UNIT 6 NUTRIENT CYCLES

Structure
Introduction
Objcctivcs
Biogeochemical Cycling
Cxrbon Cycle
Nitrogen (~'yclc
Sulphur Cycle
Phosphorus Cycle
Nutrient Budgcts.and ('ycling in Forests
Nutrient Budgets
Nutrient Cycling in Tropical and Temperate Forests
Summarj,
Terminal Questions
Answers

- -

6.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already learnt in the earlier units (Units 1 arid 5 ) that all ecosystems have
certain common basic features of structure and function. They all have living and
non-living components through which there is a flow of energy and exchange of
materials. Birth. growth, death and decay are the four pillars that keep life going on
the planet. The soil does not offer an endless supply of minerals to land living
organisms nor d o fresh water and sea to their inhabitants. Yet in the millions of years
during which life evolved and flourished on land, the soil has not been exhausted of
the nutrients required by plants. Similarly, the atmosphere has not run out of its
oxygen o r carbon dioxide. Shortages of thesc substances are prevented because they
are circulated and recycled in a community in a delicately balanced cycle of events.
In this unit we will consider the dynamics of major nutrient elements in the biosphere.
We will study the various chemical forms in which they occur in nature and the way
they cycle. You will learn specifically about the cycling of carbon, nitrogen, sulphur
and phosphorus through the abiotic and biotic components of the ecosystem. The
role of decomposers in liberating the nutrients back into the environment for their
reuse is crucial in the cycling of these nutrients. The nutrient cycles are delicately
balanced and each step is critical for their normal functioning. However, man is
seriously influencing the rate and quantum of these nutrient cycles through his
activities. Suitable examples are provided to show the impact of human activities on
the nutrient cycles.
A study of this unit will help you to understand that a community of plants and
animals in an ecosystem survives primarily by a combination of material cycling and
energy flow.
Objectives
After reading this unit you will be able to:
define and use in proper context the term biogeochemical cycle and explain the
Importance of the concept.
distinguish betweell gaseous and sedimentary cycles,
outline the course of carbon, nitrogen. sulphur and phosphorus cycles,
describc the importance of micro-organisms in nutrient cycling,
differentiate between nutrient cycling in tropical and temperate forest,
identify the consequences of human intervention in nature in terms of nutrient
cycles.

You have studied in Unit 5 that energy flows through ecosystems'enabling the
organisms to perform various kinds of work, and is uItimately lost as heat. It is gone
 Nutrient Cycling
for ever in terms of usefulness to the system. O n thc other hand, nutrient materials
I
never get 'used up'. They can be recycled again and again indefinitely. For example.
when we breathe, wk inhale several million atoms that may have been inhaled by say,
Akbar o r any other person you may care to choose from history. First let us explain
.what we mean by mineral nutrients. As you have learnt in Unit 5, of morc than I00
1 chemical elements, about 40 are present in living organispls. Some are needed in
relatively li~rgcamounts and n, arc c;illcd macronutrients while some ;ire needed in
only trace amounts ancl so nanictl niicronutrients (scc Tablc 6. I ) .

Table 6.1
Relative amounts of some chemical elements that make u p living things

Element Main Reservoir

Major Macronutrients Carbon Apospher~

(> 1 X, dry organic weighf) Hydrogen Hydrosphere
Oxygen Atmosphere
Nitrogen Atmosphere and Soil
Phosphorus Lithosphere

Relatively Minor Macronutrients Calcium Lithosphere

( 0 . 2 1% dry organic weight) Chlorine Lithosphere
Copper Lithosphere
Iron Lithosphere
Magnesium Lithosphere
Sulphur Lithosphere and
At rno\phere
Sodium Lithosphere
Potassium Lithosphere

Some Micronutrients Aluminirlm Lit hospb :e

( < 0 . 2 % dry organic weight) Boron Lithosp!,i-re
Bromine Lithos- .,ere
Zinc Lith~..~,here
Cobalt 1.ithospherr
Iodine Lithosphere
Chromium Lithosphere

Individual nutrients can exist in combination with other elements forming different
compounds. But living organisms may not he able to obtain the essential nutrients
from all, those compounds. For example, plants can use carbon only in the form of
carbon dioxide (CO,). Similarly all organisms necd nitrogen but most of them are
incapable of utilising the gaseous Nz present in the atmosphere unless it is available
in form of soluble nitrates (NOT) o r ammonia (NH3).
The mineral nutrients move from the non-living t o the living and then back t o the
non-living components of the ecosystem in a more o r less circular manner. This is
known as biogeochemical cycling (bio for the living, geo for atmosphere. water, rocks
and soil and chemical for the elements and processes involved). We generally call
them nutrient o r mineral cycles. You should, however, remember the important role of
a) green plants which organise the nutrients into biologically useful compounds,
b) decomposers which ultimately return them t o their simple elemental state.
c) air and w.ater which transport the nutrients to long,distances between the abiotic
and biotic components of the ecosystem.

You'should also get familiar with the two important terms associated with
biogcochcinical cycles :
a) the different reservoirs o r pools of nutrients likc thc atmosphere and rocks. These
are large and the relative size of thesc pools is important when one assesses the
effect of human activities o n nutrient cycles.
h) tlic compartments o f t h e cyclcs t hl.o~~gIi
which the nu~l-icnthmove. l'hcy are
I
relatively short-term stores of nutrients in comparisoli with ~eservoirs;for
cxaniplc, the plants and ;~nimalsthrough which rhc nutt-icnrs 11iovcand in which
they arc srorcd for short periods in n cyclc.
1 Fig. 6.1 shows a nlodcl. The reservoirs are the ;~ttnosphcrc.and rocks; the major
I
I Fcmystem : Functioning and Types compartments are sea and sediment, freshwater and soil. The5e include the primary
producers and consumers and dead organic matter in the decomposer system.

