Trophical Fishes PDF

THE COMPLETE GUIDE
TO
TROPICAL FISHES
farl Schneider and Dr. Leon f. Whitney
THOMAS NELSON &. SONS

Edinburgh NEW YORK Toronto
The Complete Guide to Tropical
fishes
Grateful acknowledgement for permiss ion to reproduce photographs is made to:
Dr. Le~ter R. Aron~on. for picture on p. 5 15; Bit 0 ' T ro pics. Ch icago, Ill. , for
picture on p. 5 11 ; the GeneraJ Biological Supply Com pa ny, for picture on p. 365;
th e New York Zoolo gica l Society for pictures o n pp. 275. 279, 299, 332, 333. 39 1,
457 , 464. 471. 48 .1. 504 . 525, 528 (botto m ), 53 J (u pper) , 532, 533 ( upper and
bottom) , 534: Albert Rosse, fo r picture on p. 5 13 a nd th e Frnllli.l'piece; th e Shedd
Aquarium, C hicago, 111., fo r pictures on pp. 3 J 6,353. 379, 426, 460, 477. 482. 499,
500.5 18; Gene Wolfsheimer for pi ctures on pp. 357, 369.373.409,421.423.425.
437 . 444. 502. In additio n, the a uthors wish to thank Howard Carlson for many
of th e photogra phs of fi s hes in thi s book and Jerry Yullman for suppl y ing many
of th e color photograph s. They a lso wish to th ank the Paramount Aquarium .
Ardsley. N . Y .. a nd the Rooseve lt Aquarium . Brook lyn. N . Y .. for a ll owing thcm
to photograph man y of their fishes .
"New African Fishes" is repri nted from an article which appeared in the
Aquarium }o urllal. by permiss ion of the au thor. James W. Atz.
Copyright, 1957, by Earl Schneider a nd Leon F . Whitney

Library7J/ Congress Catalog Card No.: 57-1J895
MANUFACTURED IN THE UN IT I::.D STAT ES OF AME.R tCA
To our patient wives whom we too often
deserted for our fish-keeping hobby and
interests
Contents
Part I
Introduction 3
1. HISTORY AND PRINCIPLES 8
2. AQUARIUM AND EQUIPMENT 14
3. AERATION AND FILTRATION 30
4. ACCESSORY EQUIPMENT 53
5. SETTING UP THE AQUARIUM 63
6. AQUARIUM CARE 76
7. PLANTS 83
8. WATER 113
9. WHAT IS A FISH? 124
10. THE ANATOMY OF THE FISH 136
11. FOODS AND FEEDING 143
12. DISEASES. PARASITES, AND ENEMY INTRUDERS 199
13. PURCHASING FISH 236
14. IT'S FUN TO BREED FISHES 239
15. REPRODUCTION AND HEREDITY 248
16. OTHER AQUARIUM INHABITANTS 263
Part II
ABOUT THE CLASSIFICATION OF FISHES 269
CATALOGUE OF FISHES 275
NEW AFRICAN FISHES 523
INDEX 535
A Note on "fish " and "Fishes"
FISH, as everyone knows , has two plurals-fish a nd fis hes. Fish is
certainly the commoner of th e two in s peec h. but increas in gly fishes
has become lIsed in writing. We feel that a use ful distinction can be
mad e between these two plural forms: fis h to be used when referring to
the members of a sin gle species (as "G lass Fish are dilflcult to feed")
and when the sense of th e ~e nt en ce docs not indicate whether one o r
m ore spec ies is involved (a "Fi h a rc best shipped in German Ca ns"
and "all th e fish in th e aqu a rium sho u ld be fed reg ul ar ly"). Fi.fhes is
used when it is obvious that a numbe r of spec ies are being referred to
a t the same tim e (as "a ll th e fishes yo u may c hoose to keep" and "the
ti shes of th e Atlantic Ocea n"). In other wo rd s, [is" is the plural when
referring to th e mcmhers of a sin gle species and when it is ei th e r un -
known o r of no spec ial importa nce whe ther or no t m ore tha n one
spec ies is involved. F ishes is preferred when it is known and it is
important th a t th e reference is to marc th an one spec ies.
PART I
Introduction
THE LAST few years have seen a tremendous growth in the hobby of
keeping aquariums in the American home. A decade ago New York City
and Phil adelphia were the two great supply centers, and mail order houses
in these cities supplied the rest of the country. Beyond the environs of these
two cities there were few large retail establishments which specialized in
trop ical fishes. A number of general pet shops had fi sh departments. How-
ever, supplies were too uncertain , and the dilTiculty of shipping live fish was
too great for the hobby to expand widely.
Then, as now, the vast majority of fi sh breeding was done in Florida,
primarily Miami and the surrounding area , with several large hatcheries
located near Tampa . Fish bred in these hatcheries were usually shipped to
New York for transsh ipment to other parts of the country.
Fish were shipped by rail because air freight space was largely oc-
cupied with material for the war in Europe. Shipments were made in large
flat cans called "German shipping ca ns. " There were difficulties. Frequently
the cartons were not kept right side up and all the water leaked out; there
were wartime shipping delays that often caused an entire shipment to ar-
rive dead.
With the end of the war came improvements in shipping. The rapid
growth of air freight routes across tlle nation made it poss ible to ship tropic.1l
fishes to areas which had never seen them before, and many G.1. s set up
shops to retail them. Strong, inexpensive plastic bags replaced the old "Ger-
man cans." Tbey were spillproof and lightweight. That helped to reduce
shipping costs and losses. Being inexpensive they were disposable, and that
saved the cost of returning them.
Probably the greatest impetus to the tropical fish bobby, however, was
the change in our population and habits . Tropical fish keeping is primarily
a hobby for tbe stay-at-home who has a little leisure, and not for those
wb travel frequently. Fish do not take kindly to being transported and it i
4 The Complete Guide to Tropical Fishes
often difficult to arrange for their proper care during the owner's absence.
During the depression years of the Thirties, families were smaller com-
pared to families of the Fifties. With the end of World War II the "baby
boom" began to swe ll our population. The concurrent shortage of baby
si tters rapidly turned young married couples into stay-at-homes and greatly
contributed to a great hobby and a great industry : tropical fishes and tele-
vision. As more families stayed home to watch tel evision they found that
watChing wasn't enough. As a result, "do it yourself" became a national
fad, and tropical-fish-keeping became a billion-dollar hobby .
Today there are 5.000 retail establbhments throughout the country seil-
ing tropical fishes. Airlines bid for the fi sh shippers' business. No longer
is it co nsidercd unusual to keep Guppies.
Spending more time at home. of coursc. created a clim ate favorable to
the hobby. There are many reasons why people keep fish. One is the yearning
which most of us have to learn more about the creatures of nature-just
watch a child with an animal. Another is that fish are adaptable. The
sma ll apartments and restrictive leases of city dwellers make the kecping
of most livestock diilicult if not imposs ible . Fish ca n fill our need for pets
without crowdin g our spa ce.
Most pet animals respond to our presence. Their routine and activities
are based on their relationship to us. A dog, cat, bird, or monkey becomes,
more or les , a member of the family. Not so with fi sh. They have their own
interre lationships; they tend to ignore us except when we feed them . It is
usually not ~asy to make friends with a fish. To most peop le thi s is their
chief charm. The fish them selves blissfull y disregard the prison-like glass
walls and go on livin g their lives as they would at the bottom of a lake or
stream.
The bea uty of the aquarium as a whole as well as the beauty of its
inhabitants endears it to the homemaker. It is easy to forget one's se lf in
contemplation of their life and love, birth and death . A well-set-up aquarium
is an ornament in any living room . It is clean, quiet and odor free . All
activity is confined within its walls. No spi ll ed food, no noi se and no wa lking
are necessa ry.
Keeping tropical fishes is a "go d clothes" hobby . Almost all others
which involve living things require that one get into his or her old clothes
to care for them . A cattery becomes so odorous that the owner must change;
the kennel is definitely an old clothes affair. Even caring for a garden prop-
erly cannot be done in one's best togs. But in t~e day-by-day management
of fi sh few persons ever find it necessary to change clothes, a fact whlch
cannot help but appeal to those who think there is too much buttoning and
unbuttoning in life.
For tbe amateur student of nature, the aquarium is the perfect answer.
He can study the living creatures in the comfort of his own home. For
Introduction 5
the collector, there are the rarities of the fish world to be acquired. Seldom
seen oddities such as Macrognathus aculeatus, the Spiny Eel from India and
Burma; or Mollienesia velifera, the giant Yucatan Sailfin Mollie; or, perhaps,
the Periophthalmus, tbe weird Mud Skipper of the Malayan and Philippine
Archipelagoes and many, many others not yet known to science can be the
objects of their research.
Tropical fish keeping is a hobby for everyone, whether they keep a
small aquarium or a room full of large tanks. It is a versatile hobby, an
adaptable hobby. and an enjoyable hobby.
A Little About th e Organization of This Book

Nearly a ll recruits to the tropical fish hobby are bewildered in the be-
ginning. They have ~een the fishes, admired them , and want to acquire some.
They want to know how to start. and where to acquire the authoritative,
up-to-date information about the wonderful world of fish-keeping. Then they
want to know what types of fishes are available, their suitability and habits,
how they breed. Beyond that. they still have many. many que. tions.
This book has been written to an 'wer these questions. It is for everyone
who has kept. is keeping. or intends to keep tropicals-as professional or
amateur, breeder or collector, large scale or "jam-jar" specialist. It is written
by men who have themselves kept fish for years. 1t is practical; it is informa-
tive; and it is as accurate as long experience and a conscientious attitude
can make it.
Every aquarist must start as a beginner. We. too, intend to start at the
beginning: with the background of aquarium keeping. its history. and
the broad principles which underlie the successful maintenance of horne
aquariums.
A properly set up aquarium consists of plants, fish, and water housed in
a container to which is added certain equipment. All this will be discussed
fully . Tanks, stands, reflec tors; the gravel. rocks and ornaments ; heating
and filtering equipment; sizes, types and style. of aquaria are all carefu lly
discussed and recommenda tions given. A beginner should read these cbap-
ters carefully for a proper understanding of what equipment is avai lable,
what it is designed to do, and the type wh ich will best suit his purpose.
Certain pieces of equipment are known as maintenance tool.. They
ease the task of setting up and maintaining the aquarium. They are usually
bidden in a drawer when company carnes, but a knowledge of wbat is
available and its proper use is important. Such items as dip tubes. scrapers,
tongs nets, plan t scissors, syphons, worm feeders , feed rings and food guards
a re fully disc ussed.
Plants are important. An aq uarium would lose much of its beauty with-
out them. In a full section, the type of plants, their suitability for various
purpo es, bow to plant, how to care for plants, and tbe relationship of
plants to light are all covered carefully.
Next there is information on the technique for setting up the aquarium.
Knowing tbe best methods and the tricks that professionals use can ease
the task considerably.
The water in which fish live is analogous to our air. Water is a complex
ubstance. If we are to understand more fully our fish we must know a
little about this element, so hardness, pH, and salinity are discussed in every-
day language that we hope makes for informative, though painless, reading.
Next is the story of the fi shes themselves. Anyone who has kept fish for
a while begi ns to ask question . . Just what is a fish? How is it distinguished
from other water dwellers? What is its structure, method of breathing, swim-
ming; its sense of taste. touch , smell, hearing and sight? Has a fish intelli-
gence? How does a fi sh know which way is up? Tbese are complex subjects
and it would require a very large book to di cuss them fully. However, the
discussion in this Guide will be helpful , and may give you a greater insight
into the life of your aquarium.
Genetics is a word that frightens many people unnecessarily. Genetics
is the study dealing with inheritance of characteristics. ]t is the story of why
the offspring resemble the parental stock and how changes or mutations
come about. This, too. is a large and complex subject. We can do littl e more
than touch briefly on it ; but it will lead to a clearer understanding of why
Barbs give birth only to Barbs and Characins only to Characins.
Fish are composed of what they eat. A comp lete disc ussion of tropical
fish foods_:':how to care for, prepare and feed them to fish-is given .
All living creatures including fi sh are subject to diseases and parasites.
An understanding of the type of diseases to which fish are subject and
of the symptoms and proper treatment is of the utmost importance. The
descriptions contained in this Guide will aid in the detection and treatment of
disease.
A t the beginning broad principles are given. Now that we know so
much more about our subject we can apply these principles to a specific
discussion of aquarium maintenance. Light, heat, aeration, cleaning and
so on are all covered.
Every living creature known to science has been given a scientific name.
There is a reason for this and a system used in the naming. This Guide
shou ld help you understand the purpose of the Linnaean system of classifica-
tion and may decrease your resentment of some of the jaw-breaking names.
1n the second part of this Guide we discuss those fishes suitable for
the hobbyist. Due to lack of avai lability or desirability certain fishes have
been omitted, but as this section is of the greatest interest to our readers,
we have tried to make it as complete as possible. The requirements of the
fishes as to type of water, temperature and environment are given so far as
Introduction 7
they are known. The breeding habits and requirements , the size and
temperament, as well as native habitats are described.
Wholesale breeding and sell ing and shipping methods are of interest to
many. The Guide's discussion of these things may make fish more interesting
to you.
But start here at the beginning and read on. That is the best way.
History and Principles
FISH, as a so urce of food, have been known from earliest times. T o the early
Egyptians the fi h was more than that ; it was a connecting link with the Gods.
According to leg nd th e wicked god Set tore Osiris into fourtet!n pieces. One
of these widely scattered pieces dropped into the Nile where three fishcs con-
sumed it. The natives thereafter avoided these three fishes.
In some places this fear was carried to such ex tremes that they refused to
eat any fish at all for fear that the hook which caught the fish might have
toucbed one of the forbidden pecies. Two of th e three are known to us as
Barbus bynni and a Morm yrus species. The third was probably an eel.
The wealthier nobles had extensive water gardens a nd pools in which a
variety of fishes were kept. But the aquarium as a container for keeping
aquatic plants and animals came later. Tbe earliest known aquaria were
utilitarian. The early Romans u 'ed earthenware and clay ves els to transport
live fish from the ocean to the bang uet tables of the nobles. Mullet, eel , and
other species were displayed alive to the guests at the table before being
killed and cooked.
The gardens of the nobles did contain fish pool s. So far as we know these
were kept primarily for pleasure and ornamentation. If any of the pool in-
habitants were eaten it was incidental.
In China the culture of Goldfish is more than a tbousand years old. In
1596 Chang Chi en-te wrote the granddaddy of all the books for fish enthu-
siasts, giving the then-known principles of aqua culture.
In 1665 Samuel Pepys wrote in his Diary, "Thence home and to see my
Lady Pen, where my wife and I were shown a fine rarity of fishes kept in a
glass of water, that will live so for ever; and finely marked they are being
foreign. "
It has been assumed that this, one of the first mentions of fish being kept
as pets in the home in Europe, refers to Goldfish . Dr. C. W. Coates, Curator-
Aquarist of the New York Aquarium, holds a different opinion. He feels that
History and Principles 9
they must have been Paradise Fish. He bases this opInion on the relative
hardiness of the two species. The Paradise Fish due to its ability to breathe
atmospheric oxygen can withstand confinement in a small glass much more
satisfactori ly.
The principles of the so-called "balanced aquarium" were first expressed
in 1819. W. T. Brande wrote "Fishes breathe the air which is dissolved in
water; they therefore soon deprive it of its oxygen the place of which is
supplied by carbonic acid fAuthors' note: Carbon dioxide in solution forms
this weak acid.] and this is in many instances decomposed by aquatic vege-
tables which restore oxygen and absorb the carbon . . . "
There is no further known mention of this until 1850 when Robert
Warington read a paper describing his maintenance of Goldfish in aquaria
without changing the water over a period of several months. In his lecture
Mr. Warington assigned extreme importance to the use of plants in balancing
the aquarium. Several other people wrote papers on the same subject, and
for almo, t a hundred years this concept of a unit in balance went virtually
unchallenged. ]n fact. for years and even to this day aquarium plants were
and are rated according to their ability to produce oxygen. In 1949, James
W. Atz, Assistant urator of the New York Aquarium , seriously challenged
this concept in a paper titled "The Balanced Aquarium Myth."
Before 1868 only Goldfish and native fishes were kept in aquaria. Trop-
icals were almost unknown outside of their native lands. The year 1868
might be considered the birthday of the "Tropical Fish Hobby." M. Simon,
the French Consul at Ningpo, brought the Paradise Fish (Macropodus
opercularis) from China to Paris. They were given to a Goldfish fancier,
Pierre Carhonnier, who created a further sensation by breeding them.
The Paradise was also the fir t tropical fish brought into America. It was
imported by Adolphus Bu 'ch-of thc famous Busch family of St. Louis-
in 1876.
This followed the introduction of Goldfish by only two year. At first
Goldfish proved much the more popular. Tropicals were oot established io
this country on a popular basis until after the turn of the century, whereas
a Goldfi h hatchery was established in Maryland io 1889. By the time of the
First World War tropical fishes Were well established in the United State'i.
Germany was considered the center of the tropical fish hobby for many
years. Articles and fishes poured forth in a voluminous flood from there.
Hundreds of thousands of dollars worth of fish were sent from Germany to
the United States every year, and imports from South America, Asia and
Africa reached New York through Germany. German steamships were
spec ially equipped to carry tropical fishes.
The depression years of the Thirties saw an extensive increase of interest
in the United States in tropical fish keeping, although, as mentioned else-
wh~re, this interest wa confined primarily to the Eastern seaboard. Hatcheries
10 The Complete Guide to Tro pical Fishes
were established in Florida, centering principally around Miami and Tampa.
These have expanded until today they far exceed the German output at its
greatest. The year-round warm weather enables Florida hatcheries to breed
outdoors twelve months a year with very little equipment required. Concrete
pools and in many cases only bulldozed ditches produce several million fish
annually. At first the output was primarily live-bearers, which could be
dropped into the pools where they required no care other than feeding.
Recent years have brought a change. Today a respectable proportion of
the fishes shipped from Florida are egg-layers. Florida is important also as an
intermediate stop for fish being brought from South America to New York.
Fish are placed in pools to acclimate. and condition them before they are
sent on to their ultimate destination . Fish are still being brought in from
Germany ; but it is nO" longer the major source of supply as in former years.
Th e Broad Principles
Fish are intimately associated with the water they ljve in, even to a
greater extent than we are associated with the air which surrounds us. In
order to survive, a fish must be in balance with the water in which he lives
both physically and physiologically. He must not only balance .his body in
the water so as to move in different directions, but must also maintain his
chemical balance. The body fluids in fish in fresh water are denser than the
surrounding medium; thus they are continual ly taking on water through
their tissue by osmosis. The kidney filters the excess water from the blood
and it is the.n excreted as urine. It is doubtful that fresh-water fishes drink
much water.
Of equal importance to the fish in fresh water is the maintenance of salt
content. It is essential that a fish replace salt lost through the kidneys and
in the feces . A certain amount of salt is taken in with the food , but even
fish which have not eaten for a considerable period of time are able to
maintain a normal concentration in the blood and tissues. Cells in the gills
of fresh-water fish are able to take in salt, even though their own salt content
is denser than that of the surrounding medium.
Another problem facing the fish is that of temperature maintenance.
Like other so-called "cold-blooded" creatures, a fish has no internal means
for regulating body temperature. It must depend on the water it lives in.
Some fishes, such as Goldfish, are capable of withstanding extreme ranges of
temperature provided the cbanges are not too rapid. Unfortunately the ma-
jority of the tropical fisbes kept in borne aquaria do not fall within this
classification. They have a narrow temperature range and cannot adjust
rapidly even within these limitations. There are regulatory mechanisms
within the fish which help it to adjust to changes in temperature, but they
are limited and require a certain amount of time to take effect. Changes which
are too rapid or too extreme can damage or kill the fish in spite of these
built-in defenses.
The fish is also dependent on the water in respiration. Fundamentally
this process is the same in fish and in man. It is the process by which oxygen
is supplied to, and carbon dioxide removed from, the blood and ulti-
mately the cells of the body .
A fish's gills are analogous to a man's lungs. The water is taken in
through its mouth and passed over the gi ll. , which are located just under
the opercula Or gill covers. These may be seen as a slit on either side of a
fish's head in the area roughly corresponding to where the neck should be.
If the covers are lifted , the red, branching gills are seen. The gi lls are thin
membranes throu gh which the blood circulates. When the gill are bathed
with a current of water, oxygen passes by osmosis through the membrane
and into the blood.
Food Requirements
In nature a fi sh can follow its food. If it cannot locate a food supply, if
the fish is limited in its range, or if the food supply ceases. the fish must perish.
In addition , the fish exists in its environment because over centuries of change
it has become adapted to its diet, both quantitatively and qualitatively. That
i . if the diet were not both good and sufficient the fish could not exist in
that place and in that form.
In an aquarium we are under the necessity of providing an unnatural
diet in an artificial environment. We must see to it that our substitutes meet
the sometimes exacting requirements of our captives.
Another important problem in aquaria is that of the disposal of waste
matter. Nowhere in nature are fish so densely massed as in the average
aquarium. As a rule, natural factors can be depended on to dispose of
wastes and decomposing matter. At times these natural factors in streams
and other bodies of water are unable to cope with a great influx of sewage
or other waste matter. Such waters are polluted and no longer capable of
supporting fish. In the aquarium we must always take precautions to pre-
vent the waste products from harming the fish. and to prevent other de-
composing matter such as excess food from accumulating above the toxic
level .
Six Requirements for Aquarium Maintenance
There are other problems concerned with reproduction and behavior, but
here are the six basic requirements for the successful maintenance of a fresh
water aquarium.
1. Water which does not have an excess of dissolved chemicals in it sufficient
to upset the osmotic balance of the fish should be used. It is, of course,
axiomatic that no toxic chemicals can be present.
2. Distilled or chemically softened water which lacks all mineral content
is unsatisfactory. A fish' water must have Orne chemicals in order for the
fish to live.
3. Proper water temperature should be maintained . A fish has very little
control over its internal temperature and in captivity is prevented from
seeking out water of the proper temperature. so we must artificially provide
temperature control at the proper level and with a minimum of harmful
temperature variation.
4. We must make sure that the water contains a sufficient amount of
dissolved oxygen for the fish's respiration, and a minimum of harmful gases
such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide.
S. We must provide edible, palatable food that contain all the element
necessary to the proper nutrition of our fish. We must make sure that at
proper intervals the proper amounts are fed: neither so little as to starve
the fish nor so much as to leave a harmful residue.
6. We must make provision for the removal of unwanted and unnecessary
waste matter. The feces, urine, inedible matter found in food, and dead
plants all come into this category. Decomposing matter consumes oxygen
and releases carbon dioxide. An excess of such matter in the water can
deplete the oxygen content of the aquarium and cause the fish to suffocate.
1n some cases the products of decomposition are toxic and can poison the
fi sh.
Tolerance to Change
The tole;an ce and resistance range varies in different species and even
among individuals of the same species. Some fishes can be acclimated to
extreme of conditions. For example, the Guppy (Lebistes reticulatus). which
is a fresh-water fish , can be gradually acclimated to ex istence in salt water.
However, this is an extreme case. Most fishes have an upper and lower limit,
beyond which they cannot be acclimated no matter how gradually the change
is made. Their bodies cannot function beyond a certain point.
For most fishes .we must try to strike a happy medium . We endeavor to
provide tank conditions which will suit the majority. There are many fishes
which require specialized care. These are seldom available, because the im-
porter and wholesaler apply "average" conditions to their fish. Those speci-
mens which are not suited to an average tank existence do not survive to
reach the hobbyist's tanks.
This greatly simplifies matters for the aquarist. He is not put to the ne-
cessity of providing a multitude of tank conditions for all different tempera-
ments but, rather, one average condi tion which will suit all the varieties
that the average hobbyist is likely to encounter.
One object of tbis book is to show bow to achieve this bappy medium
in an aquarium and how to maintain it to provide a suitable home for its
inhabitants. This book will also tell enough about these inhabitants, their
requirements, nature and habits so that their owner can better understand
them. They will repay him with greater interest and enjoyment, which after
all i the object of tropical fi sh keeping.
Aquarium and Equipment
The Tank
THE TANK, or container in which the :fi 'h are to be kept, is the first and
most important single item to be considered. The size and shape of the tank
determine not only the number and size of the fish which may be kept in
it, but also the type, size, and often the amount of equipment required to
maintain it.
Over the years the rectangular tank has emerged as the ideal shape.
Flat sides give a minimum of distortion and are ideal windows which allow
a full view of the interior of the aquarium . The narrow width as opposed
to length brings the fi sh up closer to the viewers' eye~ .
"
Importance of Air Surface
More important even than visibility is the question of air surface. This
is basic to the proper functioning of an aquarium. We have seen in Chapter 1
how the concept of plants supplying oxygen and consuming carbon dioxide
developed for a hundred years. Today, we know that the surface of an
aquarium is far more important to respiration. It is at tills surface that car-
bon dioxide is released into the air and oxygen absorbed to replace that
consumed by the fish and plants. The ideal dimensions are these: width as
great as the height and the length equal to the sum of both.
This is not to say that plants do not have their uses. They do and these
uses are very important, but their role in respiration has been overstressed.
The actual function and uses of plants will be discussed in a later chapter.
We may say, then, that the greater the area of water exposed to the air,
in relation to its depth, the greater the number of fish capable of living in it.
In practical terms it works out this way. A square straight-sided jar 5 Y2 x
5V2 inches with a water depth of 2V2 inches will just support a 2-inch
Goldfish at 75 ° F. When the water depth is raised to 5 inches, the fish shows
its distress by hanging at the surface. Within several hours the fish in the
greater depth of water is dead. While it is true that the greater amount of
Aquarium and Equipment 15
water initially held a greater supply of dissolved oxygen this was soon used
up. The fish was then forced to depend on oxygen dissolved into the water
at its surface.
At the same time we must consider the carbon dioxide given off by the
fish in breathing. Compared to oxygen, carbon dioxide i a sluggish, heavy
gas. ]n water it tends to stratify at or near the bottom . In the first container
the motion of the fish caused a slight circulation of the water which com-
bined with the shallow depth was sufficient to dissipate the carbon dioxide.
In the second container, even though the air surface was the same, the pro-
portionately deeper water did not permit the ready release of the carbon
dioxide. At the same time, oxygen consumed by the fish was being replaced
at the surface and, because of the greater depth of the water in the con-
tainer and the fact that the fish was consuming 0 " so rapidly, it was neces-
sary for the fish to remain at the surface where there was the least amount
of carbon dioxide and the greatest concentration of oxygen entering. Ulti-
mately the concentration of the former grew too great and the fish died.
This experiment has been repeated many times and in many variations by
the authors. The result has always been the same. Decreasing the depth of
water to a minimum actually increases the capacity of the container to main-
tain fish. Conversely. too small a surface area in relation to the height of
water inhibits the ab ility of the aquarium to support fi sh. Now let us see
how we can put this knowledge to practical use.
Selecting an Aquarium-Types Available

Rectangular aquariums are available tOday in a variety of sizes and di-
mensions. They are made of flat glass set into a metal framework. Aquarium
cement which has a rubbery consistency is u ed as a sealer between the frame
and the glass. The bottom, which is also set in cement, is usually of slate.
This type of construction is far superior to the all-glass aquarium. It is
lighter and cheaper, and the flat sheet glass of which the sides are com-
posed is much clearer than the heavy molded glass of the all-glass aquarium.
A further advantage is that a cracked glass in a metal-framed tank can be
replaced whereas a cracked all-glass aquarium must be discarded.
The frame may be composed of one of a number of metals . The most
practical is stainless steel. This metal is relatively nontoxic, is very durable
and rust-resistant. Usually all that is needed to clean the stainless steel is a
piece of fine-grade steel wool. Grades of stainless steel vary. To test the
quality of the steel touch a magnet to it. The better grades of stainless steel
are not magnetic.
A so-called "marble tank" is a so available. This marble is a black and
white paint finish sprayed on a ga lvanized metal frame. It is omewhat less
expensive than stain less steel but not as durable. Over a period of time the
paint has a tendency to crack and peel. While this does no harm, it is un-
sightly. Where appearance is not as important as price consideration, the
marble tank is perfectly satisfactory.
At one time chrome-plated brass was very popular as a frame for aquaria.
As it is little less expensive than stainless steel and has only a fraction of
stainless steel's life expectancy, chrome has been largely replaced .
A few manufacturers also feature both copper and brass tanks. A both
of these metals are toxic to fish and al 0 have an extreme tendency to dis-
color, the metal is usually shielded from the water by a plastic coating.
The bright appearance of copper and brass tanks is generally short-lived
unless they are well cared for. They tarnish and discolor rapidly. Brass and
copper tanks are expensive.
The frame for large tanks, those of more than 50-gallon capacity, is
usually made of angle iron. This is necessa ry because the press ure of the
water in a large aquarium will bend a less rigid metal. Angle iron has a
very low toxicity for fishes. Unfortun ately it rusts readily. To retain its ap-
pearance the angle iron should be cleaned and repainted yearly with a non-
toxic waterproof paint.
The tank's bottom is usually slate, although glass is occasionally used .
As gravel can scratch glass and scratched glass has a tendency to split, slate
is the preferable material for bottoms.
Tank Construction and Repair

The frame of the average aquarium is pot welded into shape. For angle-
iron aquaria, screws and bolts are generally used , although they are oc-
casionally welded. Construction is done on jigs or forms which ensure a
square shape. The aquarium cement is heated to make it soft and pliable
and applied inside the frame. The two long glas es are put in first. The two
end glas es go in place next to hold the long glasses in place. Finally. the
late bottom goes in and locks the four sides in place. The glass is pre sed
firmly into place, the excess cement cleared away, and the tank is ready.
Depending on the cement formula used by the manufacturer, it may be
necessary to age the tank a few days or a few weeks before using it. The
cement remains semi-soft and workable for some time so that it will give
a little under the water pressure and ensure a watertight seal. When fllling
a new tank of 20-gallon, or greater, capacity it is advisable to fill it half-full
first; wait twenty-four hours and then fill it one-quarter more ; then fill it
completely after another twenty-four hours have passed. Minor leaks in a
new tank usually seal themselves in a short time. Excess cement will be
squeezed out between the glass and frame. Use a knife to trim this off even
with the frame. Do not under any circumstances force the cement back
under. The trimmings are good cement and can be reused.
When purchasing a neW tank always test the cement with your finger-
nail. The cement should be fairly soft. If it will not yield to your fingernail
the tank is old and may leak when filled. It is not usually necessary to
recement a tank in order to repair a leak. If the leak is a minor one, try to
stop it by tirring a handful of mud into the water. Often the particles will
lodge in tbe crack and stop the leak . Sbould this method fai l, it will be
necessary to empty the tank and all ow it to dry thoroughly . Clean a ll the
gravel, dirt and excess cement from the inside seams, both horizontal and
vertical, with a screwdriver or strong knife. Liquid aquarium cement, avail-
able at most dealers, can be u ed to seal the leak. Tilt the tank on one corner.
Pour a little of the liquid cement in at the top so that it runs all down the
seam. As it collects at the bottom , tilt the tank so tbat the cement runs
along the bottom seam. Jf necessary, add a littl e more cement. Repeat this
at the next corner and so on until a ll the inside seams have received a
liberal coating of cement. Allow thi . to dry for several hours and repeat
the process. It is better to ce ment all the ins ide seams rather than just the
spot where the leak appeared .
Freq uently a leak will start inside and run along between the frame and
glass to appear at an entirely different place outside. After drying for twenty-
four hours the tank can be filled. If you have done your work properly, the
tank will be watertight. A minor crack in the slate can often be stopped
with the same liqui d cement. P aint it liberally in and around the crack.
Then set a piece of glass over the cement covering the crack while the cement
is still wet.
The plastic cement is not as satisfa ctory for use in repairing lea ks.
Glazier's putty, plaster of P aris, and tar are of no use in sealing aquaria.
The replacement of a broken glass requires a different procedure. For
this turn th e aq ua rium upsi de down and run a hot electric iron over the
metal frame . Do not hold it in one place but keep moving it. The object
is to heat the cement enough to soften it without cracki ng the slate or glass.
Expe rts u e an acetylene torch , playing it rapidly back and forth. Keep
pressing the slate firml y until it loosens and can be removed. If it is an end
glass whicb is broken, pick out tbe pieces and clean the frame carefully,
preparatory to repl acing it. When one of the larger glasses is broken, it is
necessary to remove the two end glasses first, using tbe same technique as
for the bottom . To replace the glass, work plastic aquarium cement between
your fingers until it is soft . Adding a few drops of linseed oil, or heating,
helps soften the cement. Roll it between your palms like a rope and press it
into the frame all a round . Place the upper edge of the gJa s under tbe over-
hanging upper lip and press the bottom into pl ace. Fit in the two side glasses
firs t, then tbe ends and the bottom. Heavy wired glass may be substituted
for a broken slate.
Sizes of Tanks Available

Tanks are avai lable in a large selection of tandard sizes and dimensions.
It is usually cbeaper to buy an aq uari um than to make one. Because a
manufacturer buys his materials wholesale and has all the production equip-
ment available, he can produce a satisfactory tank more cheaply than one
can without such facilities. However, a do-it-yourself fan might find it in-
teresting to buy just the frame (dealers have them) , then cut and set the
glass himself.
Here are the sizes of aquaria in ga llons and inches that are usually avail-
able in stainless steel:
CapaciTy LengTh Width Height
2 10 6 8
3 12 7 9
5 14 8 10
5'12 16 8 10
8 18 9 12
10 20 10 12
12 20 10 14
]4 20 10 16
]0 24 8 12
12 24 8 14
14 24 8 16
15 24 ]2 ]2
17 24 ]2 14
20 24 12 ]6
20 30 12 12
23 30 ]2 14
26 ., 30 16
12
29 30 12 18
30 36 ]2 16
34 36 12 18
39 36 14 ]8
42 36 16 18
50 36 ]8 18
Sizes larger than these must be made to order, usually with an angle-iron
frame. Odd "in-between" sizes must also be made up specially. Usually the
charge for a special size is three or four dollars more than the next larger
size.
Marble tanks are usually made only in 21;2, 3Y2, 5 1/2, 7 1/2, 10, 15 and
20-gallon sizes with the same dimensions as the equivalent capacity stainless-
steel tanks.
Frequently tanks with the same surface dimensions are manufactured
in varying heights. In very few case has the proportionate height been car-
ried to dangerous extremes. But, other dimensions being equal, the lower
tank can support as many fish as the higher one. Increased height has an
aesthetic appeal for many people.
Aquarium and Eq uipment 19
Choosing the Proper Tank Size

It is very common and proper for the beginner to approach cautiously
his first purchase of an aquarium . The u ual desire is to buy a small aquar-
ium and see how it works out. ]( the experience is satisfactory, he feels he
can then invest in a large one. On the surface this appears to be the wisest
course. but close examination revea ls certain fallacies. The equipment and
accessories necessary for the tank-pump, filter, heater, thermometer and
so on-are designed for an average size aquarium and are priced accord-
ingly. It costs almost as much for them when setting up a 2-gallon tank
as for a 10- to IS-gallon one. Even more important is the difficu lty of main-
taining a small aquarium. Everything else being equa l, a 21/ 2 -gallon tank
is harder to maintain properly than a 15 -gaJlon tank. The small amount of
water becomes polluted too readily, the temperature fluctuates too much,
and it becomes overcrowded almost before the hobbyist has even started
cOllecting. A . mall tank is proportionately more expcnsive and really a job
for an expert, not an amateur. A beginncr who starts with a small tank all
too often returns to the dealer within a few weeks to find out what kind of
a trade-in he can get on his little tank for a larger one. As his tank is second-
hand by then. he must, of course , take a loss. We recall one beginner who
rc~i s t e d all advice <.Ind insi:-.ted on starting with a 2-gallon marble tank . He
finally wound up after five trade-ins with a 35-gallon stainless-steel tank.
Counting financial losses on the trade-ins and not taking into account time
and trouble, he paid exactly twice as much for this tank a he wou ld have
if he had purchased the larger one first.
Our advice to the beginner is to start with a tank between ] 0 and 20
gallons. the 15- and 17 -gallon size being the best. These sizes are not too
expensive, they are small enough to hand le fairly easily and yet large enough
to house a good-looking and fairly representative collection. Then, too, if
the hobbyist should decide to go on to bigger and better aquariums, the
medium-size tank is always handy a a spare breeding, hospital, nursery or
i alation tank.
We do not advocate the initial purchase of a tank much larger than the
20-gallon size. The larger tanks pose problems in balance which are diffi-
cult for the beginner to cope with. In addition should anything go wrong,
it is quite a chore to change and clean the larger tanks.
When having an aquarium made to order for a special location always
bear the depth-surface ratio in mind. Avoid tall narrow tanks; they look
pretty but they are seldom satisfactory.
Goldfish Globes, Jam Ja rs, Etc.

