

Self-assertive

Motivated to achieve,dependent on cultural influence.

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For Example

Non-Western Culture

Interdependence of persons with others in the community.Children are encourage to be

part of functioning community.

Western Culture

Parents in non-western culture punish wrong behaviour and do not explicitly praise or
reward good behaviour.

TYPES

Self Report Technique

Interview method(include this method)

Observational Technique

Observation is a way of gathering data by watching behavior,events,or nothing physical

characteristics in their natural setting. Observation is a method of data collection that can be
used to gather such information as characteristics and conditions of individual.

Persons being evaluated have numerous opportunities to observe individuals behavior.

Teacher’s daily observation give them a wealth of information concerning the learning and
development of students observation has been defined as a measurement without instruments.

In education, observation is the most commonly employed of all measurement techniques.

In the present as well as in the past, students have been labeled as good, fair or poor in
achievement and lazy or diligent in study, etc. on the basis of observation.
On the basis of evidence drawn from observations of behavior and listening to oral
contributions, teachers will draw inferences about
 physical appearance
 student's attitude
 personal qualities
 abilities
 motivation
 commitment
 learning speed and style
 intelligence,
 attainments
 progress,
 non-verbal communication behaviors include facial expressions, touch, posture, gesture,
and other body movements.
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DEFINITION

Observation is a technique for collecting all the data or acquiring information through
occurrences that can be observed through senses with or without mechanical devices.
PURPOSES

 To understand the ongoing process or situation.

 To gather data on individual behaviors or interactions between people.
 To know about a physical setting For Example, a researcher can observe whether a
classroom or training facility is conduce to learning.
 To provide description of instructional practices.
 To improve teaching
 Investigation of instructional inequalities for different groups of students.
 To solve the problem
 Improvement of teacher's classroom instruction based on feedback from individual
classroom or school profiles.
TYPES OF OBSERVATION
Observation method of data collection can be classified into four

 Structured observation

Structured observation is guided by the preplanned structured or semi structured

instrument. Structured observation is generally carried out by using following tools
 Check List
 Rating Scale
 Unstructured Observation

Unstructured observation is carried out by using unstructured tools, and the

following tools are generally used by the researchers
 Log and field notes
 Anecdotes
 Field diary
 Video conferencing
 Participant Observation

During participatory observation, unstructured tools are used to collect the data
such as
 Logbooks
 Field notes

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  Field diary
 Tape and video recording, etc.

 Non-Participant Observation

In non-participatory observation, observer works as an caves dropper (secretly

listening or observing), where an attempt is made to observe people without interacting with
them.

PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED IN MAKING OBSERVATION

 Observe the whole situation

 Select one student to observe at a time
 Students should be observed in their regular activities, such as in classroom and in
the clinical area.
 Observation should be made over a period of days.
 As far as possible, observations from several teachers should be combined.

REQUISITIES OF GOOD OBSERVATION

Observation should be based on
(a) Proper planning
(b) Proper execution
(c)Proper recording
(d) Proper Interpretation
Proper Planning
Areas of behaviors to be observed must be clearly defined.
- Scope of observation whether individual or group should be decided.

The duration of each observation period and the number of recordings and tools
for observation should be decided.
Proper execution of observation
Proper carrying out of observation demands skills and resourcefulness on the part
of the investigator. Observation can be meticulously conducted by implementing the plan
properly, like, focusing attention on the selected areas of behavior, following the decided pattern
of observation, etc.
Recording of Observation
Depending upon the nature of the activity or behavior to be observed and the skill
of the observer, observer can be recorded simultaneously or after completing the observation.
Interpretation
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 Results should be interpreted cautiously and judiciously after taking into
account the various limitations of planning, sampling or procedure.

ADVANTAGES

 Being a record of the actual behavior of the student, it is more reliable and objective.
 It is a study of an individual in a natural situation and is therefore more useful than
the restricted study in a test situation.
 It is employed to all sections of students.
 It can be used with some training and experience and almost all teachers can use it.
 It does not require any special tool or equipment (direct observation).
 It can be used in every situation.
 It is adaptable both to individuals and groups.
 Frequent observations of a student’s behavior can provide a continuous check on his
progress.
 The problems can be detected immediately as they arise and remedial measures can
be taken accordingly.
 Observational data provide teachers with valuable supplementary information.

DISADVANTAGES

 Personal prejudices and bias of the observer.

 Observation may not be recorded with hundred percent accuracy.
 The observer may get only a small sample of student behavior. It is difficult to observe
everything that a student does or says.
 It reveals the overt behavior that is expressed and not that is within.

DEVICES USED IN OBSERVATION

Anecdotal records, check list, rating scales are the devices commonly used for
observation.

Rating Scale
Rating is the term used to express the opinion or judgment regarding some performance
of a person, object, situation or character.
Rating scale are used in nursing education for the rating and skill in performance and
for rating skill in performance describe behavioral typical of each educational level. The rating
scale should contain descriptions of performance and behavior.
Rating scale involves qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a thing or
traits of a person.

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Definition
Rating scale refers to a scale with a set of opinion, which describes varying degree of
the dimensions of an attitude being observed.

Rating scale is devices by which judgments may be qualified or an opinion

concerning a trait can be systematized.

Rating are devices by which judgments can be qualified on a rating technique.

Rating scale is a tool in which the one person simply checks off another person's level
of performance. Rating scale could be 3-point, 5-point, or 7-point rating scale.

Always Sometimes Never

Types of Rating Scale

 Descriptive Rating Scale

This type of rating scales do not use number but divide the assessment into series of
verbal phrases to indicate the level of performance.
Put a check (\/) in the blank before the trait which is described into a phrase in order
to judge the pupil's initiative.

For Example

Judge the level of performance of nursing personnel in medical ICU

Level of clinical performance

Nursing Personnel in a ward Very Active Active Moderately Passive
Active

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  Numerical Rating Scale

It divides the evaluation criteria into a fixed number of points, but defines only
numbers at the extremes. In these scales each statement is generally assigned a numerical score
ranging from 1 to 10 or even more.
For Example
Pain assessment numerical scale

No Pain 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Worst Pain

 Graphic Rating Scale

Each characteristic is followed by a horizontal line. The rating is made by placing a

check on the line. It is the simplest and most widely used appraisal technique. This method is
performing by assigning a rating for an employee for each of several different trait.

For Example

To what extent does the pupil participate in class discussion

never seldom occasionally frequently always

 Comparative Rating Scale

In this type of rating, the researcher makes a judgment about an attribute of a person
by comparing it with that of similar another person.