ATMOSPHERE
AI , I
r-----1 4,
SEA
I* I
It

ROCK

Fig. 6.1 : A model of the biogeochemical cycle. The arrows indicate the outgoing and incoming of minerals.

Now let us study two types of biogeochemical cycles.

Types of Biogeochemical Cycles : There are two basic types of biogeochemical cycles,
gaseous and sedimentary. In the gaseous type of biogeochemical cycle there is a
prominent gaseous phase. Cycling of carbon and nitrogen represents gaseous
biogeochemical cycles. In sedimentary cycles the main reservoir is the lithosphere
from which the nutrients are released largely by weathering of rocks. The
sedimentary cycle is exemplified by phosphorus and sulphur.
When we describe biogeochemical cyclc;we often say that a cycle is perfect or
imperfect. A perfect nutrient cycle is one in which the nutrients are replaced as fast
as they,are used up. Most gaseous cycles arc generally considered perfect. In contrast,
sedimentary cycles are considered relatively imperfect, as some nutrients are lost'
from the cycle into the soil and wdiments and becomc unavailabIe for immediate
cycling i.e., there are morc stages in which short-term or long-term stagnation occurs.
Most significant of the stagnation stages is sedimentation in oceans and deep
continental lakes. So if portions of nutricnts. such as phosphorus or sulphur are lost.
they are unavailable to organisms for comparativelj, longer periods. Human beings
have so speeded up the movement of many nutrients that the cycles tend to becomc
imperfect o r rather acyclic resulting in too much of nutrients at onc stayc or too little
at another. We will discuss this in detail when wc comc to thc p h o s ~ ) I i o ~cycle.
-~~s
Factors or processes which promote nutrient loss from the compartments of
biogeochemical cycles to the reservoir can impoverish ecosystems over long run. For
example, continuous cultivation and cropping without the use of fertilisers is bad for
the soil. Small particles and nutrients wash with runoff waters o r leach down to
groundwater and rivers through subsoil to the sea, where they may get buried with
sediments which may eventually be incorporated into rocks.
Agriculture, forestry operation (e.g. deforestation). and other activities can
profoundly affect the rates of nutrient cycling. For instance, burning of fossil fuels
contributes towards the build up o f carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. W e will learn
more of this as we discuss each cycle inciividually
 Nutrient Cycling
6.3 CARBON CYCLE
Carbon is the basic constituent of all organic compounds. Next to water, carbon is
the most significant element constituting 49 per cent of the dry weight of organisms.
The carbon cycle is essentially a perfect one, that is, carbon is returned to the
environment about as fast as it is removed. The source of all carbon in living
organisms, dead.organic material and fossil deposits is carbon dioxide found in the
atmosphere.

Table 6.2 : Carbon in major biospheric compartments

Major Compartments in the Biosphere Carbon in lo9 tons

Atmosphere
Terrestrial
Oceans (mostly as carbonates)
Fossil fuels

Source : Data from 1981 report of the Council on Environment Quality.

The atmosphere has an average concentration of about 0.032 per cent or 320 ppm of
C02. Apart from the atmospheric pool, a considerably large amount of CO, is found
dissolved in the ocean$. It is estimated that the oceans contain more than 50 times as
much carbon as there.is in the atmosphere. The oceanic reservoir.tends to regulate
the amount in the qtmosphere. Tdble 6.2 shows the major biosphere compartments
involving carbon. The cycling of carbon involves the atmospheric reservoir, from
where it is taken.up by the producer to consumer and from both these groups to the
decomposer and then back to the reservoir (Fig. 6.2). Let us now consider each stage
of the
.
cycle.
. CO, in atmosphere