The e have been pressed into duty at one time or another, the goldfish
globe being the most common ly used. The size and shape give the most
trouble. As we have seen, the area of the air surface is of extreme im-
portance. Goldfi h globes swel l out at the middle and taper in at the top.
In order to provide the maximum air surface, the globe should be filled only
to its widest part, slightly more than halfway. The largest goldfish globe made
holds only two ga ll ons when filled to the brim; filled halfway it holds only
one gallon. This may be enough for three or four small tropicals, but certainly
no more. The type of goldfish bowl which is squat and wide has a good
surface area. But with gravel in the bottom sufficient for planting and tbe
water level only up to the widest part. there is very little room left for the
fish.
The shape of these containers distorts the fish 's appearance. The shape
also makes it difficult to attach the necessary equipment to them . In spite
of these defects for raising fish, a large mayonnaise jar of about a gallon
capacity or a large go ldfish bowl often cumes in handy for limited uses.
FJ ated in the tank they can be used as nursery traps, isolation wards or
hospital tanks for one or two small fish. They are handy for transferring
fish , carrying fish (tie a sheet of waxed paper over the top) or for con-
fining the fish in a limited area for a short time for observation or other
purposes.
Light and the Fishes

The vast majority of our aquarium fishes are diurnal. They are active only
in the light and tend to become sluggish and rest motionless when the aquar-
ium is dark. They assume all the aspects of sleep except for the fact that
fish cannot close their eyes. Notable exceptions are the various catfishes.
These are primarily nocturnal , tending to hide from light. They become
active when it is dark .
Should you suddenly illuminate an aquarium which has been in darkness
for some time you would find many of the fish resting motionless on the
bottom, on the rocks or leaves, and hiding in corners and amongst the foliage .
However. you might have difficulty in recognizing them. Most of them will
have become extremely pale. The brilliant red and green of the Neon Tetra
(Hyphessobryeon innesi) will have faded to a faint pink and white. The
black stripes of the Angel Fish (Pterophyllum seafare) have disappeared
just as have the dark tripes of the Sumatranus (Barbus tetrazona). Not all
of the fishes change color but a good many do. If you are quick, you will
see the Sucker Cat (Hypostomus pfeeostomus), which is normally nocturnal,
dash for the back of the tank. Unlike tbe other fishes, he is likely to have
darkened in color. Left undisturbed , the fish will gradua lly resume their
normal coloring and begin to move as they adjust to the light. Should they be
disturbed during this period of adjustment, they dash wildly about the tank,
bumping into obstacles a'nd otherwise showing by their behavior that they
are unable to see. Food given at this time is ignored just as it would be ig-
nored in a dark tank. Fish will not eat in the dark or for a short time after
the light is turned on.
The first reason for light, then, is that our fish may be enab led to see
and carryon their activities. For these activities fish require only a minimum
of light and only for a limited period of time. However, an amount or
strength of light greater than this minimum does not seem to bother most
fishes. Many aquari ums are lighted twenty-four hours a day and this does
not appear to harm the inhabitants. Many hatcheries in Florida keep
their fish outdoors in pools or concrete tubs. These are often unshaded, ex-
po ed to the direct light of the strong southern sun. In many ca es they
are only 12 to 16 inches deep and do not contain plants among which
the fish could conceal themselves. Yet this exposure to intensive light does
not harm the ftsh . The heat of the sun is not a considerable factor, as many
of these pools have running water which prevents the temperature from
going too high .
Experiments with the young of certain marine fishes showed that those
fish which had alternating periods of darkness in which to rest grew at a
faster rate than did those which were lighted continuously. We know of no
similar experiments conducted with fresh-water tropicals. Professional breed-
ers say that keeping a light on certain species of fishes for twenty-four hours
a day enables them to eat continua lly and grow faster.
The intensity and duration of light does have an effect upon the breeding
activity of many tropical fishes. This will be discussed more fully under the
section entitled "Breeding ."
There are other living inhabitants of the aquarium besides fish and these
must be considered.
Light and Plants

Of all living creatures only plants have the ability to synthesize food
from raw chemical elements and sunlight. Only plants containing chlorophyll
are capable of doing this. The process, which is known as photosynthesis,
combines carbon dioxide and water to form carbohydrates. This process can
take place only in the presence of light and during it oxygen is released.
As we have seen earlier, however, this oxygen is only a minor factor in
aquarium balance as excess oxygen cannot be stored but is released at the
surface. Probably of greater significance is the consumption of carbon di-
oxide which appears to be more difficult for an aquarium to eljminate.
Ordinarily a plant breathes, consuming oxygen and releasing carbon
dioxide just as the fish do during respiration. While a plant is healthy and
growing under the influence of sufficient light, either natural or artificial,
it gives off so much more oxygen than it u es up that the oxygen consumed
is not significant. However, if the light hould be inadequate and/ or the
plant in poor condition, then it would consume oxygen and perhaps be
detrimental to the aquarium. To go further, if the plant starts to die, then
the decomposing leaves consume even greater quantities of oxygen with
the consequent production of carbon dioxide. Carried to extremes this could
smother an aquarium.
Light then is essential for the plants to grow properly and perform their
functions.
Artiliciallight and Daylight

Plants grow and perform photosynthesis as well under the influence of
artificial light as under natural light. For home aquaria we have found by
experience that artificial light is preferable, because it is so much easier to
control in intensity and duration . The amount of natural light falling on a
tank in a window varies with the season and weather. An aquarium set in
a dark corner, with a reflector on it, can have complete light contro l. T he
• same window tank which has just enough light in the winter may be cooked
by slimmer sun . Allowing for these facts, a window location is not an im-
possib le one. A north or west window is best. A paint or decal and card-
board backgrou nd can be provided to decrease the light and floating p lants
will also help. A reflector should sti ll be used to supplement the natural
light on cloudy days or whenever more light is required.
The Reflector
Reflectors are made to cover the forward portion of the aquarium. They
are made oC tbe same metal as the aquarium and are made to fit the standard
sizes. Basically, there are two types, the inca ndescen t and the fluorescent.
The incandescent may have one, two, or three sockets for tubular bulbs.
The number of sockets is dependent on the length of the reflector. The best
bulbs to use are the clear T 10 showcase bulbs, with a long filament. Fl uo-
re cent reflectors have one bulb, usually 15 or 20 watts. The sma llest flu-
orescent made is intended for an 18 inch tank and bas a is -watt bulb. All
reflectors sbo uld be provided with on-off switches. Fluoresce nt bulbs are
available in a variety of colors and shades. The most satisfactory for plant
growth are the bulbs variously ca lled warm tone, oft tint, or deluxe warm
white. The rcd end of the spectrum provides more satisfactory growth than
does the blue.
Experiments conducted by C. W. Coates at the New York Zoological
Park, New York City, indicated that a combination of incandescent and
fluorescent light gave the most satisfactory growth. Their experience, and
that of many others, bas a lso shown that light, in order to be satisfactory,
must be directed at the plants from above. Side or bottom lighting has much
less value.
For most aquaria, however, it is unnecessa ry to utilize both incandescent
and fluorescent lighting. There are hoods made which cover the entire aquar-
~cr~
............--~
The wiring arrangement of an aquarium reflector for incandescent bulbs. In the
event that one must be rewired, thi schematic plan shows how it should be done .
ium and contain both a fluorescent bulb and sockets for incandescent light-
ing. ome people use two reflectors, one behind the other. However, this is
expensive and unnecessary. What is wanted is adequate plant growth, not
maximum. Excessive plant growth is a problem in itself-in trimming, re-
planting and disposal. The primary aim of the lighting should be to keep
the plants healthy and growing, without overstimulating them. Growth can
be maintained adequately with either type of lighting if it i used properly.
A Comparison of Fluorescent and Incandescent Lighting

We are often asked which of the two kinds of light is preferable. There
is not a great deal of difference between their use although a few points
of difference should be considered. A fluorescent reflector is more expensive,
but it is cheaper to operate. A fluorescent consumes 15 to 20 watts of elec-
tricity against the 25 to 120 watts used in an incandescent reflector. A
further advantage of the fluorescent is that it does not heat the water. This
is important during the summer months when we are faced with the problem
of keeping the aquarium temperature down while providing adequate light
for the plants. A disadvantage of fluorescent lighting is that not as many
types of plants do well under it as under incandescent, although a few vari-
eties do better, notably the Cryptocorynes. From the aesthetic point of view
most people prefer the warmer light of the incandescent.
The Amount of Light Required

Unfortunately there is no hard and fast rule governing the amount of
light to provide. It varies with the type of light, intensity of light, depth of
water, kinds of plants, the distance the light is from the water and the
amount of daylight that reaches the tank.
There are certain general rules which can be used as starting points to
determine the average req uirements for aquaria which receive no natural
light. It is best to apply these rules as a starting point and then observe
the results after ten days or two we ks. On the basis of the tank's progres ,
or lack of it, the light can then be increased or decreased. Let us consider
incandescent reflectors first. The reflector for 2 Y2 - to 5'h -gallon aquaria
has one socket. Use a 25-watt bulb. Reflectors for 7Y2 - and 10-gallon aquaria
may have either one or two sockets. Use a 40-watt bulb, if there is only
one socket; otherwise use two 25's. The 24 and 30 inch reflectors have two
ockets. Use two 25's for a 15-gallon (24 x 12 x 12 inches) tank, and two
40-watt bulbs for everything larger. The 36 inch reflector has three sockets.
Use 25-watt bulbs for the 14 inch height or les ; three 40's for anything
higher. If the 36 inch tank is both higher and wider than 14 inches each
way, it is usually advisable to use two reflectors, one behind the other. These
A welJ-lighted and welJ-arranged aquarium.
circumstances would justify the use of both an incandescent and a fluores-

cent reflector. An average of eight to ten hours of light a day using the
wattage given should be sufficient. If the plants fail to show satisfactory
growth after two weeks, increase the length of exposure by two hours. Should
an excessive growth of algae develop, reduce the amount of light.
There are two ways of regulating the amount of light reaching the aquar-
ium . One, of course, is by changing the length of time the reflector is per-
mitted to burn. The other way is to use different wattage bulbs than the
sizes recommended. There is some danger in the latter course. Reducing the
wattage too much may result in the use of a bulb incapable of penetrating
all the areas of the aquarium. Too large a wattage could overheat the
aquarium and also increase the tendency for algae to grow. Be cautious
when making changes.
The wattage of the fluorescent bulb cannot, of course, be changed. It
is dependent on the size of tbe fixture. Although a fluorescent light a"ppears
much brighter, it must be kept lighted much longer than an incande cent
to achieve the same result. Light an 18 or 20 inch reflector twelve to sixteen
hours a day. A 24 inch long tank deeper than 14 inches requires sixteen
hour of light a day. Up to 30 x 12 x 16 inches requires twenty bours of
light a day; larger than this, twenty-four hours a day. A tank larger than
36 x 14 x 14 inches really requires two reflectors or a dual hood . Pr bably
because of the diffuse nature of the light given off by the fluorescent, it
does not seem to have much penetrating power. Aquaria deeper than 18
inches should use a combination of incandescent and fluore cent or strong
incandescent alone.
Reflector a nd Ap pearance
In addition to the utility of the reflector we must consider the aesthetic
appeal. Tropical fishes are beautiful and many of them specialize in refractive
scales which require proper lighting for display. The best effect i created
when the light is shielded from the observer and directed toward tbe fish.
That is why the reflector is best placed at the front of the aquarium; a
fish is so thin that a light placed at the back of the aquarium tends to silhouette
the fish and hide its colors.
Plants tend to grow in the direction of the light source. This is known
as heliotropism. An aquarium in which all the plants are facing and growing
in the direction of the front presents a much more plea ing appearance than
one in wh ich they all point towards the back.
A practical consideration: the vast majority of hobbyists must work
during the day and watch their fish during the evening. It is almost impossi-
ble to obtain a proper lighting effect without a reflector.
Covering the Tan k

The reflector should be directly over tbe water and as close to it as
practical. No glass or other obstruction should be placed under it.
As the average reflector is only 4 inches wide it is advisable to cover
the balance of the aquarium. This is best done with a piece of glass cut to
fit tbe tank behind the reflector. The corners may be cut off for the place-
ment of tbe fi lter, heater, or other gadgets. Lucite may be used as a cover.
To reduce the beat d uring hot weather . orne people cover with creening.
This is not as satisfactory as a solid cover. The screen should be made of
a nontoxic material sucb as plastic.
A cover bas several important uses . Some fishes jump quite vigorously
and a cover is needed to keep them in. Evaporation is greater in an uncov-
ered aquarium, and a cover is helpful in keeping out dirt, dust-and small
fingers. The presence of a fairly tight-fitting glass cover does not affect the
normal interchange of gases at the surface.
Even if no reflector is used, a glass cover is still important, but in that
case it would cover the ent ire aquarium. A cork coaster can be cut into
four parts and a part glued in each corner to raise the glass Cover ever so
slightly.
For a tank which is kept in a sunny location, it is often desirable to re-
duce the light intensity. A cover of opaque glass is ideal for this.
Rellector and Heat

Frequently a reflector is bought for a dual purpose: both light and heat.
As a source of heat a reflector is unsatisfactory. The heat given off by a
reflector is incidental to its operation. The average home is heated during
the day with the temperature dropping at night. The temperature is at its
greatest during the early evening, which is usually when the reflector is on.
The reflector is shut off at night. Thus it is contributing the most heat at the
time it is least needed. Temperature, of course, should be fairly even, with
any fluctuation being gradual.
The reflector can be u ed as a heat source only if you are prepared to
watch the tank temperature constantly and turn the light on as the tempera-
ture drops and off when .it rises. This would mean relinquishing its original
use as a light ource. It is much better to buy a thermostat and heater.
Heating Eq'!jpment
We have seen earlier that the maintenance of a proper temperature is
extremely important. Many of our fishes come from tropical regions. Sub-
jecting them to low temperatures is apt to prove fatal. All of them come from
bodies of water much larger than an aquarium. The temperature in these
larger bodies of water does not fluctuate rapidly. Also a fi sh bas a choice of
moving around in the depths. If the sun warms the surface unduly. the fish
can head for the bottom, which usually maintains a more even temperature.
One known fact has never been satisfactorily explained. A fish can with-
stand certain conditions wben living in a state of nature. Subject a fish to
those same conditions in an aquarium and it succumbs.
Our aquarium fishes do not require an extremely high temperature. The
majority of them are satisfied with 75 ° F., with 70 ° to 85 ° F. being the low
and high limits respectively. Some hardy piscine souls can go lower or higber
than this, but unless you have prior knowledge of the species, don't take
chances.
Try to avoid fluctuations within this range; plus or minus two or
three degrees will do no harm, but don't let the temperature go shooting
up and down.
A good example of what not to do is putting the aquarium on a radiator.
Beside the danger of having the heat melt the cement, the tank heats all
day. Comes the night- the steam goes off, the bedroom windows are opened,
and down goes the tank temperature. It is amazing the number of people
who, because they go to bed before the steam goes off and arise after it has
gone on, never realize that their aquarium bas been chilled during the night.
You cannot condition your fish to living in colder water by gradually
lowering the temperature. A fish i constructed to stand just so Iowa tempera-
ture, and no lower, no matter how gradual the change . Once it passes below
its threshold it must succumb. Just what that threshold temperature is
varies, of COULe, with the species and with the condition of the individual
fi sh.
.n outside-adjustment aq uarium heater with An outside-adju tment aquarium heater with tbe
lc heating element and tbermostat in a heating element and thermostat in separate tubes.
Ingle tube.
Heaters
Most people refer to tbe heater and thermostat combination simply as
a heater. Technically that is incorrect. A heater is the part that does the
heating. It consists of a nichrome wire wound around either a ceramic or
asbestos core. A circular ceramic core is best, as it is the most effective
radiation design. When current passes through the wire it offers resistance
to the current, which causes it to become hot. This beat is transmitted
through the glass tube in which the heater is encased directly to the surround-
ing water. So effective is this transmiss ion that if yo u touch an active heater
while it is underwater it will only feel warm to the touch. Were that same
heater held in the air, it would get red -hot in a matter of seconds, like the
coils on an electric stove. Incidentally, if you ' re going to plug in a heater
while it is out of water, it will probably heat up so hot and so fast that it will
crack even a pyrex tube.
Thermostats
This is the part of the combination which makes it automatic. A thermo-
stat generally consists of two strips of different metals bonded together. They
respond to changes of temperature by expanding, but different types of
metal expand at different rates, thus ca using our bimetallic strip to bend.
We take advantage of this by fastening the bimetallic strip in such a
way that it can open or close a circuit which allows current to flow through
the heater. The rest is simple. As the aquarium warms, the thermostat strip
expands, bends and breaks the circuit, cutting off the beat. Tbe aquarium
cools; the strip returns to its original shape, re-establishing the contact; and
the process starts all over again.
Thus a thermostat is an automatic switch which maintains the tank at
a preset temperature, by regulating the temperature at which the beater goes
on and off.
Some thermostats are accurate to plus or minus 1 0 F. Plus or minus
3° F. i close enough for our purposes.
In addition to the thermostat and heater, most heating devices also have
a pilot light, radio condenser and fuse.
The pilot light is a signa l, lighting only when current is flowing to the
heater.
The radio condenser is designed to prevent the heater from causing
static on the radio as the contacts open and close. Unfortunately, the con -
denser bas a nasty habit of shorting, which causes tbe current to by-pass the
thermo tat. The beater keeps heating, sometimes until all the fish are cooked.
The better units have a fused condenser, which cuts off tbat circuit should
the condenser short. The thermostat would continue to function until the
unit could be replaced.
All good thermostats should have a regulating screw which allows ad-
justment to a desired temperature. When you buy a new one, make sure
it is set correctly before you put it with fish. Sometimes the set-screw is
inside the tube and sometimes the thermostat can be adjusted by a knob
on top. Either one is good. It's just a matter of convenience.
In estimating the size heater required, figure five watts per gallon of
water. For example, a 25-watt heater fo r a 5-gaJJon tank, 50 watts for a ten
and so on . For a very large tank, over 35 gallons, it is best to use two heaters,
one at either end.
(Left) An old-fashioned aquar ium heater

and thermostat with inside ad justment.
( Right) A snap-action th ermostat which
will control seve ral beaters when they are
connected with the tbree-way female plug.
A wiring diagram of a device to test and adj ust the setting of a thermostat at room
temperature. To operate, plug the thermostat in. If the light goes on, then lower the
thermostat until the light goes off. If the light stays off when the heater is plugged
in, turn the adjustment until the light goes on . At the point at which the light goes
on or off the thermostat is set at room temperature. If the light fails to go on or
off the thermostat or heater is not functioning.
Aeration and Filtration
Water Composition
CHEMICALLY water consists of one atom of oxygen and two atoms of
hydrogen. It is chemically expressed as H~O. The hydrogen and oxygen are
chemically bonded together; and can be separated by passing an electric
current through water. Fish do not use the oxygen which is united with the
hydrogen, but the oxygen from the atmosphere which is dissolved in the
water. Gases are dissolved in water in much the same manner as sugar or
salt is dissolved in water. They are held in solution and used by the fish.
Water is capable of dissolving a great many gases, and there can be
several gases in solution at the same time. This i important to us in our
consideration of aquarium chemistry. It is entirely possible for a fish to
smother even though the water contains an amp le supply of oxygen, becau 'e
there may be an overabundance of carbon dioxide gas dissolved in the same
water solution . This is known as carbonic acid gas. A commonly held, mis-
taken belief is that the fi h will not suffer if there is enough oxygen prescnt.
This i not true. One has very little directly to do with the other.
Another factor influencing the gas content of water is its temperature.
The warmer the water, the less gas it wi lJ hold in so lution. As an aquarium
becomes warmer, it can bold less oxygen in solution for the fishes' use.
Therefore, the warmer the aquarium, the fewer the fish that can be main-
tained in it. Boiling water for use drives all these gases out of it, and makes
it temporarily useless for su pporti ng fish life. Boiled water can be used, but it
must first be aerated over a period of time to restore the gases which have
been lost.
Natural bodies of water, whether ponds, lakes, streams or rivers, have a
proportionately larger surface area than they have depth. Furthermore, al-
roo t all natural bodies of water which support aquatic life are moved at
the surface by currents, winds, temperature changes and so on. All these
factors assist in the rapid interchange of gases at the surface-the relea e
of carbon dioxide and the absorption of oxygen.
Aeration and Filtration 31
Normally the fish and other aquatic life in natural bodies of water suffer
neither from a lack of oxygen nor from crowding as they do in an aquarium.
Occasionally, however, even nature's balance gets out of kilter and we have
difficulty. Almost every summer brings a new story of a lake shore being
literally covered with dead fishes: pounds and pounds of Carp, Bass, Sun-
fish, and other fresh-water fishes. The reason? A temperature rise, usually
accompanied by algal decomposition and an increase in the multiplication
of bacteria, depletes the oxygen content of the water so that some fish cannot
live in it. The weakest fish or those species which require the most oxygen
are the first to die. These dying fishes contribute to the general problem
as their decomposing bodies materially consume more oxygen and give off
other noxious matter which kills. So the problem becomes cumulative; the
situation becomes worse; and it is entirely possible for practically an entire
lake of fishe to be killed off in this manner. The same can hold true for
an aq uarium. We do not wish to overemphasize the problem, but the price
of a good aquarium is careful watchfulness.
Why Aeration and Filtration Are Necessary

As we have seen, fish ca nnot exist in chemically pure water. such as
distilled or rain water. A certain amount of impurities is necessary for
their continued existence. These impurities become dangerous when they in-
crease to a degree that inhibits the fishes' growth. In nature gases are ex-
changed at the surface-carbon dioxide passi ng off and beneficial oxygen
entering. Various bacteria and other microorganisms constantly break down
waste matter and change it into harmless or beneficial compounds. In an
aquarium the same forces are at work but not to the same degree, and the
crowding increases the need for adequate disposal of wastc matter. An aquar-
ium can be maintained without any artificial mean for disposing of waste
matter. It is quite possi bl e and it has been done many times. However this can
only be done when everything in the aquarium is in perfect balance. Actually,
we must consider that if there are too many fishes, the aquarium cannot
be in perfect condition. When we say perfect condition we mean that the
plants must be healthy, vigorous and growing; that the water must be
crystal clear ; that there be no accumulation of waste food; and that there
be only a minimum number of fish per gallon of water. As oon as you
increase the concentration of fish you increase the amount of waste matter.
The urine and fecal matter of fish are toxic materials and if accumulated
in any great amount they can poison the water and make it uninhabitable
for fish. For that reason we roust avoid overcrowding whenever possible.
Another factor we must take mto con ideration is feeding. Many of our
proprietary dry foods contain a certain amount of inedible matter, and even
when using quality foods you will find that some of it is not consumed by
the fish. Unless provision is made for removing this inedible food and, of
course, any food given in excess of requir ments, decomposition will et in
and eventually spoil the water. A certain amount is decomposed by protozoa,
but they can take care of only a small amount of food left in the aquarium. It
is not the food itself which is so serious a problem for our fish but the waste
matter given off by its decomposition. The food particles are so much smaller
than the particles of gravel that they work down into the gravel where they
decompose, giving off noxious gases. Unless you are well versed in aquarium
care, it is difficult to detect the black line rising from the bottom on the
edge of the glass. This black putrefaction progressively pollutes the water to
a point where fishes cannot live in it. A proper pH check will usually show
a very acid condition, due to this decomposition .
This problem of overfeeding properly belongs in the section on foods
and feeding. However, it is emphasized here to illustrate a basic problem
facing the aquarium keeper. This problem if, to dispose of the waste ga es
and waste matter and to ensure a plentiful supply of oxygen.
Some of the foregoing may seem to be repetition. It i ' being repeated
for emphasis-to ensure that it is not overlooked. A proper understanding
and application of these principles will go a long way toward ensuring a
successful aquarium.
The Difference Between a Pump, a Filter and an Aerator

The pump is a mechanical apparatus used to force water or air thro ugh
tubing or other channeling. It provides the force which motivates the filter
and aerator.
The filter purifies the water by removing particles, suspended matter and
gases. Sand, activated charcoa l or fiberglass are most commonly used in
filters as the clarifying media . Occasionally, the filter uses the gravel at the
bottom of the aquarium as the filter medium itself. There are severa l different
versions of filters on the market today, designed for different situations,
but basically all operate on the same prin ciple. Water is withdrawn from
the aquarium, pas ed through the filter box, purified, and returned to the
aquarium.
The aerator is the device through which ai r enters directly into the water.
Usually the aerator is a porous stone or a metal substitute which contains
a felt or nylon washer which breaks the air up into small bubbles. Orna-
mental aerators are also very popular. Among them is one shaped like an
alligator, which opens its jaws as the stream of air forces through. Another
is shaped like a hippopotamus; still another like a windmill, which is turned
by the stream of air iss uing from an air tube. These ornamental air releases
are usually less efficient than the porous stone or metal diffusers which
break the air into smaller bubbles. Fairly small bubbles have proved to be
the most effective means of introducin g oxygen into the water and of pro-
viding the correct quantity of air for gently circulating the water through
the aquarium. The aquatic hobbyist, for whom this book is written, is usually
not interested in abstracting every last atom out of the current of air. When
using an ornamental device, he is content to know that he is providing a
reasonably satisfactory stream of air for his aquarium and sufficient oxygen
for his fish.
The filter itself will provide a certain amount of oxygen by circulating
the water, not necessarily as much as an air stone or diffuser provides, but
certainly adequate for the average aquarium. In spite of this fact, we advo-
cate the use of an air stone as well as a filter in the aquarium. In addition to
providing a certain amount of aeration, the air stone circulates the water
more effectively than does the filter. It also breaks up any film that might
tend to form on the surface . This film, which i, ordinarily seen only in
aquariums without aerators , may be composed of oil from the cement, or
a certain amount of oil from the foods, or impurities from the air, etc. It
seems to do very little harm, but it is unsightly and it certainly does no
good. An aerator effectively se rves to break it up. Other methods of dis-
posing of the film wil.l be treated in the section on aquarium care.
For many years there was considerable di 'agreement among aquarists,
both professional and amateur, as to whether the oxygen was actually ab-
sorbed from bubbles as they rose through the water or from the atmosphere
as the surface water was circulated . It is pretty generally agreed today that
both are of value. The smaller bubbles, presenting a greater air surface to
the water as they rise, are more effective. But we need not worry unduly
about the problem. The important thing is to have a stream of air rising
up through the water and a sufficient amount of circulation going on.
Water Pumps
The primary difference between a water pump and an air pump is that
the air pump forces air out through its cylinder while a water pump ac-
tually sucks water in at one end and forces it Oul at the other, the water pas -
ing through the pump itself. As a general rule, water pumps are more ex-
pensive than air pumps. They are larger and provide a stronger, faster flow
of water. They are also capable of lifting water above their own level which
air pumps cannot do to any great extent.
Water pumps are primarily used in larger installations and in pools.
They are a lso used to empty aquariums and to transfer water fr0111 one
aquarium to another. Water pumps are of still further use where it is de-
sirable to have the fi lter located at a distance from the aquarium. The
water in that case is ucked from the aq uarium to a sealed fil ter, thence into
the pump which forces it back in 0 the aquarium again. Water pumps are
used, although seldom indoors, to spray water for a fountain , or to raise
water in order to provide an ornamental waterfall.
Most satisfactory water pumps are of the type known as centrifugal
pumps. They employ a metal or plastic impeller, which i a set of vanes cir-
culating within a chamber and creating a suction at one end to force the wa-
ter out at the other. Less satisfactory are the so-called "piston types," which
employ rubber discs to push and pull the water alternately.
Water Pump Filters

There are two types of water filters which can be used: one is an open
type and one is a sealed. The open type consists, primarily, of a container
with a perforated bottom suspended over or just inside the body of water
which is to be cleaned. The water is sucked up by the pump and is returned
into the filter. Gravity feeds it down through the filter material and through
the perforations at the bottom . This is a rather makeshift method of operat-
ing, for it requires the dirty water to enter the pump. This increases the
danger of particles clogging it and impeding the operation.
The most satisfactory, is the sealed or so-called "in-line" filter. This is
a sealed unit of plastic , glass or metal , the last of which may be lined with
ceramic or some other non -active material. Generally it has two chambers:
one Jarge chamber which contains a filter material, and a small chamber
which is separated from the filter chamber by a perforated panel. The water
passes from the aquarium into this filter chamber by means of a siphon,
and in passing through the filter is cleansed. It then passes through the
perforations into the channel for clean water, from which it is returned
straight through the closed system to the pump, and from the pump to the
aquarium . The advantage of this method is that if there are any large parti-
cle of dirt in ' the water they will be drained out in the fi lter and not be
sucked into and clog the pump.
These filter are primarily used on larger installations where, as men-
tioned , the filter itself must be kept at a distance either above or below the
aquarium level. They have the advantage over the common type air filter,
which must be hung at a level with the aquarium surface. The disadvantage
of tills kind of system is that it is cumbersome, usually expensive, and it
does not provide for much agitation of the water surface.
Air Pumps
Air pumps may be divided 'into two groups: the diaphragm, aT vibrator,
pumps and motor-driven cylinder pumps.
Diaphragm Pumps: Probably fifteen or twenty times more diaphragm
pumps than cylinder types are sold today. This is due to the simplicity of
their design and their low price. They are relatively troubl e-free in opera-
tion. No special care is required. They are small, compact, completely en-
closed units. For the aquarist with a smail or medium-sized aquarium, the
diaphragm pump is probably the most satisfactory unit he can use-if he
gets a good one. There are a number of different makes on the market, and
many diaphragm pumps have been rushed into production merely to fit a
price budget rather than to satisfy a definite need in the aquarium.
The diaphragm pump is quite simple in operation. It works on the same
principle as an electric bell. The current creates a magnet which draws down
a bar. Drawing this bar down breaks the circuit. A spring brings the bar back
into position , re-establishing contact, and the process starts all over. I n an
electric bell this action operates a clapper. In a diaphragm pump the same
principle is used to operate a rubber, leather, or plastic diaphragm ovel an air
chamber. As the di aphragm moves up and down, air is forced through. Whil e
thi s does not make for a good deal of air pressure, the volume of air is usually
satisfactory. Wh at this means in practical application is th at while the air does
not flow wi th great force, there is enough of it to operate, in most cases, at
least one filter and aerator.
Most diaphragm pumps are eq uipped with an air volume control. The
better diaphragm pump. have an on-off sw itch. They are not usually as lon g-
lived as are the cylinder pumps, but because of tbe lower cost. it is usuall y
possible to buy two or three diaphragm pumps for the price of one good
cylinder pump. It is well to read the manufacturer's in truction before tam-
pering with the mec han ism, for many of the di aphragm pumps are sea led,
and the manufacturer's guarantee specifi es that opening the pump to make
adjustments or repairs nullifies the guarantee. Another feature to remember
about diaphragm or vibrator pumps is that they do vibrate, and some may
have an objectiona bl e hum . In listening to a diaphragm pump in the dealer's
A popular model of a vibrator pump. The knob on tbe top is used in adjusti ng the
volume of air.
shop make sure you al low for the fact that the store is noisy, while the
room in which you intend to use the pump may be quite a good deal quieter,
and the noise much more noticeable.
Most diaphragm pumps wil l operate more quietly if a certain amount
of back pressure is kept in the lines. This is done by lIsing the valves, which
control the flow of air, to hold back a certain amollnt of air. In this way
the air does not allow the vibrator bar much leeway up and down. Conse-
quently you get less hum . The proper location for these pumps is preferably
above the aquarium. This prevents backftow of water into the pump. The
surface on which the vibrator pump is placed must be a firm , preferably
sOllnd-absorbent surface. A hardwood floor will tend to magnify the sound
of the pump to an annoying degree. Several layers of carpeting or of sponge
rubber pad are excellent sound-proofing material on which to place the
pump.
A vibrator pump with volume adjustme nt and an on-ofT switch.
Diaphragm pumps have been placed on the market for as little as

$4.00, while certain other more elaborate models will cost as much as $22.00.
The average good one costs about $] 0.00. In purchasing a pump you get
only what you pay for. The lower priced pumps frequently have neither
the strength of con truction nor the quietness of operation tbat the better
ones do. Shop carefully ; eheck both the volume of air given off by the pump
and tbe amount of noise tbat the pump makes under ordinary operating
conditions.
On the average , a diaphragm pump consumes 2 watts. They cost only
a few pennies a month to operate, even operating twenty-four hours a day .
There is no heat connected with the operation. Should one overheat in opera-
tion it is due to some defect in the mechanism.
The Cylinder Pump

Cylinder pumps consist of a motor with a flywheel and a larger flywheel
attached to a piston which operates within a cylinder. A leather belt provides
motor power between the two. There are quite a number of variations of
this type of pump. Some have a fixed cylinder; others a movable cylinder.
As a rule, a fixed cyli nder with a movable piston provides a greater output
of air. The price of the pump is dependent on the amount of machining
which has gone into it, and the closeness of the tolerances to which it is
machi ned.
There are a good many copies of the same pump on the market today.
Most of them are 'atisfactory; many of them are cheap imitations of a
good pump. These can be purchased at a much lower price but may not
provide satisfactory service. Unless they are machined properly. they wi ll
start to click, vibrate, and become noisy within a few weeks of operation.
The amount of air delivered depends on the design. the size of the motor,
the size of the flywheel , and the speed of the motor. The standard motor is
1/ 150 to 1/ 75 horsepower. Many models provide for regulating the amount
of air by adjusting the angle al which the cylinder enters the piston. The
older type of cylinder pump had a metal-on-metal piston and cylinder ; that
A single-cylinder pi. ton pump which wi ll aerate and filter six to ten tanks.
38 The Complete Guide fo Tropical Fishes
is, the metal of the piston rubbed directly against the inside metal of the
cylinder. These wore out and the fittings soon became loose and noisy. More
recent models use a leather washer which takes the wear better. In order
to prolong the life of the washer, it is advisable to put a drop of castor oil
on the leather once a month. Even with the best of care, under continuous
operation these washers rarely last more than a few months. However, in
almost all cases, it i a simple operation-using only a screwdriver-to dis-
connect the piston, withdraw it from the cyl inder, and replace the washer.
An of these pumps have provision for taking up the slack in the belt
as the leather stretches. Cylinder pumps deliver considerably more power
than the vibrator pumps do. They have a much stronger thrust; they can
A double-cylinder piston pump capable of almost doubling the output

of the single-cylinder pump.
operate in a larger, deeper tank; and in most cases the volume of air de-
livered is considerably greater. They are usually of sturdy construction, out-
lasting vibrator pumps, and in most cases replacement parts are available
so that repairs can be made by the owner without sending the pump back
to the manufacturer. Also there is seldom the hum which is so characteristic
of many vibrator-type pumps. The motor-driven pump of 1/ 150 horsepower
uses about 25 watts. They are inexpensive to operate. The motors on most
cylinder pump become quite hot in operation. This is normal and is no
cause for alarm.
In judging the performance of a particular make it is always advisable
to break down the performance in practical terms-that is, how many out-
side filters and how many aerators will it operate in a given depth of water?
Usually 12 inches is a standard depth of water allowed. Most cylinder pumps
will operate three or four filters and as many aerators. The average outside
filter requ ires as much air as five or six air releases. So if you are operating
air release only, the average cylinder pump may then be depended on to
operate approximately twenty air stones. The stronger diaphragm pumps can
run two air tones or two filters, although not always with maximum effective-
nesS.
Care of the Pump