For Example

Mr. Ram’s decision making abilities closely resemble those of Shyam and Mr. Gopal.

Principles of Rating Scale

Rating scale requires careful attention to selection of the characteristics to be rated design
of the rating form, and conditions under which the ratings are obtained.
There are certain principles to be observed for the proper construction and use of rating
scales(Gronlund)
 Only those learning outcomes which can be evaluated and stated clearly should be
checked by rating scale.
 The characteristics evaluated should be directly observable.

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  The characteristics and points on the scale should be clearly defined.
 Raters should omit ratings where they feel unqualified to judge.
 Ratings from several observers should be combined wherever possible.
Characteristics Of Rating Scale
Rating scale provide a systematic procedure for obtaining and recording the judgment
of observers. The descriptive graphic scale seems to be most satisfactory for school use.
Involving students in the construction and use of rating devices contribute to learning
and aid in the development of self-evaluation skills.
Guilford (1954) identified that a rating scale must have following basic
characteristics, which must be taken care of while constructing rating scale.
 Clarity – Rating scale must be constructed using short, concise statements in simple
and unambiguous language.
 Relevance – The statements designed in rating scale should be relevant to the
phenomenon and it should be exactly in accordance with the variables under study.
 Variety – While developing a rating scale, monotomy in the statements must be
avoided and a variety in different statements must be ensured.
 Objectivity – Statements in the rating scale must be objective in nature, so that is
convenient for the researcher to judge the attributes or performances of the subjects
under study.
 Uniqueness – Each statement constructed in rating scale must be unique in itself, so
that attributes can be judged appropriately.

Advantages

 It is quick and simple to use. Easy to administer and score the measured attribute.
 Very little thought required on the part of the supervisor.
 It takes very little time so the supervisor can do many reviews in a relatively short
period of time. (Less time consuming)
 Rating scales have a wide range of application in nursing research.
 Graphic rating scale is easier to make and less time consuming.
 Rating scales can be easily used for a large group.
 It may also be used for the assessment of interests, attitudes and personnel
characteristics.
 Used to evaluate performance and skills and product outcome.

Disadvantages

 It is difficult or dangerous to fix up rating about many aspects of the individual.

 Misuse can result in decrease in objectivity.
 There are chances of subject evaluation, thus the scales may become unscientific and

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 reliable.
Errors In Rating Scale
Personnel bias
Personal bias errors are indicated by a general tendency of evaluator to rate all
individuals at approximately the same position on the scale.

Generosity Error

Another type of error occurring commonly is referred to as the generosity error. Some
raters tend to use the high end of the scale only and it is the generosity error or leniency error.
When the evaluators are lenient in evaluation, giving a higher score or rating than is warranted it
is leniency. This tendency can be counterbalanced by using a scale, containing only one
unfavorable appraisal in five.

Example

Poor Average Good Very Good Excellent

Central Tendency Error

This is shown by the rater who avoids both extremes of the scale and tends to rate
everyone average. Examiners prefer to place students more or less in the average or around
mean, avoiding extremes, high or low. Guilbert suggests that this tendency may be reduced by
using a scale that is wider at the center that at the ends . The central tendency error occurs muh
less frequently than the generosity error.

Logical Error
This effect occurs when the examiner supposes that there is a relationship between two
variables to be evaluated and that the first variable of the particular order, the second will be
similar. If the evaluation related to an observable element rather than an abstraction, this error
may be reduced.

For Example
In rating intelligence teachers tend to over rate the intelligence of pupils with
high achievement because they logically expect the two characteristics to go together.

Halo Effect

The term refers to the tendency of raters to base evaluations of a person being rated
upon general favorableness toward that individual and not to differentiate.

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CHECKLIST
Introduction
It is the one of the most commonly used instruments for performance evaluation. A
checklist enables to note only whether or not a trait is present. It consists of a listing of steps,
activities and behaviors which the observer records when an incident occurs.
A list of statements are made which are important in evaluation of aspect of behavior
(Performance in practical area (or) some area) and checked to indicate presence or absence of a
particular quality.

Checklist is basically a method of recording whether a characteristic is present or

absent or whether an action had or had not taken place. Thus it provides a simple yes – no
judgment.
The teacher observes one frequently used aspect to evaluate aspects of pupil's interests,
attitude, activities, skills and personal characteristics. The observed action can be systematic,
organized, step by step procedures like doing a laboratory experiment degree of specified rate.
The general impression of the rater of the person being rated which influences how he
rates him on individual characteristics. If the rater has a favorable attitude toward the person
being rated he will tend to rate him high on all traits, if his attitude is unfavorable he will tend to
rate him low. This type of rating will obscure the students strengths and weaknesses on different
traits because the rating is coloured by the raters attitude.
Halo effect in rating can be reduced by clearly defining the characteristics to be
observed and selecting only observable characteristics for rating. The performance of the
students can be affected by fear and anxiety regarding examination and the fear of being
observed which makes the student nervous. Involving students in construction and use of rating
devices has special values in students learning and help them to develop self-evaluation skills.

Definition:

A checklist is a simple instrument consisting prepared list of expected items of

performance or attributes, which are checked by a researcher for their presence or absence.
Checklist are constructed by breaking a performance and the quality of a product
which specifies the presence or absence of an attribute or trait which is then “checked” by the
rater / observer.
Characteristics Of Checklists

 Observe one respondent at one time .

 Clearly specify the characteristics of behavior to be observed.
 Use only carefully prepared checklist to avoid more complex traits.
 The observer should be trained how to observe, what to observe, and how to

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 record the observed behavior.
 Use Checklists only when interested in calculating, a particular characteristic.
 Multiple observations provide a more accurate assessment of performance than a
checklist should relate directly to learning.
 Students should be evaluated in the natural setting or one as closely as possible to
the real situation.
 A completed checklist should be given to each student for review followed by an
individual session with the student, to discuss the strength and weakness of the
performance and formulate a plan to improve the performance.

Checklist For Evaluation Of Students Performance During Surgical Dressing

Place for (\/) tick mark
Behaviors Yes No Remarks

1. Explains procedure
2. Collects necessary equipment
Arranges equipment for
3. convenient use
4. Prepares patient
5. Washes hand
6. Maintains aseptic technique
7. Removes dressing
8. Observes condition of ward
9. Cleans wound
10. Applies dressing

11. Removes equipment

12. Makes patient comfortable

13. Complete charting

14. Take care of equipment

Construction Of Checklists

While constructing or preparing a checklist, the following points should be kept in

mind.
 Identify each of the specific actions desired in the performance.
 Express each item in clear, simple language
 These lists of the items are formulated on the basis of judgment of experts and each

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 item is evaluated in respect of the number of favorable and unfavorable response.
 Avoid negative statements whenever possible. Add to the list those actions that
represent common errors (if they are useful in the evaluation) are limited in number
and can be clearly stated.
 Ensure that each item has clear responses : yes or no, true or false, and the like.
 Reviews the items independently.
 Checklist must have the quality of completeness and comprehensiveness.
Advantages

 Checklists allow inter – individual comparisons.