Fig. 6.2 : Simplified carbon cycle

Through photosynthesis, green plants pick up carbon from carbon dioxide they take
m from the atmosphere. AS much as 4 to 9 Y 1013kg of carbon is fixed In the
biosphere through photosynthesis annually.
Respiratory activity in the producers and consumers accounts f o r - t b r e t u r n of a
considerable amount of carbon as C02 to the atmosphere. The most substantial
-Ystem : and Types
Turnover Rate : Rate of replace-
merit Of a substance Or a 'pecies
when losses to a system are
replaced by addition.
A. number of aquatic plants
in PlkPline water release water, or is present as bicarbonates and carbonates and convert this CO, into
calcium carbonate (CaCOs) as a
byprodud of pho(osmtbesis. For phytoplankton biomass. The phytoplankton is used as food by the aquatic food chain.
e n m p l e 180 kg of Elodea
~e~ precipitate 2 kg
hr of
C a C a k x e s with ClaV to
baa b d e over a nulndcr
of years.
return, however, is through the activity of decomposers in their processing of the
waste materials and dt ad remains of other trophic levels.
Burning of wood, forest fires and combustion of organic matter also are additional
man-made sources for releasing C 0 2 into the atmosphere.
The rate of release of carbon depends on environmentabco~lditionssuch as soil,
moisture, temperature and precipitation. In tropical forests most of the carbon in
plant remains is quickly recycled, for there is little accumulation in the soil. The
turnover rate of atmospheric carbon over a tropical forest is about 0.8 year. In drier
regions such i s grasslands, carbon is stored as humus. In swamps and marshes where
dead material falls in water and is not completely decomposed, carbon is stored as
humus or peat and circulated very slowly. The turnover rate here is of the order of
3-5 years.
More than 99 per cent of the total carbon is present in the earth's crust'as deposits
of coal, petroleum, peat and limestone. These as you know are deposits of plant and
animal remains. On weathering of carbonate rocks, burning of fossil fuels and
volcanic activity, the bound carbon is returned to the atmospheric-aquatic reservoir.
In aquatic environments, the . .
~ h.v t o ~ l a n k t outilises
n the CO? that is dissolved in the
The CO, produced in respiration is reutilised by the 'phytoplankton to produce more
biomass. The carbon bound in the shells of snails and fcyraminifera as carbonates is
, deposited in the sediments when thesemimals die. In this manner a significant
portion of the carbon gets buried in the sediment and is removed from circulation.
This mav later surface as limestone rock or coral rccf.
The atmospheric gaseous C 0 2 remains in dynamic equilibrium with the C 0 2
dissolved in oceans. The interchange between the two phases occurs due to diffusion,
the direction of which depends on the relative concentrations of carbon dioxide.
Carbon dioxide dissolves in water easily and some of it enters the aquatic phase
through precipitation. A litre of rain water contains about 0.3 ml of gaseous C 0 2 .
The C 0 2 dissolved in the water, in soil or in oceans forms carbonic acid (H2C03).
The carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate ions (H+ and HCO;).
The bicarbonate ions can furthen dissociate into hydrogen and carbonate ions. All
these steps are fully reversible as shown in the following equation.
Dissolved CO,
1c.
+ H20 = H2C03 H+ + HCO; -* Hf + COT,
Atmospheric CO,
The direction of the reaction depends on the concentration of the critical component.
For example, a local depletion of C 0 2 would result in the movement of C 0 2 from
the dissolved phase into the atmosphere. Similarly the assimilation of bicarbonate
ibns (HCO;) through photosynthesis by aquatic plants would tend to shift the
equilibrium in the oiher direction. The equilibrium system actually is not as simple
as it seems. It depends on several factors, pH of the water being one. At higher pH
values i.e., alkaline conditions more carbon is present'
as carbonates; in acidic
conditions mo:e carbon is in the dissolved phase.
It may now be apparent to you that what seemed like a simple cycle is actually quite
complicated. However, it is important to recognise that there are limited avenues by
which carbon is utilised and a much larger number by which it is restored to the
atmosphere.
Human Impact on Carbon Cycle
Human activities have greatlvinfluenced the carbon cycle. The discharge of CO, into
the atmosphere is steadily increasing owing to burning of fossil fuels and destruction
of forests. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution about 1800, it is believed
that C 0 2 concentration in the atmosphere was 290 ppm (parts per'million) which is
equal to 0.29 per cent. In 1958 when accurate measurements were first taken, the
concentration of CO, was already 315 ppm, while in 1988 it had risen,to 350 ppm. A
major concern over the increasing concentration of C 0 2 in the atmosphere is its
possible effect on the average ambient global temperature. Carbon dioxide is one of
the gases that helps to produce the 'greenhouse effect' (recall FST-1 Block 4, Unit
16). Rise in the ambient global temperature would have pronounced ecological
 effects. The warming would cause icecapsdo m e l ~and ocean levels to rise, as a result Nutrient Cycling
the continental coastal regions would be flooded. The rise in temperature would also
change the rainfall and vegetation patterns which would disrupt agricultural
'production. This has been verified by comparing with predictions of climatic patterns
of the past through computer modelling studies.

You have already learnt that nitrogen is an essential constituent of protein - the
building block of all living cells. It is also a major constituent of the atmosphere (79
per cent). Although organisms live in an atmosphere rich in gaseous nitrogen yet the
organisms cannot use this nitrogen. It can be utilised only after gaseous nitrogen has
been 'fixed' into some ~ m i c a l l yusable form. The transformation whereby
molecular nitrogen is converted into a variety of nitrogenous compound and its
release again into the atmosphere, is what constitutes the nitrogen cycle (Fig. 6.3).

Fig. 6.3 : Nitrogen cycle. A sikplified diagram representing major steps in the circulation of nitrogen
involving various organisms and different forms of inorganic and organic nitrogen.
. F- Trps The largest reservoir of nitrogen is the atmosphere but the critical pools are
represented by itsprganic and inorganic forms that can be used by plants and animals.
Nitrogen Fixation
As we have said before, atmospheric nitrogen cannot be used by plants or animals.
It has to be first fixed. The term nitrogen fixation refers to the oxidation or reduction
of atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates (NO;) and ammonia (NH,) which can be used by
living organisms. In nature nitrogen fixation into these compounds occurs primarily
in two ways :
i) High energy fixation : Through cosmic radiations, lightning, volcanic activity and
meteorite trails which provide the high energy needed to combine atmospheric
N, with oxygen and hydrogen of water. The resulting ammonia and nitrates are
brought to the earth by rainwater.
ii) Biological fixation :Approximately 63% of all nitrogen fixed is through biological
fixation. Nitrogen fixing organisms are primarily prokaryotes; bacteria and blue
green algae. Nitrogen fixation requires activation of molecular nitrogen by
splitting nitrogen into two atoms of free nitrogen N2 + 2N. This is an energy
requiring step, which in biological fixation requires 160 kcallmole. The actual
fixation step, in which two atoms of nitrogen combine with three molecules of
H2 to form two molecules of ammonia (NH,) releases 13 kcallmole. Therefore,
the net energy requirement for nitrogen fixation is 147 kcallmole.
Except for the photosynthetic ones, all nitrogen fixing organisms need an external
source of carbon compounds to provide the energy for this endothermic reaction. It
is an interesting fact that nitrogen fixation regulated by two enzymes nitrogenase and
hydrogenase in nature requires low energy. In contrast, industrial nitrogen fixation
requires very high temperature (400' C)and pressure (2 x 10' Pascal). Table 6.3
illustrates the kind of organisms known to fix nitrogen. Symbiotic nitrogen fixatiun
occurs largely in terrestrial situations whereas, fixation by free living organisms occurs
in both terrestrial and aquatic situations.
Table 6.3 : Examples of symbiotic and free living nitrogeri fixing organisms

Symbiotic
HOST PLANT N, FIXING ORGANISMS
Legumes
(pea, alfalfa, pulses like arhar, beans, clover, etc.) Rhizobium
Non-legumes
( ~ l n u s ,hfyrico, Ctasuorino, Hippophe, Eloeognus, Coriqri4 c&.) Actinomycetes
Tropical grasses
(Pispalurn, Digitaria, maize, sorghum) Azotobacter, Spirillum
Klebsiella
Cycads Blue green algae
Ferns., (Azolla) Blue green algae (Anabaena)
Lichens Blue green algae