Vibrator pumps require no care. They are completely enclosed units ;
no prov ision is made fo r oiling and there is no necessity for it. But when
purchasing a cylinder pump a lways ask for the manufacturer's instruction
A handy hypodermic-type pump oiler.
sheet which detail s the proper oiling and adjustment procedure for that par-
ticular make of pump. Proper oiling j important: a drop or two in the
moving parts of the pump once or twice a week is sufficient. Manufacturers'
instructions usually specify oiling the motOr itself only once every three
months . For thc moving cylinder and flywheel parts, 20 or 30 grade SAE
motor oil is the proper oil to use. Light sewing machine type oil should be
used on the motor. Excessive oil in the motor may drop on the wire and
dissolve the rubber insulation. Probably 75 per cent of the cyli nder pumps
returned for repair are brought back becau e of this difficulty. A commercial
A pressure gauge and oil and dust filter. By adjusting

the airline valves to maintain approximately three
pounds of pressure in the airline, the pulsation from
the pump is elim inated. The ga ugc may be placed at
any point between the pump and the first adjustment
valve.
"pin-point" oiler is available. This has a long metal tip which permit pre-
cision oiling.
Becau e of the open co nstruction of most cylinder pumps, they become
quite covered with dust and grime, and after a period of time it is best to
clean the pump and remove aU this accumulated gum , oil, and dirt. The best
(Above) A spring-check valve for cylinder pumps which

prevents suction a nd back now .
(Below) An oil and dust fi lter a nd refills fo r sa me.
cleaning agent is carbon tetrachloride. Apply a little carbon tetrachloride

with an oil can; or, if yo u have enough, bathe the entire pump in it. It
wiU not harm the insulation of the motor, and it will completely evaporate
within a short time. However, remember to re-oil the pump carefully be-
fore putting it back into opera tion. Carbon tetrachloride flushes away all
the oil as well as the dirt.
Pump Loca tion

A pump should be fairly close to an aquarium as the greater the distance
it bas to move a column of air the more strain is placed on the pump. In
addition, it is advisable to locate the pump above the level of the aquarium.
This is simply a safety precaution, because "backfiow" siphons water out
. of the tank into the pump. This will do no damage to the cylinder pumps;
but eventually the water will seep out of the cylinder and may damage a r ug
or harm the floor. Diaphragm pumps, of course, are usually ruined when
water gets into their mechanism. Pump platforms, which hang on the back
of the tank to hold the pump, are available.
It is eldom that the backflow starts whiJe the pump is in operation.
The action of the air pushing through the narrow air tubes is usually suffi-
cient to keep the water from backing up. But when the pump stops. the
danger begins. Sometimes a hot cylinder cools, contracting the air within it
and causing a vacuum, which draws the water into the tubes. Very often
when the water level is close to the top of the aguarium a spontaneous
flow of water seems to start. There is a tendency for water to rise in narrow
tubes. This is called capillary action. This narrow air tubing hanging over
the edge of the surface has just a sufficient rise to start a backSow. Before
shutting the pump off, it is best to close the valves tightly, thus providing a
trap for the water should a siphoning action start. Should you be unable
to do this , try to brin g the loop of the aerator tubing up to a height above the
tank before leading it back down to the pump. This also provides a trap.
length of Pump Service

Most aquarium pumps arc designed for contin uous operation. Usually
twelve hours, prefel ably during the night, will be sufficient for the proper
filtcring and aerating of a tank . By limiting the number of hours it runs,
yo u prolong the life of the pump. In a poorly balanced aguarium, or an
overcrowded aguarium, or one in which a good deal of decomposition
i~ taking place, it may be necessary to aerate or filtrate twenty-four hours
a day.
Types of Air Pump Filters

There are four types of aq uari um filters . They are the outside filter,
the inside filter, the bottom filter , and the under-gravel type. All filters are
included under the descr iption of one of these types. Today almost all
filters are made of plastic, either Lucite or Celluloid. Lucite is much sturdier.
The molded filters (molded all in one piece) are the most sa tisfactory. They
are the least likely to leak, and they are usually the least expensive. Oc-
casiona lly glass filters are available. They are so delicate and so likely to
leak that they are best avoided.
The filter selected should be proportionate to the size of the aq uarium.
It is important that you do not have too small a filter in a large aquarium .
Remember, that if the flow of water is adequate, there is guite a passage
of water through the filter. Therefore. if the capacity of the filter material
of a filter is not great enough, the water will be just passing through the
filter and will come out as dirty as it went in. Then there is no useful purpose
in having the filter operating.
Outside Filters
As the name implies, outside filters are hung on the outside of the aquar-
ium. Since a part of the filtering action is a siphoning action, the level of
the top of the filter must be even with the top of the aquarium . Outside
fi lters may be of tbe standard type with an intake siphon stern and a return
airlift stem.
Recently a new type of "fastfIow" filter has come on the market. It
utilize a variation of the same principle. In a standard outside filter the filter
box is divided vertically into two unequal compartments. The larger com-
partment contains the filter material, usually either charcoal or sand plus
glass wool. The partition separating the larger from the smaller compart-
ment is perforated near the bottom. The intake or siphon tube passes the
water from the tank directly into the filter material. It sinks through the
filter material, runs through the perforations in the lower end of the par-
A n outside filter with filter material

in place. On the right are a return
stem , ao extension for tbe intake
stem , aod an intake stem .
tItJOn into the separate channel. As the water sinks through the filter ma -
terial it is cleaned. and the clean water passes into the channel compartment.
The return or airlift stem is inserted into this compartment and the clean
water is returned directly into the aquarium. The air pump provides the
lifting power in the airlift stem . There is no danger of the water overflowing
in the filter. If the return stem stops functioning, the siphon tube can only
raise the water in the filter to the level of the water in the aquarium. It
would then automatically stop. Should the siphoning action break off-due
to the siphons being lifted, becoming clogged-or tbe wa ter level in the
aquarium be too low for proper siphoning action, the return stem would then
merely empty the water from the filter into the aquarium. There is seldom
enough water in the filter box to cause an aquarium to overflow.
It is important to bear in mind, however, that the water level in the aquar-
ium must be maintained within an inch of the rim for an adequate siphoning
action to take place. High-speed filters are usually partitioned vertically
with a small nipple protruding from the bottom of the fi lter. The filter ma-
terial is placed in the larger compartment. The partition, which is removable,
is perforated or slotted. To the. mall nipple a flexible plastic bose is attached
which drops down for as much as 18 inches before rising again. This is at-
tached to a small piece of rigid plastic tubing which is curved to return the
water into the aquarium. Somewhere along the return portion of the tubing
a nipple for an air line is inserted. The air is then pumped directly into tbis
return tubing. As the air rises it lightens the water in that portion of the tube
causing a "fastflow."
The advantage of this type of filter is that the air is utilized to lighten
a greater column of water, thus providing a considerably faster rate of flow
A f asttlow filler.
than a standard filter does. The intake is operated by the same action as
that in a standard type filter ; that is, by a siphon -intake stem. The "fastflow"
filter is suitable for larger aquaria. It should be borne in mind that, if the
filter becomes saturated with dirt, too small a volume of filtering material
combined with a very fast flow of water might result in channels forming
through the filter material. Inadequate cleansing of the water is the result.
In adjusting a filter, remember that a spitting action, with the water
propelled vigorou ly from the return stem, is usually caused by too much
air. At times water bubbles seem to rise and burst within the stem, and
as a result there is only a light trickle of water coming through. This is
from either too little air or too low a level of water in the filter. A low
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level of water in the filter may be caused by a low water level in the aquarium,
by a clogged intake stem , or, occasionally, by dirt-saturated filter material.
A filter may also fail to operate due to a small piece of dirt becoming
lodged in the hole between the water portion of the return stem and the
small channel which brings air into the stem. Blowing through the air
portion of the stem vigorously and tapping the stem smartly on a hard
surface should dislodge the dirt.
Inside Filters
Inside filters are open boxes, usually made of plastic, with perforated
bottoms. Provision is made to hang them on the inside of the aquarium.
The upper level of the filter box is even with the edge of the aquarium .
Water, brought in by means of an airlift tube, is passed directly onto the
surface of a filter material ; gravity feeds it through, and it passes out via
the perforations in the bottom. The water is thus cleansed.
In ide filters give reasonably satisfactory service. However, they are un-
sightly; and, in a small aquarium, they take up a considerable amount of
room.
An inside filter.
Bottom Filters
Bottom filters are cIa ed boxes also made of plastic. 1n recent years,
many inexpensive ones made from sa lt, pepper. or jam containers with
plastic caps have appeared on the market Thc box is perforated on the
outside, and the airlift stem is set in the middle. The top may be either
curved or straight. Air is pumped into the airlift tube, displ acing water.
Lifting the water from the center ca uses the water to rush in from the sides
and pass through the fi lter material. In recent yea rs these fi lters have be-
come quite popul ar, because a bottom filter combi nes in itself both an
aerator a nd a filter. ]t is also used extensively by hobbyists with weak pumps
in order to conserve air. The disadvantage of this type of filter is tha t tbere
i~ a tendency to leave it lying on the bottom of the aquarium without
cleaning it. Bacteria which develop in the uncleaned filter ca n lead to pollu -
tion of the tank .
A bottom filler.
Under-gravel Filters
Experienced aquarists realize that much of the difficulty in the aquari um
begins with the sub-s urface of the gravel. Food and other organi matter
which work their way under tbe gravel decompose there, and colonies of
anaerobes e tablish themselves in tbis dirt. Anaerobe are organisms wruch
thrive on decomposing matter. O ne by-product of their action is hydrogen
sulphide, a foul-smelling gas. It is this gas which gives rotten eggs a charac-
teristic odor. Anyone who ha broken down an aquarium in bad condition
will have detected tbis odor whi le cleaning the gravel.
The cause of this difficulty with decomposing matter in the aquarium
is usually associated with overfeeding; but tbe problem i intensified by
the fact th at circulation of water and air through the gravel is almost negligi-
ble in the ordinary aquarium. Over a period of time the gravel becomes
matted and settles down, reducing circulation to a minimum or stopping it
entirely. The under-gravel filter seems to meet and cope with this type of sit-
uation.
The under-gravel filter is a sheet of perforated plastic which is set into
the empty aquarium. Turned-down edges hold the sheet haLf an inch from
the bottom . The gravel is placed on top and an airlift tube is set in the
corner. This draws water from under the gravel. causing the circulation of
water through the gravel. There has never been any completely satisfactory
explanation of the operation of this type of filter; but it does seem to do a
remarkably effective job. The sludge and dirt seem to melt away and
disappear. It is probable that the circulation of water through the gravel
destroys the anaerobes and permits the establishment of more beneficial
aerobic bacteria. Tbese microorganisms effect the decomposition of organic
maHer without tbe noxious by-products associated with anaerobes.
One difficulty has been found in actual practice with the under-gravel
filter. The perforations in the plastic must, of necessity, be quite small in
order to prevent the gravel from falling through and destroying its effective-
ness. In a poorly kept aquarium these holes soon become clogged with dirt
and circulation of water ceases. One such filter attempts to meet this by
using large holes and instructing the aquarists to place a thin layer of glass
wool over tbe plastic before laying d wn the gravel. This does seem to help,
but eventually the glass woo l itself becomes matted and stops the circulating
action. The length of time it takes for the filter to lose effectiveness varies.
Some aquarists report good results for as long as two years; others say their
aquariums have broken down within six months of being set up, showing
evidence that the under-gravel filter had lost its effectiveness almost com-
pletely.
In view of the effectiveness of the under-gravel filter, we would suggest
its continued use by aquarists; but would also suggest that it be used in
combination with an outside filter. To test the effectiveness of any filter a
smal l quantity of colored liquid can be poured into the aquarium. Best
for this use would be one of the colored aquarium remedies. The filter's
value is judged by how rapidly it removes this colored matter from the
aquarium. For judging under-gravel filters, carefully lower a bottle con-
taining a small amount of this liquid into the aquarium and allow the
liquid to pour out of the bottle just over the gravel in the opposite corner
from the airlift tube of the under-gravel filter. The effectiveness of the
circulation of the filter can be judged by seeing bow long it takes for this
colored material to be sucked through the gravel and reappear in the airlift
tube .
Because the flow of water upward in the airlift tube is relatively small,
it occurred to us to attach our siphon to this tube and suck a greater
volume of the under-gravel fluid out. It was tried first on a filter which
had been in use for six months, and the amount of sludge which poured
out amazed us. Now, in the tanks which are equipped with these excellent
devices, we siphon through the airlift tube every two weeks and have never
had our tanks so clear.
Stirring the gravel occasionally. once a week or once every two weeks,
with a small stick, one can keep the gravel quite clean even without an
under-gravel filter. With a little practice you will find your depth in running
the stick through the gravel and avoid the stems of the plants and the orna-
ments. You can stir the gravel quite adequately without disturbing the
aquarium. As you progress through the grave] you will notice the release
of bubbles which are the accumulated carbon dioxide and hydrogen sul-
phide. Doing this regu larly will help your under-gravel filter to keep the
aquarium fresh and clean .
Several other kinds of under-gravel filters are obtainable: the French
filter. a poro us tube with a short airlift; the single perforated tube with
an airlift; and a series of tubes linked together with one airlift for all. Each
has its advantages. The single perforated tube is the least expensive.
Homemade Filters
Homemade filters can be constructed quite easily from almost any plastic
container. There are many plastic cements on the market which can be used
to attach hangers. Perforations can be made in the bottom of the filter
by using a hot nail which punches very readily through plastic. It is easier
to make perforations with a hot nail than with a drill, and much faster.
When bending plastic tubing fill tbe tubing with fine sand; or, if you are
A homemade bottom filter.

working with narrow tubing, fill it with pipe cleaners to prevent it from
kinking. Holding the plastic tubing under hot water makes it quite flexible
for bending into the desired shape. After bending the plastic, place it im-
mediately into cold water to "freeze" it in shape. Be careful in bending
tubing so as not to kink it. Make a round bend to permit the ready passage
of air or water.
Filter Material
There are three main types of filter material in use today. Public aquar-
iums generally usc a fine gravel as a fi lter medium. This is quile satisfactory
for all ordinary purposes. It shou ld be remembered. however, that there are
large quantities of water to be filtered in public aquariums and that cost
is quite a factor.
Taking the cost factor into consideration and the quantity of material
to be used, it is much easier to use sand and throw it away when it is
saturated than to use filter materia l of another nature and cleanse it between
usings. The filter material most commonly used in sma ll aquaria is activated
bone charcoal. This should be differentiated from the charcoal used in fire-
places and campfires. Activated charcoal contains a tremendous number of
hollows throughout, and it has a type of action which draws particles to it.
This is known as adsorptive action. There are many grades and qualities
of activated charcoal and activated carbon available. The e carbon will re-
move smells, impurities, and gases as well as solid materia l such as particles
of matter in suspension.
In order to pre erve the action of the charcoal, and ensure its effective-
ness against gas or material in solution, a layer of glass wool , o r fiberglass
is used on top of the charcoal. This will not remove matter in solution,
although it will filter out the particles in the water and thus prevent their
coating the carbon and saturating it. In more recent years, nylon staple has
come into promine nce, being suitable as a filter material for replacing glass
wool. We have no doubt that it is as effective if not more so. The fi lter
material should be cleaned regularly. Usually, two to four weeks i the
proper interval for this task.
Cleaning Filters
The charcoal should be removed , rinsed carefully, and baked in an oven
for a short time before being returned to the filter. The glass wool can be
rinsed under a stream of water. Care must be taken to avoid squeezing or
wringing it. Squeezing or wringing mats the fibers and the water will then
flow around, instead of through it. Nylon can be washed in the same manner
as glass wool and it can also be boiled for sterilization.
Used sand should be disca-rded and replaced with fresh sa nd. One of
the difficultie in using sand in a home aquarium is that the perforations
in the channels are usually large enough to permit the sa nd to go through,
thus clogging the channel. Also the weight of the sand is usually too great
for the filter hangers and may cause the filter to sag and sometimes fall.
If sand is used in an outside filter, some means should be provided to support
it from below and prevent the weight from causing an accident.
Activated charcoal will start to lose activity within a number of hours
after it is put into use. However, baking does reactivate it. The filter box
itself can be cleaned the arne as any other plastic container. A good deter-
gent or a teaspoon of Clorox in water and thorough rinsing will clean it effec-
tively. There are filter brushes on the market which will fit through the air
stems and bend around the curves to clean them . Buying one of these i a
good idea.
Freq uently, sterilized cotton is used in place of glass wool. Thi is not
satisfactory unless the absorbent cotton is changed every day or two . Bits
of cotton have a tendency to break free and work their way into the aquar-
ium; and cotton being a vegetable fiber will decompose over a period of
time in the filter.
Ai, Releases
The usc of an air sto ne or air release in a n aquarium is advisable. It
is best placed on or near the bottom of the aquarium-the lower the better.
The amount of air allowed to escape from the air release is variable de-
pending on tbe size of the bubbles and the size of the aquarium. As a
general rule, enough air should be released to cause a mild circulation, but
not enough to ca use an agitation of the water. If you have a turbulence
at the surfac of the water where the air escapes, then you can assume you
have too heavy a stream or too large bubbles coming up. Artistic arrange-
ments ca n be made by burying the air stone just under the surface of gravel
and placing a slanting piece of rock ju t above it. The air, as it rises from
Various air stones and extension tubes.

the gravel, will hit the rock and run along under it surface giving the beau-
tiful effect of a waterfall in reverse. This also increases the effectivene s
of the air as it rises. Occasionally, air stones become clogged with dirt, or
coated with algae and debris. Remove the air stone from the aquarium and
twirl it rapidly in the flame of a match . This will burn away all the debris
coating it. If it is clogged, boiling will u ually clear it.
Ai, Valves
Air valves, usually made of brass and occasionally of nickel , are used
to distribute the air from the pump through the various outlets. If two or
more outlets are to be used the employment of valves is necessary. They
may be either two-way or three-way valves. A three-way valve has three
connections; a two-way only two. The knob on the top, in the ca e of the
three-way valve, controls only the center connection; the two opposing con-
nections are a by-pass which i used to continue the air. The square flat
tab at the base of the valve is slipped under the edge of the ta k, usually
in back , and the weight of the tank hold s it in place. The valve may also be
fastened to the wall above the aquarium. The high er position is preferable
as it would prevent any possibility of backflow should a siphon action start.
A two-way valve and a three-way valve.
In connecting a weak pump, such as a small vibrator pump, to a filter

aerator, the use of only one valve is neces ary. The pump is connected to
one of the end outlets of the three-way valve. The filter is always connected
to the center outlet and the aerator to the end outlet. With the valve shut
tight, all the air wi ll go through the aerator. As the valve is slowly opened
some air will flow through the filter which offers less resistance to the passage
of air. The valve can be adjusted in this manner so that there is a reasonably
good flow of air through each. Some diaphragm pumps operate more
quietly with a little back pressure. If you have one of these, a small C
clamp can be attached to the air line just beyond the point where it originates
from the pump. Do not tighten it too much ; it may stop the flow of air.
Tighten it just enough to retard the action slightly and decrease the hum.
In connecting the cylinder pump to on ly one aquarium the full capacity
of the pump is seldom required. In this case it is best to use two three-way
valves plus a two-way valve. The two-way valve is used as a bleeder va lve
to allow the excess air to escape. ]t is extremely dangerous to throttle down
the pump by closing down the valves. This forces air back into the cylinder
causing the pump to labor and wear out so much sooner. In connecting a
pump to a number of outlets, one three-way valve is used for each outlet,
plus an end valve which can either be used to close the valve or as a bleeder
should the pump produce enough surplus power. The diagram will show
details of the hOOkup .
The correct method of connecting a cylinder pump to a battery of tanks.
Air Tubing
Both plastic and rubber air tubing are available. Plastic will prove more
satisfactory in the long run. It is less likely to crack with age. There is a
definite tendency for plastic tubing to turn yellow but that causes no harm.
Should you have any difficulty making connections, dip the end of the plastic
tubing into bot water for a minute or two. This will soften it enough so that
it will slip on readi ly. Plastic tubing should be rubbery and bend ea ily.
]t should have a fairly heavy wall as thin-wall tubing kinks too easily.
Necessity for Artificial Filtration and Aeration

We are frequently asked whether artificial aeration and filtration are
absolute necessities in an aquarium. It is like insurance-you may never
need them , but they are handy to have around in case you do. A well
maintained aq uarium should not require a filter and an aerator. Should
they be required, it is an indication that the aquarium is not being properly
cared for, or that it is overcrowded. It does, however, help in the event of
emergencies. Should omething unexpected develop in the aquarium, the
aerator will take up the slack and usually lessen the bad effects.
Of course aeration is a necessity for heavily crowded aquaria. A dealer
would be unable to maintain the large stock that he does unless he had
recourse to artificial aeration and filtration. It does ease the difficulty of
maintaining an aquarium and it certainly does no barm. To sum up : it is
possible to mai ntain an aquarium without aeration and filtration. It is
helpful to have them. If you can afford them, add both to your aquarium.
It will enable you to keep more fish in a given tank and keep the water
clean more easily.
Accessory Equipment
GOOD aquarium housekeeping is one important way to success with the

hobby . With that in mind. this sec tion on equipment for cleaning an
aq uarium . ho uld be of interest to those who believe th at a hobbyist should
use the right tools for good results.
Siphons
The first tool to be discussed is the siphon tube . A most convenient
size is five feet of Y2 inch (i nside diameter) heavy-wall rubber or pla 'tic
tubing. Heavy-wall tubing prevents kinking. To start a siphon, hold the
tubing . 0 as to form a U . Pl ace one end under the fa ucet. When it is filled
with water, cover both openings with your thumbs. Hold one end in the
aq uarium; the other end in the bucket or other container which is to receive
the siphoned water and which is lower th an the aquarium . Release both
ends. Once the flow has tarted it will continue automatically.
There are severa l a lternate methods for starting a ·iphon. They are all
based on the idea of filling the siphon tube with water. You ca n place the
entire tube in a conta iner of water keeping the open ends higher than the
center so that all the air runs o ut a nd water enters. When it is full of water
pl ace your thumbs over the end and proceed as before. The method most
frequently used by experts is to pl ace one end in the aquarium and suck
on the lower end until the sudden lessening of pressure indicates water is
flowin g over the top starting the siphon action. As soo n as the pressure
lessens take the tube end out of your mouth and drop it into the bucket. It
is best to practice with elear water first, because you may get a mouthful of
dirty aquarium water unless you are familiar with the procedure. Placing
an 8 to 10 inch piece of rigid pIa.t ic tubing on the intake end of the siphon
stem will make it easier to control the siphon and move it around in the
aquarium.
In operation, the intake end in the aquarium is held in the right hand
and moved so as to suck up the dirt from the gravel. The left hand guides
the Bow into the bucket or basin. By pinching the end you can regulate the
flow. With a little practice you can learn to pick up dirt or debri from the
bottom while sucking up a minimum of water. A siphon is also a convenience
for emptying an aquarium when it is to be cleaned or moved. By placing
a funnel on the intake end no gravel will be picked up, just the lighter
material. Fish are seldom picked up, because they can detect the current
and avoid it. Usually the only time a fish gets caught in a siphon tube is when
the water level becomes very low ; then the fish seems to become panicky,
and, looking for an outlet from the aquarium, follows the current right up
the siphon tube. The fish is seldom injured by a rapid trip through the
lube. It lands in a bucket of water and all is well.
Another use for the siphon tube is in moving young fi shes. Occasionally
a fi sh, particularly Cichlids, may lay eggs in a corner unnoticed. The eggs
hatch and the little school can only be guarded by the parents for a short
period of time. This school of youngsters can be sucked up without any
damage with a siphon tube.
To stop the siphon merely lift the intake end out of the water. Should
the siphon tube become clogged Wilh debris or dirt, try blowing through it
vigorously. If that does not work, lay it on the ground a nd press along its
length to crush and loosen the cloggi ng material.
Sometimes it is desirable to have a siphon which works automatically.
By using one a constant flow of fresh water may be maintained and the
aquarium will not overflow. To make one, bend a quarter-inch (inside
diameter) glass "or plastic tube into a "gooseneck" shape, with the intake
three-quarters of an inch below the top curve. Hang it in the aquarium.
When the water in the tank rises, it reaches the mouth of the intake, builds
up over it, and suddenly runs down with enough force to carry it up the
other side over the bend, and the automatic operation starts. It stops when
the water in the tank is lower than the intake.
Dip Tubes
A dip tube is an instrument to be used for selective removal of light dirt
and debris from the bottom of the aquarium. It is much slower in operation
than a siphon but it removes less water. At one time glass dip tubes were
quite common, but they are so fragile that they are not considered a practical
purchase. A good dip tube is made of plastic and it may be anywhere
from ] 2 to ] 8 inches lon g. A length 2 inches taller than the aquarium
should be purchased. It is a long tube flaring to a bulb section near the
bottom. One finger is held over the top so as to close it. The mouth is then
placed in the aquarium directly over the dirt or debris to be removed. When
the finger is removed the water- rushes in carrying the dirt with it. The di~
Accessory Equipment 55
tube is emptied by inverting it into a container. The best dip tubes can be
taken apart for cleaning after use.
A plastic "ta ke-apart" dip tube.
Power Dip Tubes

Power dip tubes are patterned after, and work in the same manner as,
an inside filter. The airlift stem is lengthened so that it can touch the bottom
of the aquarium with the upper end of the power dip tube above the water.
The airlift tube is attached to the pump. As water is pumped into the
filtering material the power dip tube is moved along the bottom so as to
suck up light dirt and debris. The power dip tube should be held vertically
A power dip tube.

during operation and all the power that tbe pump provides should be used
with the power dip tube wbile it is in operation. The power dip tube is
intermediate in operation between an ordinary dip tube and a siphon tube.
II is particularly useful should good fish water be difficult to obtain and
you are reluctant to dispose of any of the water in your aquarium, because
it returns the water to tbe aquarium after passing it through the filter
material.
Aquarium Scrapers
Aquarium scrapers are long-handled razor blade holders. They are de-
signed for convenience in cleaning the inside glass. Slime and algae fre-
quently form on the glass and are somewhat difficult to remove. Some
models of sc rapers have a rubber squeegee in addition to the razor blade.
For soft accumulations and slime, use the squt:egee ; for tougher grades of
algae, use the razor blade side to scrape off the algae, and the rubber
squeegee to polish the glass.
A combination aquarium ga dget for scrap-

ing th e glass. pruning, and plan ti ng.
Steel Wool
For rapid cleaning of the inside glass, steel wool is probably the best
thing to use. Always use a new piece of steel wool each time and rinse it
carefully to remove any dust or loose filings. Soap pads should never be
used in an aquarium. Place the steel wool pad flat against the glass in the
upper corner. If you are right-handed it is easier to start in the right-hand
side of the aquarium. Slowly move the pad up and down, going from top
to bottom with each stroke. Try not to remove the pad from the glass until
you have cleaned the entire glass. Slip it up, over the top and out of the
aquarium. Slime and algae will cling to it and can be removed with the
wool if care is exercised. Do not use steel wool on rocks or rough ornaments
in the aquarium. Bits of steel filings will break off and remain a nd rust on
the ornaments. They do no particular damage, but the red stain that they
leave is quite unsightly.
A ccessory Equipment 57
Filter Ste m Brushes
These are flexible brushes which curve around the inside of the filter
stems in order to clean them. Always move them slowly when inserting
them into the stem so as to avoid kinking. Grasp the brush handle close to the
stem. pushing only a little at a time. It is best to wet the brushes before insert-
ing them. On particularly dirty stems a detergent can be used, but be ex-
tremely careful to wash out all traces of the detergent before putting them
back into use. Soap should not be used as it is too difficult to rinse out.
Three brus he for cleaning filter stems. The two bottom tubes are
fi lter stem extensions for use in large aquar iums.
Aquarium Backings
The aq uari um background may serve several important functions. It
prevents light from enteri ng in from the back, and as most fishes are quite
thin , light entering from the back "washes out" their coloring and makes
them look translucent. Even an aquarium in a wall will have a certain
amount of light reflected from the wall itself. In case an aquarium is directly
in front of a window, a background of some sort is frequently nece sary
to prevent too much light from entering and upsetting the balance of the
aquarium. We use the word " balance" with reservations; it will be explained
more fully in a later ection.
There are several types of backing to choose from. The simplest, of
cour e, is a piece of colored paper. Quite attractive is a mirror background.
This hould be cut to fit the back of the aquarium and taped into place.
The practice of having an aquarium constructed with a mirror in place
of one glass panel is not a good ooe. After a period of time a mirror tends
to discolor, the backing peels off, and it is difficult to replace. By taping
or clamping the mirror to the background , the mirror can be replaced should
it show any signs of aging. The effect is the ame as though the mirror were
an integral part of the tank.
Decals a re also available in a selection of patterns and colors. These
are also quite attractive and very simple to put on. Crystal paint is one
of the older and sti ll very reliable aquarium standbys for use as a backing.
This is a type of lacquer which, when applied to glass, drys to form a
tran lucent crystal pattern . In applying either crystal paint or decals, it is
best to do so while tbe aquarium is empty and can be laid flat. To apply
the paint, pour it on the back. It can be spread out with a sman brush,
a pad of absorbent cotton. or a piece of cardboard. Do not thin it out too
much; do not stroke back and forth . Apply only one coat. Let it dry slowly,
for it usually dries within a few hours. Do not try to hasten the process
with a fan or heat lamp or by placing it in the sun. Overly rapid drying
prevents crystallization and the formation of tbe desi red pattern.
Crysta l paint is easy to remove. Soak several pieces of newspaper in
water' stick them up against the paint ; allow them to soak five to ten minutes ;
and then the paint can be sc raped off.
Probably the most satisfactory color in crystal paint is a medium shade
of green, except when a tank is in a sunny window. Then a light-colored
background is much more satisfactory for reflecting heat. A tank with a
light-colored background will remain ten to fifteen degrees cooler than a tank
with a dark background. For the most effective relief from the sun . a re-
flector should be placed a few inches behind tbe aquarium , tbus leaving
a n air space which will serve as an insulator against the harmf ul effects
of the sun.
Planting Tongs
Planting tongs are long-handled forceps. They are intended for planting
and are also u ed for removing objects from within the aq uarium. By usin g
tongs you avoid the necessity for placing your hands in the water. T hey are
also convenient for working in close areas where hands may be too big.
A definite technique is required for placing plants with tongs. The crown
of the plant is placed near the tip of the tongs, the body of the plant ex-
tending up and parall el to the handles. The plant is then slid into place.
Never push it stra ight doWn. Start a few inches from the desil'ed location
and slide it in, dragging it towards the desired location and then up slightly,
so that the crown of the plant is even with the surface of the gravel. If it
is too deep, tug it up gently until it is at the desired beight. Effective planting
ticks can be made of two ordinary sticks with notched ends. One pushes
and holds the plant down while the other covers it with gravel.
Planting tongs and planting scissors.
Planting Scissors
These are long-handled scissors which are used to trim the vegetation.
By tying stick extensions to the handles of an old pair of shears excellent
plant scis ors can be improvised.
Pump Platforms
These are small metal or plastic shelves which hang on the back of the
aquarium. They are used for holding the pump, and are convenient and
quite neat. However, if you have an active pump-one which may vibrate
excessively or might "walk"-it is best to secure it to a more solid surface
or platform.
Feed Rings
There are several types of feed rings whicIl are used as aids in feeding.
TIle most common types are square, rectangular or circular rings which
float at the surface of the water. Feed rings are used because dry food
has a tendency to spread out over the surface of the water and frequently
drop into inaccessible spots where it might cause contamination. The feed
ring prevents this. The ring is usually located in the front center of the
aquarium where food can easi ly be dropped into it, and it is also convenient
to have it in the front so that uneaten food which drops down ca n be
siphoned out easi ly after the fish have finished eating. Never use too small a
feed ring. Some fishes are natural bullies, and when a small feed ring is
used, they will crowd the other fishes away and prevent them from eating.
Always make sure that there is ample room under the feed ring for all the
fish. If there is a crowding problem, even with a large feed ring, use two
or three medium feed rings spaced along the front of the aquarium.
One type of feed ring has a small tray suspended below it. This is
designed to catch food particles which might otherwise drop down . In an
. aquarium which has only surface feeders this is practical, but in an aquar-
ium containing fishes which prefer to eat in the mid-strata or at the bottom
of the aquarium this type of feeder is impractical.
.... -
Several types of feeding devices.
Worm Feeders
The typical worm feeder looks like a derby hat inverted with the crown
floating head down. The brim contains a material, usually cork, so that the
feeder floats at the surface. The worms, which are pl aced in it, wriggle
through the perforations and escape only to meet the waiting fish below.
The Tubificids or White Worms, which are usually fed in an aquarium, would
bury themselves in the gravel should a large mass of them be placed in
the aquarium at once. The obvious remedy to that is either to place a few
worms in at a time or to use a worm feeder . A mass of worms can be placed
in the feeder, but only a few get out at a time. By usi ng a feeder you can
judge just how many worms a fish has consumed. By watching a feeder you
can see when tbe fisb have slowed up their consumption of worms. Then
the balance can be removed. Should one fish tend to dominate the feeding
ring, several feeding rings can be used in the aquarium.
Several new types of feeding rings have perforated centers which can be
lifted out, leaving tbe rim to be used as a feeder for dry food. Another
type of worm feeder has a tray attached to catch worms which the fishe
do not eat. The arne argument can be made against this as against the tray
type dry food feeder: bottom fishes do not benefit from the feeding. A
convenient way of feeding worms to these fishes i to place a small glass dessert
cup at the bottom of the aquarium and put a clump of worms in it. The
fishes go right into the cup to eat them.
A combination feeding ring and worm feeder.
Food Guards
A food guard is usually made of plastic. It is a strip varying in length
from 6 to 12 inches. It is usually about 11,4 inches high and is bent into an
arc. The depth of the arc is approximately 2Y2 inches. The two ends are
placed against the front glass. The gravel is heaped behind and slopes down
to the arc. Either very little or no gravel at all is placed within the area cir-
cumscribed by the guard. Food stirred up by the fish or by water circulation
will collect in the well thus formed . From there it can be removed by siphon
or dip tube. ]t is a good idea to place the feed ring and/ or tbe worm feeder
directly above the food guard so that excess food will drop into the well where
it can be easily removed.
Partitions
It is frequently desirable to have a separate section in an aquarium for
special purposes. This might be to isolate a belligerent fish or an ex-
pectant mother. It might also be used as a nursery section. U-channcl rubber
used in making partitions is available. This rubber comes in long strip
which can i t of a flat backing with a U-shaped chan nel in the middle.
The glass for the partition is cut somewhat smaller than the space to be
fi lled-about one-eighth of an inch narrower than the inside width of the
tank. U-shaped channels are slipped over each edge of the glass and then
it is wedged into place. This makes a very satisfactory partition. A piece
of rubber tubing split lengthwise can be used in the same manner. To keep
the partition section filtered , place the intake stem on the smaller side of
the aquarium and allow the return stem to return the filtered water to the
larger side of the aquarium. There will be enough circulation through the
grave] under the partition to keep tbe aquarium clean.
Nets
A good net is a very important piece of equipment. The size of the net
should always be proportionate to the size of the aquari um. The square
shape is most satisfactory for catching fishes, and nylon mesh has proven to
be the most satisfactory material for use in nets. It offers less resistance to the
sweep of water than cotton does and it also is less likely to rot away. Never
try to use too small a net for catching an active fish. Watch your dea ler; he
will always use a large net. ]t is much easier on both your nerves and the
fish.
In a heavily planted aquarium the use of two nets is advised.
Suction Cups
For the handy housekeeper there are small rubber suction cups with
either rubber bands or stainless-steel wire attached. They have many uses
in keeping an aquarium neat. They can be used in keeping airline tubing
in place, heater wire in place, and to keep food rings from floa ting away.
Th ermometers
A good thermometer is an important piece of aquarium equipment.
The inexpensive aquarium thermometers are usually as satisfactory as the
more expensive stainless steel and lucite ones. When purcha ing a thermom-
eter, ask the dealer to show you three or four so that you can compare
the readings and make sure that they are all within the same range. This
is the only way you can be reasonably certain of getting an accurate ther-
mometer at the time of purchase. Another way to test a thermometer , at
least at its upper range, is to wash it carefully and put it in your mouth.
It shou ld register 99 0 F. or close to it. An error of plus or minus 2 0 is
permissible in an aquarium thermometer.
Setting Up the Aquarium
Materials and Equipment