 It provides a simple method to record observation.
 Adaptable to subject matter areas.
 It is useful in evaluating learning activities.
 Helpful in evaluating procedural work.
 Properly prepared, it allows the observer to contain the direct attention.
 Checklists have the objectivity to evaluate characteristics.
 Useful for evaluating those processes that can be subdivided into the series of
actions.
 Decreases the chances of error in observation.

Disadvantages

 Does not indicate quality of performance, so usefulness of checklist is limited.

 Only a limited component of overall clinical performance can be evaluated.
 Only the presence or absence of an attribute, behavior, or performance parameter
may be assessed. However, degree of accuracy of performance cannot be assessed.
 It has limited use in qualitative research studies
ANECDOTAL RECORDS
Introduction :
Anecdotal records are factual descriptions of the meaningful incidents and events which
the teacher has observed in the lives of pupils. It is the brief description of some observed
behavior which appeared significant evaluation purposes. They are prepared by teachers or
supervisors working with the students in the laboratory or clinical areas. Anecdotal records
attempt to describe those episodes most typical of student's behavior, always with reference to
the educational outcomes in the area of personal or social adjustments. The report may be
negative or positive incidents or understanding performances or behaviors. Thus an anecdotal
record is a report of a significant episode in the life of an student.
Definition :

It is a brief description of an observed behavior that appears significant for evaluation

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 purposes.
An anecdotal record is a running description of actual examples of behavior of a
student as observed by teachers and the counselor. It is followed by his comments. These are
descriptive accounts of episodes or occurrences in the daily life of the student.
- Brown and Martin.
Characteristics
 Anecdotal records must possess certain characteristics.
 They should contain a factual descriptions of what happened, when it happened,
and under what circumstances the behavior occurred.
 The interpretations and recommended action should be noted separately from the
description.
 Each anecdotal record should contain a record of a single incident.
 The incident recorded should be that is considered to be significant to the student's
growth and development.
Purposes
 To furnish the multiplicity of evidence needed for good cumulative record.
 To substitute for vague generalizations about students specific exact description of
behavior.
 To simulate teachers to look for information (i.e.) pertinent in helping each student
realize good self-adjustment.
 To understand individual's basic personality pattern and his reactions in different
situations.
 The teacher is able to understand her pupil in a realistic manner.
 It provides an opportunity for healthy pupil – teacher relationship.
 It can be maintained in the areas of behavior that cannot be evaluated by other
systematic methods.
 Helps the students to improve their behavior, the student can analyze his behavior better.
 Can be used by students for self – appraisal and peer assessment

Principles to make Anecdotal Record Effective

Format of Anecdotal Record

Name of the school or college ____________________
Name of the student observed class __ subject _______
_____________________
Name of the observer __________________ Date and place
Objective Description _________________________
Comments of the observer ________________________
__________________________________

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 Signature of the observer

 Restrict observation to those aspects of behavior which cannot be evaluated by

another means.
 Concentrate on only one or two behaviors
 Observation should be selective
 An observation blue print or guide should be prepared in advance
 Records should be complete
 They should be kept by all teachers and not only by the student's teacher.
 Record the incident or action as soon as possible after it has happened.
 They should be compiled and filed.
 They should have an interpretative value.
 They must be available to specified school or college personnel.
 They should be emphasized as an educational resource.
 They should not be confined to recording negative behavior pattern.
 They should be recorded regardless of the directions of behavior.
 The teacher should have practice and training in making observation and writing
anecdotal record.
 The first part of an anecdotal record should be factual, simple and clear.
 Name of student
 Unit / Ward / department
 Date and Time
 Brief report of what happened – Descriptive reports. The instructor writes a brief
report on student nurse's performance over a given period.
 These reports are quite useful if instructor highlights student's strengths and
weaknesses in a systematic way.
 Instructor decides what to include in a report and she may quite inconsistent
unless she is guided by some kind of structure.
 The second part of the anecdotal record may include additional comments,
analysis and conclusions based on interpretations and judgments.
 The first part answers
 who was involved
 where did it take place
 when did it occur
 what happened
 The second part answers
 How and why the behaviors occurred
 Follow the ABC rule in writing anecdotal records.
A – Accuracy

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 B – Brevity
C – Clarity
Merits of Anecdotal Records
 Helps in clinical service practices
 Provide factual record of observation of simple significant incident in student
behavior.
 Stimulate teacher to use the records
 Record critical incidents of spontaneous behavior
 Very good for young children, who are unable to use paper – pencil test
 Direct teacher's attention to a single student
 Provide cumulative record of growth and development.
 Used by the counselor as a source of information for giving evidence.
 Provide specific and exact description of personality and minimizes generalization.
 They provide more complex descriptions of behavior better suited to understanding
and guiding students.

Disadvantages

Less reliable (Lack standardization)

Time consuming
Difficult to maintain objectivity
Lose meaning when noted and read
May record only undesirable incident and neglect the positive incident.
Present only verbal description of incident.

Other Techniques
Projective Techniques
These are methods for measuring psychological attributes (values, attitudes,
personality by providing respondents with unstructured stimuli to which it responds. These
include a variety of methods for obtaining psychological measures with only a minimum of co-
operation required by the person.
Projective tests focus on what is inside a person rather than what can be seen in a
person's behavior.

Types of Projective Techniques

Projective techniques are highly flexible because virtually any unstructured stimuli or
situation can be used to induce projective behaviors.
 Pictorial Device
It presents a picture or cartoon and asks the subject to describe what is

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happening, what led up to the event, or what kind of action is needed.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

It consists of 30 pictures having three set of pictures, 10 pictures for females, 10 for males
and 10 for both. In this way the maximum number of pictures used with any subject is 20. The
test is usually administered in two sessions, using 10 pictures in each session. The pictures are
presented one at a time. They are vague and indefinite.
The subject is told clearly that this is a test of creative imagination and there is no right or
wrong responses. He is requested to make up a story for each picture shown to him within a fixed
time period. He has to take care of the following aspects while forming a story :
 What is going on the picture ?
 What has led to this scene ?
 What would happen in such a situation ?
The responses are then scored according to some scheme for the variables of interest
to the psychologist.