Free-living

Aerobic bacteria *- (Azotobacter)

Anaerobic bacteria - (Clostridium)
Anaerobic - photosynthetic bacteria - (Chromatium, ~ h o d o s ~ i r i l l u mChlorobium)
,
Blue green algae - (Nostoc)

i) Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers

Of the symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteyia, species of Rhizobium form root nodules in
legumes and are the most studied nitrogen fixers and the best understood. Species of
Rhizobium are host specific to particular species of legumes. The rhizobia penetrate
the root hair and once inside the root, the bacteria rapidly multiply and form swollen,
irregular - shaped bodies in roots of legumes.
Some non-legume w6ody plants also have root nodules and fix nitrogen symbiotically.
The organisms that cause the formation of nodule and fixation of nitrogen are
actinomycetes (a kind of primitive fungus). Some examples of non-legumes are
species of Alnw, Elaeagnus Myrica, Araucaria, Ginkgo, Casuarina. Unlike legumes,
which are largely tropical in origin, these nitrogen fixers orginate in the temperate zone.
Nitrogen fixation by blue green algae or cynobacteria may take place In free living Nutrient Cycling

forms or in symbiosis with fungi as in certain lichens, mosses. ferns and at least one
seed plant. The frohds of the small free floating aquatic fern Azolla contain small
pores filled with symbiotic blue green algae Anubaena that actively fix nitrogen. For
centuries this fern has played an important role in the rice fields of China. Before
the rice fields are planted. the water filled paddy fields are covered with the aquatic
fern which fixes enough nitrogen for the crop as it matures. This practice permits rice
to be grown without further addition of nitrogen fertilisers.
Symbiotic nitrogen fixers are more efficient than free living ones.
ii) Non Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixers
There are certain groups of free living bacteria both aerobic and anaerobic and blue
green algae that fix nitrogen. Aerobic nitrogen fixing bacteria such as Azotobacter
and anaerobic form Clostridium are widely distributed in soils as well as in fresh and
marine waters. In fact accumulating evidence indicates that many soil a?d water
bacteria are capable of nitrogen fixation and because they occur in abundance the
total amount of nitrogen fixed is considerable.
The N, fixed in the soil and root nodules is used by the plants to form numerous
nitrogenous compounds mainly proteins which then enter the food chain. Nitrogen is
returned to the soil in the form of organic compounds through manure, dead plants,
and animals and micro-organism. But most of this nitrogen is insoluble and not
immediately available for plant use. The organic nitrogenous compounds have to be
changed to inorganic compounds to be used by plants. This is done by two processes
- ammonification and nitrification.
Ammonification
Many heterotrophic bacteria. actinomycetes and fungi in soil and w iier, metabolise
the organic nitrogen and release it in an inorganic form as ammonia. This process is
known as ammonification or mineralisation. This is an energy relea. lng reaction. For
example, glycine-based protein releases 176 kcallmole. This energy is used to
maintain the life 'process of the organisms that accomplish the transformation.
Because the ammonium ion has a
Nitrification positive charge it tends to be
retained on the clay particles
~ m m b n i aor ammonium salts, are converted into nitrate in a process termed which are negatively charged as
nitrification. to be useful to most autotrophic and heterotrophic organisms. This soon it is formed, till it is oxidised.
process occurs in warm moist soil with near neutral pH and takes place In two steps : The nitrate ion being negatively
charged moves freely through the
i) ammonia salt or ammonia is oxidised and converted into nitrite by Nitrosomonas soil and readily travels down to
2NH, + 30, 2N0; + 2H+ + 2 ~ , 0 65 kcallmole the root zone.

-
ii) Nitrite is further oxidised and converted into nitrate by Nirrobactor
2NO; + 0, 2NO; 17 kcallmole
These nitrifying bacteria obtain their energy from this oxidation process. Now let us
see how nitrogen is converted back into its gaseous form.
Denitrification
Nitrates are readily leached from the soil and also lost through denitrification the
process by which molecular or gaseous nitrogen (N,) as well as nitrous oxide (NO)
'and nitric oxide ( N 2 0 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO,) are formed from NO; by bacteria
(such as ~ s e u d o m o n u s )and fungi. They use the nitrate as a source of oxygen in the
presence of glucose and phosphate. Denitrifing bacteria prefer anaerobic or partially
aerobic habitats such as estuaries, bogs, lake bottoms and water-logged soils. The
bacteria reduce the nitrates to nitrites which are finally converted to free nitrogen.
Figure 6.4 shows the processes involved in N, cycle namely fixation, assimilation,
denitrification, decomposition, leaching, runoff in ra!nwater, etc., along with some
estimates of annual global movements. ?'he magnitude of the two flows is dirk~tly
related to human activities -emmissions into the atmosphere and industrial fixation
that is largely added to farms in the form of nitrogen fertilisers are also shown.
The total annual nitrogen fixation is estimated to be 92 x lo6 metric tonnes, whercas
total amount denitrified and returned to the atmosphere is only 83 x lo6 metric tonnes.
The extra nitrogen added each year in the biosphere causes disbalance of nearly
9 x lo6 metric tonnes and is being largely built up in groundwater, reservoirs, rivers,
lakes and the ocean.
k Z 0 s y Y:~Rtnctioning and T y p s

ATMOSPHERE

Aubndnle and
Induslnal ernlsstons

Jz
&
'-----
B i community Leaching, runoffetc
to sediment

Industrial fixation
(30)

Fig. 6.4 : Estimates of the magnitude of key flows in the nitrogen cycle. Numbers in parentheses are in lo6
metric tomes per year (Data from Delwich 1970 Scientific American)