lN THE preceding chapter you have seen the importance of selecting the
proper equipment understanding what the equipment is, and how it is to be
u ed in the setting up of the aquarium . Knowing the parts to be used and
what they entail should make the who le aquarium setup simpler to under-
stand. Through the process of setting up thousands of aquariums over the
years, we have worked out a procedure for beginning aquarists. It is a step
by step undertaking. By following the simple steps of the procedure in
sequence, a good deal of work is eliminated and a more satisfactory setup
results. The methods making up that procedure are those used by profe-
sionals to whom time and effort is money. Some of these methods, however,
are not widely known outside the commercial field.
The equipment should all be prepared beforeband to avoid any delay
in setting up tbe aquarium. Here is the order in which they are to be used:
first the aquarium; next the crystal paint or decal, if one is to be used;
then the stand for the aquarium. (Check the stand with a carpenter's
level to make sure it is absolutely level. An uneven location can result in
a leaking aquarium.) Then come the under-gravel fi lter, gravel, rocks , orna-
ments, food guard, air stone, valves, pump. tubing, fi lter, beater, and thermo-
stat. Next in order come the plants. They should be kept in water or
wrapped in wet newspaper and kept in the lower part of the refrigerator
until ju t before they are to be placed in the aquarium. If fishes are to be
put into the aquarium water immediately, chlorine neutralizer shou ld be
ava ilable; a lso a thermometer and some coarse sa lt. Other equ ipment needed
includes a bucket, a soapless det rgent, plenty of new 'paper (a lot of which
should be spread on the floor to avoid rousing the ire of the housekeeper),
a pair of plant tongs, and some clean rags.
Preparation
Placing your hands in the aquarium 1S m itself not a dangerous pro-
cedure. The only danger involved may be in substances which might cling
to your hands. So before placing your hands in the aq uarium it is always
best to wash them careful ly and rinse them extra well to rid yourself of
any residue of soap. Clean the insides of the aquarium thoroughly with
either a soapless detergent or coarse sa lt sprinkled on a damp rag. When
using a soapless detergent be very careful to rinse away the last of the
residue. Soapless detergents are not pClrticularly toxic but in large accumu-
lations they may be troublesome. We stress "soapless" because the soap-type
cleanser is difficult to rinse away. Jt always leaves a film , and this film is
harmful.
Paint or Decal
Dry the back of the aquarium thoroughly and lay the tank down flat.
Now is the time to apply either the paint or the decal jf one is 0 be used.
]f a mirror is to be used, delay installing it until the entire aquarium has been
set up.
Washing Gravel
While the paint background is drying the gravel should be washed. In
most cases water is all that is necessary for washing gravel. However, if the
gravel is discolored, a detergent can be used- a soapless detergent, of course.
Always wash a small quantity at a time. Approximately 6 pounds of gravel
is the proper amount for washing. Put the Q:ravel in the bucket, place the
bucket under the faucet, run the water heavily while stirring the gravel.
When the bucket is full, pour the water off. Keep repeating this until no
more dirt can be stirred up. Then that batch of gravel is clean. If you are
using a detergent, half fiJI the bucket with water after you have rinsed the
gravel clean. Add a littl e detergent to the water, work up a good suds
stirring the gravel constantly, and then rinse the gravel as before, until all
traces of suds have disappeared. Continue doing this, small amounts at a
time, until a ll the gravel has been cleaned .
As soon as th background is dry, set tbe aquarium into position . Check
the level again , to make sure it is still even. Always set an aquarium in
place before filling it. If it is necessary to move an aquarium whicb has
already been filled , siphon out at least three-quarters of the water first.
Always make sure the tank location is trong enough to hold it and tbat the
surface on which the stand i placed is flat with no uneveness to chip the
frame. Unless you are using an aquarium stand which has been built to
hold the weight of an aquarium, make certain that the stand location is
SeHing Up the Aquarium 65
a very sturdy one. An aquarium is quite heavy. Water itself weighs 8.3
pounds per gallon. Ten gallons of water in an aquarium would weigh close
to a hundred pounds-when you figure the weight of the aquarium and the
gravel as well. Now is the time to slip the valve tabs under the aquarium
before putting in the gravel and the water. The gravel should now be spread
out in the tank . It should slope hi gh (21/2 to 3 inches) along the back
and sides with the lowest area (I to 1 Yz inches) in the front and center.
Food guards should be inserted at this time. If an under-gravel filter
is to be used , it should be set into the aquarium before the gravel is put
in place. 1£ the holes in the under-gravel filter are larger than the grains of
gravel, spread a layer of glass wool over the filter before putting in the
gravel. Putting in a deep layer of gravel is not satisfactory because it retards
circulation. Jf the gravel is too shallow, the plants will be unable to form a
firm root hold .
1n ordcr to estimate the amount of gravel necessary for an aquarium.
first multiply the length by the width; then divide this number (the area
of the bottom) by twelve. This will give you the approximate number of
pound required. Gravel should be used because sand is too fine and packs
too tightly. Each grai n of gravel should be approximately two or three times
the size of a pinhead. If oversized gravel is used, particles of food will be
constantly falling between the large particles, callsing a difficult housekeep-
ing situation.
Filling the Aquarium

A sheet of brown paper or several sheets of wax paper or even several
layers of newspaper are placed over the gravel and ornaments. Place a
saucer on the paper, and pour the water gently into the saucer. Whether
fish are to be put in immediately after setting up the tank or not, it is best
to use water of about 75 ° F. for filling the aquarium. If it is intended to put
fish in immediately. 78 to 80 ° F. water should be used . If warm water is not
readily available, heat some cold water and mix it with cooler water before
adding it to the aguarium. This should be done in a separate container, be-
cause adding hot wa ter to the tank could crack it. Hot water mixed with cold
at the tap is satisfactory.
When filling a large tank, that is, one of more than twenty gallo,ls
capacity, it is advisable to fill it slowly over a period of days rather than all
at once. Fill it half-full the first day, two-thirds the next, and fini h filling the
third day. This allows the cement to "set" gradually. Smaller tanks may be
filled to within a few inches of the top .
Remove tbe saucer and draw the paper out by the edges. Do not wring
the paper out in the tank . If you have done your work well, the water should
be reasonably clear. If it is gray or brown, it means that the gravel has not
been washed carefully . It would be best to siphon out the aquarium, rewash
the gravel, and start again. If the cloudy water is allowed to remain, even-
tually the water will ettIe, but the particles will still be on the su rface
of the gravel and any disturbance of the aquarium will cause reclouding.
If the water is satisfactory, traighten out any pockets in the gravel, and
re et any ornaments or rocks which may bave been disturbed.
Excess Cement
Cement may ooze out over the edges of the frame of a newly set up
aquarium within a few days after water i added . This is a perfectly normal
occurrence and no cause for alarm. Using a sharp knife, trim off the excess
cement level with the frame. Never squeeze the cement back into the frame
as you wil l force the glass away and ca use leakage. The cement which is
trimmed off is perfectly good cement and can be used again. It may be
stored in water to prevent it from drying out.
Aerator, Filter and Heater

Hang the filter in place and put the stem s and aerator into position,
jfthis has not already been done. Do not attempt to start it yet. Hang the
heater and thermostat in place but do not plug them in yet.
A beautifully planted and lighted aquarium.

Setting Up the Aquarium 67
The Aquarium Beautiful

Individual tastes in aquarium furnishing vary widely, but there are cer-
tain general rules which apply to almost all setups. The first rule is that
the front center should be left relatively clear so that the fi hes may be
seen to their best advantage. The heavier plantings are placed in the rear
and in the corners. The planting becomes progressively lower and lighter
as it comes towards the front. The same is true of rocks and ornaments.
All rocks and ornaments should be set well in the gravel, leaving no
crevices into which dirt or debris may drift. In placing rocks and ornaments,
set the larger toward the back, the smaller toward the front. Drawing an
imaginary line from each front corner to the center rear and setting all
furnishings behind this line will make it simp ler to set up a pleasing ar-
rangement.
Remember that the plants will require light, and if a reflector is used ,
the light is coming in from the front. So do not hide a light-loving plant
behind a large rock or ornament, leaving only the edge peeping over. This
may be very attractive when set up, but within a few weeks the hidden part
of the plant will decompose. If the rocks are arra nged so as to form several
ledges of varying heights, plant the taller plants at the lower levels, and
the shorter bu 'hier plants higher up. Try to balance the arrangement more
or less symmetrically on either side. The plants should not be placed until
the aquarium has been filled with water. Start with the center plants first.
The corner plants, which should be fairly tall, go in next. Sagittaria or
Valli. neria or Cryptocoryne are probably the most satisfactory corner plants.
A bushy plant can be placed on either side of the center plant between the
corner plants and the center, and bushy plants somewhat in front of
VaJlisneria . Smaller plants can be gradually put in place in descending
order of size, and small leafy plants in the front corners. The plants should
always be trimmed of bad leaves and washed well before being placed in
the aguarium.
To disinfect aquarium plants before use, put a half-teaspoon of Clorox in
a ga llon of water. Wash the plants thoroughly in this and then rinse them
weI!. You can place plants by hand, or by using planting tongs or planting
sticks. In placing a plant with your hands, hold the plant about an inch
above the crown between the tip of your thumb and your middle finger.
Hold the roots down with the body of the plant extending into the palm of
your hand. Place the ball of your index finger on the crown of the plant and
slide the plant into place in the gravel a few inches away from the desired
location . Slide the plant forward and down into the gravel so it end up
in place. Never push it straight down . If you have rooted it too deeply ,
tug it up gently. Exceptionally long roots may be trimmed to between two
or three i.nches. Thi does not injure the plant. If you do not care to cut the
roots then hold them in a compact mass to ease planting. The diagram
wiil give a good idea of the direction the plants take in placing them in the
gravel.
The proper method of planting.
There are some plants which are particularly buoyant. Good examples
of this are Sagittaria and Water Sprite. These shou ld be left deeply planted
for three or four days. When the roots have had a chance to spread out
a little, the plant can be pulled up to the crown. Make sure there is a good
light on the aquarium while you are working, for this will make the task
much ea ier. OnJy the rooted plant have a crown. This is the juncture of
roots and leaves-the point from which the roots sprout down and the leaves
tart sprouting up.
Final Filling Procedure

Hold your left hand palm up under the surface of the water. Hold a
pitcher or bucket in the right hand and gent ly pour water into the left
hand until the aquarium has been filled to a point just above the lower
edge of the aquarium 's rim. The tank is much more attractive when the
water line does not how. Now the filter may be started and the heater
plugged in. Check the temperature wi th your thermometer. Make sure that
the thermostat is set properly. Put the reflector in place. The plants should
have at least seventy-two hours of uninterrupted light in order to ensure
a good start. The length of time necessary to keep the reflector lit after
that is discussed in the section on lighting.
Within a few hours of filling the aquarium, bubbles will form all over
everything, including the fish. These are excess gases which were dissolved
in the tap water. The same gases may be seen forming in water that is heated
on the stove. They are freq uently mistaken by novices for signs of disease,
but they do no harm and disappear within a few hours. They seldom seem
to bother the fish unless an excessive amou nt accumulates on an individual
fi sh. Then they tend to make him buoyant. This may irritate the fi h . orne-
what, but appears to do no permanent damage . The addition of a teaspoon
of coar e salt to each five gallons of aquarium water is frequently advocated .
We have no argument with thi s practice. There is sufficient evidence to in-
dicate that it is beneficial to many species of fish, and it does no harm to
any of them . It is unnecessary to repeat the addition of salt because salt
does not evaporate. The only time it may become necessary to add more salt
is when the aquarium is partially drained. Salt sho uld then be added
in proportion to the amount of water taken out.
Chlorine Neutralizer
Chlorine is used extensively in municipal water mains to destroy harm-
ful bacteria, and it can also havc a detrimental effect on your fish. Chlorine
will dissipate itself if the water is allowed to stand. Splashing the water as it
is drawn from tbe tap and as it is added to the aquarium will also help
to reJease the chlorine.
Chemical preparations on the market under various trade names are
designed to remove chlorine from the water by means of a cbemical action.
These do not quite take the place of aging water despite claims to tbe
contrary. It is always best to age water. However, if for any reason you must
put the fishes into chlorinated water, then add a chlorine neutralizer and
a little salt before putting the fishes in. Chlorine neutralizers are available
in tablet, liquid or powder form . Any of these are su itab le; the reactions
are basically the same. The liquid is the most convenient form to use.
Amateur chemists can use one grain of sodium thiosulphate to each gal-
lon of aguarium water to remove the chlorine. Check the pH before doing
this tbough, because thc reaction in acid water is somewhat dangerou . The
water should be made alkaline before adding the sodium thiosulphate.
Aging Water
Aging water causes a complex change in the water itself. What happens
or how it happens is not exactly known ; but we know part of the story and
we know what the end result is. Water, as it is drawn from city taps, may
be aid in one sense to be artificial. It has been fil tered; it has been aerated;
it has been treated with chemicals to remove all sorts of particles and to
make it suitable for drinking purposes. This water is almost "dead " or-
ganically and biologica lly. The first and most important facto r as we have
seen is to rid the water of its chlorine. After the water has been exposed
to the air for a short time and has had organic matter placed in it, such
as plants, the aquarium is invaded by bacteria, fungi and protozoans of
various types. These usually thrive in the newly set up aquarium .
A certain amount of microscopic matter is essential to the balance of
the aquarium. However, not having acrueved a natural balance, certain types
of bacteria may grow to sucb an extent that the water becomes cloudy.
This usually occurs witbin a week of setting up the aquarium . About ten
days afterwards , the growth reaches a peak and the cloudiness seems to
disappear by itself. This disappearance of the cloudiness will alm ost always
take place under natural circumstances unl ess the balance has been
badly upset by introducing excessive amounts of food into the water, by de-
composition of plants, or by an excessive number of fish in a newly set up
aquarium. Once the water is clear, it usually stays clear and has quite a
re istance to clouding up again. This is not to say that mismanagement
cannot cau e clouding in the future; but aged water is much less likely
to cloud than is fresh water.
There is another type of conditioning, that is. the conditioning cau ed
by the fishes themselves. However this is a selective conditioning, making
the water more suitable for one type of fish. This will be taken up in
greater detail in a later chapter. The water of any aged , well set up aq uar-
ium is actually al ive with microorga nisms. A drop of aquarium water under
a microscope will reveal all sorts of life existing in the water. These micro-
scopic forms, primarily protozoans, are essential to the maintenance of
an aq uarium. They aid particularly in the breakdown of organic matter -
dead leaves, excess food and fi 'h droppings-into harmless materials.
Introducing Fish
Fish are usually brought bome in a jar, plastic bag or a small waxed
container closed tightly as a precaution against spi lling and splashing. The
entire container should be Hoated in the aquarium for ten or fifteen minutes
to make sure that the temperature of the water the fish are in is equal to the
aquarium temperature. Remove the cover carefully: fish in a dark container
have a tendency to leap for the first ray of light they see . Submerge the
container slowly, so that the water from the aq uarium first run into the
container. Tip the container and allow some of the water to run out. Repeat
the process several times , and then allow the fish to swim out.
With particularly delicate species it is best to keep the fishes in their
own water for several hours or even several days, gradually adding water
from the aquarium to the water that the fishes came in. When purchasing
these delicate fishes, always request a certain amount of the water in which
they had been kept in the dealer's tanks. This will lessen tbe shock of the
change. The same procedure should be followed when transferring fish
from one container to another. Dip some of the fishes' water into a con-
tainer, net the fish, place them in the container, and allow the container
to float in the new aq uarium. If the two temperatures are equal, it is stiU
usually best to mix the water grad ually as described before.
When placing new fish into an inhabited aq uarium be exceptionally
careful. Fish have a habit of snapping at anything introduced at the sur-
face , and smaller fishes can be easily hurt should this bappen. Feed the
fishes in the front, and while they are busy eating introduce the newcomers
in the back. Fish , like humans, tend to regard their homes as their castles.
Sometimes ordinarily compatible pecies will fight if one is placed in the
aquarium for a period of time before the other one is introduced. Should
this take place. remove the older inhabitant, isolate him for a few days,
and then re-introduce him . This will give the newcomer a chance to become
accustomed to the aquarium. He will then stand up for his rights much more
effectively.
Receiving Fish Shipments

Shipping fish to hobbyists throughout the country is a big business.
Certain procedures . hould be followed if the fish shipment is to be received
successful1 y and tbe fish received are to remain alive and healthy. Before
opening the container, examine it, and if it is wet or damaged mark that
fact on the receipt. Do this before signing for the shipment. If there is any
obvious damage on the outside, make the delivery man wait and watch
while you open the shipment. Check the water temperature immediately
and note tbis important fact on the receipt. This helps immeasurably in
filing a claim for a bad shipment. Very often when opening a shipment
many if not all the fish will be found floating on the surface and appear to
be dead. Frequently they are only torpid and can be revived. Do not
remove them unless they are decayed or torn or otherwise physically injured.
Do not move the fish to warmer water. Add warm water to the original
water. Stir the water as you add warm water to prevent the added hot
water from touching the fish. Do not wait for the water to warm naturally.
The length of time this takes may permit the fish to die before the warmth
can benefit them.
Also aerate the water during this period. Do not start changing the
water until the desired temperature has been reached. If the water is par-
ticularly foul , make a partial change of water by dipping some out as you
add fresh. The water which is dipped out is thrown away. This pro-
cedure will allow the fish to adjust to the composition of your water more
gradually. Even if the fish appear to be well on arrival. always add fresh
water gradua lly to the water that they arrive in. The water from different
sections of the country can vary radically in composition.
Fish in Quarantine
The practice of putting fish in quarantine for ten days to two weeks
before placing them in an aquarium is an advisable one. Diseases in the
latent or early stages are almost impossible to detect, even by the most
experienced aquarists . By isolating the fish for a period of time, it is possible
to determine if these fish are carrying diseases which might infect the entire
aquarium.
During this isolation period all utensils such as nets. dip tubes, and so
on should be disinfected before going from one tank to another. Avoid
water drips. Avoid dipping your hands from one aquarium to another. In
other words. isolate the new fish as completely as possible. Most authorities
say that ten days is a suitable isolation period. Experience indicates that
"ieh" can take as long as fifteen days before showing up in a form visible to
the naked eye. So an i olation period of at least fifteen days is recommended.
A fairly good and safe isolation ward is a one-ga ll on jar, floating in the
aquarium. Experiment with the amount of water and you will soon determine
the proper amount which will keep the jar floating upright. This type of jar
can also be used as a substitute breeding trap. Of course, the breeding trap
which allows circulation of water cannot be used as an isolation ward .
A breeding trap or a tloating jar can frequently be pressed into service
for other purposes. Sometimes a belligerent fish can be isolated for a few
days in such a container and will behave much more compatib ly when he
is replaced in the aquarium. The usual amount of time necessary for this
isolation is ten days. IncidentaIJy a newcomer which might be picked on
by the other fish can be isolated in view of them for ten to twelve days.
This eems to accustom them to the newcomer and they are less likely
to attack him when he is placed in the aquarium .
The Number 01 Fish in the Aquarium

Unfortunately there are no hard and fast formulas available which are
. atisfactory for u. e in all situat ions. 1t is one of th'ose things which the
experienced aquarist ca n judge by looking at the fish in the aquarium;
while the inexperienced aquarist must feel his way along. There are many
variable factors involved. Chief among them is the fact that large fishes
use more oxygen than smaller fishes and require more room. They also give
off more waste products. The bulk of a fi~h does not increase proportion-
ately to its length. The increase in the length of a fish is an arithmetical
progre sion, but the increase in bulk is a geometrical progression. Thus one
six-inch fish would require considerably more air than would two three-inch
fishes.
The condition of the tank also has a tremendous influence on the num-
ber of fishes which may be kept in it. A tank in exceptionally good condi-
• tion can hold many more fish than a tank which has a good deal of de-
composing matter competing with the fishes for oxygen and giving off
harmful carbon dioxide . The oldest and simplest formula-which is still
in use-is as good a rule of thumb for the beginner as any of the more
complicated ones. That formula is as fo ll ows: allow two inches of fish,
exclusive of tail. per gallon of water. This amount may be doubled if a
filtering system is in usc. The average fish in a mixed collection is one inch.
Crowding the lank to the maximum even as figured under this formula
is not advisable. The fi sh become too dependent upon artificial aeration
that way. Should you have difficulty with tank condition or with the break-
down of artificial aeration you may have a good deal of trouble. You will
find that if you limit the number of fishes in your aquarium those you do
have will grow better, faster, remain healthy and show their colors off
much more attractively.
It is always best to start off with about one inch of fish per gallon of
water. This may grad ually be increased . Add a few fish at a time to allow
for adj ustment. Actually a well set up aquarium in the hands of an aquarist
with 'ome experience can maintain many more fish than permissible under
this formula. Many more fish can be kept in an aquarium by adding a
few at a time than by putting in a large number at once. The gradual
addition of fish permits all of the fishes in the aquarium to adjust slowly
to the more crowded conditions. Also remember that the formu la for the
number of fish to be kept in the aq uarium is applicable only where the air
surface is proportionate to the depth of the aquarium. In an excessively tall
tank with a relatively sma ll air surface, the number of fish kept must be
cut down in proportion to the height of the tank. For estimating the number
of fish to be kept in a high narrow tank, multiply the length by the width
to determine the surface area; then divide by ten to estimate the number
of inches of fish which can -afely be kept. However, should an aerator
and filter be emp loyed in an aquarium of this shape then the original
formula is still valid.
Feeding the Fish

We are including a section on feeding dry foods at this time, because
it is all part of the procedure of setting up a tank and introducing the fi h.
The feeding of variolls types of fresh, frozen , and live foods will be taken
up in a separate chapter on feeding.
Do not feed the fish for at least a day after their introduction into the
aquarium. Fi 'h are us ually too disturbed to eat on their first day in a new
. aquarium. Food given then only decomposes and pollutes the water. After
twenty-four hours the fish may be fed sparingly, once a day. Always feed
your fish in the same place, preferably at the same time of day. They will
soon learn to come to the feeding place at the proper time. When the
fish are settled down and eating regularly, start twice-a-day feedings. Always
feed sparingly. Never feed any more dry food at a meal than is consumed
from the urface in one and a half to two minutes. This will leave the fish
hungry enough that they will immediately drop to the bottom and search
the gravel for any food that may have fallen.
There is no hard and fast rule which can be llsed to determine the
amount of food a fish will eat. The general rule of thumb i. that a fish 's
stomach is about the same size as his eye. Enough food to fill his stomach
would constitute a meal for a fish .
The vast majority of aquarium fishes can set:: only when there is light.
There are a few exceptions to this rule, notably among the Catfishes. There-
fore. never feed your fish just before turning the lights off or immediately
after turning the light on. Always allow at least fifteen minutes after feeding
before turning off the light. This permits the fish to pick all the food from
the bottom. When light is turned on after a period of darkness, the fish
appear to be blinded by its suddenness. It takes them ten to fifteen minutes
to adjust to the light. Should they be disturbed during this early period
of adjustment they will dash madly about the tank bumping into objects.
Of course, they are unable to find food while their eyes have not yet ad-
justed to the light. Remember that very few fishes will eat waterlogged food.
This is the reason for the caution.
It is impossible to place several meals in the aquarium at once and
then expect the fish to eat them as one. Food which is not consumed within
a comparatively few minutes after its introduction into the aguarium will
generally be ignored by the fish. This food lies on the bottom and decom-
poses.
There are several very definite signs of overfeeding which are easily
recognizable. These signs may vary according to the chemistry of the water
and the type of food fed . One of the signs is the development of "cotton
puffs" along the bottom and on the plants ; another is the gray slime which
forms over tbe bottom. Milky water and black gravel are still other signs of
overfeeding.
Particles of food as a rule are smaller than the granules of gravel. Un-
eaten food works down into the gravel until it reacbes the slate. It lies
there and rots. As more and more food works down, p utrefaction spreads
up toward the surface of the gravel. This is the reason for advocating fre-
quent stirring of tbe gravel with a small stick. People who have neglected
thi are amazed when they stir up their aquarium gravel and reveal the
festering putrefaction below the surface. Although small fishes ean go for
weeks (and larger fishes for months) without food, they thrive best with
frequent, small meals. It has been experimentally proved that fi he fed
several times a day do much better than those that are fed only once a day.
Because this is so important, we would like to review the major rules
in the feeding of dry food:
J. Feed as frequently as possible, at least twice a day.
2. Feed only as much food as the fish will consume from the surface of
the water in one and a half to two minutes.
3. Make sure that the food you are feeding is the type that the fish consume
almost wholly, for if they leave considerable portions it means that the food is
not a good grade and should be replaced with better quality food. It is wise
economy to feed the best food you can get.
4. Remember that the fish wil l not eat left-over food . Frequent ly we see
aquariums where the fish are starving while the bottom is covered with
food. You should not try to make up for infrequent feedings by feeding
excessive amounts.
5. If your fish are to be without regular feeding s for a few days, feed
a normal amount of food before you leave; feed a normal meal when you
return . No extras!
6. Remember about light ; fish eat only in the light. Never feed just before
or just after turning the light on or off.
7. Provide the size of food that is suitable for the size of the fish . U 'e a
medium grade for the average fish , coarse food for the larger fish , and
fine food for the baby fi sh.
Aquarium Care
PROPER maintenance of an aquarium is usually not too difficult. Once es-

tablished so that it is functioning properly, the aquarium requires only oc-
casional cleaning. regular feeding , and regular inspections to make certain
that all continues to go well.
Inspecting an Aquarium
There is a definite technique involved in examining an aquarium. Once
the procedure i ' established it should be memorized and followed regularly
so that nothing is overlooked. The best time to do this is while feeding. First
look at the fish population as a whole. See that they are swimming normally
and that the water is clear. Then examine s::,veral fish at random. Look at
their mouths, fins, and bodies for signs of disease. Examine the top. sidcs,
and bottom of the tank for sick or dead fish. A sick fish almost always at-
tempts to hide so it will not be picked on by the others. Finding a dead
half-eaten fish is not evidence that it was killcd by the others. Even normally
peaceful fishes will pick on or kill sick fish. and dcad fi h are eaten by
tbe otbers.
Check the temperature and make sure that the filter is operating properly.
Check the pH once a week.
Cleaning An Aquarium
The following is a commercial method widely used by professional aquar-
ists who make a living servicing tanks. It is designed to provide the cleanest
possible taILle in the shortest po sible time. In this way aquariums have been
maintained for years in good condition with service only once a month.
The first thing the service man does is to inspect the tank carefully. He
looks particularly for signs of mishandling or neglect so that he can report
them to the owner and ask him to take tbe necessary precautions. The next
Aquarium Care 77
step is much appreciated by neat housekeepers. Newspaper is spread all
around the tank to catch the drippings. Using a siphon hose with approxi-
mately a half inch inside diameter, the operator siphons the bottom off care-
fully removing the top layer of gravel. While siphoning the bottom, the siphon
is plunged under the gravel at intervals to suck up any debris from below.
About 25 per cent of the water is removed in this manner. The glass is
cleaned carefully with steel wool. A fresh pad is used each time. The pad
is placed in the upper right-hand corner, moved straight down while held
firmly against the glass, and then brought up again alongside and parallel
to the first path . This proccdure is repeated, without removing the steel wool
from the glass until the entire pane is cleaned. (An aquari.um scraper will
do the sa me thing.) At the last corner the pad is lifted up and out of the tank,
with the slime and algae clinging to it. Should the rocks require it, they are
removed and scr ubbed with a stiiI brush . As we have said before. steel wool
should never be used on a rough surface as bits of tbe steel will tear off <lnd
dirty the water with orange speck ' of iron rust. The rocks are replaced and
the plants trimmed.
The tank is then refilled using hot and cold water mixed to the proper
temperature at the tap with chlorine neutralizer and a little salt (one-fourth
teaspoon per ga llon) added. The water is poured slowly into the left hand
which is held cupped just below the surface. While the water is clearing,
the filtcr is cleaned and the glass wool changed. If the tank is in bad condi-
tion , it is then resiphoned although that is seldom necessary. Fresh gravel,
which has been washed beforehand, is spread over the bottom. The fresh
gravel is taken, a handful at a time, held just over the bottom and released.
This gives the tank a look of pristine freshness. If this is done carefully it
will not cause a cloud. The reflector is replaced, the outside wiped clean,
the pump oiled, and the thermostat checked. That completes the jOb.
The average time required to clean a 20-gallon tank is only twenty min-
utes. The tools required are a bucket, approximately five feet of hose, steel
wool, a stiff brush , a filter brush, newspapers, towels, and a pump oi ler.
Changing Water
As we have seen. the service man always changes part of the water. At
one time it was generally felt that aquarium water should never be Changed.
It should stand for year after year with only enough fresh water added to
replace evaporation. This belief has been modified. A complete change is
not good for the fish, as it puts a strain on the entire system. This should
be avoided when possible, but partial change (up to 50 per cent at a time)
are tolerated by fish and should be made every few weeks to help keep
the aquarium in good condition. Although no one knows exactly why these
changes are beneficial, observation has established their value.
Algae
In Chapter 11 we will discuss algae as a primary food . Here we are in-
terested in it as an aq uarium nuisance or asset. Many of the troublesome
varieties are of no interest from the food point of view but the food varieties
are all interesting from the aquarium viewpoint.
Most people believe that the algae consi t of only a few types -that the
green variety seen in the water is the same a that which coats plant leaves,
gravel a nd glass. This is not true. A number of different species of algae
may Jive in your tank at the same time. Botanists separate algae into three
principal gro ups: blue-green, brown, and red . All algae contain chlorophyll,
but some possess other colors which mask the green.
Blue-Green Algae
These are among the most common form S-Dot just one form-of these
microscopic plants which interest us. They are all "fission plants" (also
called "splittin g plants") because they reproduce by the process of one indi-
vidual dividing and becoming two and sometimes more. They are without
any kind of specialized reproductive cells. Each possesses the green substance
called chlorophyll. These plants represent the earliest known fossils to be
found in rock formations, and are believed to have been among the first
organic forms to live on earth. You can find blue-green algae on mud
flats. They constitute the slippery fi lm you slide on when you step on a wet
rock or on a submerged log.
Blue-green algae can live in places where any other plant would die .
Some grow in cold water, even where ice is found . They can survive. dried
and cold, but come to life when the weather becomes propitious. Some forms
can live in water close to boiling temperatures- far too hot for any other
plant or animal life.
A lgae differ from bacteria and fungi in that they have ch lorophyll in
their cells. Most algae differ from the blue-green k.inds by having nuclei in
their cells.
Among the green algae, pond sc um or "water silk" is simply a mass
of slender thread which grow by add ing cell-l ike units to their length, and
multiply by dividing lengthwise. This form, Spirogyra, knowD to all high
school students of biology, is typical, but there are many others such as the
single cells which float freely and have radiating and crescent shapes.
Brown Algae
These range from tiny individual forms up to the giant kelp, which grows
as long as three hundred feet. Diatoms alone constitute over ten thousand
fo rms. They are tiny forms which often live as free individual celis, although
Aquarium Care 79
certain species are bound together into colonies by a mucilage, and some
live in long chains.
So never be slIre that any particular one of all the myriads of the algae
is the kind inhabiting your tank. By their behavior you will know whether
they are harmful or benign forms . Remember that some forms are highly
nutritious to fry and especially to Daphnia, which fishes eat. (Fill an algae-
infested tank with Daphnia and watch it clear!) Some are dangerous in that
they coat plants so solidly that they kill them. Cattle drinking water heavily
polluted with certain algae have sometimes been poisoned, and some kinds
secrete poisons which kill fish . Some algae have a foul odor due to the oils
they secrete; others impart fishy odors. One of these oils is so potent that
a person can detect a dilution of one part in 25,000,000 parts of water
by smeU or taste. Such algae can be a real problem in municipal water sup-
plies.
Brown algae grows best when light is not intense. Some experienced fish
breeders bave found that the "warm" l1uorescent lights cause ~he brown
varieties of algae to stop growing.
Green Wa ter
Green water is caused by the rapid multiplication of free-floating algae
cells. Thcsc may form such a mass that the water resembles thick, green
pea soup. This is particularly dangerous , because should the e algae start
dying due to an insufficiency of light or for any other reason, they decom-
pose rapidly and the tank of green water can become a foul mess in only
a few hours . Green water is always associated with too much light and usu-
ally also with overfeeding and a dirty tank.
Algae are always present in an aquarium. The spores are extremely
hardy, can resist drying and are frequently airborne. Enough light for the
larger, "higher" plants to live provides enough light for a certain amount
of algae to grow. The important thing is to regulate algal growth. Control
of algae is a matter of controlling the light. If an aquarium must be kept in
a window, light may be decreased by painting the back of the tank with a
special decorative paint (such as thosc described for decorating aquaria)
and by introducing floating plants on the surface of the water. Salvinia is
well suited for the latter purpose. Duckweed tends to grow too rapidly,
blanketing the surface, and it is usually fought by the aquarist. But simply
allowing duckweed to grow is one solution for retarding algal growth. Putting
the tank in a dark place temporarily will kill off many species completely.
There are other practical ways of preventing an unsightly growth of algae.
Ridding a tank of green water cannot be accomplished by changing part of the
water and using a large capacity filter. Nor will changing water remove the
growth on the glass. Fresh water actually stimulates algal growth. They wili
even grow in filters kept in the bright light and con tantly re-infect the tank.
80 The Complete Guide to Tro pical Fishes
Some aguarist have found that Anacharis grows remarkably in green
water. It apparently use up something needed by the algae, which then die
and leave the tank crystal clear. At this point the Anacharis often starts to
fare badly.
Daphnia in sufficient numbers will clear green water very quickly. In-
troduce the Daphnia at night when the fish are not feeding. If you have a
filter, shut it off. By morning you will notice a degree of clarity in the
water. During the day the fishes will eat the Daphnia. Put in more each
night until the water is clear. Remember that a large number of Daphnia
will put a heavy drain on the oxygen supply, so additional amounts of air
are necessary .
Most dilute copper solutions are deadly to algae. A clean copper sponge.
dropped into a ta nk. kills them rapidly. Potassium permanganate is effective
in ridding a tank of green water.
When treating green water either by chemical means or by light control
be sure to guard against the putrefaction which sets in when the algae die .
Should this occur, or should the fish start to hang at the surface, change
part or all of the water immediately. Strong, constant aeration is your
best insurance against harmful effects of dying algae.
A gray cloud in the water is usually bacterial in origin. In a newly
settled tank it is part of the process of water aging, but in an established
tank it is usually associated with overfeeding. P tassium permanganate will
u. ually clear this kind of cloudiness also. Should it recur. something is un-
doubtedly wrong.
As we have seen. algae clinging to the glass can be scraped off. Algae
on rocks and ornaments may be scrubbed off, and bottom algae siphoned
away. Algae on the plants can be controlled by reducing the light. The
Sucker Mouth Catfish, Hypostomu.l· Plecostomf.ls, does an excellent job of
removing alma t all algae except thread and blue green . Only small Hyposto-
mus should be used as larger ones eat plants as well as algae. Small Gold-
fish will eat thread algae.
Mollies can be supplied with sufficient plant food by keeping the front
of the aquarium spotless and allowing algae to grow only on the ends and
back. Of course, some algae grow on the large plants as well, and certain
fishes seem to en joy eating it from the surface of these plants hour after
bour. In such locations, algae should not offend the aesthetic sense of the
owner and those who see the aquarium.
Slick on the Water