Variables that have been measured

 Achievement motivation
 Need for affiliation
 Parent – child relationships
 Inner Fantasies
 Level of aspiration
 Social and family relationships
 Functioning of sex urge
 Emotional conflicts
 Attitude to work, minority groups or authority
 Outlook towards future
 Frustrations
 Creativity
 Fear of success

Children Apperception Test (CAT)

Developed by D. Leopold Bellak. TAT test is used among adults and adolescents, but not
suitable for children between 3 to 10 years. It consists of 10 cards. The cards have pictures of
animals instead of human character since it was thought that children could identify themselves
with animal figures more readily than with persons. These animals are shown in various life
situations. For both sexes, all the 10 cards are needed. Whatever story the child makes, he
projects himself. The pictures are designed to produce fantasies relating to the child's own
experience, reactions.
Rorschach Ink – blot Test

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 Developed by Harmons Rorschach. It consists of 10 cards on which it have ink – blots.
Five of them are in black and white and five are multicoloured. These ink – blots are completely
unstructured – the shapes of the blots do not have any specific meaning. The subject is shown the
card and is asked to say what he sees in it, what does it look like, etc. After all the cards have
been presented, the second phase of inquiry follows. It is intended to seek clarification or
addition to original responses.

 Verbal Projective Techniques

Present subjects with an ambiguous verbal stimulus than a pictorial one. There are two
classes of verbal methods.

Association Techniques
An example of an association technique is word – association method, which presents
subject with a series of words, to which the individual respond with the first thing that comes to
mind. The word list often combines both neutral and emotionally tinged words, which are series
of words, to which the individual respond with the first thing that comes to mind. The word list
often combines both neutral and emotionally tinged words, which are included for the purpose of
detecting impaired thought processes or internal conflicts anxiety or any problems in
relationship.

Sentence completion Technique

This test include a list of incomplete sentences generally open at the end and is
asked to complete them in any desired manner. This approach is frequently used as a method of
measuring attitudes or some aspect of personality.
For Example
I am worried over ….........
 Expressive Methods
These techniques encourage self – expression through the construction of some
product out of raw materials. The major expressive methods are
 Play techniques
 Drawing and painting and
 Role playing
It is believed that people express their feelings, needs, motives and emotions by working
with or manipulating various materials.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) – standardized

One of the most commonly used personality tests is the MMPI. It was developed
during 1930's. This test asks for answers of 'True', 'False' or 'Cannot say' to 567 statements (one
for men and another for women) about different personality traits such as attitudes, emotional
reactions, physical and psychological symptoms and past experiences. The answers are

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quantitatively measured and personality assessment is done based on the norm scores. Dr. H.N.
Murthy of NIMHANS, Bangalore has reduced it to 100 items called Multiphasic Questionnaire
(MQ).

Millon Clinical Multi axial Inventory (MCMI) Millon, 1987

Items on this item correspond more closely than those on the MMPI to the categories of
psychological disorders currently used by psychologists. This makes the test especially useful to
clinical psychologist, to identify individual's problems before recommending specific forms of
therapy for them.
NEO – Personality Inventory (NEO-PI) (Costa and Megrae, 1989)
Neuroticism Extraversion openness.
This objective test is used to measure aspects of personality that are not directly
linked to psychological disorders specifically, it measures the big five dimensions appear to
represent basic aspects of personality (i.e.) extra version, agreeableness, conscientiousness,
emotional stability and openness to experience.
Vignettes
These are brief description of an event of situation to which respondents are asked to react.
Vignettes are used with questionnaires or interview schedules to assess respondent’s
hypothetical behaviors, opinions, perceptions or knowledge about some phenomenon under
study.

 Biological Measures Of Personality

In recent years, several biological measures of personality have also been developed.
Some of these use Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scans to see, if individuals show
characteristic patterns of activity in their brains – patterns that, are related to differences in their
overt behavior.
Other measures focus on hormone levels for instance; the highly aggressive persons may
have different levels of certain sex hormones than other persons.
Advantages

Economical
Administration is simple / objective
Scoring is simple / objective
Interpretation of results requires less interpretative skill
Apparent increased objectivity and reliability

Disadvantages

 Items limited to behavior

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  Single overall score
 Transparent meaning of items
 Forced choice approach

SOCIOMETRY (SOCIOGRAM)
Sociometry – study the interaction of children

SOCIOGRAM
This is a graphical representation of the responses made to a questionnaire administered
to members of a group with respect to their choice of roles to be played by particular members of
the group. (E.g.) Nominate the person whom he would like to sit, work, study or play.
Example
Going to work on a certain project
(E.g.-1)
List in order of performance, 3 individuals you would most like to work with
First Preference ________________
Second Preference ______________________
Third Preference _____________________

Then list the individuals you would least like to work with
First _____________
Second ______________
Third _________________

E.g. – 2

With whom would you like to sit and to be friendly ?

With whom would you like to work ?
Whom would you like least to work on a committee

A
Legend
universal direction of relationship
Mutual relationship
Neutral Direction
D B
D – Isolate

C
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star – one who receives the largest number of choices on a sociometric test
Isolate – one who is psychologically isolated from other members
Neglectee – one who received relatively new choices on the sociometric test
Rejectee – one who receives negative choices on a sociometric test
Mutual choice – one who have chosen each other on the same sociometric criterion.
Cliques or subgroups – small groups within a group
For Example

The students are asked to complete a statement such as, who is most cheerful person
in your class ? _______ . The pupils are asked to fill in a questionnaire such as this will help to
come to a conclusion by the teacher as to who that person is by counting the number of workers
Advantages
 Useful in evaluating personality and character traits
 It is the method of evaluating social relationship existing in a group
 To indicate those individual they would prefer to work with for some group
situation
 Choose as a leader with some particular qualities.
 Simple in use and speedy in administration
 Sociometry draws the curricular and co-curricular activities formation of groups,
choosing companions, partner for specific occasions or activities.

CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE

Critical incident technique is a method of assessing the student's analytical and problem
solving competencies.
Definition
The critical incident technique can be defined as a set of procedures for systematically
identifying behaviors that contribute to success or failure of individuals or organizations in
specific situations.
Critical incidents are outstanding happenings which indicate the presence or absence
of the quality or charecteristic or behavior pattern to be analyzed.