The self-regulating feedback shownin Fig. 6.4 makes the nitrogen cycle a relatibely
perfect one when a large area or the biosphere as a whole is considered. Some
nitrogen is lost to the ocean sediments and gets out of circulation but this is
compensated by nitrogen entering the air by volcanic gases. Let us now assess lhe
impact of human activities on this cycle.
Human Impact on Nitrogen Cycle
Human activities are profoundly affecting the cycling of nitrogen in nature. Over
30 x lo6 metric tonsjyr. of N2 is fixed in the commercial production of fertilisers, an
amount almost equal to that fixed biologically. The use of N2 fertilisers affect the
distribution of N2 on earth. Much of the nitrogen in the harvested crops becomes
animal and human waste in sewage waters and eventually enters the aquatic
ecosystem through runoff and leaching. Nitrogenous compounds leached into the
groundwater may be abundant in irrigation and drinking water where they can cause
serious health hazards. Nitrogenous compounds entering the lakes have fertilising
effect resulting in algal blooms and promote cultural eutrophication. You already
have an idea what eutrophication means (from'ufiit 26 Block 4 of'FST-1). Excessive
growth of phytoplankton in eutrophic lakes produces huge quantities of biomass and
finally collapse due to nutrient exhaustion. The dead organisms are consumed by ,
detrivores which use up the oxygen supply. This problem of cultural eutrophication
is, however, more severe in the case of phosphorus additions rather than nitrogen.
When fossil fuels are burned we add nitrogenons compounds to the air. Large
quantities oi nitrogen oxide (NO) are released from vehicles and most of the NU is
converted to NO2 by combining with ozone (03) in the atmosphere. NO2 is a toxic
gas for 6umans and a cause of smog. It combines with water to form nitric acid,
HN03, which forms 30% of the strong acids in the acid rain. You will read mc
about acid rain jn Section 6.5.
Now that you have learnt about the biogeochemical cycles where the main reservo
are in gaseous phase, we will discuss two sedimentary cycles namely phosphorus a1
sulphur. These are different from the earlier two gaseous cycles because the main
reservoirs and major reactions involving their transformation are largely confined to
the sediment.

6.5 SULPHUR CYCLE

The sulphur cyclc is mostly sedimentary except for a short gaseous phase (Fig. 6.5).
The large reservoir of sulphur is in the soil and sediment where it is tied up in organic
(coal, oil and peat) and inorganic deposits (pyrite rock and sulphur). It is released
by weathering of rocks. erosional runoff and decomposition of organic matter, and
is carried to terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in salt solution. The smaller reservoir
is in the atmosphere. Sulphur can circulate on a global scale along with carbon.
oxygen and nitrogen because of its gaseous phase.

Fig. 6:s : he Sulphur cycle linking air, water and soil. The centre circular arrows show oxidation (0)and
reduction (R) reactions that bring about key transformations between available su!phate (SO,) pool,
organic sulphur and iron sulphide deep i n the sediment a n d soil. .
m y s t e m : fund ion in^ and Types Sulphur enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and sulphur dioxide (SO;?)
from several sources like combustion of fossil fuels, volcanic eruptions, and the
surface of oceans and gases released by decomposition. Hydrogen sulphide also
oxidises into sulphur dioxide (SO,). Atmospheric SO2 is carried back to the earth
dissolved in rainwater as weak sulphur~cacid (H2S04). Sulphur in the form of
sulphates ( ~ 0 4is~taken
) up by plants and incorporated through a series of metabolic
processes into sulphur bearing aminbacids. From the producers the amino ac~dsare'
taken up by the consumers.
4
Sulphur bound in living organisms is carried back to the soil, to bottoms of ponds
and lakes and seas through excretions and decomposition of dead organic material
by bacteria and fungi. The oxidation-reduction transformations have been
summarised in Table 6.4. These are carried out by specialised bacteria that obtain
their energy from these transformations.

Table 6.4 Role of some microbes in the sulphur cycle (%represents oxidation while R-represents
reduction reactions)

Microbes Reactions, transformations

0 0
Colourless, green and purple sulphur bacteria H2S :
- S -4 SO,
R
Desulphuvihriu (anaerobic) bacteria SO, --r H2S
0
Thiobacillus (aerobic) tizS -+ SO,
0
Aerobic Heterotrophs Organic S -+ SO,
R
Anaerobic Heterotrophs Organic S -+ H2S .

Look at Fig. 6.5 again. From the reactions shown in the figure and the table you
can see some parallel with the nitrogen cycle, since the sulphate is used as a hydrogen
acceptor by the heterotrophic sulphate retiucing bacteria just a s t h e denitrifying
bacteria use nitrite and nitrate.
Species of colourless sulphur bacteria such as Reggia~oaoxidises hydrogen sulphide
to elemental sulphur and species of Thiobacillus oxidise it to sulphate. For some
species oxidation processes can occur only in the presence of oxygen; for others
oxygen is not necessary. These bacteria are chemosynthetic autotrophs. They obtain
their carbon from the reduction of CO,.
6C02 + H2S ChH120h + 6 H z 0 + 12s
These bacteria are again comparable to the chemosynthetic autotrophic nitrifying
bacteria that oxidise ammonia to nitrite and nitrite to nitrate. The green bacteria
apparently are able to oxidise HIS to elemental sulphur S, whereas purple bacteria
can carry the oxidation to sulphate stage.