Frequently the origin of an oily or slimy slick on the water is in doubt.
It may be due to oils from the fresh cement in the tank; it may be from the
food, the outside air, coal or oil furnaces, or even from domestic cooking.
One kind is the result of a bacterial growth.
Aquarium Care 81
To remove the film , place a sheet of newspaper or brown wrapping
paper flat on the water. As soon as it is soaked, carefully draw it off by the
edges. The film will tend to adhere to the paper. Repeat as often as neces-
sary. An aerator will help prevent a slick from forming .
Tank Tapping
As water is almost incompressible, tapping on the tank gives a fish
almost the same shock as it wou ld receive if the fish itself were being tapped.
Some fishes in public exh ibitions seem to become accustomed to it. but it
is a practice to be avoided.
Disappearing Fish
Innocent person are frequently blamed for the disa ppearance of prize
specimens. While it has happened , the loss of fish is seldom due to theft.
Jumping accounts for the majority of disappearances. 1t is amazing how a
Ii. h can flip out through a tiny crack or opening in the cover. This is most
likely to happen when fish are start led or are newcomers in an aquarium.
Hopping around on the floor, fishes shrink, become dust covered, and are
unknowingly swept or vacuumed up. Then their disappearance cannot be
accounted for. We have even see n such fish stepped on and carried away on
a shoe. A fish which is found on the tloor should be put into water immedi -
ately. Many dry and apparently lifeless specimens have revived aftcr a good
soaking.
There are other causes for the disappearance of fish. They die and arc
eaten by other fishes or by snai ls. They become wedged bchind a rock or
in an ornamcnt. Sick tlsh. particularly, seek the most unlikely places in which
to hide.
Going on Vacation
A tank in good condition can be left for as long as three weeks without
any attention or feeding. To prepare for this, fill the tank as full as possible,
but be slIre to set the pump higher than the tank . During warm weather
the heater should be removed. Substitute low-wattage bulbs-one-third or
one-fourth the amount of wattage you have been using-and leave them
burning constantly wh ile you are away. The fish do not need the light but
the plants do. Do not teed anything extra. Give your fish a normal meal when
you leave and a normal meal when you return. Draw the blinds if there is
danger of the sun overheating the tank, a nd try to arrange some ventilation
in the area .
The same precautions may be taken over a weekend absence, except
that it is not necessary to leave the light on. Plants in good growing condi-
tion will not uffer from two or three days in the dark .
If you are fortunate enough to have some one who will feed the fi sh
while you are gone, make up small packets of food each contai ning only
one meal. Advise him to feed one packet daily. If a feeding is skipped, he
should discard the packet for that day. Tell him never to feed double por-
tions under any circumstance. There is a story of a man who made up a
feeding device which he attached to his phone hung over the tank. Each
day of his vacation he called and counted the number of rings to determine
that his fish were being fed the proper number of shakes. This story, which
should probably be taken with a grain of sa lt, does not reveal what hap-
pened when someone else phoned his number.
Population Balance
There is a definite limit to the number of fish that can be kept in a given
volume of water. When this population balance is exceeded thc fish will
gradually die off until the tank population is once more in balance.
Using a Net
There is a definite technique involved in netting fish. A good part of
it comes with practice, but a few hints kept in mind will ease the task con-
siderably. Always use a net proportionate to the size of the tank. The length
of net should be one-fourth to one-third the length of the tank. When using
such a net, move it lowly and try to maneuver the fish against thc front
glass. A light tap will then chase the fish into the net which can be moved
up and out of thc tank. Always hold your hand over the net to prevent
jumping. A void scooping up under the fish or you may find it popping out
of the water and onto the 1100r.
In a heavily planted tank or when catching fast fishes use two nets. This
way the larger can bc held at an angle against the front glass while the
smaller one is used to herd the fish into the other net, which serves as a trap.
Plants
IT HAS been demonstrated conclusively that plants are not essential to the
maintenance of an aquarium, despite the fact that plants give off oxygen
and consume carbon dioxide under the influence of light. ]n the dark, or
when they are in poor condition, plants consume oxygen and give off carbon
dioxide. Ordinarily they do not then consume as much oxygen as they give
off during photosynthesis.
]n an aquarium. the surface area as we have seen is the most important
factor to be considered in the maintenance of a proper dissolved gas balance
in the aquarium. In spite of this fact, plants are stiJJ essential in an aquarium
because of their other functions- the most important of which j beauty.
Almost any fi sh looks better against a background of healthy, green, grow-
ing plants. Green has been shown to be the most re ·tful on the eyes of all
colors. And so in some obscure way, of which we know little, contemplation
of a well-planted green aquarium is much more satisfying and relaxing than
of an aquarium containing the same fishes without the plants.
The roots of many plants tend to remove organic matter from the aquar-
ium gravel. Experienced aquarists who have kept Sagittaria and VaJlisneria
in an aquarium are quite familiar with the white area around the roots which
can be seen when the roots grow alongSide the glass. Thi white clean area
contrasts strongly with the darker area a little distance away. Surface plants,
those that float at the surface, may be used to cut down excess light and
help maintain the aquarium properly.
In cases where the fishes are pugnacious, plants offer refuge for the timid
species. In addition, plants offer sanctuary for baby fish, most of which would
be eaten by voracious mouths if there were no plants to hide in. Plants are
also used in breeding tropicals, for plants serve as sites for the attachment
of eggs and hiding places for those fishes which scatter eggs. Still another
use is in the control of algae. It has been shown that this low form of plant
life will multiply much more rapidly in an unplanted tank than in one
in which the higher plants are thriving. Exactly why this should be so is a
mystery. Several theories have been advanced, but none of them has really
been demonstrated true.
Although most aquarists do not keep fishes which eat plants there are
certain plant-eating spec ies which, because of their interesting behavior or
interesting form or co loration , are kept by some aquarists. To those fishes
which require a vegetable diet, soft plants arc an essen tial. lndirectly, plants
provide food for the smaller fishes by sheltering microorganisms and provid-
ing a favorable environment for their growth. Certa in fishes appear to be
retiring by nature. For them, plants provide a refuge. 1n an unplanted ,
bare aquarium they feel ill at ease, constant ly try to hide, and so do not
thrive. Last of all , we can slim lip almost all the reasons for using plants
in a n aquarium by saying that. in their natural environment, plants arc
found in the same water that ti 'h are. Although plants may grow where no
fish exist. it is rare to find a pond, lake, or stream supporting fish life with-
out a growth of aquatic plants. So to render the aquarium environment
more suitabl e for the fishes and more in keeping with their natural environ-
ment, we add plants to an aquarium.
Varieties of Plants
Whereas thousands of plants are known to science. most of them for
one reason or another arc not suitable for use in aquaria. They may grow too
large or they may reguire difTerent environmental conditions . A good ma ny
of them grow above the surface of the water. Typical of this is a "wonder
seed" which was being olTered for sale several years ago. Actually the seeds
were the seeds of wild rice which are planted in fields later to be flooded.
The "wonder seed" rapidly grows above the aquarium and is completely
unsuitable as an aquarium plant. There are probably fifty varieties and sub-
varieties of aquatiC plants wh ich are suitable for use in an aquarium. Only
about a dozen of these are popular, and not many more are fo und regularly
in stock at the larger dealers .
A common error of beginners is to try to keep as many different varieties
of plants in one aquarium as they possibly ca n. In nature, plant do not grow
indiscriminately mixed as to species. In a given area there are only a limited
number of types of plants. Each plant has its own environmental req uire-
ments. An aguarium plant undoubtedly alters the chemistry of the aquarium
water to suit its own particular req uirements just as the fishes do. (Thi point
is covered more fully in the section on water and the condit ioning of water.)
1t is a phenomenon that has oftell been attributed to an antagonism between
plallts-plants compete with each other for essential nutrients and one variety
tend to starve out the other. Although this may be a contrib uting factor ,
the reason tbat certain varieties of plants fail to grow together in the same
aquarium is more likely that each plant requires its own environmental
Plants 85
conditions. The conditions which suit one variety do not always suit an-
other. This often makes it impossible or difficult for the two to grow to-
gether. Planting a number of different varieties in the aquarium docs make
a pleasing arrangement. U. e difl'erent varieties together for aesthetic reasons,
but don't just mix them indisc riminately.
Vallisneria and Sagitta ria, which are 1110st frequently mentioned as being
the two plants which cannot thrive in the sa me aquarium , are frequently
seen growing together. However, when they do manage to more or less
balance each other off, seldom is either one of them really vigorous.
There is no way of predicting beforehand just which pl ants will thrive
in a particul a r aquarium. We do know certain things, however. For example,
the various Cryptocorynes will not thrive in bright light. Keeping them in
a subdued light does not necessarily ensure their survival. When we say
a pl ant is hardy we mean that it will thrive in the majority of cases. This does
not, of co urse, mean that it cannot die or fail to thrive in a partic ular aquar-
ium . Plants which are considered delicate or slow-growing also have been
known to confound the ex pert by bursting into full leaf and growing quite
rapidly under what appear to be unfavorable conditions. A good many pl ant s
are desc ribed in this section, together with their requirements and hard iness
factors so far as they are known .
Selecting Plants for an Aquarium

In selecting plants for an aquarium due conside ration sho uld be given to
the req uirements of the varieties of plants given in this section . D o not put
a plant like the Amazon Sword Pl ant, which grows to a giant . ize, in a
2112 -ga ll on aquarium. A plant like Cabomba which requires bright li ght
should not be kept under the same conditions a a Cryptocoryne, which pre-
fers a subdued light. The re are other plants with specific purpo es sLlch as
hiding and floatin g plants which are also to be disc ussed.
Prices of plants vary according to size and condition . These, of course,
should be taken into consideration when purchases are made. Try to purchase
a fairly small plant in relation to the size of the aquarium. Purchasing a plant
just suitable for it~ place will leave it no room for growing.
It is advisa ble to limit the number of varieties of plants placed in a n
aquarium. Three or four- but usually no more than five-different varieties
shou ld be the limit. Observation will tell which of the pl ants thrive best
under the conditions in your particular aquarium. Plants which do not do
well should be replaced by others of a different variety which may perhaps
prove more satisfactory. If all the plants with the exception of one or two in
the aquarium do well , it is best to replace these. Should all or the majority
of your plants do poorly, then check your water and tank conditions to find
out just why plants do not thrive.
Poor plant growth can usually be traced to the pH of the water or to
. the amount or quality of light. Lighting has been covered in the first section;
water conditions will be covered subsequen tly . If several varieties do well,
but one or two don't, do not alter the tank conditions because a particular
variety of plant doesn't thrive. You may find that you have altered things to
such an extent that only one variety of plant doe well and all the others
die.
Plants react definitely, although not immediately, to their environment.
Under some conditions a plant may grow tall and spind ly; under others
short and bushy. In fact, a plant may even go to extremes in altering the
shape of its leaves. Plants which have frequently been identified by aquarists
as belonging to separate species have subsequently been shown to be of the
same species-the difference in appearance being due to different environ -
mental conditions. It is believed, for example, that Water Sprite- which
for years has been recognized as having both narrow-leafed and broad-leafed
varieties-actually is only a single species. Under certain conditions the leaf
becomes broad, but when the plant is transplanted to a different aquarium it
may change into the narrow-leafed type. Water Sprite has been observed
growing in an aquarium with both broad and narrow leaves on the ame
plant.
Grouping Plants
For the convenience of the hobbyist, we have decided to group aquarium
plants into three sections according to their growing habits. This arbitrary
grouping has no scientific standing in classifying plants. Since, wherever pos-
sible, all plants are illustrated, we are keeping physical description to a
minimum. Comment is confined primarily to plant habits and requirements.
Group I: Rooted Plants

These plants are usually called rooted plants because they have a
complex root structure. New leaves originate in the crown, which is the
juncture of roots and leaves. Care must be taken in planting rooted plants
so that the crown is at tbe level of the gravel, for planting too deeply wi ll
inhibit growth. The roots are essential to the existence of this group. A
broken leaf or a leaf broken off cannot reproduce itself. A damaged or de-
cayed leaf may be clipped off at the base without doing harm to the plant.
The roots are true roots in that they help nourish the plant as well as serve
as an anchor to bold the plant in place.
This type of plant lends itself most readily to individual planting. ]n-
dividual members of the rooted plants may be planted in pots which are _et
on the bottom of the aquarium rather than directly into a layer of gravel.
The advantage of this is that the pot may be removed for cleaning the
bottom of the aquarium without upsetting tbe plants. This practice is fre-
quently followed in breeding tanks.
Plants 87
Reproduction of these plants may be by one or more methods. The most
common in aquaria is by mea ns of runners. A runner is extended along the
surface several inches. 1t then puts down roots and a new plant grows there .
Another runner continues on from that and so on. Sometimes several dozen
are strung out from the original, either in a straight line or wandering thro ugh
the aquarium. Once the new pl a nt is established, cutting the runner does
no harm. Runners are not necessarily extended along the level of the gravel,
for in orne varieties of plants the runne r floats free in the aquarium. The
yo un g plant as it develo ps on the runner usually sends down long roots
which extend to the gravel, fa sten themselves firmly, and draw down the
new plant.
The second method of reproduction is by division at the base. This
is no t as noticea ble. except as a thickening of the plant and increase in it.
genera l size a nd in the number of leaves. Frequently a plant will in tim e
grow into two, three, four, or even more plants which may be separa ted .
Eac h has its own root ystem and may be pl anted separately.
The third method of reproduction-which is rarely seen in the average
aq uarium- is sexual reproduction involving flowers. Some plants are bi-
sexua l, that is, male and ft: male in th e si ngle plant. Othe rs have eparate sexes
in different plants. The majority of Vallisneria plants are females, the male
having been observed on ly rarely.
Va llisn eria
This is one of the oldest plants in terms of aq ua rium usc, a nd under
the proper conditions o ne of the most satisfactory. Almost a ll the Vallisneria
we see is Vallisnerill spira/is, a E uropean variety which doe not grow as tall
or as broad as the American Vallisneria which is known as Vallisneria
americana.
Vallisneria in a n aq uari um usually g rows twelve to fourteen inches in
height ; altho ugh we have seen it grow two feet in height and reproduce
magnificently in aquaria where conditions were suitable. A smaller variety
of Vallisneria is "Corkscrew" ValJisneria in which the leaves are spirally
twisted like a corkscrew. There is some question a to whether this is a
variation of Vallisneria spira/is or an entirely separate variety. It is sometimf's
classified as Vallisneria spiralis, variety lorla. A beautiful plant, it does not
usually grow more tha n eight to twelve inches in height, and frequently
only as tall as six inches.
For best results Vallisneria should be pl anted in an aquarium by itself.
It does not stand up well to competition; but it is remarkably hardy when
maintained alone. In fact most of the time the reason for failure of Val lisneria
in aquaria is due to its b eing crowded by other plants. Kept alone under
a fairly strong light it will reproduce rapidly and beautifully, fo rming a
dense thicket which is a pleasing background for most varieties of tropical
fi. hes. Under these conditions Vallisneria will probably reproduce sexually
sending up a long thin spira l stalk, at the end of which blooms the white
female flower. If there is a male plant in the aquari um, it will send up a
flower which will meet the female flower and eventually reproduce.
The leaves of Vallisneria are quite soft. Many plant-eating fis hes de-
vour it in preference to any othcr variety of plants. The leaves are cut shorter
than their natural length when they are shipped from the plant or fis h hatch-
eries. Any tips that have turned brown should be carefu lly cut back to the
green part. VaUisncria is one of the few plants whose tips may be trimmed
without the plant itself being affected.
Italian Vallisneria ork crew Vallisoeria

(Vallisl1cria spira lis ). (Va/lisnerill spira/is , varie ly lorla).
Sagitta ria
There are at least seventeen varieties of this plant-some smail, others
large. T hey not only resemble each other, but also resemble Vallisneria.
Only a few of the Sagittarias are su itable for aquaria use. The largest used
in aquaria, probably the largest form of all, is Sagittaria gigantea. S. giganrea
Plants 89
may grow up to twenty inches in length with a half-inch wide leaf. Of
course this is suitable for only very large aquaria.
Sagittaria natans is the most common Sagittaria in aquarium use. It is
of an intermediate size, growing up to eight or te n inches in length. Also
a very popular Sagittaria is S. subulata. It is one of the narrow-leafed varie-
ties , growing prolifically in a tangled mass.
The smallest size used in the aquarium is Microsagittaria although this
plant is not actually a Sagittaria. Microsagiltaria has been identified as
Echinodorus fenellus. Although the Sagittarias are strictly speaking not
aquatics (their flowers are borne a bove the water) they are well suited to
life completely submerged a nd do very well in an aquarium. Sagittaria
grown in a pond may be di stinguished from Sagittaria grown in an aquarium
by the color of the roots. Pond or lake-grown Sagittaria ha very pretty, white,
thick , heavy roots; whereas aquarium-raised Sagittaria has yellow roots .
Sagittaria is quite buoyant a nd tends to uproot itse lf when first planted.
In this case it is best to bury the crown about three quarters of an inch be-
low the surface. After a few days, gently tu g the plant up . This will give
the roots a chance to fix them. elves in the g ravel. Sagi ttaria is a very satisfac-
tory aquarium plant. Like Vallisneria it prefers a situation by itself. Re-
production is primarily by means of runners.
Two varieties of Sagittaria (left, S. sinensis; right S. /latans) .
Distinguishing Vallisneria from Sagittaria

The roots of Vallisneria are fine, usually silvery in appearance, and hair-
like. The roots of Sagittaria are much COarser. Frequently yel lowish in color,
many Sagittaria plants have small tubers on their roots. These tubers are
90 The Complete Guide to Trop ical Fishes
ca ll ed corms and may be planted individually for reproducing the plant.
Probably the distinguishing feature to the amateur is the fact that all
Vallisneria has a center rib. When the leaf is held to the light it appears to
have three varying stripes, with the darker stripe in the center. Sagittaria
has a leaf of uniform color. The tips of the leaves are usually more rounded
in Vallisneria than they are in Sagittaria. As we mentioned earlier, the
flowering is entirely different also: Val lisneria flowers at the surface, while
Sagittaria throws up a mass of flowers above the water.
Sword Plants
Probably the most desirable of al l aquarium plants is the magnificent
broad-leafed Amazon Sword Plant. Echinodorus rangeri. It is often used
as a center piece for the medium-to-large aq uarium. It is hardy ; it is beauti-
fu l; and it is full. A narrow-leafed variety, Echinodorus intermedius , is a
beautiful plant, but not as spectac ul ar and attractive as the broad-leafed
Amazon. These plants reproduce by runners which are distinguirhed from
the runners of Vallisneria and Sagittaria by being free-float ing. They start
from the crown of the parent plant and wind their way through the water.
One runner we measured was almost five feet long and had twelve young
plants growing from it at spaced intervals.
To remove the young plant from the runner. bold tbe runner in one
hand on the side away from the parent plant; with the o ther hand gently
work the runner back toward the parent. The young plant wil l come loose
readily and may be planted separately. This should be done only after it has
developed a good root structure.
Unfortunately Amazon Sword Plants frequently outgrow their aquaria .
Trimming the leaves is not a satisfactory solution, although regularly cutting
the larger outside leaves at the base helps to keep the growth in check . Light,
too, can cause problems. Too strong a light on the plant may enco urage a
growth of algae on the leaves, choking it off.
Another sword plant which appeared in aqua ria seven years ago is
the Junior Amazon Sword Plant. This is a narrow-leafed, small member of
the Amazon family . It generally grows about eight inches high and in leaf
shape it greatly re embles Vallisneria.
Another member of the Echinodorus family-and one wh ich is very
satisfactory for an aquarium plant-is the so-called Sa/:ilfaria guayanensis
or Elephant Ear. Actually this is Eehinodorus radieans. The leaves of the
E lephant Ear are broad and heart shaped. As a rule it is a low-growing,
fleshy plant; but under satisfactory conditions, it will p ut out some leaves
which float at the surface of the water, and also leaves which are above
the water level. The leaves can also grow to a good size. We have een some
almost as Jarge as saucers.
Plants 91
The most recent introduction from this family is the Ruffled Sword
Plant, Echinodoru.l' m.artii. It reoembles the broad-leafed Amazon Sword
Plant, but the leaves are ruffied . ]t is very pretty, being colored a rich. light
green . Because it is slow in reproducing and has been only recently intro-
duced , not many aquarists have seen it yet.
The smallest member of the family is Echinodorus tene[{u.l'. This is a
very hardy, rapidly reproducing, sma ll plant. It seldom grows to be more
than a few inches tall. (See Microsagittaria, page 89.)
Amazon Sword Pla nt

(Echillodorus r£llIgeri).
leph a nl Ear
(Echinodom .\· radicam) .
Aponogetons
The most popular of Aponogetons is Aponogeton unduiatum , formerly
known as Aponogeton crispus. The long, narrow, light-green leaves strongly
resemble the leaves of the Cryptocoryne willisii. They may be distinguished
. from the latter by the fact that they are much lighter and more translucent.
The A ponogeton undulatum is also a much larger plant, growing a high
as sixteen inches. Most specimens are rather straggly; but the occasional
full specimen is a truly magnificent plant. Unfortunately it dies down for
a period during the winter. The leaves shrivel away and should be cut off
at the ba e. ln fact, the plant may vanish entirely. If it appears lifeless, the
main root should not be disturbed-it will rejunvenate in the spring, and
develop once more into a beautiful plant.
The Mad agasca r Lace-leaf Plant, A ponogeton fenestralis, has been the
subject of much publicity. The leaf is semi-transparent, resembling the skele-
Aponogeton Ulldlllatum.
ton of an Amazon Sword Plant. However interesting as an oddity, tbe Lace

Plant is not considered a beautiful plant, being valued more for its rarity
and as a novelty. It is fairly delicate and up until now has always been ex-
pensive. Plants with as few as two leaves are so ld for between five a nd ten
dollars each.
A lovely although somewhat delicate plant i the A ponogeton ulvaceus.
A good specimen is bard to beat. It makes a lovely center plant and is really
magnificent. Unfortunately, most specimens do not stand up too well
in the aquarium . They seem to require more light tban the average aquarist
provide. Like tbe otbers, it has to have a resting period.
Aponogetons are bisexual, although, as a rule, the plant will not fertilize
Plants 93
itself. According to Mr. Albert Greenberg of Florida, in the case of Apono-
geton undulatum , although both male and fema le blooms are borne upon a
single stalk, it rarely fertilizes itself. As one blossoms, the other closes; and
the male and female are rarely open at the sa me time. For be t results in
cross fertilization , three plants should be planted rather close together . Apono-
getons will also split at the base and can be separated. All of the Aponoge-
Ccllophane Plant
(A pOll ogI'IO Il 1I/1'aceus).
Madagascar L ace Plant

(A ponof{eton f enestra/is) .
tons are heavy feeders. For best results an individual plant should be planted
in a small pot. The pot should be half-filled with unfertilized oil covered by
aquarium gravel. However, this is not essential and Aponogetons will grow
quite well in plain sand in a well-maintained aquarium.
Cryptocory nes
We believe that the Crypto 'orynes are among the most sa tisfactory, if
not the most satisfactory, of the aquarium plants. They are tough-leafed,
hardy and long-lived. They all do well in moderately subdued light. They
do not thrive in direct sunlight. Direct strong light tends to coat their leaves
with algae and choke the plant. They take a fairly long time to become estab-
lished when transplanted; but once they have adjusted to the aquarium they
are remarkably hardy and long-lived. They can be used in those dark corners
of the aquarium where light does not quite reach and where no other plant
will thrive.
Cryptocoryne griffithi; is the largest and hardiest of the Cryptocorynes.
It has been known to grow as taU as sixteen inches. A large griffithii plant
may have as many as twenty-five ]caves on it. They are suitable for a planting
by themselves in an aquarium. 1n fact an aquarium full of Cryptocorynes
i. a gorgeous sight. C. griffithii usually reproduces by runners. The dark
olive green leaves look like velvet on top and are a reddish brown below.
They look and are quite strong.
Cry ptocoryne willis;i is another attractive member of the family. It is
medium in ize, seldom growing more than ten inches in height. A Crypto-
coryne willisii is easily distinguished by its narrow, wavy-edged leaves. They
are green above and reddish brown below.
Cryptocoryne cordata is sometimes mistaken for C. willisii, although
the ripples on the leaf are hardly noticeable in cordata and quite prominent
on willisii. The leaf itself is wider and more delicate looking while the under-
side is a lighter tannish red, and the uppeL ide is green .
our Cryptocorynes (left to right, C. willisii, C. /levi/ii, C. gri/JitlJii,

and C. cordata) .
The mallest of the Cryptocorynes is Cryptocoryne nevilii formerly known

as C. beckenii. It usually grows in a flat, low position. It reproduces readily
and is very hardy. The leaves are aU fairly light, smooth green. It is an excel-
lent plant for the front of the aquarium or agai nst rocks.
Cryptocoryne haerteliana, Cryptocoryne longicauda, and Cryptocoryne
Plants 95
ciliata are comparably recent introductions, and are not often seen in Ameri -
can aquaria. They all appear to be medium-size plants and their behavior
and method of growth is typical of the Cryptocorynes. Most unusual is
Cryptocoryne longicauda which has a very crinkled, wavy-edged leaf. It
looks almost as though it had been crumpled. It is light green and very at-
tractive.
Spatterdock (Nuphar sagittaefolia)

The li ght-gree n leaves of Spatterdock are among the most attractive of
all the aq uarium plants. U nder suitable conditions this pl ant grows quite
tall, with leaves eight to tcn inches long. Pro pagat ion is from a fl eshy tuber or
rhi zome. Care should be taken to see that the rhizome is not damaged or
brui sed in any way becau 'e fungus may set in and destroy the plant. The
leaves are quite deli ca te a nd care should be taken to see that they are not
cut or bru isecl.
Spatterdock (N Llphar sagiltae/olia).
Underwater Clover (Marcilia quadrifolia)

The four-leaf clover of the aquarium is generally believed to be M .
quadri/olia from Australia. Introduced into American aquariums many years
. ago by Mr. Albert Greenberg of Florida, it is a low-growing plant rarely
exceeding three inches in height in an aquarium. If it appears to die away
when first planted, do not uproot it. It is remarkably hardy . Within a few
weeks you will see the first shoots of the new growth coming up. When the
new growth is well establi. hed , the old leaves may then be trimmed away.
It grows and reproduces by runners and, oddly enough, does not always
come up as a four-leaf clover. A new growth in an aquarium is frequently
a single round leaf on a talk. This is another plant which is excellent for
a front position in an aquarium. It prefers a strong light.
Unuerwater Clover (Marcilia quadri/olia) .
Madagascar Dwarf Lily (Nymphaea micrantha)

This dwarf lily is a true water lily. Kept in shallow water, no higher
than six to eight inches, it can frequently be induced to bloom. The flowers
are light blue and have a very fragrant odor. This plant is called live-bearing
Plants 97
because young plants are borne at the juncture of leaf and stem. It sends roots
down to the gravel. The old leaf rots off a nd a new plant i rooted there.
This is another plant which apparently dies when it is fir t placed in an
aguarium· but it soon recovers and the roots form a new plant. It should
not be disturbed, no matter how poorly it does, until it has had a chance
to establish itself. It is very hardy and very attractive. Unfortu nately, its
brownish coloration resembles the dying leaves of other varieties of plants
and people often mistake a healthy Madagascar lily for a dying plant. The
leaves are heart-shaped .
Mad agascar Dwarf Lily

(Nymphaea l1I;c ralllll,,) .
Banan a Plant
(Lilllnalllh emul/7 lIymphaeoides).
Banana Plant (I.imnanthemum nymphaeoidesl

This plant is a member of the water-lily family, although we have never
seen it flower in the aguari um . The leaves grow to various heights sometimes
reaching the surface. Just the tips of the "bananas" should be placed in the
sand. Roots grow from these and anchor the plant. It is guite hardy.
Water Orchid (Spiranthes odoratal

The underwater orchid is a true orchid, more commonly known as Fra-
grant Ladies' Tresses. Actually it is a bog plant, growing at the edge of
. streams in Florida. It has been introduced into the aquarium and grown for
years as a complete aquatic. When the flowers emerge they are tubular, waxy,
and white. They develop above the surface of the water. The Water Orchid
is a fairly small plant and seldom grows very large in an aquarium. It is
neither particularly attractive nor particularly hardy, but it is an interesting
Oddity.
Water Orchid Quillwort

(Spil'an/iles odora/a). (Isoe/es /a cus /I'is).
Quillwort (/soetes lacustris)

This species is a smal l pointed-leafed plant, seldom growing more tban
three inches in height. It is slow in reproducing and not very hardy. As to
placement, it is rather pretty and attractive in front of a rock or near the front
of the aquarium.
Octopus Plant (Isoetes malinve",iana)

This plant is hardy and under suitable conditions will grow quite long.
Specimens have been seen as tall as sixteen inches, although they usually
Plants 99
do not exceed ten inches in height. It is pretty when used as an individual or
specimen plant.
Octopus Plant Hair Grass

(Isoefes lI1alilll'erniana). (Eleocharis acicu lari.\").
Hair Grass (Eleocharis acicularis)

"Hair Grass" in aquar ia has come to mean any fine-leafed plant either
floa ting or rooted which is used for hiding babies. This plant, however, is the
one originally referred to as "Hair Grass." It is a very fine, thin-leafed plant,
usually fo und in shallow water. It is a true aq uatic; and once established in
aq uaria it reproduces and multiplies very rapidly.
Water Sprite Ceratopteris thalictroides)

At least four forms of this plant are known, although probably they are
all variations of the same plant. A broad-leafed floating and a broad-leafed
rooted, a narrow-leafed floating and a narrow-leafed rooted plant make up
the four types. The variation in the breadth of tbe leaves is probably due
to light and other environmental conditions. Should Water Sprite become up-
rooted it assumes a fl oating form and grows equally well while floating .
It is a "live-beari ng" plant. The young grow on the leaves of the adult.
They break loose after a while and float away. They can be rooted easily.
This plant rc 'cmblcs a large size carrot top . It is quite ha rdy and grows fast
under good conditions. A large specimen makes an attractive center piece.
One prime req uirement for keeping it rooted is that the gravcl be clean,
otherwise its roots rot off and it pops up to the surface.
Water Sprite Water prite.

(C('rCllopleris II.aliclroides). A broad-leafed floating type.
Group II: Bunch Plants

Bunch plants are usually referred to as such because they are commonly
sold in bunches of several stalk. These stalks are bound together with
a narrow strip of lead or a rubber band. Each stalk i an individual plant
and ca n be treated as such. In the majority of cases it is advisable to root
them in a bunch . If aquarium conditions are suitabl e they will soon put
down roots and anchor themselves. Separating them and planting them as
individual plant is not advisable because as individual plants they do not have
Planfs 101
enough root structure to stay in place under the gravel. Until roots de-
velop, they are constantly being uprooted by the action of the fish. A very
heavy bunch should be broken up into two or three smaller ones.
In these plants the roots serve primarily as anchors. Growth occurs
at the tip. If the tip is broken off a new one forms . If the stem is injured a
branch often develops. In fact, if a stalk is thrust into the gravel upside
down a new tip will form , the leaves will reverse themselves, and it will
continue growing. The same thing occurs when a piece of the center section
is cut out and planted . Most of the bunch plants will grow even when they
are not rooted in gravel. but are simply floating freely. Some of these, how-
ever, send down long thin roots. When these roots reach the gravel they
anchor firmly and, not infrequently, draw the plant down to the gravel.
Over a period of time bunch plants tend to grow long and spindly.
This tendency may be combated by uprooting the plant, clipping off the
lower section, and re-rooting the upper portion . Occasional clipping of the
tip will also help keep the plant short and bushy. To multiply the various
bun ch plants it is necessary merely to cut a piece off One of the plants and
set it into the gravel. Another way is to cut a strand into several pieces, and
set each into the gravel separately. Each one will grow into an individual
plant. The majority of bunch plants require a good deal of light.
Ambulia (Limnophila sessililloral

Ambulia is a true tropical aquat ic. It prefers a temperature above 70
degrees . It is a lovely plant, resembling Cabomba very much , but is more
delicate in appearance. It is considerably hardier than Cabomba. In fact
Left, Fanwort (Cahomba caroliniana); right,

Ambulia (Limnophila .I'essiliflora).
it is one of the hardiest of the bunch plants. If the conditions in the aquarium
are moderately good, Ambulia will do very well. The simplest way to dif-
ferentiate Ambulia from Cabomba is by the arrangement of the leaves on
the plant. In Ambulia each set of leaves completely encircles the plant.
In Cabomba the leaves are paired on opposite ides of the stem. Ambulia is
not a lways easy to get, but is well worth purchasing when it does appear on
the market.
Fanwort (Cabomba caroliniana)

Fanwort, also known simply as Cabomba or Washington Grass, was
originally popularized for use in goldfish globes. Still sold extensively for
that purpose, Cabomba is one of the most attractive plants in the aquarium.
Although it is somewhat demanding, given soft. slightly acid water it thrives
wonderfully. A report in the British magazine Water Life tells of a stalk
of Cabomba in a small aquarium growing to be almost fourteen feet long.
However, Cabomba should be examined carefully before it is purchased be-
cause it has a tendency to go bad in shipping and on the dealer', shelf. The
plant should have no odor; it shou ld feel firm and soft to the touch, not
pulpy. At different times of the year Cabomba comes in different shades.
varying from a beautiful light green in the spring to quite a dark green during
the winter time. In the aquarium the color wi ll change to a fairly light green.
Anacharis (Elodea canadensis)

This plant has a history very similar to that of Cabomba. A u. eful and
versatile plant in the aquari um , it is fast growing under strong light. Growth
of an inch a day may not be uncommon. It is a plant which is frequently
eaten by Goldfish and by many tropical fishes which require some soft vege-
Anacharis
(Elod ea canadensis).
Plants 103
table food in their diet. Very recently Anacbaris has been tested and found
to be a very rich food, suitable for conversion into cattle feed .
Water Twirl (Hydrilla verticillata)

This plant closely re embles Anachari , but it has finer leaves. It roots
easily and is perhaps better in the aquarium than Anacharis. as it tends not
to become so long and stringy. It is hardier in warm water.
Water Twirl (Hydril/a verticil/ata).
Cardamine (Carda mine Iyrata)

In nature Cardamine is a bog plant. However it grows fairly well under
aquarium conditions. It prefers cool water which is not too bard. Light green
in color, Cardamine is quite attractive although not too hardy.
Cardamine (Cardumil1e lyra/a).
8acopa (Bacopa amplexicaulis)

This is a fairly good bunch plant. It requires a strong light. and is a
slow grower compared to the other bunch plants. The leaf and stem are
thick and fleshy- rather lInu ual in an aquatic plant. it ha a minty odor
when taken out of the water. ]t is seen in both a pink and a green variety.
Bacopa
(8acopa amplexicClulis).
Plants 105
Moneywort (Lysimachia nummularial

A bright-green, round leaf characterizes Moneywort. It is probably the
same as a simi lar plant known as Creeping Charlie. Actually a bog plant, it is
fairly hardy under water and is quite an attractive addition to an aquarium.
Ludwigia (Ludwigia alternifolia)

There are several closely related varieties of Ludwigia (L. palustris and
L. multerii are others) varying in color from a deep red to a light green. The
leaf shape is also variable, ranging from a long narrow to a broad round
shape. Undoubted ly light is an important factor in modifying the shape and
color of the leaf. Originally a bog plant, Ludwigia take we ll to underwater
livin g. A very satisfactory aq uarium plant.
Ludwigia
(L I/d w i{:ia a/lernijolia) .
Moneywort
(LY.I'imac:hia nwnnwlaria) .
Hygrophilo (Hygropl!ila polyspermal

This is by all means the mo t satisfactory of the bunch plants. It i
attractive, hardy, and fast gro\\ ing. It will maintain itself under almost
all types of aquarium conditions, and will grow at quite a rate of speed
in optimum conditions, one of which is a temperature between 76 0 and
82 0 F. It can readily be reproduced from cuttings like the other bunch plants.
Heteranthera (Heteranthera zosterifolia)

Heteranthera is a pretty, light-green plant. Originally from Brazil, it re-
quires a fairl y high water temperature. It is somewhat fragile and very at-
tractive. Not too often seen on the market.
Hygroph ila ( H ygroph ilu polysperma).
Foxtail (Myriophyllum verticillatum)

The fine feathery leaf makes this plant ideal as a spawn receiver and
"hiding" plant for babies. Foxtail will grow either rooted or floating. Un-
fortunately the fine leaves catch dirt and suspended matter, as well as eggs,
fox tail (Myriophyllum verticil/atum) .