Criteria for using critical incident

 Data are centered around real critical incidents that occur during a task performance
 Tasks are performed by real users
 Users are located in their normal working environment
 Data are captured in normal task situation
 Users self-report their own critical incidents after they have happened
 No direct interaction takes place between the user and evaluator during the description
of the incident.

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Steps

1. Gather facts (incidents) about what actually happened

 Before the incident
 During the incident
 After the incident

The methodology usually employed is an open – ended questionnaire, gathering

retrospective data. The events should have happened fairly recently the longer the time period
between the events and their gathering , the greater the danger that the users may reply with
imagined stereotypical responses. Interviews can also be used, but these must be handled with
extreme care not to bias the user.

2.Content Analysis
Identifying the content or themes represented by clusters of incidents and conducting
“retranslation” exercises during which the analyst or other respondents sort the incidents into
content dimensions or categories.
These steps help to identify incidents that are judged to represent dimensions of the
behavior being considered
3.Creating Feedback

It is important to consider not only the negative feature of the report, but also the
positive one, so as not to undo good work or to make destructive recommendatives.

4.Recording Critical Incident

Total period of observation has to be written in the form
Number of incidents, effective and ineffective behavior has to be recorded
Space for signature of the evaluator and the person who is being evaluated should be
provided.

SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS SCALE

Introduction
Assessment of Socio Economic Status (SES) is an important aspect in community based
studies. Evaluation of SES of a family would mean the categorization of the family in respect of
defined variables such as education, occupation, economic status, physical assets, social position
etc.
One of the principal “short – cut” techniques used in stratification studies in its variant
forms. These scales have developed not only as a result of the demands of research sociologists,
but also of the specialists in educational psychology, interested in studying the role of the “home

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background” in children's lives and the social workers who face such practical problems as child
placement.
Socioeconomic status is a classification indicating the close relationship between a person's
social status and his financial setting.

Methods

Several methods or scales have been proposed for classifying different populations by
socio economic status.
 Rahudkar scale, 1960
 Udai Parikh Scale, 1964
 Jalota Scale 1970
 Kulshrestha Scale 1972
 Kuppuswamy Scale 1976
 Shrivastava Scale 1978
 Bharadwaj Scale 2001 (1-7)

Construction of standardized Multiple Factor Scales

Eight steps involved in the process .
Socio – economic status as defined and its respective sub – areas are
indicated.
. A number of test items or questions are devised which are presumed to be
connected with relative vertical position in each of these sub areas. These items may be scored as
either “present” or “non – present” or may be graded along a continuous.
These test items are tried out and scored on a sample of respondents, representing a
cross – section with regard to some objective factor commonly regarded to be associated with
socio – economic status (for instance income or occupation).
Socio Economic Status in Health and Disease
SES is one of the important concern to provide health care services. To minimize the
morbidity and mortality and to better utilize the limited resources to improve the health of the
needy people. The frequency of the diseases in socio economic groups are different.
(Eg) Chronic branchitis, TB, Diarhoea is more common in lower class group.
Diabetes, Hypertension, Obesity, CVD in upper class group.
Social class is positively correlated with health status of the family. People of upper
classes have a longer life expectancy, less mortality and better health and nutritional status.
Mortality rates like IMR, MMR, general MR are all high in lower class, Family size, early
marriages of women and bearing more children common in lower class.

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TYPES OF SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS SCALE

Urban Area

 Kuppuswamy's Scale : Education, Occupation, Income

 Verma Scalen: Family Composition, education of members, income, social position
and socio – cultural practice.
 Hollingshead Scale : Residence, Occupation and Education.

Rural Area

 Udai Pareek and G. Trivedi Scale

 Freedom Scale
For Both
 BG Prasad Scale

SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS SCALE URBAN

By B. Kuppuswamy 1962

It was developed for only those subjects who reside in Urban areas. This scale
contains two information blanks (one for person concerned and second for the father or guardian)
and score card.
The social stratification is based on three main variables.

 Education
 Occupation
 Income
The range of scores which can be obtained is from 3 to 27.
Scoring
Upper 26-27
Upper Middle 16-25
Middle 11-15
Lower Middle 5-10
Lower <4

SOCIO ECONOMIC STATUS SCALE (RURAL)

- By Udai Pareek and G. Trivedi (1964)

This scale consists of a manual and one information blank.

This scale has nine factors which assess the

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  Socio – economic status of the individual.
 Caste
 Occupation
 Education
 Social Participation
 Land
 House
 Material possession and
 Family

Scoring
>43 Upper class
33-42 Upper Middle class
24-32 Middle class
13-23 Lower Middle class
<13 Lower class

Socio economic status scale of Kuppuswamy (Urban 1978)

Score Card

(A) Education Score

1. Professional or Honours 7
2. Graduate or Post graduate 6
3. Intermediate or Post High School Diploma 5
4. High School Certificate 4
5. Middle School Certificate 3
6. Primary School Certificate 2
7. Illiterate 1

(B) Occupation Score

1. Profession 10
2. Semi Profession 6
3. Clerical, shop – owner, Farmer 5
4. Skilled Worker 4
5. Semi-Skilled Worker 3
6. Unskilled Worker 2
7. Unemployed 1
© Family Income Per Month In Rs. Score
2012

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1. > 2000 30375 12
2. 1000 – 1999 15188-30374 10
3. 750 – 999 11362-15187 6
4. 500 – 749 7594-11361 4
5. 300 – 499 4556-7593 3
6. 100 – 299 1521-4555 2
7. < 100 1520 1

Advantages

Reduce the risk that affect

 finance,
 recreation,
 tourism,
 transport and
 other sectors of society.

Disadvantage

Socio Economic Status influences Health status are complex and varied.

TEST FOR SPECIAL PHYSICAL AND MENTAL ABILITIES AND DISABILITIES

Physical Disability

Physical disability is defined as any degree of physical disability, infirmity,

malformation or disfigurement that is caused by bodily injury, birth defect or illness. This
includes, but it is not limited to epilepsy, paralysis, amputation, lack of physical co-ordination,
visual, hearing and speech impediments and physical reliable on a guide dog, service dog or
wheel chair or other remedial appliance or devices.

Mental Disability

Mental disability is defined as the mental disorder, developmental disorder or learning

disorder, regardless of the cause or duration of the disorder.