The sulphate may be recirculated and taken up by the producers or used by sulphate
reducing bacteria. The sedimentary aspect of the cycle involves the precipitation of
sulphur in the presence of iron (Fe) and calcium (Ca) as highly insoluble ferrous
sulphide (FeS) and ferric sulphide (Fe2S,) also known as pyrite; or relatively insoluble
calcium sulphate (CaS04) thus contributing to the reservoir of sulphur. From this it
enters the cycle through weathering and erosion. Not as much sulphur is required by
the ecosystem as nitrogen and phosphorus. Nonetheless sulphur cycle is important in
the general pattern of production and decomposition. For example when iron
sulphides are formed in the sediments, phosphorus is converted from insoluble into
soluble form as shown in the Fig. 6.7, and phosphorus enters the pool available t o
the living oyganisms. This is an excellent epample of how one cycle regulates another.
Human Impact on Sulphur Cycle
O n account of combustion of large amounts of fossil fuels sulphur dioxide is
emitted. Globally some 147 million tonnes of SO, are poured into the atmosphere each
year. Normfilly oxides of nitrogen (No2'and N 2 0 ) and sulphur (Soz)Are.only.
transitionary steps in their respective cycles and are present in most environments in
low concentrations. Combustion of fossil fuel, however. has greatly increased the
concentration of these oxides in air especially in urban and industrial areas to a point
 where the biotic components are adversely, affected. SO2 is damaging to Nutrient Cycllng
photosynthesis, it is one of the most potent phytotoxic pollutant. Furthermore it
interacts with water vapour to produce H 2 S 0 4and ultimately returns to earth as acid
Theoretically normal rain ba- 81
rain. (You have already read about the effects of acid rain in FST-1 Block 4 Unit
pH of 6.5, slightly more aridi: than
16). Acid-rain affects the land, vegetation and aquatic systems in a variety of ways. saliva and milk. Acid rail; is
Importapt plant nutrients like, calcium, magnesium and potassium are progressively precipitation..........
rain. %now
leached out of the soil, aluminium and zinc accumulate. Useful micro-organism in sleet, fog that contains dilute
the soil are replaced by harmful disease causing fungi. solutions of sulphusic and nitric
acids.
Acid rain is no longer a local problem, of urban areas. Its impact is greatest on lakes
or streams and already acidic soils that lack pH buffers such as carbonates, calcium
i
salts and other bases.

SAQ 4
Complete the diagrams (i) and (ii) which explain the subcycles of the sulphur cycle.
F a y s t e m : Zunrt~onu~g
and Types
6.6 PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
Phosphorus is a very important nutrient because of its role in the form of phosphate,
in reactions that store and release energy. The availability of phosphates often
becomes a limiting factor in ecosystem productivity. The reservoir pool of phosphorus
is in crystalline phosphate rock and the compartments in phosphorus cycling involve
organisms, soil and shallow marine sediments.
. T i e natural form in which phosphords is available is inorganic phosphate. Through
erosion and weathering of rocks, inorganic phosphate is made available to plants that
absorb it from soil or in the case of aquatic plants from the water. Once taken up by
the plant the phosphate may become part of ATP (adenosine triphosphate), nucleic
acid or some other organic compound. The phosphate may be returned to the soil or
sediment when the plant dies and decomposes. Phosphorus may also be passed to the
consumer or get incorporated into the cell body of the decomposers.
In consumers the phosphorus may be incorporated into the bones and teeth and thus
it remains bound for a long period of time. Some of it is excreted as waste and is
immediately available to the decomposer. It may by a short loop be converted back
to inorganic phosphate and be assimilated by the plants (see Fig. 6.6). O n the other
hand, it may be tightly bound to iron, calcium and aluminium as insoluble compounds
and be washed off or lost in sediments.

Organic Phosphates

Consumers
(animalsetc)
\
I
Producers (Plan&)

Fig. 6.6 : A short loop in the cycling of phosphorus in the terrestrial ecosystem

In marine and fresh water ecosystems the phosphorus cycle moves through three
compartments.
Inorganic Phosphate

Dissolved Organic phosphate -< Particulate Organic Phosphate

Inorganic phosphat~sare taken up rapidly by the phytoplankton which in turn may

be ingested by zooplankton or detritus feeding organisms. Zooplankton in turn may
excrete as much phosphorus daily as stored in their biomass. More than half the
phosphorus excreted is inorganic which is again taken up by the phytoplankton thus
keeping the cycle running.
The rest of the phosphorus in aquatic systems is in the form of organic phosphates
that may be utilised by bacteria, that in turn may be consumed by microbial grazers
which then excrete the phosphorus they ingest.
Part of the phosphorus is deposited in shallow sediments and part in the deep water
because phosphorus is precipitated largely as calcium compounds much of which
become immobilis,ed for long periods in the bottom sediments from where it is later
recirculated by upwelling. Figure 6:7 shows the phosphorus cycle in terrestrial and
aquatic ecosystems.
Phosphorus is the key limiting factoj in aquatic systems. The turnover rate may - -
actually determine the productivity in many aquatic systems. For example, excess
phosphates can stimulate explosive growth of algae and photosynthetic bacteria
populations, resulting in disruption of aquatic ecosystems.
Fig. 6.7 : The phospnorus cycle In terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The rate of cycling of phosphoi 1.1 is
extremely important for growth and activity in living things.

Human Impact on the Phosphorus Cycle

Like other biogeochemical cycles, human activities have altered the phosphorus
cycle. Human beings mine phosphate rocks and guano deposits to make phosphorus
available for production of fertilisers, detergents, animal feed, medicines, pesticide:
and numerous other products. This mining exposes phosphate deposits made over
millions of years.
Phosphates are removed from soil through cropping of vegetation,and to replace it
phosphate fertilisers have to be added. Because of the abundance of calcium, iron
and aluminium in the soil much of the phosphates get immobilised as insoluble salts.
Thus more fertilisers have to be added. This results in high concentration of
phosphates in agricultural runoffs. Similarly concentration of phosphorus in
detergents, wastes of food processing plants, animal feed lot, sewage, etc., add to a
considerable quantity of phosphorus poured in natural waters. This problem becomes
acute in urban areas.
As said earlier, in aquatic ecosystems the phosphorus is taken up rapidly by the
vegetation resulting in a sudden explosive growth of algae. Like nitrogen, this leads to
cultural eutrophication of the water body. The producers cloud the water and forms
a scum on the surface, blocking sunlight for the submerged plants. This is one
example of the result of accumulation of nutrients at one stage of the nutrient cycle.
It is important to note that the means of returning phosphorus to the cycle are
inadequate to compensate for the loss. Sea birds have traditionally played-an
important part in returning phosphorus to the cycle via their droppings (for example
guano ueposlts off the coast of Peru) but apparently not at the rate at whlch it has
occurred in the past.
Unfortunately human activities appear to hasten the rate at which phosphorus is lost
and thus make the cycle 'less perfect'. You could think our present use of phosphorus
which is washed out into the rivers and finally into the oceans as an accelerated
'pouring' of phosphorus from the source to the sink.
Ecosystem : Functioning and Types

6.7 NUTRIENT BUDGETS'AND CYCLING IN FORESTS

In this unit we have so tar considered the movement of individual nutrients with
major emphasis on their global, biological and .chemical aspects. We will now study
the nutrient dynamics in terms of input, output and flows of nutrients technically
called nutrient budget with particular reference to forest ecosystem'.