Plants 107
and the plant soon assumes rather a messy appearance in the aquarium. How-
ever, for breeding purposes it is un ·urpassed. Foxtail , which is also known
as Milioil, derives its name from the red color that a bunch in good con-
d ition shows. It is bright red and plumy like a fox tail. The buds at the end
are composed of leaves which contain a food reserve. Most Foxtail i found
in colder climates. ]n the fall, the terminal bud becomes detached and sinks
to the bottom where it winters over and the following spring becomes the
focal point of a new plant.
Group III : Floating Plants
We define floating plants as those plants which seldom if ever fasten
themselves on the bottom. Various floating plants 110at at different levels in
the aquarium. Some on the water's surface, some just below the surface, and
some float partially ex posed and partially submerged . There are several float-
ing plan ts which float loosely just above the bottom . Occasiona lly some of
the so-called floating plants fasten themselves into place-either in the gravel
or against the rocks. These are fastened not by true roots, but by attachments
known as "holdfasts. " True roots would help nourish the plants whereas
" hold fasts" merely serve as anchors. Although floating plants may cover the
surface and are used extensively to cut down light entering at the surface,
they do not appear to interfere with the absorption of oxygen by the water.
Hornwort (Ce ratophyllum demersum )
This is an attractive, fast-growing plant. ]t floats just below the surface of
the water. Unless it i given a very good light it has a tendency to shed. The
cultivated variety which is light green and has a much finer leaf is the variety
Hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum).

most suitable for aquarium lise. The Hornwort most frequently seen on the
. market is a wild variety which bas been collected in Florida. It eventually
adjusts itself to life in the aquarium; but it takes some time, and frequently
sheds quite a bit before it becomes fully adjusted. Whenever a choice is pos-
sible, the cultivated variety is best for aquarium u 'e.
Water Hyacinth (E;chorn;a crass;pes)

Actually this plant is not suitable for use in aquaria. It is rather large,
and the plant itself floats above the surface of the water with long feathery
roots hanging down. It is u ually for sale in the spring, when it is purcha ed
for outdoor pools. It is mentioned in this book because it is frequently pressed
into service as a breeding plant. The feathery roots are ideal spawn catchers.
Water Hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes).
Naias (Na;as microdon)

This is a dark-green, floating mossy plant. In fish hatcheries it grows
and reproduces so rapidly it is a nuisance and is considered a trash plant.
It is frequently ent up north as a moist packing for snails or for other more
valuable plants. Fanciers who have tried it find Naias a good "hiding" plant
and hardy.
Plants 109
Stonewort (Nitella lIexilis)

This plant stands intermediately between the algae and the higher plants.
It is a light-green, "fine-network" plant. It gives excellent cover for live-
borne babies. Under good conditions it grows very rapidly. However, if there
is anything wrong with the water, particularly the acidity, the Nitella seems
to dissolve and melt away. NiteJla is a bottom floater. At times it develops
"holdfasts" and fastens itself into place.
Naias (Naias l71icrodon).
Stonewort ( Nil ella flexilis).

Salvinia (Salvinio natons)
Thi plant is easily recognized by its thick, heart-shaped dark-green
leaves, measuring a half-inch in width and covered with vertical hairs on
the upper surface. Salvinia floats in groups with the roots hanging just be-
Three floating plants. Top to bottom, Salvinia (Sa/vinia nalans), Duckweed (Lemna
minor), Crystal wort (Riccia f/.uilans).
Plants 111
neath the surface and it will soon cover a tank with its rapid multiplication.
It is an excellent top cover plant. It propagates by buds which become leaves.
Duckweed (lemna minor)

This is probably the commonest of the floating plants. It has tiny green
leaves, not unattractive in color. The difficulty is that, once introduced ,
it is difficult to get rid of. It multiplies profusely from just a few tiny, almost
unnoticeable leaves. lt can multiply so rapidly that it covers the top of
the tank, interfering with the entrance of light.
Crystalwort (Riccia fiuitans)

This plant has tiny light-green leaves. A native of the United States,
Crystalwort grows in a mass, forming a spongy unit which floats just beneath
the surface and affords excellent protection for small fry. It requires a bright
light and is a very good top plant.
Bladderwort (Utricularia minor and Utricularia vulgaris)

These are really two separate species but both are known by the same
common name. The name Bladderwort derives from the small bladders
which are distributed along the strands of the plants. These bladders are
used to capture animal matter, and the Bladderworts are not safe for use
Bladderwort (Urricularia minor) .

. with the very small egg-layer fry. However, it is extremely doubtful that
they could capture the young of a fish which produces large new-born fry.
For use with the larger fishes, this plant can be recommended because
otherwise it fulfill all requirements .
Dwarf Anacharis (Callitriche heterophylla)

Known to the tropical fish trade as Florida Dwarf Anacharis but not re-
lated to Anacharis, is a plant whose failures and successes are difficult to
account for. In some tanks it grows like a weed; in others it dies. The leaves
snap off quite easily so it can be used only with quiet fishes . It needs bright
light. This plant is a relative of the Starwort. (Not illustrated.)
Spring Starwort (Callitrich e pa/ustris)

Spring Starwort is found in slow running rivers and in lakes. It grows
madly in warm weather and remains alive but dormant in the winter. It has
been known to so fill lakes that crews of men have been ob liged to rake it
out. The plant thrives well into the North in lakes which may freeze over with
four feet of ice.
In home aquaria, it grows floating or planted. The stems are exceedingly
brittle but it does provide excellent hiding for young fry.
In outdoor pools it "takes over." ]n two of ours in one sea on. it com-
pletely filled these large pools and made excellent protection in which to
breed fishes which could stand 65 to 70 ° F. temperatures. Ours came from a
lake in Vermont in the winter and required many months to become accli-
mated.
Corallines
These are plant-like anima ls which are found ncar orne of the sea-
shores of Europe. They are dryed and dyed and sent to aguarists under
various trade names. They are quite pretty in an aq uarium; but they do not
stand up too long. The dye fades after a few weeks or months and the fine
feathery fronds become dirt catcher. However, for a short period they are
attractive. As they are dead, they of course contribute nothing to the mainte-
nance of the aquari um except for their use as spawn receivers and as a hiding
place for babies.
Water
WA TER is called the universal solvent. By itself it is a colorless. odorless.

tl ansparent fluid with a remarkable ability to dissolve both solid and gaseous
materials. Water also readily forms a mixture with almost any liquid when
added to it.
All life is dependent on water. Our blood and body are both composed
largely of water. A ssimilation of food would be impossible without the
intake of adequate quantities of water. Chemically. water is composed of
one atom of oxygen to two atoms of hydrogen. This is expressed chemically
as H"O . This chemical bond is very strong. and it is extremely diftlcult to
separate the hydrogen and oxygen chemically; although it is poss ible to do
so, for example. by passing an electric current through water.
Matter which is dissolved in water is not so strongly fixed and can
be removed by distillation or by chemical processes such as ion exchange
or chel ation.
These adulterants or contaminants may also be unstable in wa ter. That
is. they may break down into different forms or react with other matter
in solution to form new compounds. The action of aquatic plants also
affects this dissolved matter, as does the action of the excretions and secre-
tions of the fish. Actual ly, when we refer to changes in our water we are
referring to the interaction of these adulterant -the water itself remaining
stable.
A proper appreciation of the constant activity going on in the aquarium
is important to the hobbyist. Here again that well-worn word "balance"
might be pressed into use. In a well-maintained aquarium these chemical
processes tend to cancel each other out, to hold each other in check, or,
as it were, in balance.
Aquaria contain not only chemicals, but are alive with microscopic life,
too. Algae, bacteria, and such protozoans as amoebae and paramecia all
thrive unseen . These are necessary to the proper maintenance of an aquar-
ium and, as with the chemicals, natural factors hold them in balance.
When the natural controls break down an unbalanced condition results.
The two outstanding examples are "green water" and "milky water."
"Green water" is cau ed by the overproduction of algae resulting from
excess light, usually coupled with overfeeding. "Milky water" is due to
the excessive multiplication of bacteria, genera lly due to overfeedi ng. Both
of these- their prevention and cure-are discussed more fully in tbe sections
on diseases and aquari um maintenance.
An aquarium which is properly set up and cared for will almost al-
ways maintain a proper chemical balance fo r years without any necessity
for adjustment. In fact, it is a general rule that when this balance becomes
upset it is due to external condition . This is true for the vast majority of
aquaria.
Oxygen, Nitrogen and Carbon Dioxide

Air is composed, mainly, of two ga es. Approximately four-fifths of it
is nitrogen, which is relatively inert. It is important to the plants and,
indirectly, to the fishes. However, the nitrogen balance usually adjusts it-
self, so we need not be concerned with it here.
Approximately one-fifth of our atmosphere is oxygen. Statistically our
atmosphere contains an almost insignificant quantity of carbon dioxide-
about .03 per cent. Since we want a lot of oxygen in our aquaria and find
CO 2 undesirable, this would seem to be a favorab le situation, especially
because the gases dissolved in our aq uaria tend to maintain an equilibrium
with the atmosphere. In the case of O:! this is a rapid process. Lost O:!
is replaced and excess O:! is given off quite rapidly. The amount of O 2
which water can hold in solution will vary, depending on a number of
factors of which temperature is probably the most important. The warmer
the water, the less O:! it will hold. The same j true of carbon dioxide
except that, proportionately, water can hold much more CO 2 than O 2 in
solution.
Ordinarily, then, we have no problem with O:!, That will adjust itself
by the interchange of gases at the surface a we have een in Chapter 3. In
ex treme cases of overcrowding there can be an oxygen deficiency, the
symptom of which will be fish hanging at the top, gasping for air. Their
movements are sluggish and labored as they crui e listlessly back and forth
with their mouths seemingly "glued" to tbe surface.
A semi-oxygen deprivation is often noticeable in tall, unaerated aquaria
which have a relatively small air surface. Under these conditions the fish
tend to frequent the upper areas of the tank, descending towards the
bottom only briefly.
These are extreme cases. Ordinarily, our problem i disposing of CO 2 ,
Water 115
The symptoms of carbon dioxide poisoning are quite different. CO 2 is
vital to tbe life processes, and in small amounts it acts as a stimulant to
respiration. In greater amounts it acts as a narcotic. Fish drugged with it
swim closer to the bottom . In the earlier stages of CO 2 poisoning, gill
movements are rapid, but as the CO~ concentration increases the gill
movements, as well a other movements, tend to slow down. The gills move
slowly, but open to their greatest capacity at each movement. Finally,
loss of balance, inertia, and death follow. CO~, as we have seen earlier,
is a by-product of respiration. It is given off by both plants and fishes.
In ' the case of healthy plants, the small amount of CO ~ given off is not
significant. It assumes importance only as an additional factor in aquaria
which are already on the verge of becoming foul.
The same is true of fish. A tank in good condition and not over-
crowded can easily rid itse lf naturally of the CO~ given off by its inmates.
Another important factor in the production of CO:! in the aquarium
is the decomposition of organic matter, particularly excess dry food. Feed-
ing of "live food" (s uch as Daphnia or Tubificids) which has died and
become inedible is also frequently a cause of water fouling, producing
not only CO ~ but other tox ic substances. Dead plants or plant leaves are
not as great a contributin g factor in the production of CO~, unless there
is a relativel y large quantity of decomposing plant matter. Plant decomposi-
tion is slow and orderly and an aquarium in good condition is not overly
affected by a normal amount.
The decomposition of organic matter is accomplished by the action of
microscopic organisms such as bacteria and protozoa. They also consume
O 2 and give off CO~ . Therefore, any dirt that contribute to the growth
of bacteria increases the danger. Aeration, by circulating the water, will
usually prevent a harmful accumulation of CO~. Plants, as we have seen,
also help in its removal. Even in a diffused light, provided it is strong enough,
plants can perform pbotosynthesis. During this process the plant combines
CO~ with water to form carbohydrates and releases oxygen.
The best way to get rid of CO 2 is the simplest: prevent its accumulation
by avoiding overfeeding and overcrowding; remove dead leaves and debris;
give the plants proper light · and avoid the introduction of other decom-
posable material.
The Meaning 01 pH
As far as the aquarist js concerned, pH is a measure of the degree
of acidity or alkalinity of the aquarium water. Acids and alkalies neutralize
each other. The symbol pH mea ures only the amount of acidity or alka-
linity that is not neutralized. The reading 7.0 is neutral. A reading higher
than 7.0 is alkaline; lower than that is acid.
'Checking the pH
There are three methods of checking pH. The most reliable and accurate
is by the use of an electric meter. Unfortunately, only a few aquarists will
have access to one.
The second method, which we believe to be one of the factors most
responsible for the confusion about pH, is the use of dibrornothymolsul -
phonephthalein, or, as it is more commonly known , "Bromtbymol Blue."
Bromthymol blue is a powder. When placed in solution by a qualified
chemist, stored in pyrex bottles, discarded frequently to prevent age changes,
and used in conjunction with a reliable color chart, it provides an excellent
method for testing the pH. Test kits made to these specifications retail for
upwards of $15.00. Tbe small kits sold for aquarium use do not always
meet these requirements. They almost invariably give a reading which is
too alkaline. We have known many cases where people were induced to
change the perfectly proper pH of their water on the basis of erroneous
readings that had been given by an inaccurate kit. As a result their fishes
were injured or killed.
To test the solution, hold a dropperfuJ of bromthymol blue to the
light. It should be fairly light blue-green in color. A too alkaline solu tion
is dark blue ; too acid a solution is light yellow .
A pH testing kit.
Water 117
The third and most accurate method for the aguarist to check pH is
to use hydrion papers. These-manufactured under various trade names-
come as a roll in a plastic dispenser, with a color chart. To use them, you
tear off a two-inch strip, dip an inch of it in the water to be tested, let it
hang downward a few seconds, and compare the drop of water which forms
on the tip with the color chart. Do not dip your fingers into the water.
The pH of substances on your skin will affect the reading. Hydrion papers
are not litmus. Litmus papers are not suitable for testing the water in
aq uaria.
Importance 01 pH
Ordinarily, pH takes care of itself. ]n a well -balanced aquarium the
pH will stay at or close to a reading of 6.8 , at which the majority of fishes
thrive. There will be fluctu ations, but seldom more th an 0.2 degrees from
this. The ex treme pH range for fishes is probably between 5.0 and 9.0.
While it is probabl e that most fishes have a definite pH preference and
that almost all thrive at or near neutral, they can be accustomed to living
at a different pH if the change is not too extreme or too sudden . For this
reason, when changing fishes from one tank to another or when introducing
new fishes it is best to mix the new water gradually with the old over a
period of hours to allow the fish to adjust to the change.
We suggest regular pH readings as a check. We rarely advise altering
the pH by the addition of chemicals. When the pH of an established aquar-
ium varies considerably from neutral it is an indication that something is
wrong. It is better to find the trouble and correct it than to treat the
symptoms . When keeping or breeding "problem fishes" it may be necessary
to alter the pH chemically.
Altering the pH
To make water more alkaline add sodium bicarbonate (baking soda).
To make it more acid add sodium bipbosphate, also known as acid sodium
phosphate. Make sure you get the acid form. There are several chemical
cousins with simi lar names that have an alkaline reaction.
In recent years the use of peat moss to acidify water has been advo-
cated. There are two methods of using this. The simplest is to wash the
peat moss thoroughly and put a small quantity of it in a bag in tbe filter.
The foot of a nylon stocking is ideal for this . The second method is to
cover the peat moss with water, boil it, and strain off the liquid. The
resultant amber or brown liguid is highly acid and can be added to the
aquarium water to cbange the pH. Steeping oak leaves in water will also
give you a naturally acid solution. The use of oak leaves or peat IllOSS to
acidify the water does seem to be a more desirable method tban the addition
of inorganic chemicals, although altering the pH is a dangerous procedure.
Add only small amounts at a time, stirring as you do so. Check the pH
frequently to avoid an excessive change. If fish are in the water try to
avoid pH changes greater than 0.2 degree in twenty-four hours. For this
reaSOn we do not advocate placing a layer of peat moss under the gravel
as recommended by some experts. As there is no way of removing the
peat mos or controlling the reaction, this method is best left to the
experts.
Factors Which Affect pH

It is beyond the scope of this book to cover all the factors which might
affect the pH. But there are a few important factors which should be known
to the aquarist. Gravel and rocks should be checked before they are placed
in the aq uarium . Lime-bearing rocks and / or gravel will raise the pH (some-
times dangerously) and tend to make the water bard. Carbon dioxide will
make the water acid. A heavily planted tank, in a well lighted area, unaerated
and not heavily populated, is almost invariably alkaline, sometimes danger-
ously so. In case of imbalance due to an excess or deficiency of gases, the use
of an aerator will agitate the water sufficiently to allow the gases to adjust
and help maintain the pH at or near neutral.
Occasionally some one will bring a jar of tank water to us and ask us
to check the pH. We explain that this is useless. The agitation of the
water while it is transported releases excess gases. This, of course, changes
the pH.
Water Hardness
Water hardne s is the meas ure of the amount of dissolved salts ( prin-
cipally of calcium or magnesium) in the water. It is usually expressed
as "parts per million," abbreviated as "p.p.m." Occasionally it is measured
as "grains per gallon." One grain per gallon eq uals 17.1 p.p.m.
Water hardness is not a matter of total mineral content or total solids.
Total mineral content is all of the chemical content of the water, such as
sodium chloride, dissolved copper, etc., not just magnesium or calcium com-
pounds. Total solids are all of the chemicals plus the bacteria, invisible
animal life, mulm-everything the water contains. Occasiona lly ( usual ly
only in the western states), hardness may be caused by iron or aluminum
salts. The pH and hardness of water are not necessarily connected, although
hard water is freq uently alkaline.
Measuring Water Hardness

Commercial kits are available which will test water hardness. Your
water ~ompany will tell you the hardness of your city water at the mains.
This is useful to know when using tap water. Keep in mind that factors
in your aquarium can affect the pH and hardness ; so after a few day's
Water 119
use, it may be considerably different from the water that was first put in
the aquarium.
A very general method of determining hardness is by washing your
hands in the water with soap. If you can't work up a good lather the
water is hard. One inexpensive kit makes use of this fact. A soap solution
is added, drop by drop, to the solution to be tested. The number of drops
required to make suds gives a measure of the hardness. Water with less
than 50 p.p.m. of calcium salts is con idered very soft. Fifty to 125 ) .p.m.
is soft; ] 25 to 230 p.p.m., medium bard; 230 to 450 p.p.m., hard; and
more than 450 p.p.m., very hard.
Demineralizers and water softeners are commercially available today.
A water softener removes all the soluble salts of calcium or magnesium
by replacing them with an insoluble compound whicb is precipitated. Some
softeners operate by converting the calcium or magnesium compounds
into sodium compounds. A demineralizer removes all the minerals, leaving
what is, in effect, distilled water. Care must be taken so that not too much
of the mineral content of the tank water is removed. We suggest that only
a given quantity of aquarium water be treated. This can then be added
to untreated water to dilute it to the desired hardness. Fishes must have a
certain amount of dissolved minerals. They cannot live in completely min-
eral-free water. When diluting water this way, the dilution can be averaged
arithmetically beforehand. For example, if water has a hardness of 200
p.p.m ., adding an equal amount of completely soft water to it will give a
solution of 100 p.p.m. hardness.
Water for the Aquarium

Rain water, distilled water, or water that comes from defrosting the
refrigerator are all soft and can be used to dilute aquarium water and
reduce its hardness. A void rain water which has collected in copper gutters
and which appears dirty or contaminated. Hardness is often concentrated
in an aquarium because dissolved solids do not evaporate. The water lost
through evaporation is replaced by tap water. Thus, in effect, distilled water
is being lost, and water containing minerals is being added. To avoid this,
replace the evaporated portion with distilled or other soft water. Partial
changes of water, frequently made, will also reduce this problem to a
minimum.
Factors Affecting Hardness

Any material containing lime is a potential source of hard water. This
includes marble chips, lime-bearing gmvel and rocks, snail shells, plaster
blocks, and bone meal in fish food .
The plants tend to use and convert calcium and magnesium, and by
their action tend to soften the water. This helps slightly to counteract some
•
of the factor mentioned above. Often the longer an aquarium stands with-
. out any changes, the harder the water becomes. Fishes kept in such water
develop a tolerance as the chem ical concentration increases; but fishes that
are placed in it without adequate preparation may suffer and even die.
We have had aquariums in which the water had been unchanged for
years. Although the fishes in these tanks were in perfect health, any new
fishes dropped in died within a short time. By keeping new fish in their
own water and, grad uall y over a period of days, addin g the tank water,
tolerance was built up . Then they cou ld be tra nsferred successfully.
Hardness and Breeding

In recent yca rs an impressive amount of evidence has accumulated to
indicate th at many of the egg-layers will breed more freely in soft, slightly
acid water. In New York City it has long been known that freq uent additions
of tap water to an aquarium stim ulated breeding. In this city the tap water
is relatively soft and u uaJly acid. So it is probable that we were doing the
right thing-that is, making the water soft and acid-without realizing it.
For breeding purposes, naturally soft water is superior to chemica lly
softened water. Steeping peat moss in water will not soften it. So if you
want a soft, acid , peat so lution , start by treating soft water with peat moss.
fluorine
Fluorine, in the form of fluorides, is being added to the water supply
of many municipalities. The concentration is approximately one part per mil-
lion . When this was first done, some fear was expressed by aguarists as to
the effect of fluorine on fishes. After severa l years this fear has been allayed.
Fluorine in the drinking water appears to have no effect on fish.
Chlorine
Chlorine is another chemical which is added to the water system of
most municipalities. This is done to kill bacteria and other microorganisms
which might pollute the water and transmit disease. Chlorine is toxic to
fish even in relatively small amounts . Jt is relatively volatile in water and
readi ly pas es off into the air as a gas. By the time it reaches the tap tbere
is seldom enough chlorine left in the water to harm fish. The danger, if any
does exist, is greatest during the winter, because gases are more soluble in
cold water. Aeration hastens the release of the chlorine, and an aerating
device on the faucet will help. Even holding yo ur finger over the faucet,
so that the water comes out as a spray, will reduce the chlorine concentra-
tion.
Sodium thiosulphate, known to photographer as hypo, will eliminate
chlorine when added to tbe water, one grain per gallon. The danger in
using the raw chemical is that if the water is acid any excess of t he chemical
Woter 121
could be converted to sulphuric acid which is very harmful. This is ex-
tremely unlikely, but we have known it to happen. Safe chlorine neutral-
izers are commercially available in either powder, liquid, or tablet form.
The liguid form is u. ually a little less expensive, easier to use, and just
as effective as the powder or tablet.
Distilled Water
At times it is advisable to use distilled water in an aquariun. If the
avai lable water supp ly is too hard. then distiJled water can be used to dilute
it. If the available water is totally unsuitable, distilled water may be used
exclusively, but not unless some chemicals are added to it. A formula
has been worked out which, when added to distilled water, gives the equiv-
alent of pond water and is suitable for fish. To each five ga Uons of water
add two grams of calcium chloride and one gram each of potassium sul-
phate, magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts), and sodi um nitrate.
Clean rain or snow water, which are naturally distilled waters, may be
used instead of commercially distilled water. And, as previously mentioned ,
the ice which forms on the ice cube compartment of the regular home re-
frigerator is also naturally distilled water and is suitable for use. Commercially
distilled water is guite reasonab le in price ; five gallons co t approximately
$1.50.
Aged Water, Conditioned Water, and Saline Solutions

Although often used interchangeably. there is actuall y a considerable
difference between the two. Aged water is water which has been allowed
to stand. Conditioned water is water in which fish bave lived.
Fishes living in aquaria frequen tly alter tbe water in some mysterious
manner to make it more suitable for themselves. When only one variety
of fish is kept in an aquarium over a period of time, they may even make
the water toxic for other varieties. When different varieties are rai. ed to-
gether, as in a comm unity tank, they seem to strike a balance and all
manage to live together. However, growth, when a group is mixed, is not
as satisfactory as is the growth rate of individuals kept only with their own
kind.
Mr. Paul Hahnel, the well-known Guppy breeder, has recognized this
fact for many years. His Guppies are never put into tap water, no matter
how long it has been aged. His fish are put only into water in which other
Guppies have lived. If there is an insufficient quantity of Guppy water avail-
able, then, and only then , does he grad ually add aged water to make up the
amount. Water to which fish 're added and which has been conditioned
by fish of the arne variety is known as "homo"-typically conditioned
water.
We peed to know more about the amount of salt in sol ution which
our fish find best for their health . Perhaps it is only to be expected that
they do best in what is called an isotonic solution or physiological saline
(0.75 per cent salt). A study with guppies demonstrated that they bred
and grew better at this leveJ of salt, which closely approximates the amount
of sodium chloride in blood. ]t should be remembered, however, that re-
sults might be different with other varietie of fish, and that many plants
will not thrive with this amount of salt in the water. By studying the water
in the fish's natural habitat, one should be able to learn its requirement
in this respect. Yet Guppies, which live naturally in water containing far less
salt, do better at the 0.75 per cent level.
There is no need to go to the trouble of weighing rock salt and water.
Any scie ntific equipment or surgical supply store sells sodium chloride in
7.5 grain tablets. Two of these are about one gram. A quart of water
is almost 1000 c.c. Therefore, adding 14 tablets to a quart of water will
give you a 0 .7 per cent solution.
Dissolved Metals in Water

Most metal s will dissolve very slowly in water. In infinitesimal quantities
they do no haml . In fact the reverse is true. Iron, for example, in controlled
amounts is a growth stimulant.
Do not let this encourage you to be careless with metal surfaces in
direct contact with water. In greater concentrations, all metals, as well as
alloys such as bronze and brass, are toxic to fishes. Publi ..hed experiments
show that iron in co ncentrations which exceeded % of a milligram to
the gallon of water will kill fishes . Aluminum is toxic in concentrations
of two milligrams per ga llon . (The extreme danger can be appreciated
when you realize that a milligram is only about 1/ 30,000 of an ounce.)
At a concentration of one milligram per gallon, aluminum stimulated
growth . The results with iron varied according to the pH of the water. ln
acid water ~t of a milligram of iron per gallon of water depressed growth
of fishes. When the pH was raised to 7.5 the growth rate of the fishes
was stimulated. At the same time, oxygen consumption increased.
The three metal s least likely to be toxic to fishes are stainless steel ,
aluminum and lead . However, they are not safe in large quantities. If it is
necessary to have any metal immersed in the water, cover the metal with
several coats of Spar varnish first. Some of the new plastic sprays are also
effective waterproofers. A temporary coating for metal is Vaseline. A thin
layer of it spread over metal will shield it from the action of the water
for a long time. We used Vaseline to coat the inside of rusty cans when
transporting fishes in them . It was a satisfactory short-time expedient. Black
asphaltum varnish or liquid cement which are sold by aquarium stores
makes a very satisfactory waterproofing material.
Galvanized pails are frequently used for carrying aquarium water. Be-
Wate r 123
fore using one for this purpose, scrub the bucket well with a stiff brush
and rinse it several times. The pickling used when coating galvanized
buckets is more dangerous than the metal. Do not store water for any
period of time in galvanized buckets, unles the interior has been coated.
It is best to use enllmel buckets or glass jars.
Copper and Brass Plumbing

Water which has run through new copper or brass pipes is frequently
dangerous for aq uarium use . Test it by putting in a few small, relatively
inexpensive fishes first. Barbus tetrazona are ideal as test animals, because
of their sensi tivity to metals. Should the test animals succumb, check the
pH and, if necessary, make it alkaline to 7.5 by adding bicarbonate of
soda. (See section on pH.) Place a small lump of plaster of Paris in the
water also-a piece about the size of a walnut for each five gallons of
water. Allow the tank to stand for three days and try a few fish again.
An insoluble coating forms in old copper and brass pipes, after a period
of time, which helps to protect tbe water flowing through it from the
action of the metal. Jn any event, never use the water which has been
standing in the pipes. Run the water rapidly for at least ten minutes before
drawing off any for aquarium use.
What Is a Fish?
PROBABLY many aquarists have watched the antics of their finny pets
and wondered: "How do I look to the fish?" Many anglers hav argued
the questions: "Do fish hear us when we talk?" and "When fish swallow
certain food~, is it the taste or the color which attracts them?"
Do fishes have all of the usual senses and are there others of which we
are not yet aware? Traditionally, we think of five senses: sight. hearing,
taste, touch , and smell. The scientist lists many more, such a sense as
balance for instance. There is no hard and fast rule. but. in general, a sense
is a power of the mind to be aware of what happens outside of itse1f.
A fish does not think in the same way tbat we do, but he does receive
sensations from outside himself and reacts to these sensations.
Some senses of a fish are very similar to our own, but a fish also has
certain senses which a human does not possess. Certain subjects covered
in this chapter are not really senses but they are important in understanding
how a fish orients himself, physically and mentally. The next time you
look at a fish, you will know whether or not he's looking back at you.
We do not know all the answers yet. Much work remains to be done in
the laboratories and by direct observation; but insofar as the answers are
known. we will try to present them as simply as po ·sible.
Throughout thi. book we have treated "fishes" as a group. This is
essential for continuity, clarity and simplicity. Unfortunately different species
of fish do differ from each other, and in some cases radically. It should
be borne in mind that few if any statements are universal in application.
Where differences are noteworthy we have tried to bring them to the
reader's attention in the discussion of the individual species.
Sight
Fundamentally a fish's eyes are very like our own. There is a curved
lens inside a transparent covering (cornea) which bends the incoming light
What Is a Fish? 125
rays to form an image on a sensitive screen called a retina. The retina
contains both rods and cones. The eyeball is covered with an extremely
tough layer of tissue called the sclera which is continuous with the covering
of the optic nerve behind and transparent in the front through which the fish
sees. This part is called the cornea. A fish has no eyelids and has need
of none. We tend to think of our eyelids as essential to sleep. Actually that
is a secondary function. By bringing our eyelids over our eyes, as we do
every few seconds when we blink, we are lubricating our eyes and remov-
in g any dirt. Liquid. or tears, issues from the lachrymal glands or tear
ducts alongside the eyes. This is an adaptation to permit eyes, which were
originally developed ages ago under water, to function in air. Life developed
in the seas and only later came to the land.
The structure of the creatures which left the seas modified to adapt
to changed conditions. That is why mammals and birds require a built-
in window wash and a squeegee, while fishes, which are constantly bathed
in liquid. have never bothered with them. Their eyes are washed just by
movement in the water.
Of course this offers disadvantages to a "fish out of water." Without
the constant bath, the cornea dries rapidly and in a short time the fish
i ' almost blind. This drying does not usually cause permanent injury. Every
aquarist has had the eAperience of finding valued but jumpy fishes lying
on the floor, their exteriors apparently bone dry. Returned to water, they
frequently recovcr if the internal juices have not dried up. We cannot recall
any impairment of vision in fish rescued in this manner-at least no im-
pairment directly attributable to the drying.
There are a few fishes which have a special problem . These are fishes
like the Mud Skipper (Periophlhalmus) which spends a good deal of time
out of water. A special adaptation is necessary to keep its eyes from drying
out. While there are no real eyelids present, the eyes themselves are movable
in their sockets, and by turning them almost completely over this movability
fulfills almost the same function as eyelids.
Light under water does not extend as far as it does in air. It quickly
becomes cattered and diffused, and there is very little light left Sixty feet
down. The ability to see great distances would seem to be useless to most
fishes. In fact, we do find that the majority of our fishes are nearsighted.
Some of our more carnivorous fishes appear to be nearsighted to such
an extent that they find it difficult to see food unless it is moving. This
explains their preference for live food. Such fi shes have been observed to
snap at dry food as it floated down or as it eddied in a current.
Within the limit of their range of vision most fishes can see extremely
well. They can detect differences in size and shape, and can see color and
shades of color very well.
Fishes have been trained to eat out of little colored bags. When they
~ere used to that color the food was placed in a new bag of the same
color but of a slightly different shade. The trained fishes still went to the
old bag showing that they could detect the slight difference in color.
A fish's body is quite rigid and he cannot turn his head to bring objects
within his field of ~ision. -To compensate for this, his eyes are movable.
Being situated on either side and near the front of his head , a fish 's eyes
permit it to see on both sides, as well as forward and up and down, without
moving his body.
There is a small area directly in front of the nose--or the place where
the nose would be if a fish had one-which is a blind, spot. Watch your
fish the next time you feed them. They approach the food directly, but
when quite close turn somewhat sideway to keep it in their field of vision;
and they snap the particles up with a rapid sideways grabbing motion.
Those fishes which have the eyes located far forward and above the center
line tend to approach the food on a path which brings them somewhat
below the food . Then they reach up and grab at the last possible moment.
This must be a nuisance to a fish but it just cannot be helped. The location
of its eyes makes it impossible for him to see the food just in front of his
eyes. The fish must get as close as possible and then snap at the place
where the food ought to be. In the case of a lively and erratically moving
food like Daphnia it sometimes requires two or three snaps to capture the
elusive prey.
For a fish which is under water to see an object out of water is also
quite a problem. Light entering water from air is bent or refracted. Light
entering the air from the water is equally refracted. but in the opposite
direction.
A few simple illustrations may serve to show what happens when a
fish tries to see objects which are out of his medium. For all practical
purposes we may assume tbat objects which the fish sees through the flat
glass sides of an aquarium are subject to the same distortions as are Objects
seen through the upper surface of the water. When we discuss the "surface
area" for viewing purposes we are also then discussing vision through the
sides of an aquarium, although for convenience we will not refer to the
glass side separately.
When you look traight down into clear water whose surface is un-
disturbed , you can see an object without distortion and it will be in the
location it appears to be. Tbe same applies when you are lOOking at a
perpendicular angle into an aquarium. However, when you look into the
water at an angle, the object may still be clearly visible but it is not where
it seems to be. ]t seems a little closer to you. The greater the angle from
the vertical, the greater the distortion until, at about 60 ° from the vertical,
the water is no longer penetrable by eyesight. Then it becomes a mirror.
Who has not looked out over a calm body of water and een it reflect
What Is a Fish? 127
the sky? The same thing, in reverse, happens to the fish looking up. He
can see you when you are perpendicular to both sides of tbe aquarium.
Part of the surface area above him is a circular window through which
he can see. Objects which are close to the edge of this "window" are seen
at a much more distorted angle than are objects closer to the center. Objects
outside of this circular area are invisible to the fish, the surface becoming
a mirror when viewed at an extreme angle.
If you want a practical demonstration of this, look into your aquarium
and try to look out through the diagonal side at this angle. You cannot
because the side has become a mirror to you and all you can see in it are
reflections.
The closer the fish comes to the surface, the smaller the window and the
clearer the objects viewed become. The deeper the fish sinks, the greater
the area he can look through, but tbe less clearly be can see objects
through it.
Probably if you can see a fi sh he can see you. But remember that a fish is
cognizant of motion . A sudden move will attract a fi sh's attention. even
though you are too far away to be plainly visible to the fish . So the next
time you go to the aquarium to st udy (he fishes, remember that they have
an eye cocked and are also studying you.
Hearing
For years there was considerable doubt as to whetber or not fishes
heard sound . Skeptics pointed to the lack of an outer ear as proof of their
inability to hear. Dissection has shown that even though the middle ear
(hammer, anvil and stirrup) is missing, a well-developed inner ear is present.
Although fishes reacted to sound the critics felt that a fish may perceive
underwater vibrations through its skin. Finally, an experimenter anaesthetized
some fishes. removed portions of the inner ear and then tested them for
their reaction to sounds. He found that removing tbe inner ear had signifi-
cantly lessened their abil ity to hear.
All fi shes tested have the abi lity to hear ; although the range of tone
reception and the range of tone distinction varies in different species. At
best a fi sh's hearing is about as acute as is man 's; although we must take
into account that sounds produced out of water have difficulty penetrating
the water. Fishes are al 0 able to locate tbe source of a sound with remark-
able accuracy. This ability would be extremely important to a fish hearing
noises attributable to a possible predator.
Very low frequency sounds are probably picked up by sensory organs
in the skin. Contrary to popular belief, there is no proof that the lateral
line sen e organs play any part in ordinary hearing.
It is a simple matter to train your fish to respond to sound. Ring a beH,
blow a whistle, or make some other sound every time you feed tbem (the
~ame sound each time of course). Soon you will see them rush to the feeding
at each repetition of the sound even though they may not see you.
Smell and Taste