Physical Ability Testing

Although all employment, certification and licensure testing is certainly open to

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challenge, exams designed to physically assess a candidates performance on specific job skills
and tasks are often more vulnerable to challenge than objective written exams.
(Eg) Nursing Practical for Licensure.
An objective and standardized measure of a sample of behavior
Ability Tests
 Mental (cognitive ability)
 Psychomotor Ability
 Physical Ability
 Sensory Ability
Physical Test
 Interviews
 Physical ability test – Measures of dexterity, strength and stamina.
 Performance test – (Eg) speed test

Mental Ability

Psychological tests are specialized assessment procedures for determining such

charecteristics of an individual as intellectual capacity, motive pattern, self – concept, perception
of environment, anxiety of depression, copying pattern and general personality integration.

Personality Tests
Questionaires
Eg senck Personality Inventory (EPI)
Minnesota multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMIP)
16 – Personality Factor test
Projective
Rorschach ink – blot test
TAT
Interpersonal relations test
Bell's adjustment inventory, Rorschach test and TAT
Diagnostic
o Sentence Completion Test (SCT)
o Draw A Person Test (DAP)
o Bender – Gestalt Test
o Alexander's Performance Scale
o Bayley Scale of Infant Development
o Beck Depression Inventory
o Bender Visual Motor gestalt test
o Bhata's Performance scale
o Brief Psychiatric rating scale

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 o Intelligence Test
o Aptitude Test
 Differential Aptitude test
 Specific Aptitude test
 Space Relation test
 Mechanical aptitude test
 Minnesota Mechanical Assembly test
 Stanford scientific aptitude test(professional aptitude)

GUIDELINES OF STANDARDIZED TESTING

Faculty have an ethical obligation to ensure that both tests and decisions based on tests are valid
supported by solid evidences, consistent and fair to all test takers regardless of age, gender,
disability, race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, Linguistic background,
testing style and ability or other personal characteristics.

Faculty have the responsibility to asses student's abilities and assure that they are
competent to practice nursing, while recognizing that current approaches to learning assessment
are limited and imperfect.

Multiple sources of evidence are required to evaluate basic nursing competence.

Multiple approaches for assessment of knowledge and clinical abilities are particularly critical
when high stakes decisions (such as progression or graduation) are based on the assessment.

Tests and other evaluative measures are used not only to evaluate student’s
achievements, but as importantly to support student learning, improve teaching and guide
program improvements.

Standardized tests must have comprehensive testing, administration, and evaluation

information readily available to faculty before they administer grade, distribute results or write
related policies for test takers. Faculty has the responsibility to review and incorporate these
materials in communications to students about standardized testing and its consequences.

Faculty and schools of nursing have an ethical obligation to protect every students
right to privacy by maintaining appropriate confidentiality related to the the tesing process and to
test results.
STEPS;
.

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TIPS FOR PREPAING AND PRESENTING THE TEST.
PREPARATION ON THE DAY BEFORE TEST.
 Start preparation early.
 Encourage good study habits.
 Get enough sleep the night before. Go to bed on time.
 Put a 2 pencils, erasers, paper, calculator etc. in black pack.
 Solve family/ friend problems before the testing date.
 Talk to the parents about the corners (fear) about the test.
 Plan a outgoing or special to eat of some kind for after the test.
ON TNE TEST DAY.
 Start the day as usual.
 Eat good breakfast.
 Relax by thinking after getting home from college.
 Think positive.
 Ask help if you don’t understand the directions (instructions)
 Read the question and all answer choices before marking anything.
 Don’t spend too much time on anyone question. Do the best and more on.
 Answer the easiest questions first, but be sure to go back to those questions skipped.
 Check the question number against the number on the answer sheet.
 Fill in the orals completely erasing any stray marks.
 Do not change the answers unless you are very uncertain about the first answer
choice.
 Try to answer every question make the intelligent guess you can.
 After have been through all of the questions once, go back and find questions, that
have some knowledge about and eliminate choices that are incorrect.
 If you can eliminate two wrong answers, chance of choosing the right answer is
greater.
 Don’t guess blindly, but if you have time to think about the best answer choice,
make it.
 If finished early check to make that you have answered all questions.
 Find they words or phrases in the questions that will help to choose the correct
answer.
 Make sure that you understand the questions and responding correctly to the
questions asked.
 If the test requires reading the passages and then answering the questions, read the
questions first. This helps to go faster on the test.
 When there are several questions about a reading passage or chart, look for clues in
other questions that will help you those items about which you are unsure.

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  For maths- make sure that you have copied the problem correctly from the test
booklet.
 Line up place value correctly on the scratch paper.
 If the answer does not match one of the choices, read the problem, recopy the
numbers and try solving it again.
 If time remains-spend time which you know nothing or almost nothing.
 As you go back through, do not change all answers.
 Remember your first guess is usually right.
 Don’t spend too much time rewriting or obsessing about neatness.
 Don’t worry if you run out of time.
 Double check the test number.
 If the arm tires during testing, relax the grip and give those muscles a break. Ao not
do arm exercises.
 For teachers
 Test the best lesson plans and activities to prepare students for test.

ADVANTAGES OF STANDARDIZED TESTING

 To yield quantifiable informational scores, proficiency, levels and so forth.
 To provide information regarding an examinee’s areas.
 To compare the student to be age or grade peers.
 To assess students’ progress over time.
 The results can be documented and empirically verified.
 It has high degree of validity and reliability.
 Gauge students’ knowledge base in comparison with a large portion of the student
population can evaluate what knowledge a student has achieved and how far is still
left to go. Standardized test are reliable with a few exceptions such as essay
portions, standardized tests are primarily computer graded. This minimizes the
chance of human errors and provides a universally fair grading system.
 The questions remain unchanged regardless of what the test is being administered
ensuring that all areas of the country maintain the some learning requirements
 Useful for admission purposes in higher education.

DISADVANTAGES OF STANDARDIZED TESTING

 It can’t measure initiative, creativity, imagination, conceptual thinking, curiosity,
effort, irony, judgment, commitment, good will, ethical reflection.
 Fall to inform information adequately.
 May not be possible for some student with disabilities.
 Accommodations in disabled students become modifications to the trait or concept
attempting to be measures.
 It is influenced by non-cognitive factors (fatigue attention)

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  Do not provide information required for making curricular modifications or
instructional change.
 It often prevent the examiner from obtaining useful information regarding the
conditions under which the examinee may be abler to improve performance.
 Not accurately reflect the objectives the test taker was learning. Multiple choice
format force the test taker to choose answer limits creativity in fact is another option.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF USERS OF STANDARDISED

TESTS
The test user responsibilities in the following areas
 Qualification of test users.
 Technical knowledge
 Test selection
 Test administration
 Test scoring
 Interpretation test results
 Communicating test results
QUALIFICATIONS OF TEST USERS
Qualified test users demonstrate appropriate education, training and experience in
using tests for the purpose under consideration. They adhere to the highest degree of ethical
codes, laws and standards governing professional practice. Lack of essential qualifications or
ethical and legal compliance can lead to errors and subsequent harm to clients. Each professional
is responsible for making judgments in each testing situation and cannot leave that responsibility
either to clients or others is authority. The individual test user must obtain appropriate education
and training, or arrange for professional supervision and assistance when engaged in testing in
order to provide valuable, ethical and effective assessment services to the public. Qualifications
of test users depend on at least four factors.
Purposes of testing:
A clear purpose for testing should be established because the purposes of testing
direct how the results are used, qualifications beyond general testing competencies may be
needed to interpret and apply data.