6.7.1 Nutrient Budgets

Nutrients are constantly being added'and removed by natural and artifical processes
(see Fig 6.8). The measure of the input and outflow of nutrients through the various
components of an ecosystem form its nutrient budget. The nutrient budget of an
ecosystem can be considered under two sections.

input and output that occurs along the producer -----+ consumer -
a) Internal budget : This is concerned with the circulation of nutrients through
various biotic and abiotic compartments of a given ecosystem. In other words the

decomposer food chain and the exchanges between the reservoirs and sediments
within the gcosystem.
b) External budgets :In contrast the external budgets pertain to the input and output
of the entire ecosystem in relation to other'ecosystems. For instance volcanic
eruptions throw materials into the atmosphere or spread lava over a terrain, thus
distributing nutrients over large areas. Wind and water transport nutrients to long
distances and serve as carriers for their action. such as weathering of rocks or
wind that carries nutrients between different ecosystems. Animals feed in one
ecosystem defecate or die in another, or trees grow in one ecosystem and are
burnt elsewhere. Humans are without question the most powerful agents that
affect the internal and external nutrient budgets.

6.7.2 Nutrient Cycling in Tropical and Temperate Forests

From this study of the nutrient cycles you must have realised the importance of the
role of green plants that take up nutrients from the substratum and air, representing
 Fig. 6.8 : Nutrient budgel in forest ecosystem. Input of nutrients is through precipitation, dust, littedall
and, through weathering and root decomposition. Outflow is through wood harvest, hunting, runoff,
erosion and leaching.
,.
t h i abiotic components and decomposers that release the nutrients back into the
i abiotic pools for reuse by. the plants.
In tropical forests a large percentage of the total nutrients are held in the biomass
and not in the soil, but in the temperate regions a large portion of organic matter
and available nutrients is at all times in the soil and sediments. Figure 6.9 shows ihe
contrast in the distribution of organic carbon matter in a northern coniferous and a
tropical rain forest. Interestingly both ecosystems contain the same'amount of organic
carbon but more than three fourths is in vegetation in the tropical forest.
Recycling of nutrients in the organic structure of the tropic4 forests is aided by a Recycling of nutrients withid the
number of nutrient conserving, biological adaptation. These adaptations depend on organic structure means that
nutrients move within the plant
the geology and basic fertility of the region and some of the mechanisms that are in the leaves and woody tissue.,
especially well developed in tropical rain forests are: Watever nutrients are washed -
away tkom the leaves by air,
water or lost from the plant in
i) Root mats consisting of many fine feeder roots which penetrate the surface of litter is quickly taken up by the
the litter and quickly recover nutrients from leaf fall and rain before they are plants again so that very little
leached away. Root mats also inhibit the activity of denitrifying bacteria, thus nutrients remain in the soil.
preventing loss of nitrogen.
ii) Mycorrhizal fungi associated with root systems act as nutrient traps and help in
the recovery and retention-of nutrients. This symbiosis is also present in
temperate forests of areas that are basically poor in nutrients.
Ecosystem :Functioning and Types iii) Evergreen leaves have thick waxy cuticles that retard loss of water and nutrients,
also leaves have pointed tips or 'drip tips' that drain off water fast, thereby
reducing leaching of leaf nutrients.
iv) Algae and lichens that cover surfaces of many leaves pick up nutrients from
.'rainfall some of which becomes available to the leaves immediately. Lichens also
%x nitrogen.
v) Thick bark inhibits diffusion of nutrients out from the phloem and subsequent
loss by stem flow i.e., rain running down the trunks of trees.

Leaf
I Leaf

Litter

L~ner

NORTHERNCONIFEROUS FOREST TROPICAL RAIN FOHESl

Fig. 6.9 : Distribution of organic carbon accumulated in abiotic (soil and litter) and
biotic (woodand leaf) coylpartments ofa tropical and a temperate forest. Note that the
tropical forest has a huch larger percentage of organic carbon in plant btomass.

Although soils of tropical forests are generally poor in nutrients they are able to
maintain high productivity under natural conditions due to these nutrient-conserving
mechanisms that almost bypass the soil by having a plant to plant cycling. When such
forests are cut or cleared for agriculture these mechanisms are destroved and
productivity declines very rapidly. Forest removal takes away the land's ability to. hold
nutrients as well as to combat pests in the face of year round high temperatures. Crop
production declines and in a few years the land is abandoned.
Soils in temperate forest have relatively large nutrient pools and when these forests
are cleared, the soil retains nutrients and may be cultivated for many years by
ploughing one or more times a year, planting short season annual plants and applying
inorganic fertilisers. During winter, freezing temperatures help hold in nutrients and
combat disease and pest.
It is for these reasons that agricultural practices suitable for temperate areas may be
inappropriate for tropical areas and should not be applied unmodified in the tropics.