These two senses are closely related. The principal difference is that
contact with an object is required for the taste sense to operate, b ut smell
can detect an object some distance away. A fish uses its keen sense of smell
to locate food. For a nearsighted animal like a fish this must be quite con-
venient. After the food is located, its sense of taste is utilized to tel l whether
it is suitable as food. In general what tastes good is good to cat.
The sense of smell is probably useful to certain fishes as an aid in school-
ing. Experiments have also shown tbat some fishe give off a substance
when injured which other fishes can smell. This odor acts as an alarm or
danger signal and causes the fishes detecting it to flee. That plants give off
individual odors which fish can recognize has also been proved. If you doubt
tbe close connection between smell and taste try holding your n0se while
you eat a tasty food. Most of the flavor will be gone.
The nostrils are four openings in the "nose" (except for Cichlids which
have two openings). Water is passed in and out while swimming. Some
fishe have hair-like structures called cilia which line the nostrils and by
waving create a current to assist the flow of water through the pa sages.
Fishes have an extremely keen sense of smell and are capable of detect-
ing some substances at concentrations below those detectable by man. ]n
addition they are able to follow these scents to their source, as a huntin g dog
follows a trail.
Some fishes also have taste receptors in the skin or in the whiskers. They
are actually able to taste objects which touch their body or barbels.
The taste buds themselves are principally in the tongue and mouth of
the fish. Whi le the sense of taste does not appear to be as wel l developed in
fishes as is the sense of smell, it is undoubted ly present. Sweet tastes are not
detected as readily as sour and bitter. Next time you feed your fish a mixed
food observe bow certain objects are swallowed whi le others are tasted and
spat out.
Touch
There are tactile nerves throughout a fish's skin and fins . Fishes feel a
touch in just about the same way we do.
Equilibrium
Equilibri um, or the sense of balance, is tbe sense that lets a fish know
when it is "right side up." As in the case of human beings, the primary re-
spon ility for equilibrium is located in the inner ear.
What Is a Fish? 129
When parts of the inner ear are destroyed either accidentally or experi-
mentally a fish loses its sense of balance wobbles, and turn over. After
such an experimental loss a fish was able to maintain its equilibrium by the
sense of sight-seeing the light above and the bottom below. if the eyes are
also destroyed, the fish loses control completely. So it appears that a fish can
maintain its balance with either tbe eyes or the inner ear intact, because
fishes blinded but otherwise uninjured can maintain their equilibrium and
get around after a fashion.
In this connection. there is an interesting experiment which you can try
yourself. After your aquarium has been in darkness for several hours, direct
a flashlight beam from above on one of the fish. After a few minutes,
slowly move the light around so that it shines from the side. The fish will
shift its body until it is Jying on its side in an effort to maintain its topSide
toward the light. If the aquarium has a glass bottom, continue moving the
light until it is shining up from below the aquari um. The fish will turn up-
side down, thus showing its dependence on light from "above" in maintain-
ing its equilibrium.
Sense of Pain
Unfortunately, no one has ever been able to ask a fish how it feels , so
there is no definite answer to the question, "Does a fish feel painT'
A fish certainly senses touch and learns to avoid certain things, but as
its brain is so poorly developed, there is a question as to whether or not
it is capable of suffering. There seems to be no question at all but that once
the unpleasant , ensation is removed, a fish no longer feels the painful after-
effects that a human being docs. We have seen a fish with the rear third of
its body sheared off by a Piranha pause in its frantic "scuttling" to snap at
food in its path.
An authenticated story tells of a fish which was mishooked. The re-
moval of the hook necessitated removal of the eye. The fish was returned to
the water and the eye was used as bait. You can undoubtedly guess the
result. The tfOut was caught through its own appetite in a few minutes. So,
while we cannot answer definitely, we can say that there is a good deal of
doubt that fish feel pain, as such, at a ll. If there is any pain sensation, it is
certainly only a mild, readily forgotten sensation.
Sleep
Do fishes sleep? The answer to this at least for a great many species is
"yes." The only argument apparently against it is that fishes have no eyelids
and therefore cannot close their eyes. On close examination, this is not a
strong argument. Although we close our eyes in sleep, our other sensory
organs remain alert. Sound, odor, touch, temperature, and so on, are all
detected by the body during sleep. Some people even habitually sleep with
their eyes open. Sleep appears to be more a state of mind than a condition
of the body.
Some fishes are diurnal: they sleep during the night. Others, most no-
ticeably the Catfishes and many Gobies, are nocturnal. They spend most of
the day asleep behind rocks or plants and come out at night to forage. It is
not unusual for a normally nocturnal fish , under the stress of artificial
aquarium conditions, to change its rhythm and become active during the
day while sleeping at night.
In aquariums which are continually lit, a fi sh may sleep by lying on the
bottom (most common) , floating near the surface, resting among plants or
rocks or just hovering motionless in mid -wa ter. If you switch the light on an
aquarium which has been in the dark for several hours, you will find that
most of the fishes have faded in color- and are difficult to see-that is, those
fishes which are capable of changing color will do so. The fiShes-except
for the Catfish which darts for the back of the aquarium-will be I otionless
for several minutes. Then. gradually, they resume their swimming patterns.
They appear to be blinded at first and , if startled, will dash madly about the
tank bumping into things.
The main difference between a fi sh which is resting motionless and ap-
parently asleep in a lighted tank and the same fish asleep in the dark is
that the fish in the light does not lose an appreciable amount of color. Also
the fish in the light seems capable of seeing the instant it is awakened.
Another thing you will notice if you turn the light on several nights in
succession, the fi hes usually select the same bedding place every night. One
further thought on sleep in fish: those kept in a light place twenty-four
hours a day for months on end apparently thrive with no ill effects. How-
ever, recent experiments with the young of certain marine fishes showed
that the young which were allowed a regular resting period grew faster than
those which were not.
"Radar"
Radar, as we know, consists of sending out electrical waves which
"bounce" back from objects in their path. They are then recorded on an in-
strument which gives a picture of the object encountered. Quite modern and
scientific! But certain fishes have been using something like it for ages.
Bats and orne birds send out so und waves which act like Sonar.
For a long time it was a mystery how the Knife Fish (Gymnotus carapo)
could swim backwards without bumping into anything. It has recently been
discovered that certain organs in the Knife Fish's body are capable of emitting
weak electrical impulses. It is believed that these operate like radar to guide
the fish where it cannot see.
What Is a Fish? 131
Lateral Line Perception

This marvelou sensory organ is found only in water-dwelling animals.
It is visible as a horizontal row of tiny dots along the sides of most fishes,
starting at the tail and continuing to the head. At the head it may branch
off and/ or disappear.
Examined under a microscope, the lateral line is seen as a mucus-filled
canal running underneath the skin and opening to the surface at intervals
through pores. It is this series of openings-which we ee a dots-which
comprises the lateral Ijne. A nerve runs beneath the canal and sends out
branches to it at frequent intervals, each branch having a sensory ending.
For some time it was difficult to discover the function of this rather
elaborate structure. for the sensations which it perceives are not felt except
in a very limited way by human beings.
To explain the function of the lateral line was almo t as difficult as try-
ing to explain color to a person blind from birth . But this comparison helps
brin g the functions of the lateral line into clearer focus. Water to all intents
and purposes is incompressible; that is, it cannot be squeezed into a smaller
space than it occupies. That is why waves started in calm water go on and
on for comparatively great distance. Throw a pebble into a calm lake and
watch the ripples travel. These disturbances in the water are known as low
frequency waves. Air which is compressible acts like a pillow, cushioning the
shock of these waves so that they do not travel far.
Now we see why the lateral line is useful only to water-dwellers. Only
in a liquid such as water are these waves transmitted readily enough and far
enough for their detection to be of practical use. Thus the lateral line detects
these low frequency waves-waves which are too low to be heard as sound
but can scarcely be considered touch. It is rather like a gentle breeze
against your cheek: it is almost unfelt but it tells you the direction of the
wind. The ability of a fish to detect these waves and recognize their source
is a great advantage to him. By feeling the currents created be can detect
a predator coming towards him; he can find food and avoid obstacles. It
may even be of value to school fi hes in maintaining their schooling positions.
There are a number of blind fishes which for countless generations ha e
dwelt in lightless caverns. One of these blind cave fishes , Anoptichthys
jordani, which is commonly kept in aquaria, i a good example of the
functioning of this lateral line sense. Always re tless and ever moving, the
blind cave fish has developed its remaining senses to a remarkable degree.
As it swims it creates a wake which surrou nds it like the wake of a ship.
Anopfichthys can detect the vibrations when this wake strikes an object; he
swerves instantly to avoid it. While the blind cave fish does undoubtedly
memorize the location of objects in an aquarium, it cannot do this with
moving objects such as other fish. It can, however, through the lateral
line, detect the disturbance they create in the water and avoid them . Thi is
probably also useful in mating.
1f you have ever tried to net a blind cave fish you will know that it is
guite skillful at avoiding a moving net. However, if you hold the net motion-
less and open in its path, the fish will swim right into it. You must pull
the net up fast because as soon as the blind fi h detects the back of the net
it will swing around and out again; and it is not likely to swim back into
a net held at that location.
The lateral line has another known function. It aids as a thermometer,
warning the fi sh of changes in water temperature. It has been found that a
fish can detect water temperature changes of less than 1 F. This is also
0
important to a fish. It prevents him from committing unwitting suicide by

swimming into water too hot or too cold for him.
Sounds
The study of the sounds that fl . hes make is a comparatively new study.
During the Second World War the Navy experimented with Sonar. This de-
vice works by sending sound waves down into the water. By listening to
their echo it can be determined what sort of object these waves are bouncing
back from . The only hitch was that the sea, which had always been char-
acterized as "silent," was found to be quite a nOisy place.
Whistles, honks , grunts, whisperings, growlings, grindings and various
other noises were being made by fishes. The purpose of these noises, if
indeed they do have a purpose. is not yet known. Some of OUf little aquarium
fishes also make sounds, but because of their small size the noises are
usually difficult to hear.
Longevity of Fishes
Every so often an angler will astonish everyone by catching a fish which
is a giant of its species. It is not unusual for a record fi. h to weigh ten times
as much as does the average adult of its species. To compare this with
human beings: if the average height of men is 5'8" then a record height
would be 57 feet-a ridiculou thought. Yet we accept it in fish .
One scientist has a possible explanation. He felt that certain species of
fishes never die of old age. The perils and dangers to which fishes are con-
stantly exposed i sufficient to keep their life span from extending too long.
Certain specimens, however, through luck or otherwise, escape the dangers
which beset them and manage to live longer than the average of their kind.
So long as a fish js living it is capable of grow ing. Hi argument runs that
these giant fishes are not unusual in themselves, but in the fact that they
have managed to live long enough to grow that big.
What Is a Fish? 133
Some fishes do show signs of aging. The so called "annual" fishes are
outstanding examples of this. In nature they hatch from eggs at the start
of the rainy season and live until the onset of the dry season . As their little
pond drie they lay their eggs and die. The eggs remain in the dried mud
until the next rainy season. Filling the hollow with water reactivates them
and the cycle is repeated. When these fishes are transferred to an aquarium,
even under optimum conditions, they live their cycle and then . in full vigor
and health , suddenly falter, fade , and in a few weeks are dead.
Lists are constantly being compiled giving the known extreme longev ity
for certa in spec ies of fishes and are just as frequently being revised upward .
Most of the live-bearing tooth carps are considered short-lived , two to two
a nd a half years being considered about average. Bettas also are compara-
tively short- lived. A male of two years is past his prime. Most of the smaIL
C haracins and Bal bs can count on five to six years. The larger Barbs. large
Cichlids and Catfishes can hope for ten to twelve years of life. Generally, the
!arger the variety of fish. the better its chances of becoming a pi. cine
Methuselah. Fa r and away the greatest ca use of mortality is not old age;
poor conditions, disease and accidents are all more important. Keep your
fishes well and there is not much doubt that they will not only reach but
exceed these ages.
Training Fish
Training concerns the average aquarist. The tendency to accept and
react to training varies with the species. There is no question but that some
species of fishes have a more even disposition in captivity and appear more
intelligent than others. There is even some variation within a species: cer-
tain individuals seemi ng to respond to training better than others. However,
there is much less individual variation among fishes , which have a relatively
poorly developed intelligence, than among higher animals.
To a great extent the action of a fish are governed by inherited instincts.
The things it does are controlled by its genes. That it has some intelligence
is proved by the fact that, although it does most of the basic actions in-
stinctively. training and experience will reinforce or modify these instinctive
actions.
For example, the urge to mate is instinctive. If, ay, a male Guppy is
raised in isolation, it attempts to mate instinctively when introduced into a
tank of Guppys of both sexes. Not knowing how to distinguish male from
female he attempts to mate with both. The males respond to his advances
with sharp nips; whi le the females are more passive. The little male soon
learns to avoid the bright-colored males and to concentrate its efforts on the
colorless females.
The same procedure has been shown among Swordtails (Xiphophorus).
In their case the sword-like extension of the tail serves as a recognition sym-
·boI. This is a form of natural training by a system of rewards and punish-
ments. The punishment being a nip when he does wrong; receptivity when
he mates with the proper fish.
Aquatic biologists who tudy fishes also utilize a system of rewards and
punishments for training. The usual reward is food and the usual punishment
a slight electric shock. The things which a fish is capable of learning are
very limited. It can learn to find a path through a labyrinth to food , if the
labyrinth is not too involved. 11 can be taught to respond to odors (intro-
duced into the water) by swimming to a certain part of the tank; and it
can be taught to respond to certain sounds in the same way. 1t is by a
fish's response to these things that scientists are able to determine the ex-
tent of a fish's ability to recognize odors, color and sounds.
In an aquarium, fishes soon learn to recognize the sight of their keeper
and the sound of his approach. Recognizing it, they rush to the feeding area
for food . It is questionable whether they recognize anyone individual , but
they do recognize the action of approaching the tank.
Fish also appear to recognize time intervals. When they are fed at exactly
the same time and the same place every day , they seem to recognize the
time and may be seen congregating at the feeding area, waiting to be fed.
Most fi shes can be taught to accept food from one's fin gers. With care
and patience they can be taught to allow them se lves to be petted, to swim
through a loop made by the thumb and forefinger and even into one's hand.
There is a relationship between tameness and familiarity. This is known
as habituation . Jf the fish sees people frequently it becomes habituated to
them and does not react by flight or hiding when they appear. Familiarity
is the basis of taming. The basis of training. is the tempering of certain in-
stincts by punishment for improper actions and reward for behaving the
way we want them to in response to outside stimuli. It is possible to train
fishes by the use of food rewards only; but training is much more rapid
when both rewards and punishments are used.
Memory
Very little is known of memory in fish . It is certainly not well developed
and in all probability a fish cannot recall things for more than a few days.
Aquarists who leave their fish unattended while away for two weeks, usually
find on their return that the fish are no longer habituated to their presence.
Tales by fi berm en of the wise old Trout who could outsmart all fisher-
men, saw through lures, and resisted all efforts to catch him, may be true
in essence, but assigning the reason for their difficulties to the intelligence
of tbe fish is crediting the fish with an acuity it does not possess. The fish
lived long enough to grow big because it was wary. It was wary through
What Is a Fish? 135
natural instincts. and , because of constant harassment, it habitually avoided
sights, sounds, and foods . If it had Dot been born wary it would not have
lived long enough to develop evasive reactions. The careless ones get caught
while they are still small.
~ 10·
The Anatomy of the Fish
The Skeleton
THE BONEY framework of the fi sh varies according to the spec'e ', but in
ge nera l it consists of a spinal (vertebral) column which extends from the
head to the tail fin . In fishes the vertebrae vary in number from 16 to 150
in the different species. The tail fin is supported by dorsal fin rays (tiny
bone which stiffen the fins) , with ventral and anal fin rays below and
pectoral fin rays at the sides. Some fishes have double dorsa l fins above,
some single dorsals, and some have a small adipose fin (see diagram ).
The head has many of the same bones that mammal s have, with one
notable exception- the operculum, a protective covering which swings open
and shut to control the passage of water through the gills.
The external features of a fi sh.

The Anatomy of the Fish 137
Color
The color of the fish is due to color bodies, microscopic in size. located in
the skin. These tiny bodies or cells are called chromatophores, and have the
power to change the fi h's color. The number and arrangement of these color
areas is what account for the great variation among the species and, in the
case of Guppies and some others, among the individua ls within the species.
Some species of fishes change color under certain conditions, and all spe-
cies seem to take on a greater brilliance under the influence of drugs which
tranquili ze or partially anest hetize. This brilliance and fading is now thought
to be due to a movement of pigment granules from the periphery of the
chromatophore to the center of the cell or from the center to the periphery.
Chromatophores are of several kinds. Those whicb reflect yellow are
called xanthrophores; those causing li ght to appear green, blue and steel -blue
are guan ophore.I·. Melanq/lhores contain brown pigment; and eryfh rophores
are the red influence in color. Albinos are devoid of most pigment granules,
so the fish appears white with pink eyes. Actually even the eyes lack co lor,
the red being tbe blood behind them. In most species there are partial albino '
which have lost perhaps al l but one of the color granules. Usually the one re-
tained is the xanfhrophore, which gives the albino a yellowish tinge.
A lypical arrangeme nt of cbromatophores. These bodies

are responsible for the fish's color.
The Swim Bladder

In order to survive a fish is faced with the problem of how to keep
from sinking. Because a fish is heavier than water, it should sta rt to sink as
soon as it stops swimming. There are a few fishes of which thi is true.
Such fish as flounders do not possess a "swim bladder." They must keep
swimming in order to stay up.
The swim bladder is believed to have become modified through ages of
.,
® General Biological Slipp ly HOllse
The s keleton of a fish.
I. Premaxilla 20. Articul ar 39. Pelvis

2. Maxilla 2 J. lntero perc ul ar 40. H a rd } Derm a l rays of
3. Nasal 22. Preopercul ar 4 1. Soft pelvic fin
4. Infraorbit a li 23. Subopercular 42. An ter ior intcrspina ls
5. Prefronta l 24. Opercular 43 . Anterior dorsal fin rays
6. Ectopterygoid 25. Supra cl avicle 44. Hard } Derm a l rays of poster ior
7. Entopterygoid 26. Suborbita l 45 . Soft· dorsal fin
8. Quadrate 27. Postorbital 46. Vcrt ehrne
9. Parasph enoid 28. Basih al 47 . P ara poph ysis or Transverse process
10. Frontal 29. Hypoh yals 48. Ribs
I I. Metapterygoid 30. Urohyal 49. Neural spines
12. Post fronta l 3 1. cratohyal 50. H ae m a l spin e
13. Hyomandibular 32. Branchiostegal rays (7) 5 1. Radi als of anal fin
14 . Parietal 33. Clav icle 52. H Hrd } D erm a l rays of
15. Paroccipital 34. Scapula 53. Soft a na l fin
16. Supratemporal 35. Coracoid 54. Subperiton ea ls or fa lse rib
17 . Supraoccipital 36. Pteryg ia ls 55. H ypura l bon es
18 . Post- tempora l 37. Post cl av icle 56. H a rd } Derm al rays of
19. Demary 38. Dermal rays of pectoral 57. Soft Caudal fin
fin
® C(' lleral Biological SlIpl'ly H Ollse
The internal organs of a fish .
I. Nostrils 18 . Bulbus aortae

2. Optic nerve t9 . Auricle
3. Hypophysis 20. Ventricle
4. Olfactory lobe 21. Sinus venosus
5. Optic lobe 22. Liver
6. Cerebellum 23. Gall bl ad der
7. Medulla ob longata 24. Pyloric caecum
8. Dorsa l aorta 25. Spleen
9. Spinal cord 26. Stomach
10. Esoph ag us 27. Intestine
II. Kidney 28. Ovary
t 2. Lateral lin e 29. Air bladder
13 . Tongue 30. Urinary bladder
14 . Pharynx 31. Anus
15. Gill cleft 32. Urinogenital opening
16. Gill rakers 33 . Ureter
17 . Gills
. development from a re piratory sac. In the human species the sac became a
lung; in fishes, a bladder. The air bladder is a gas-filled bladder placed
between the stomach and backbone. It is frequently shaped somewhat like
a pink sausage, but its shape may vary according to thc shape of its pos-
sessor. The bladder itself is usually filled with a mixture of nitrogen and
oxygen, plus a little carbon dioxide.
The swim bladder has a number of functions . In some fishes it is used
as an amplifier of sound. It works in conjunction with the ear and increases
the hearing ability of the fish. Some fishes make sounds with it, and others
use it as an auxiliary breathing apparatus. The most important function of
the bladder is in aiding the fish to maintain its position in the water. Some
fishes have a tube leading from the gullet to the air bladder. Others have a
network of fine blood vessels surrounding the swim bladder. Through these
structures a fish is able to increase and decrease the amount of gas in the
bladder. Thus he is able to maintain his body at the same density as the
surrounding water. This is important because if heavier than tbe water the
fi sb would sink ; if lighter than water it would bob helplessly to the urface.
A fish does not swim upwards by increasing the gas in its bladder to lighten
itself, and reverse the procedure when it goes down. It swim to the level it
chooses and, as it descends or ascends, the bladder adjusts itself to maintain
the proper pressure of gas so as to ensure the fish's maintaining the same
density. The purpose of changing the pressure is to keep the size of the gas
bladder constant. Thus, when a fish rests it is the same weight as the water
surrounding it and can hover without effort. The air bladder is also a
built-in deptb gauge.
Newly born fry have an opening between the gullet and the air bladder
which is poorly formed at birth. This is one of the reasons tbat new-born
fry cling to the sides, leaves, and bottom ; and it also helps to explain why
they swim with an effort when forced to move around. After a period of
development the fry rises to the surface and takes a breath of air which
passes into the rapidly developing bladder and activates it.
Swimming
A fish staying in one place usually lIses its pectoral fins like little paddles.
This is because the action of the fish taking water in through its mouth and
passing it back through the gills would act like a jet to propel the fish
forward if the fins were not used to counteract this.
In actual swimming the fins are of little use. For the most part they are
folded back against the body.
The fish has one of the most beautifully streamlined bodies in nature.
Fins sticking out all over would actually spoil that streamlining. The fins are
used for slow motions, turning. stopping and other niceties of control. If
you cut off all the fins, the fish would not be completely handicapped. It
would lose some of its grace, but none of its speed.
Swimming itself is accomplished by side to side strokes of the body.
starting behind the head and increasing up through the swirl of the tail.
Watch a fish swim from above and notice the way it shakes its body back
and forth . The swimming movement is much more con picuous in a fish
such as the eel, whose sinuous body forms a series of "S" curves. The tai l
. is an aid in swimming, but without it a fi sh can swim just as fast if not as
gracefully. How fast? Estimates vary . But the average small fish may be
able to travel as fa t as eight to ten miles per hour for a short distance.
Internal Organs
As the fi sh swims forward. water enters the mouth and passes out
through the gills at the side of the pharynx. The teeth (in those species
which po sess teeth) are arranged differently in various species-some in
the lower jaw, some in the roof of the mouth , and some in the upper jaw.
( I n some species there is also a rudimentary tongue.) The food particles
are guided into the pharynx and directly into the stomach . Gla nds in the
stomach wall secrete gastric juice, and when the food is parti ally digested
it passes into the intestine. The liver stores bile in a ga ll bl adder, just as it
docs in mammals. After traversing the intestine, the waste passes out by
way of th e an us.
The heart ha s only two cav ities. Blood enters the auricle, passes through
a valve into the ventricle, and fro m there is pumped to the organs and
the gi ll s. In the gills, which are equiva lent to the lungs in other animals,
it gives up carbon dioxide and absorbs oxygen. Thence it runs to other
parts of the body and is returned to the heart through the veins. While the
blood has both red and white cells and is not unlike that of other animals,
the circulat ion is slow compared to that of mammal s.
The gills are very delicate organs, which are extremely well supplied
with capillaries, which are remarkably efficient devices for the transfer of
gases to and from the blood . Some fishes ca n li ve for considerable time out
of water. Goldfish have been known to survive for several hours on the
floor after jumping out of their tanks. Some varieties of fishes have lived for
twenty-four hours deeply buried in mud .
The urinogenital system is in many ways similar to that of birds and
mammals. The fish has kidneys and a urinary bladder- the urine passing
out of an opening close to and behind the anus. The method of producing
young, which varies in different species, will be considered in the chapter on
breeding.
The nervous system of a fi sh is not so well developed as it is in mammals .
The various parts of the body aie controlled by crania l nerves reaching out
from the brain and spinal nerves from the spinal cord.
Every species has some means of defense a nd protection . There are
fishes which blow themselves up to astonishing dimensions a a means of
defense. Some posse s spines all over their bodies ; others, spines about the
. head and in the fins. Still others have poison glands which, when they are
discharged, exert a paralyzing effect on the enemy. There are even fishes
which can produce electrical shocks. Coloration is, of co urse, a defense and
teeth help at time , as does speed in escape. Selective breeding, however,
sometimes produces specimens with Ie s defense than nature originaUy
evolved. For example, albinos of many species are so conspicuous that they
are quickly eaten. Similarly, abnormally large tails in Guppies have less
survival value than the smalJer tails of the common Rainbow ancestor.
In all essential respects the fi sh resembles a mammal far more closely
than most people realize. It has a skeleton ; skin and muscles; digestive, cir-
culatory, respiratory, excretory, and nervous systems; as well as sense organs
similar in a number of ways to those of other pets. In addition, it ha certain
specific organs and defense mechanisms suited to its life in water and to
its particular feeding. breeding, and self-preservation needs.
~ 11 ~
Foods and Feeding
PEOPLE keep tropical fishes to enjoy them and many persons derive most
of the pleasure they get from their fish through watching them eat. This is
only natural; it is the fishes' response to the owners' care and a sie:n of
health in the aquarium's residents. But those who obtain by all odd the
most fun from fish keeping are those who follow the highways along which
fish ownership beckons us.
One can buy prepared fish food and feed it quite successfully, but all
of us who have read about and investigated the natural foods have soon
discovered that learning about each one of these gives us almost as much
sheer enjoyment as learning about any species of fish.
The average person seems to be afraid that thinking will cause him pain ;
most persons prefer to pay others to do their thinking for them. Studying
involves thinking, and how many thousands of persons have started thinking
when they bought their first tropical fishes no one will ever know, but the
number is very high.
Perhaps they go to a fish club meeting where an expert tells how he
raises Black Angel Fish. The listener decides to do likewise, so he starts
learning and searching for information. Soon he discovers that he, too, can
raise them. He finds that thinking is great fun- not at all painful-and he
doesn't stop.
These same persons then go on to learn about other species, about water
conditions, about fish food. They hear non-students say, "I don't want to
clutter up my mind with all that sort of thing." And they learn that this
can't be done; that tbe more one studies about all possible facts, tbe easier
it is to learn and the more accurate one's mental conclusions.
In no aspect of aquarium fisb keeping is there more room for study and
investigation, nor is any phase of it quite so rewarding as that of fish foods.
Knowing the life histories of the live foods used in feeding fishes, where
they grow, bow to find them and at what easons of the year, bow much
to feed, and how to preserve or grow them is really fascinating. It add zest
to fish keeping. It provides the kind of hobby in which one can truly lose
one elf. And it can provide one with a considerable income.
A man we know harvests, freezes and sells hundreds of dollars worth
of Daphnia over and above what he uses for his own fishes. Later in this
chapter we will discuss the fascinating success story of Clean Sanders and
his Brine Shrimp business, which started with the fish hobby. The comfortable
livings many men make harvesting or growing Bloodworms, Tubificids.
White Worms, Cyclops, Glassworms, and selling them to fish stores are all
based on the fish hobby which broadened out into businesses. The dry and
canned foods now on the market had their origins in the bobby too.
Perhaps you too may find a source of income in fish food. but whether
you do or not we hope you find the contents of this chapter as interesting
as it has been to us as we amassed the information it contains.
Aside from financial considerations and the benefits derived from study.
there are health aspects and friendship to be considered. Mutual interests
create friendships . What fun it is to go with a friend into the country to
collect live food! One of our friends found a small pond which at certain
easons swarms with Daphnia. He fills a 40-quart milk can with ice and
with his long-poled Daphnia net sets out on a Sunday morning. He swishes
the net through the reddi h cloud in the water, comes up with a mass of
Daphnia as large as a baseball, transfers it to the milk can. and swishes up
more. When he can find no more he hurries home, sifts the Daphnia through
sieves, puts the several sizes in different glassine bags each of which holds
about one ounce, marks and freezes them, and has Daphnia to feed to fry or
larger fishes . One lovely day in spring he has experienced all the fun any
trout fisherman can derive from his sport.
We prospect in water holes in wooded areas and find Glassworms or
Bloodworms which we bring home and keep alive. Perhaps in long boots
we wade in a sluggi -h stream and there we discover Tubificid Worms by the
million. Our supply from then on means only spending an hour now and
then harvesting the worms and mud and separating them. Once in two weeks
a collection provides u with Tubifex Worms for our friends' fish as well as
our own.
One can't find these pleasures of discovery in the sunshine and healthful
out-of-doors vicariously. You can read about them in this book, but we hope
you will take to tbe country and experience tbe fun and satisfaction which
only the actual doing will bring you. And all of these bypaths of the fish
hobby are yours at almost no cost.
Fishes and Their Food

Fish are gluttons. They eat continuously all day long. Those which are
not fed enough are stunted and never attain tbe size of wbich tbey are capable.
Foods and Feeding 145
An example is the Guppy. Of all the millions of the e fish raised annually
how many attain the beauty and size of whi ch they are capable?
We who have studied the problem have learned that frequent feedings of
amounts that can be eaten entirely in a few minutes is the best way to
feed. This naturally means that our choice of food is all-important. If we
introduce living creatures they will not decompose and spoil the water but
will be available for many hours or even days . Still , we have to realize that
even the live foods have drawbacks, because they use up oxygen just as flsh
do.
H we feed dry food we must be especially careful not to overfeed and to
keep the gravel clean and free from decomposition which tiny uneaten
particles will surely cause if they settle into it. 1f we feed frozen foods the
same danger of water pollution exists; we must feed them judiciously.
Until an article in The A quarium magazine on the percentage of dry
matter in the various fish foods was published in 1954, very few persons had
considered the amounts of food to feed their fishes in this light. Dry matter
is the solid portion of the food which is left after all liquid has been re-
moved. A person who fed half a teaspoonful of Daphnia to a tank generally
fed a half teaspoonful of dry food. But now we realize that about twenty-five
times as much Daphnia is required as a given amount of dry food because
Daphnia contain only 4 per cent dry solid material.
In the wild most fishes eat fish, a lot of fish. Fresh-water fishermen
frequently catch a fish and find another fish's tail in its mouth and upon
pulling this fish from the one they caught, find yet another fish 's tail in its
mouth.
Even live fishes vary in the percentage of dry material. Newly hatched
fry are much higher in water content than are older fish , so it takes a much
larger volum e of fry to satisfy the appetite of a mature fish than of smaller
but more mature fishes. Nevertheless, when fishes eat fish meat- the whole
mature or partly grown fish-they usually consume about 30 per cent solids
and 70 per cent water. Much of the fish is indigestible-the scales for in-
stance-but the bones are digested. Shall we say that this is the natural diet?
The digestive tracts of fishes are equipped for the handling of relatively
enormous quantities. The digestive acids and enzymes are powerful , other-
wise in such a short digestive tract there could not be such complete digestion.
Frequently there are teeth on the roof of the mouth as well as in the jaws
which aid in breaking down the food.
Have you ever watched a whole brood of perhaps seventy-five fry dis-
appear in an hour into their mother, and wondered how such a feat is pos-
si ble? Have you ever placed as large a volume of Daphnia as the fishes
themselve in a tank and soon fo und the Daphnia all gone? The huge per-
centage of water in these creatures accounts for the phenomenon.
So in feeding fish we must be careful to know the water content of the
f~od and take precautions not to overfeed. In the following pages you will
find the percentage of dry material given for each kind of food.
Fish alone is not the food of fishes-far from it. A fish 's mouth functions
as a strainer. Large amounts of edible material are collected and swallowed,
much of which is invisible to us. You must take into consideration the
relative size of fish in proportion to their food. Let us say it takes 150
magnifications to make a Paramecium large enough to be plainly visible to
us. How many times would a newborn fry of a Betta have to be magnified
in order to make it large enough to be able to eat that magnified paramecium?
Surely 150 and even then it wouldn't be very large by human standards. So
a paramecium would be a good meal for the fry-a particle 0 tiny as to be
invisible to us.
Besides these minute forms of animalculae which constitute food, there
are myriads of other forms which constantly appear and are found in the
watcr of the natural environments in which fishes suitable for aquaria live-
worms of many sorts wash into their streams; dozens of species of flies
drop on the water; larvae of others hatch from eggs and supply available
food.
So when we think that we should try to imitate the natural foods we have
to remember that these foods vary greatly. Some contain mostly water and
some only 70 per cent. Doubtless much almost dry food is also eaten by wild
fishes.
Fortunately for us most fishes are adaptable and can live on a wide
variety of foods; they do not need just one kind . Now let us learn what we
can about the available kinds ranging from whole fish to dry preserved food.
What Is a Meal to a Fish?