Characteristics of tests:
Understanding of the strengths and limitations of each instrument used is a
requirement.
Settings and conditions of test use:
Assessment of the quality and relevance of test user knowledge and skills to the situation is
needed before deciding to test or participate is a testing program.
Roles of test selections, Administers and interpreters:

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 The education, training and experience of test users determine which tests they are
qualified to administer and interpret.
Each test user must evaluate his or her qualifications and competence for selecting,
administering, scoring, interpreting, reporting, or communication test results test users must
develop the skills and knowledge for each test he or she intends to use.
TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE
Responsible use of tests requires technical knowledge obtained through training education
andcontinuing professional development test users should be conversant and competent in
aspects of testing including.
Validity of test results:
Validity is the accumulation of evidence to support a specific interpretation of the test
results. Since validity is a characteristic of test results, a test may have validities of varying
degree for different purposes. The concept of instructional validity relates to how well the test is
assigned to state standards and classroom instructional objectives.
Reliability:
Reliability refers to the consistency of test scores. Various methods are used to
calculate and estimate reliability depending on the purpose for which the test is used.
Errors of measurement:
Various ways may be used to calculate the error associated with a test score knowing
this and knowing the estimate of the size of the error allows the test user to provide a more
accurate interpretation of the scores and to support better-informed decisions.
Scores and norms:
Basic differences between the purposes of norm-referenced and criterion referenced
scores impact score interpretation.
TEST SELECTION
Responsible use of tests requires that the specific purpose for testing be identified. In addition
that test is selected should alight with that purpose while considering the characteristics of the
test and test taker. Tests should not be administered without a specific purpose or need for
information. Typical purposes for testing include.
Description:
Obtaining objective information on the status of certain characteristics such as
achievement, ability, personality types, etc., is often an important use of testing.
Accountability:
When judging the progress of an individual or the effectiveness of an educational
institution, strong alignment between what is taught and what is tested needs to be present.
Prediction:
Technical information should be reviewed to determine how accurately the test will
predict areas such as appropriate course placation, selection for special programs, interventions
and institutions, and other outcomes of interest.
Program evaluation:

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 The role that testing plays in program evaluation and how the test information may be
used to supplement other information gathered about the program is an important consideration
in test use.
Proper test use involves determining if the characteristics of the test are appropriate for the
intended audience and are of sufficient technical quality for the purpose at hand. Some areas to
consider include.
The test taker:
Technical information should be reviewed to determine if the test characteristics are
appropriate for the test taker (e.g. age, grade, level, language, cultural background)
Accuracy of scoring procedures:
Only tests that use accurate scoring procedures should be used.
Norming and standardization procedures:
Norming and standardization procedures should be reviewed to determine if the room
group is appropriate for the intended test takers. Specified test administration procedures must be
followed.
Modifications:
For individuals with disabilities, alternative measures may need to be found and used
and/or accommodations in test taking procedures may need to be made in light of the
modifications in the test or testing procedures.

Fairness:
Care should be taken to select tests that are fair to are test takers. When test results are
influenced by characteristics or situations in related to what is being measured ( e.g. Gender, age,
ethnic back ground, existence of cheating, and unequal variability of test preparation programs)
the use of the resulting information is invalid and potentially harmful. In achievement testing
fairness also relates to whether or not the student has had an opportunity to learn what is tested.
TEST ADMINISTRATION
Test administration includes carefully following standard procedures so that the test is
used in the manner specified by the test developers. The test administrator should ensure that test
takers work within conditions that maximize opportunity for optimum performance. As
appropriate, test takers parents and organizations should be involved in the various aspects of the
testing process including. Before administration it is important that relevant persons Are
informed about the standard testing procedures, including information about the process of the
test the kinds of tasks index the method of administration, and the scoring and reporting. Have
sufficient practice experiences prior to the test to include practice, as needed on how to operate
equipment for computer-administered tests and practice in responding to takes. Have been
sufficiently trained in their responsibilities and the administration procedures for the test. Have a
chance to review test materials and administration sites and procedures prior to the time for
testing to ensure standard conditions and appropriate responses to any irregularities that occur.
Arrange for appropriate modifications of testing materials and procedures in order to

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accommodate test takers with special needs and have a clear understanding of their rights and
responsibilities.
During administration it is important that the testing environment (eg. Seating, work, surfaces,
lighting, room temperature, freedom from distractions) and psychological climate are conductive
to the best possible performance of the examinees.
Sufficiently trained personal established and mountain uniform conditions and observe the
conduct of test takes when large group of individuals are tested. Test administrators follow the
instructions in the test manual, demonstrate verbal clarity, use vibration direction, follow exact
sequence and timing and use materials that are identical to these specified by the test publisher.
A systematic and objective procedure is in place for observing and recording
environmental, health, emotional factors, or other elements that may invalidate test performance
and results, derivations from prescribed that administration procedure, including information on
test accommodations for individuals with special needs are recovered and the security of test
materials and computer administered testing software is protected, ensuring that only individuals
with a legitimate need for access to the materials/software are able to obtain such access and that
to eliminate the possibility of reaches in test security and copy right protection are respected.
After administration it is important to collect and inventory are secure test materials and
immediately report any breaches in test security. includes noted on any problems, irregularities
and accommodations in the test records. These precepts represent the basic process for all
standardized tests and assessments. Some situations may add steps or modifying some of these to
provide the best testing milieu possible.
TEST SCORING
Accurate measurement necessitates adequate procedure for scoring the response of test takers.
Scoring procedures should be audited as necessary to ensure consistency and accuracy of
application. Carefully implemented and /or monitor standing scoring procedures. the criteria for
scoring consistency should be constantly monitored. Provide a method for checking the accuracy
of scores when accuracy is challenged by test takers.
INTERPRETING TEST RESULTS
Responsible test interpretation requires knowledge about and experience with the test, the scores,
and the decisions to be made. Interpretation of scores on any test should not take place without a
through knowledge of the technical aspects of the test, the test results, and its limitations. Many
factors can impact the valid and useful interpretations of test scores. These can be grouped into
several categories including psychometric, test taker, and contextual as well as others.
Psychometric factors:
Factors such as the reliability, norms, standard error of measurement, and validity of
the instrument are important when interpreting the test results. Responsible test use considers
these basic concepts and how each impacts the scores and hence the interpretation of
socioeconomic status, material status and so forth impact on the individuals results.
Contextual factors:
The relationship of the test to the instructions program, opportunity to learn quality of