SUMMARY
In this unit you have studied that :
Nutrients circulate from the environment to organisms and back to the
environment in perpetual cycles referred to as biogeochemical cycles or nutrient
cycles. There are two types of cycles: gaseous, where the major reservoir is the
atmosphere, these are represented by carbon and nitrogen and sedimentary cycles
represented by sulphur and phosphorus with major reservoirs in the earth's crust.
The carbon cycle involves the assimilation and respiration of carb,on dioxide by
plants, its consumption as carbohydrates in plants and animal tissue and its release
through respiration and decomposition and combustion. Carbon is also withdrawn
froni the cycle into long-term reserves. The equilibrium of carbon dioxide between
the sea, atmosphere and land is being disturbed by rapid release of carbon dioxide
into the atmosphere by burning wood and fossil fuels. Increased carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere has the potential to raise the ambient global temperature of the
earth with serious ecological implications.
 ~ u l r i e n Cycling
t
Nitrogen cycle is characterised by fixation of atmospheric nitrogen by nitrogen
fixing organism and industrial processes, its assimilation by planks in the form of
nitrate and ammonium ion. Involved in the nitrogen cycle are the processes of
ammonification, nitrification and denitrification. Human intrusion into the nitrogen
cycle involves release of oxides of nitrogen into the atmosphere which cause air
pollution and smog. Excessive nitrates released into the aquatic ecosystems cause
cultural eutrophication.
Sulphur cycle is a combination ot gaseous and sedimentary cycles. It involves a
long-term sedimentary phase in which sulphur is tied up in organic and inorganic
deposits Irom wnere,it 1sreleased by weathering and decomposition and taken up
by the plants as inorganic sulphates. Sulphur enters the atmosphere as SO2
.released during fossil fuel combustion and as H2S released during decomp~sitio.~
of organic matter. Sulphur aioxide, soluble in water is carried to earth as sulphuric
acid in acid rain.
The phosphorus cycle is wholly sedimentary with major reservoirs in phosphate
rocks. It is released by weathering and taken up by plants as inorganic phosphates.
Major part of the phosphates added as fertilisers are immobilised in the soil but
gr'eat quantities used in detergents and in wastes are carried in the sewage
effluents. These ultimately become part of shallow sediments of the sea and a large
portion is lost into the deep sediments. Phosphorus is carried back to the terrestrial
ecosystems tnrougn fish meal and bird droppings but the amount returned is not
enough to compensate the loss.
.Green plants, by taking up nutrients and decomposers by releasing the nutrients
for reuse, play an important role in nutrient cycling. Nutrients are constantly bcing
added or removed from the ecosystems. A measure of the inflow and outflow
forms the nutrient budget of an ecosystem.
In tropical forests a large portion of the nutrients are held in the biomass and not
in the soil. This is due to the plant to plant recycling of nutrients aided by various
nutrient-conserving biological adaptations. Therefore, if tropical fprests are
cleared the soil's ability to hold nutrients is lost, making it unsuitable for long-term
agriculture.
In temverate forests a large portion of the nutrients are in the soil rather than in
plant biomass. Therefore, if.these &rests are cleared, the soil still retains nutrients
and may be farmed for many years.

6.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1) What are the two types of biogeochemical cycles and what are their distinguishing
features.?

, 2) Describe three pathways whereby atmospheric nitrogen is converted into fixed

I
forms that are usable by plants, and two pathways whereby fixed nitrogen is
returned to the atmosphere.
I

.........................................................................................................
L '.
3) Describe briefly how carbon and sulphur cycles are affected by human activities.
Ecosystem :Functioning and Types

4) a) Why is phosphorus considered an example of an imperfect cycle?

b) Phosphorus is often one of the limiting factors in aquatic ecosystems yet heavy
discharge of phosphates into a clear lake 'kill' it. Comment.

5) Explain why removal of tropical forests often reveal poor quality agricultural
land.

,-
6.10 ANSWERS

.
Self-assessment
. Questions
1) ii) compartment; iii) reservoir
iv) biogeochemical cycles
2) a) iv)
b) ambient global temperature;
greenhouse gases; icecaps;
continental coastlines
3) a) i)
b) ammonium (ion);
ammonium (ion);
nitrate;.
amino acid;
dinitrogen (N2)
4) i) b) H2S; c) S.
ii) a) SO,; b) SO?; c) H2S04
5) i) b) weathering; d) organicqhosghate
e) consumel, -g) Inorganic phosphate
Terminal Questions
1) a) Gaseous cycles where the primary reservoir is the atmosphere ag far as living
organisms are concerned, examples carbon and nitrogen.
 b) Sedimentary Cycles where the principal reservoir lies in the earth's crust and Nutrient Cycling
is released into the ecosystem by. weathering, mining and erosion. Examples
are phosphorus and sulphur.
2) Atmospheric nitrogen is f ~ x e d(i)into ammonium by biological fixation through
nitrogen fixing bacteria and blue green algae, (ii) by lightning as photochemical
1
fixation into nitrates, (iii) by industrial fixation in the form of nitrate and
ammonium fertilisers.
Nitrogen is returned to the atmosphere through the process of denitrification of
nitrates and as oxides of nitrogen in automobile exhaust and industrial
combustion.
3) Hints :
i) burning of wood and fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) adds more C 0 2 to the
atmosphere which may lead to rise in global temperatures. Higher
, temperatures can cause increased melting of polar ice, milder winters and
I
changed rainfall patterns.
ii) clearing of forests would remove carbon-sinks.
iii) increased release of SO, in atmosphere due to burning of fossil fuels and
heavy industry. SO, is a toxic component of smog and forms H 2 S 0 4 with
water vapour and falls to earth as acid precipitation.
) a) because more phosphorus is lost from the cycle in deep sediment than is
returned to the cycle.
b) addition of phosphates to lakes leads to cultural eutrophication i.e. algal
blooms and most of the oxygen requiring organisms die, as the oxygen in the
water is used up by detrivores for the process of decomposition.
5 ) Hints :
i) nutrients at any time are circulating in the biomass rather than residing in soil.
ii) various biological adaptations in tropical plants conserve the nutrients.