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the educational program, work and home environment and other factors that would assist in
understanding the test results are useful in interpreting test results. For example if the test does
not align to curriculum standards and how those standards are taught in the class room the test
results may not provide useful information.
COMMUNICATING TEST RESULTS
Before communication of test results takes place a solid foundation and preparation is necessary.
That foundation includes knowledge of test interpretation and an understanding of the particular
test being used, as provided by the test manual.
Covering test results with language that the test taker, parents, teachers, clients, or
general pupil can understanding is one of the meaning of the test results. When reporting group
results, the information needs to be supplemented with background information that can help
explain the result with captions about misinterpretations. The test user should indicate low the
test results can be and should not be interpreted.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN STANDARDIZED AND NON-

STANDARDIZED TEST
SL.NO STANDARDIZED TEST NON-STANDARDIZED TEST
1. Generally prepared by specialist Made by teachers who may not know very well
who know very well the principles the principles of test construction.
of test construction.

Prepared very carefully following Often prepared hurriedly and haphazardly to be

2. principles of test construction. able to meet the deadline for administration.

3. Given to large proportion of the

population for which they are Usually given only to a class or classes for
intended for the computations of which the tests are intended, usually no norms
norms. are computed.

4. Generally correlated with other Teacher-made tests are not subjected to any
tests of known validity and statistical procedure to determine their validity
reliability or with measures such as and reliability.
school marks to determine their
validity and reliability.
May be objective and may essay in which case
5. Generally are high objective. scoring is objective.

Have their norms computed for Have no norms unless the teacher computes the
6. purposes of comparison and median, mean and other measures for
interpretation. comparison.

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7. Measure innate capacities and Generally measure subject achievement only.
characteristics as achievement.

Intended to be used for a long Intended to be used only once or twice to

period of time and for all people of measure achievement of students in a subject
8. the same class in the culture where matter studied during a certain period.
they are validated.

9. Accompanied by manuals of Do not have manuals of instructions, only the

instructions on how to administer directions for the different types of tests which
and score the tests and how to may be given orally or in writing.
interpret the results.

10.
Generally copyrighted. Not copyrighted

FUTURE TRENDS
 Increased use of technology[computer and Internet]
 Alternative methods for multicultural assessment
 Expansion of performance assessment
 Continued demand for accountability information
 Rise of new ethical and legal issues.

JOURNAL ABSTRACT.
Standardized testing tools to support quality educational outcomes.
Student success or failure in nursing education can be difficult to product and likely depends
on complex relationships between several variables. Identifying and controlling these variables is
a continuing challenge for college faculty and administrators. Many colleges of nursing across
the United States now use standardized external assessment programs to help students prepare
for professional licensure examination.
Repeatability of standardized test of functional impairment and wellbeing in older people
in a rehabilitation setting.
The aim of the study was to establish the repeatability of standardized tests of vision,
hearing, communication, loneliness, morale in rehabilitation setting and concluded poor
repeatability for commonly used test of vision and hearing is wiring, whereas the positive results
for the other tests will increase confidence in using them more in routine practice.
Psychometric assessment of the comprehensive effects of alcohol questionnaire comparing a

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brief version to the original full scale.
The current set of studies compared the psychometric properties of the original
comprehensive effects of alcohol questionnaire (CEOA ) to a 15 item version (B-CEOA) in a
non-clinical undergraduate sample (N=581) and attempted to replicate and extend the B-CEOA
findings in an undergraduate sample referred to an alcohol intervention. Psychometric
assessment included construct validity, internal consistency and concurrent validity using both
positive and negative expectancy items in all analysis. Results provided further support for the
empirical validity of the original CEOA and provided support for the use of B-CEOA.

AUDIOVISUAL AIDS
1. Overhead projector.
2. LCD Projector
3. Hand out
4. Leaflet
5. Chart.
6. Flannel board.
7. Pamphlet.
8. Roller board.
9. :Striptease chart.

CONCLUSION.
Standardized tests being developed today provide increasingly useful and sophisticated
information. Teachers will find results to guide instruction. Traditional teacher made tests will
continue to play an important role in the classroom, while standardized tests will play a virtual
role in meaning students’ progress, improving instruction and helping students achieve higher
standards.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Textbook
 Basavanthappa, B.T (2009). Nursing Education (2ndEd.).NewDelhi:
Jaypeepublication. Jaypee publication. Pg No.711-724.
 Heidgerken, I.G (2006). Teaching and learning in schools of nursing principles and
methods (3 rdEd.). NewDelhi. Konart Publication Pg No 651.
 Kumari, Neelam (2010). A Textbook of communication and education technology.
(1st Ed.). Jalandhar: Vikas and co. Pg No 357-358.
 Dr.George Aleyamma (2002). Principles of curriculum Development and
Evaluation (1 st Ed) Namakkal: Vivekananda Press. Pg No 154.
 Kumari. Neelam (2007). A Textbook of Psychology (1st Ed). Jalendhar: Vikas and
co. Pg No 186-189. 213-221.
 Neeraja. K.P (2007).Textbook of Nursing Education. (1 st Ed) New Delhi. Jaypee

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 Brothers Publication. Pg. No. 415-419.
 Sankaranarayanam B. Sindhu.B (2008) Learning and Teaching Nursing (2nd Ed).
Calicut Brainfill Publication. Pg No 221-246.
Journel.
 Tobeas, P Zangrilli BF, Holstein B;L (2006) Standardized testing tools to support
quality educational outcomes 15(4) Page No 300-308
 Philip I, Lowles RV, Armstrong, G.K, Whitehead. C (2002) Repeatability of
Standardized tests of functional impairment and well-being in older people in a
rehabilitation setting 24(5) Pg No: 243-249.

Electronic version.
 Standardized Test. www.definition.com.
 Standardized Test. www.timeoutfrom testing.com.
 Standardized Test. www.education.com.

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