At the very beginning we should understa nd that we are entering a
different world when we look into food for fishes. If a mature person eats
perhaps two pounds of food at a meal, a little fish should eat only a tiny
crumb or a few Daphnia. And if that crumb is several Daphnia, think of how
tiny the food which each Daphnia consumes must be. It is microscopic. So
we must think of fish food as minute, not at all like dog or cat food or our
own.
Why are fish so often overfed? Simply because the feeder has no con-
ception of what constitutes a good meal for a fish . Let's consider a Guppy. A
good sized female is two inches long including the tail. Just suppose that
you were two inches tall, what would you then consider a good meal to be-
in volume? You might weigh about half an ounce. A 160-pound man eats
two pounds of food at a meal. A half-ounce man would eat ¥t(lo th of an
ounce. And that is a very tiny bit of food! But your food contains fully 60
per cent of moisture. If the food of the imaginary half-ounce man were dried
like fish food he would need only lh20 th of an ounce. We make this in-
accurate com pari on to emphasize the need for feeding tiny amounts.
The only way we have of knowing what the natural food of any animal
is, is by studying the stomach contents. One researcher studied the Brook
Trout and found in those stomachs he analyzed that, after the water was re-
moved, the mass (mostly insects) consisted of 48.7 per cent protein, some
of which was of an indigestible nature; carbohydrates, 25.8 per cent (and
some of this was also indigestible) ; fat 15.5 per cent. There was 9.9 per cent
ash, showing that indigestible parts were high .
Some species eat quantities of algae-MoBies for instance-and also en-
joy spinach. Who hasn't seen bis fishes industriously picking algae off plants?
Cich lids and Goldfish eat vegetable. foods as everyone who attempts to grow
ccrtain plant species in Goldfish tanks learns to hi sorrow. One fish breeder
comes to us for duckweed during winter to feed some of his omnivorous
fishes.
The Components of Fish Foods

A fish , like a mammal , needs amino acids, carbohydrates, fatty acids,
minerals and vitamins. Some work has been done to determine the minimum
amount of each, but it is sketchy indeed when compared with nutritional
st udies for mammals. From our own experience we know that a formu la
with 40 per cent protein (amino acids), 15 per cent fat (fatty acids), 35
per cent carbohydrates (figured on a dry basis) , and a liberal supply of
minerals and all of the essential vitamins will nourish certain fishes well. In
the case of some fishes a diet largely of protein with not over 10 per cent di-
gestible carbohydrate is advised.
When a fish consumes Daphnia, the 4 per cent of dry material in them
will contain more protein than 20 per cent-the amount depending on the
composition of the algae the cru tacean ha eaten. It may be that fish , like
dogs. can ex ist on a 5 per cent complete protein diet and grow on a 9 per
cent diet, but it is far better to feed amounts in excess of this and be safe ,
because finding complete proteins, especially in dehydrated materials, is not
always easy.
Research in Sport Fish Food~

Much of the re earch work on the va lue of fish food has been done in
sport fish hatcheries. Trout, Salmon, Bass, and Pickerel have been fed various
high protein foods and their survival rate and growth measured. The Bureau
of Fisheries Document Number J078 compared such foods and since then
other studies have reported on other foods and mixtures.
The age of the fish is important too . Many fisheries are reporting almost
100 per cent survival when the fry are fed on Brine Shrimp nauplii, the newest
of all fish foods and one admirably adapted to tropical aquarium fishes.
Summarizing the results of practicaJ experience as reported by inves-
tigators. we find that from a very great variety of fresh animal meats, those
which produced best results were:
Tr ut fed on Brine Shrimp grow faster and urvive in larger numbers

than those fed on o ld-fa hioned diets.
J. Animal livers. Beef shows the best results.

2. Animal organs. Spleens and other organs were not equal to beef
liver. but heart muscl , after the fat and other tissues were discarded, proved
excellent. Jt is often mixed with liver in feeding trout.
3. Cooked meats. Fair but not equal to fresh.
4. Dried clam heads, consisting of siphons. gills and mantles. This
material is dried in a vacuum. Mixed with fresh meat and water to make
a mush, it has produced excellent results.
5. Dried fish meals. One Whitefish type in particular, vacuum dried with
but little bone and of low fat content, produced satisfactory results alone
or in combination. Other fish meal were not so useful. Shrimp meal in some
studies was no better than that from Menhaden. Much shrimp meal consists
of those parts of the shrimp chopped off in preparing. Jt should not be
confused with clear hrimp muscle which, so far as we can learn, ba. not
been tried in sport fish feeding probably because of expense.
6. Canned dog and ca~ food. Several brands have produced satisfactory
growth.
Water and Solids in Fish Foods

The following table shows the percentage of water in some live and
other foods. White Worms stand at the top of the live foods and probably
how a higher percentage than their real food value, because within their
dige tive tract there is so much undigested food with a low water content.
TABLE SHOWING COMPONENTS OF FISH FOOD
1< Dry 7<' r" Carbo- Calories/

Name of Food Matter Protein hydrate % Fat Gram
Canned Pet Foods
(average of
several brands) 26. 9- 10 11 2-3 1.1
Glass Packed Foods 48. 18 23 4.5 2.0
Daphnia 5. 15 0.2
Tubificids 4.44 0.2
Bloodworms 8.48 0.4
Brine Shrimp 14.21 0.7
Brine'Shrimp Nauplii 6.72
White Worms 23.38 1.1
Mireo-Worms 15.21
Mosquito Larvae 10. 11
Guppies (newly born) 6.90
Guppies (2 weeks old) 11 .26
Fish Eggs:
Sturgeon 62. 30 7.6 19.7 3.2
Shad 29. 20.9 2.6 3.8 1.2
Beef:
Beef Muscle 32.2 20 0 10.6 1.7
Beef ~eart 37.4 16 0 20.4 2.4
Beef L.:iver 34.4 20.2 2.5 3. 1 1.2
Fish:
Cod 17.1.5 16.7 0 0.3 0.7
Haddock 17.5 16.7 0 0.3 0.7
Halibut 24.6 18.6 0 5.2 1.2
Salmon 35.4 22. 0 12,8 2.0
Brook Trout 22.2 19.2 0 2.] 0,9
Shrimp 29.2 25.4 0 1.0 I.
Hen's E_gg 26.3 13.4 0 10.5 1.4
(y_olk) 50.5 15.7 0 33.3 3.6
Cottage Cheese 28.0 20.9 4,3 1.0 1.1
Bread Crumbs (white) 94.2 11.4 72. 1.0 4.2
Oatmeal 89.7 14.3 64.8 8.0 3.8
Beef Meal 93,1 60.0 0 14,0 3.6
White Fish Meal 94.4 64,5 0 6.0 3.1
Meat Meal 93.0 73 .0 0 11.0 3.6
These figures show why so much more live food must be fed than dry
food. For instance, jf a teaspoonful of dry food is sufficient for all of your
fish for one feeding, then you would have to feed four tablespoonsful of
Daphnia or Tubifex worms to supply the same amount of nutrition.
The figures also exp lain why too much dry food is usually fed by persons
unfamiliar with the facts. Their tanks cloud, food decomposes on the bottom,
and the fish die of poisoning.
One reason why the Guppy can devour such prodigiou numbers of
mosquito larvae is because of the low water content of these wrigglers. Dr.
Ivan A . Parfentjev was the first person we have ever heard of who has studied
the mastication of fishes. This astute scientist says that many fishes are
equipped with crushing jaws. which mash the food and squeeze the juice
from it. They live on these juices. Some fishes , notably sharks, mash their
food and regurgitate the residue. Many aquarium fishes reduce the size of
live food very much. As we bave seen, when a fisb must live on live foods
which contain on ly 5 per cent of dry material, it must eat great quantities
(in term s of volume) in order to live. It i possible that in order to consume
this bulk some fishes may crush the food in their jaws or throat and swallow
only the comparatively small amount of solid matter.
The chief reason so many fanciers fail to raise fi shes of top quality is
because they do not feed often eno ugh. Watch your fishes cat. The period
during which their digestive tract fills and empties is short. Any healthy
Guppy will eat ten times a day.
It is the person who feeds his charges as often as they will eat, but not
enough to foul the water, who gets the best results from his stock. That is
why food feeders are so useful , and why live foods seem to be so good. As
we have seen, the live food is composed largely of water, but the fish can
handle it by rapid digestion . Dry food Or paste food they will manage well,
too , but there is always the danger that these foods will pollute the water,
and we all know that they do require siphoning more frequently.
However, they have their place, provided all the possible accessories are
furnished to remove the surplus- filters , frequent stirring of the gravel, snails,
Catfish. All of us who have used them realize that Guppies can be raised on
them to the exclu ion of live food. Their proper use, we are convinced, is in
frequent small feedings. When you feed, don't just drop a big pinch on the
water's surface, but bend down and loo.k up at the surface. You will be
amazed at the large amount of food a small pinch seems to be, when viewed
from this angle.
Algae
Just as all agriculture starts with grass as its basis, so fish culture starts
with algae. Algae are plants of the sea or of fresh water or soil. Only a
few of our aquarium fishes live on algae directly, but most of the " live"
foods wbich fish eat feed on algae and are in turn eaten by various fisbes.
Then in many cases these little fish may become the food of larger fi. h.
So our basic study must be about algae. Millions of dollars are being
spent every year by the thousands of scientists who are learning about these
plants. Congresses are being held and reports frequently appear in news-
papers and magazines about algae, their uses as food and how to grow them.
In 1953 the Carnegie Institution of Washington published a book called
Algal Culture trom Laboratory to Pilot Plant, in which many author~ tell of
their experiments in growing only a few of the many forms.
What do algae look like? Among the over ]7,000 kinds, some are the
giant seawceds which grow "leaves" a hundred feet long. Some are the
"Irish moss" growing on rocks, from which puddings are made. But those
which most interest us are tiny swimming forms . Some species show what
seems to be an eye. Some have whip-like arrangements with which to propel
themselves.
Under natural conditions, these algae float about leading a simple ex-
istence utilizing a small amount of the carbon dioxide which the water has
dissolved from the air. Wben the amount of nitrogen , pho phoric acid and
potash are less than the amounts needed for optimum growth , algae do not
multiply as fast as they can when ~ndition ' are better. A Mollie tank with
the urea from the fishes , and with strong light and an ideal temperature, of-
ten turns so green that the fish are hidden from view.
In ponds there often occurs a sudden "bloom," caused by a rain having
washed fertilizer from nearby fields into the pond and bright sunlight
furnishing the energy for photosynthesis. This bloom soon disappears as
animalculae feed on the algae. Sometimes Daphnia will increase so greatly
that filtration plants become clogged by them . Literally many ton of Daphnia
have been removed from reservoirs because of the algal bloom followed by
Daphnia increase.
Algae growtb depends upon light. The process called photosynthesis is
a chemical one, the same that occurs in all plant leaves. Sunlight might be
said to be "stored" in the leaf. It is absorbed by the chlorophyll which acts
to combine carbon dioxide with water to form starch; in other words , to
synthesize-to combine elements or compounds into something new. In this
case water is combined with carbon dioxide to make starch, but some oxygen
is left over. This surplus oxygen is discarded into the water in the case of
water plants; into the air in the case of air plants. And there we have the way
all fish food and all human food begins.
By adding nitrogen to the starch, the plant makes protein. From the
starch it can also produce fat. If you burn fat it produces a much botter
flame than does either protein or carbohydrate-two and one-fourth times as
hot. The plant converts the starch into this concentrated material simply by
ridding it of oxygen and then it is stored in compact form. Carbon burns as
we all know, and burning is simply combining with oxygen. Fat ha less than
half as much oxygen as it has carbon and so we see why it produces so much
more heat when it burns-gives so much "more mileage."
Algal cells are interesting. Of the dried substance, more than 50 per cent
is protein provided there is nitrogen present in the water in which they grow.
Without adequate nitrogen the protein may be as low as 8 per cent. All of it is
nutritious. And best of all, the ten amino acids (components of protein)
which are known to be essential are all there. If a small animal eats algae
and a fish eats the animal, the fish gets not only the animal's substance but the
algae it has inside as well.
When you see a bright green algal growth, remember that in a quart of
such water there will be more of the little plants-20,000,OOO.OOO- than
there are people in the world. And on a bright summer's day the number
may double in twenty-four hours.
Since algae are dependent on light, it is easy to see why the algae
closest to the light grow fastest. In a pond those at the surfa~e increase
much faster than those deeper down, but there is always movement in the
water. A fi sh tank is an ideal growing medium because the fish not only
fertilize the algae but by constantly moving about move the tiny cells with
ili~ . •
As to the degree of increase in algal cells to expect in artificial cultures,
you will find that in general, when conditions are right. the number of million
cells in one cubic centimeter will double in ten days. If you start with just a
few cells it may be a long while before you see even the faintest shade of
green. But let there be 400 mil.Lion cells in a C.c. and in ten days there will
be 800 million-which will show many shades darker.
Algae are not like animals which reproduce, age and die. An algal cell
does not die but simply divides into more algal cells. Chiarella cells, which be-
long to the gro up of green algae, increase differently from some other algae
(which simply divide into two cells). Each Chiarella cell becomes walled off
into numerous smaller cells which are liberated when the cell membrane
bursts.
It was formerly accepted that the algal cells divided only SO long as
there was light and temperature for photosynthesis ; but now we know that
they divide during the night and sometimes even at an increased rate, and
that the slight reduction in night temperature also speeds up the process.
Algae cultures, of course, have contaminants-certaio bacteria, for ex-
ample-some of which can ruin the algae. In thi connection it has been
found that a rapidly or vigorously growing culture is Ie s susceptible to such
contaminants.
When you read the sect ion on Daphnia culture you will see that various
form of fertilizer are used, but it is seldom mentioned that this fer tilizer
grows algae on which the Daphnia feed . It seems important, therefore, that
we learn all we can about this basic food .
There are 0 many kinds of algae, it is safe to say that no one yet
knows which one is best suited as food for the live foods of our fishes.
ChIarella especially interests us because it grows so rapidly that it prevents
the growth of more desirable algae. Only with great pains, during warm
weather, can another species be grown and not be superseded by Chiarella.
This form increases rapidly and it is so easy to grow that it is almost bound
to thrive. Where some species are able to grow only in water of a certain
temperature, with just the right amount of salts and the proper adjustment
to acidity, ChIarella will increase with amazing speed in a wide variety of
environments. In fact, it may make the water seem almost syrupy, so dense
will it become. There is some doubt about Chlorella being relished by many
forms of live fi sh food. Daphni a, Cyclops, and rotifers devour other forms
more readily. On e of the spec ifica tion s for success with algae is that the tank
in which you raise it be free of any animal life except fish. This is our
number one req uirement.
Behind his home one of us has five large tanks buried in the ground. In
them we tried to raise Guppies but with poor success beca use we could not
keep the temperature sufficiently high. So in 1955 we decided to raise
D aphni a in them.
T wo tanks with old water were inoculated with Daphnia ; the other three
were saved for a lgal culture . We cleaned them all thorou ghly, washed them
wi th strong salt, and rinsed them. Then we repainted the inside of the tanks
with black R ubberoid as phalt pai nt, which dries quickly. The tanks filled
half full with rai n water. Some green pond water was poured into th e tanks
together with fertilizer, and glass covers put over two of the tanks' tops, the
third covered with a hardware cloth . creen.
Thc water in the covered tanks becam e green in about ten days. Each day
we took out a pailful and poured it into the Daphnia tanks. Somehow the
water in one covered tank and that in the open tanks became contaminated
with Daphnia which cleaned out the algae so fast that the tanks were, until
they were emptied and refilled, useless for algae raising. Such an experience
is instructive, but so that you will not have to make such costly errors if Y 0U
want to cultivate algae, here is what we have been able to learn about a
practical way to grow algae successfully:
1. Start with a clean transparent tank, or at least one with a transparent
cover. In the summer this may be an out-of-door tank free from any shade.
In winter it may be an indoor tank with artificial light.
2. Use filtered water; rainwater is excellent. Fill a flat tank to a depth of 8 or
10 inches. If. you use a large glass carboy indoors, or any other kind of
transparent tank, have the light close to it.
3. Provide for agitation to bring the culture close to the light as often as
possible. Air bubbling through will accomplish this. Fishes swimming in it
will too.
4. Provide adequate illumination. Fluorescent "daylight" bulbs are adequate
if close to the culture. Sunlight is best of course.
S. Allow periods of darkness. True, photosynthesis occurs only during
periods of il lumination, but algae need periods of dark during which they
divide and thus increase.
6. Fertilize the culture. To do this, tbere are many ways ranging from exact
chemical formulas to sheep manure. A 6-3-6 commercial tobacco fertilizer
(6 per cent nitrogen , 3 per cent phosphoric acid, 6 per cent potash) is
adequate. Many manufacturers such as the American Agricu ltural Chemical
Company can supply it. Only a small amount is necessary ; one level tea-
spoonful to a gallon of water is adeq uate.
7. Keep the pH at 6 to 6.5 . If you use a chemical mixture instead of a
6-3-6, try using crystal line urea for the nitrogen because this ill not pro-
duce the acidity that many other nitrogenous ingredients of fertilizer wi ll.
If the water becomes too acid, it may pay to be sure you are not losing water
by evaporation and to add a sufficient amount of sodium bicarbonate to
neutralize the acid. One culture producing rapidly will last two to three
months. Of course, if you constantly remove parts of the culture to feed
Daphnia Or other small creatures, you will have to replace the water as well
as a little fertilizer.
8. Harvest frequently. If the culture becomes too bright a green, the algae
will die. Keep it a nice green color by removing some daily and rcplacing it
with an equal amount of new so lution.
9. Should your algae tank bccome contaminated with Daphnia or other
organisms, put some Mollies in the tank ; they will eat al l of the contaminating
organisms.
10. There are so many species of algae that they can be found in almost
every im aginable env ironment (some even grow in the dark). Some live
and grow best at low temperatures close to freezing ; others in the vicinity of
70 to 85 ° F. Daphnia, Cyclops and rotifers increase faste t at lower tem-
peratures. Therefore, be ready early in the spring and in the fall with algae
cultures, rather th an d urin g the hot summer months.
11 . If salt-water algae are needed for raising Brine Shrimp, use sea water if
possible.
Protozoa
Everyone of the animals in phylum Protozoa consists of a single cell and
is usually micro copic. Some of the larger protozoans may appe.a r to a person
with good vision as a grain' of dust, but, as we saw previou ly. for tiny
fish fry they constitute wholesome food. Some have whips or hairs which
propel tbem; some are stationary. Tbe word comes from protos meaning fir t
and zoon meaning animal. In the entire phylum reproduction is brought
about by division of the cells, never by eggs and sperm.
The names of many protozoa are familiar to high school biology students
who are generally introduced to that study by learning about such one-celled
animals as the Amoeba or the Paramecium.
No one knows to what extent mature fisbes-even those of tbe larger
species-depend on protozoa for food. Experiments in leaving fishes with-
out food show that some can live for months without wasting. May they not,
in part at least, be living on protozoa?
If you have never looked through a microscope at a drop of ditch water,
do it at your first opportunity. You wilJ thereby enter into a different world
as new and fascinating as any exploration into a foreign country. The drop
will be seen swarming with life- a whole population.
Look at a drop of green scum from the bottom of a water hole or pond
Hnd you will find oddly shaped drops of transparent living jelly-Amoebae.
Watch an Amoeba change shape ; watch it feed by flowing around its food
object. It has neither heart , nor lungs nor brain, but it goes on living and
reproducing. And tiny fishes eat Amoebae.
Other protozoa you will see have fixed enduring shapes and special or-
gans: whip-like flagella on some, spiral grooves along the sides of others.
But the most interesting fact to us about protozoa is the shortness of genera-
tions. Many are only one hour long. Imagine what this means!
Some typical protozoan types found in infusoria cultures.
In one hour, one becomes two . Tn two hours, four. ]n three hours, eight.
By the end of one day tbe animal could, jf every descendant lived up to its
potentialities, bave increased to j 6,772,096. No wonder water swarms with
them! The volume in the aggregate must mean more fish food than people
imagine.
Examination of home aquarium water sometimes reveals swarms of
protozoa. So we begin by suggesting that these single-celled animals may
be a main source of food for all aquarium fishes.
How can one breed them ? Since the food of protozoa is decaying organic
matter or the bacteria which develop from it, and since organic matter needs
a temperature of 60° F. or above to decay rapidly, putting any leafy vege-
table matter like weJl-shredded lettuce, alfalfa leaves, or old hay , into a pan
of ditch or pond water in a warm well-lighted place will, within two days,
create a teeming protozoan culture. And this may be continued by pouring
some of tbe water into a tank of young fry and replacing it with more pond
water or water from the faucet, provided the latter does not contain copper
or lead from pipes or ch lorine.
Infusoria tablets may be purchased which will help the culture grow
protozoa . The term infusoria, strictly speaking, refers only to that class of
protozoa with batteries of cilia (short hairlike whips growing from their
bodies with which the organism propels itself) but many use the term loosely
to mean all protozoa.
Paramecidae
Probably no protozoan has received as much concentrated srudy as has
the Paramecium . Its distribution is world-wide. It is one of the commonest
of protozoa and is easily cultivated . In its case a generation requires about
six hours. You may expect to find many in your protozoa culture.
A Paramecium is a single cell, but it is a ccli which can move about in the
water. It has a definite shape but it seems to change its outline considerably
owing to the fact that asymmetries of the body are whirled into view as the
animal swings along in a spiral path. Actually it remains the same.
It is about 111 ~~,th of an inch long. Only %2ti th of an inch seems prac-
tically nothing! But let's see. If a Daphnia, which is l/~ (;th of an inch lon g,
is a mouthful for a two-inch fish, then an organism as small as a Paramecium
is just abollt the equivalent for a quarter-inch long fi sh.
The front end of a Paramecium is rounded and the posterior end pointed.
The picture will help anyone with a microscope to differentiate it from
other protozoa. Around the outside of the body there are many cilia which
are its means of locomotion. By waving these it is able to push itself ahead or
move backwards. Sometimes one will see Paramecia propelling themselves
with the pointed end forward. If yo u observe one you will see cilia around
the mouth ; these serve to propel the food into the mouth.
Paramecia are very interesting little creatures, especially in their method
of feeding. Food is passed into the inside or soft endoplasm through a gullet
which is really a sort of funnel. The food becomes surrounded by what looks
like a little drop of water, forming what is called a food vacuole. The food
vacuole moves away from the end of the gullet; digestive juices form in the
protoplasm, break up the food, liquify it, and change it chemically so it can
be assimilated and built into -the protoplasm of the body. The indigestible
particles are discharged from the cell through a small opening which func-
tions as an anus. The wastes from the food and the protoplasm that is used up
in the work of the animal are probably discharged in the form of liquid by
two tiny, special organs, one on either side of the upper surface. When
Paramecia reproduce they do so by the cell dividing lengthwise. Sometimes
three or four generations of Paramecia are thus produced in onc single day.
A pair may join together, trade parts of their nucJeii , then disjoin. This is
not copulation but a sort of rejuvenation process.
It is practically impossibJe to grow a pure culture of Paramecia in hay
culture because of the fact that so many other organisms will be found in it
too.
© G eneral Biological Supply Ho use
Paramecia, single and dividing.
Harvesting cannot be done very well with a net. It is best accomplisbed

by simply pouring some of the culture directly into the tanks where the very
young fish fry are to be fed. By renewing the water in the culture, more
food can be removed every day for a good many days, or until the culture
becomes too contaminated by bacteria to be of any further use. U ually when
it gets in this condition the infusoria die. It is interesting to note that a
Paramecium can encyst by secreting a sort of gelatinous film about the body
so that it is able to live in a dry medium . It will remain inactive until it is
brought into water again. The dried organisms are so light that they may be
blown around by the wind.
Euglena (Euglena viridus)

As one might expect in arranging a large series of the protozoa, there are
some which puzzle biologists when it comes to classification. Take Euglena
for example. Here is a microscopic organism which possesses a flagellum
so that it can move, a mouth so it can eat, an eye spot so it is responsive to
light. But it also possesses chlorophyll, the substance which distinguishes
plants from animals. Euglena may even be an alga! In any event, it is a fi sh
food which can be specially cultivated. This is scarcely necessary , however, as
a Paramecia culture will usually have many Euglena.
C0 Gel/eral Biological Slipply H Ollsl'
Euglena viridus
Arthropoda
Animals made up of external segments and having segmented append ages
are arthropods. And there are at least 640,000 known species. Linnaeus
placed them all in the phylum Insecta. No wonder! They do look like water
bugs of various sizes! In the modern classification insects are part of the
arthropod phylum. Included also are crustaceans, arachnids and myriopod s.
The segments all have specialized sense organs--eyes for sight, hea ring or-
ga ns, feelin g and balancing organs. And they all have a cuticle or shell- like
covering.
Crustacea and In ecta interest us most because so many provide food for
fish. Examples of the former are crayfish, crabs, Cyclops, Brine Shrimp,
Fairy Shrimp, Gammarus, Daphnia, Bosmina. Examples of the latter are
mosquito larvae and Drosophila.
Because these animals bave their skeletons on the outside of their bodies,
they must shed often to make room for growth and many of them go through
marked changes from one stage to the next.
In the lower forms such as Cyclops and Brine Shrimp, the animals hatch
out as the naupliu!> type of larvae.
Most arthropods take care of their eggs and their young, carrying the
eggs until they hatch and then carrying the young. But some, like the Brine
Shrimp, do not.
Cyclops
One of the most abundant "fish food " creatures in the whole world .is the
genus Cyclops. 1t Eves in fresh and salt water and grows in enormous num-
bers. They reproduce extremely fa 1. In Cyclops we have reproduction by
eggs which the female carries in two large brood sacs. These one can see
extending out diagonally behind. Their powers of reproduction are so
enormous that it has been estimated that the descendants of one Cyclops
could number in one year four billion, five hundred million individuals. Of
course, not so many survive and well it is that they do not. They eat diatoms
and many forms of algae but thrive in colder water than one finds in aquaria.
Cyclops.
Cyclops make an excellent food for very small fishes and fry of almost
any species. They are extremely small and yet if you look closcly you can see
them darting spasmodically through the water in the aquarium. The creature
appears as you see it in the illustration. It has one single eye in the middle of
the head which gives it the name which was taken from the race of mythical
giants of Sicily. The pairs of antennae which are used in locomotion extend
from the front of the head. The legs are two-branched appendages also used
in swimming, but they are not hown in the figure. Neither is one pair of
the antennae. Two long appendages extend from the rear of the abdomen.
CyclOps culture is carried on in laboratories but fish hobbyist seldom
attempt it, finding it easier to net them. All winter they are brought in to
fish stores in cultures of Daphnia, and we have een them sold in such stores
as Daphnia even though they are much smaller than the commoner species
of the latter.
Daphnia
This tiny crustacean is considered by many to be the almost perfect fish
food. Yet it is 96 per cent water. As we have seen, enormous quantities have
to be eaten to satisfy a fish 's appetite. The nutritional qualities are all present
because fish do thrive on them when Daphnia constitute their exclusive food .
When a fish eats them, it consumes· eggs whieh the tiny creatures carryon
their backs, and some algae which the Daphnia have eaten and on which
they live. All this, besides the substance of the animals themselves.
If you collect Daphnia you may be netting anyone of fifty species and
. perhaps several species in one netful. And there is a chance that you may net
orne other creatures you think are Daphnia but which are actually only
similar; Bosmina /ongiroslris, for example, or Moina brachiata. The com-
monest species of Daphnia, which we have collected or bought in an aquar-
ium store and used to propagate more, have been D. pulex, D. longispina
and D. magna.
D ap hni a (D. Pulex) . Bosmi na.
If you attempt to classify the water fieas , you find that all the members
of the great sub-order, Cladocera, to which they belong have the following
characteristics in common: short compact bodies often enclosed in a cara-
pace, which is sort of a shield or shell and double in these instances. They
may have from four to six pairs of appendages. Some have a pair of tiny
antennae, behind which is a pair of large branched antennae which are used
for swimming. The abdomen is small and bent under the thorax or chest.
All of them have a single compound eye. The females have a large brood sac
on their top side in which the eggs are developed and the young are born-
small replicas of the parents. In the late fall if you examine the animals care-
fully with a magnifying device you will find the winter eggs to be provided
with a protective chitinous shell on each side which i called an ephippium.
These resemble a pair of tiny watch crystals whose edges fit together and
hold one or more eggs.
In this sub-order there are hundred of species, most of which are found
in fresh water and all constitute fish food. But of them all , the Family
Daphniidae are most often fed, and of this family the genus Daphnia with its
fifty species interests us most.
Incidentally, tiny species like Daphnia are usually measured in milli-
meters. A centimeter is about one-third of an inch and a millimeter is one-
tenth of that or about one-thirtieth of an inch.
D. pulex, the commonest water flea, has an oval body, often reddish in
color, a prominent beak on the underside of the head which is not set off from
the body by a notch. It may be 2 mm . long or longer. A sharp spine or tail
protrudes posteriorly.
D . longispina is distinguished by a tail-l ike spine which is almost as long
as its body. The creature does not attain quite the size of D. pulex.
D. magna is a giant compared with other species, often reaching a length
twice that of D. pulex-at least 4 mm.
W here to Fi nd Daphnia
Almost every fresh-water swamp will have some Daphnia, and while you
may h ave to hunt near the bottom to obtain even a few , there will be times
when you can net large numbers. If you can find a small pond into which any
fertilizer for algae drains, there you are bound to find Daphnia. We know of
one located just below a slaughter house. Blood from the animals killed
drains in to the pond. The minerals constitute a food for algae and the
Daphnia grow in enormous numbers.
Other ponds which take the drain age from careless farmers' manure pits
will have abundant Daphnia, and bodies of water below city dumps where
the washings from tin cans fertilize algae are worth investigating. Duck ponds
are almost always teeming with them .
Daphnia grow in colonies when their food is sufficient. The colonies ap-
pear green, brown or red. At times it requires some swishing near the bottom
to collect them and occasionally considerable sediment is mixed in the ball of
Daphnia in the net's tip.
The D aphnia net used by professionals can well be imitated, if you want
to make good hauls. This is generally a jointed pole which can be as much
as 10 feet long, or only 5 if one section is used. The hoop is usually a foot or
15 inches across. The net is pillow-case haped, omewhat larger in diameter
at its base than at its mouth. Rings or snaps are sewed at intervals into the
mouth's rim and used for attachment to the metal hOOp.
Since the water of the Daphnia pond or pool is generally murky, and
one cannot tell what junk or branches lurk below the surface--objeets which
. nag one's net-it is always well to have a couple of nets.
The net is usually made of nylon cloth, fine enough to hold the small
D aphnia yet large enough to permit water to seep through. One hundred
meshes to the inch is satisfactory.
When you move the net, it will require considerable strength to force
it through the water. If you do not move it hard enough the back end will
collapse and not balloon out. As you drop the net into the water, set it
down so that tbe bag end strikes the water and settles, letting the air out.
Then move the hoop in a figure eight, back and forth . When Daphnia are
abundant you can tell by the feel when the net is ready to be withdrawn,
for the tiny crustacea fill the spaces between the threads and hold back the
water.
Transporting Daphnia
There is no use collecting more Daphnia than you can use unle s you
have a way to keep them. Crowded and on a hot day, they will die before
you can get home and they spoi l quickly. Take along a can of ice cubes and
put them over the cubes; then hurry home. Contin ue to keep the Daphnia
cool, and they will live several days.
Some of the frozen Daphnia we have bought were those which had died,
partially decomposed , and had then been frozen to salvage what the col-
lector had. Don't let this happen to you. At close to freezing temperatures,
Daphnia will live a long while because their vital processes low down and
less oxygen is required. Even when crowded, they live for many hours if
they are kept cold . Deep-freeze quickly those which you can't use. There is
more about this, however, under frozen foods.
In harvesting, remember that at times Daphnia will be found on the
bottom, not . wimming at all. Many an aquarist has swished his net through
the water and found no Daphnia in it. But when he tries again and swishes
close to the bottom, he finds a goodly number in the net. The currents which
he set up close to the bottom float the water fleas upward so that they can be
caught. We have seen this in outdoor ponds in summer and found Daphnia
right on or in mud.
As to yields, one can take many pounds from even a sma ll pond. One
investigator from May 12 to June 3, from a 400-gallon pond , fertilized with
24 pounds of sheep manure and later 12 of ferti lizer, took 43 pails of Daph-
nia , of which part was water.
For the home aquarium, a bathtub set in the ground in the shade will
supply enough water fleas for feeding many tanks of fish- with enough over
for freezing a winter's supply. This is, of course, provided you give it the
attention necessary-feeding the Daphnia with algae you grow in another
tank or tanks.
Outdoor Daphnia Culture

Many managers of the tropical fish hatcheries, as well as the managers
of those for game fish all over the world, maintain Daphnia ponds. Many
owners of tropical fish stores also raise Daphnia in commercial quantities.
Nor is it difficult. The size of the "pond" can be anything from a bathtub
to a pool ten feet wide, fifty feet long and two feet deep. Even wider ones
are in u e and the owners wade in hip boots to harvest the Daphnia.
If you are one who has held the opinion that Daphnia live and increase
in nasty, polluted water, you will be surprised at how reasonably specific
their requirements actually are. Perhaps you have read about how cow or
horse manure was piled in a pond and how in time the Daphnia increased.
This doe not occur at once bu only after bacteria have multiplied and have
broken down the :filth and algae have grown on the fertilizer.
There is no doubt that finely powdered soybean or Lima bean meals have
proved their worth. A pint to each 100 cubic feet of water works wonders.
But so does 6-3-6 commercial tobacco fertilizer, as previously mentioned ,
or poultry manure or anyone of many organic fertilizers--even blood.
One pound of 6-3-6 fertilizer will fertilize about 100 gal lons of water. Keep
the water fairly shallow and stir it often, your object being to expose algae
to tbe sun's rays as often as possible. However, just as in indoor Daphnia
cu lture, it seems best to try to grow algae and the Daphnia will grow abun -
dantly .
If you live near a brook where you can dig a pond so that the brook
will fill the pond but not run through it, you have an ideal place to grow
water fleas. Whenever you wish you can replenish the water. If it becomes
infested with undesirable species you can empty out the water and start
afresh . And brook water is generally good water. If it is too acid, bicar-
bonate of soda will quickly n utralize it.
There have been many ideas promulgated for preparation of Daphnia
water but most of these really are concerned with food. Using garden soil,
sheep manure, and so forth is good but unnecessary. On pages 150- 54 we
spent some time on the subject of algae cu lture because algae are the
natural foods of Daphnia. If you use it for food you will succeed in growing
all the Daphnia you need.
It is on ly necessary to grow a nice green culture which you transfer by
some method to your Daphnia tank. It may be a constant drip or simply
quarts or gallons of the green water. Here are some of the ways we have
done it successfully:
1. A 23-gnllon tank of green water was maintained in a sunny window in a
fish room and fertilized with one tablespoonful of a 6-3-6 fertilizer per gal-
lon of water at the start. Aeration was maintained for circulation. When
the tank became a bright green color, one gal lon of water was removed
every day and fed in tbe morning to the Daphnia in a large tank. At night
the gallon of water was replaced with cold water from an outdoor tank and
a level teaspoonful of fertilizer added . The cold water reduced the tempera-
ture somewhat which, as we have seen, is an advantage. Of course, tbe excess
water in the Daphnia tank was removed, but this was just enough to replace
the aq uarium water lost by evaporation and siphoning.
2. In the drip method three 6-galJon carboys are placed on a rack under
the skylight in the fish room. Each carboy has an aerator and each is con-
nected to the other with a tube. The first is connected to a gallon jug which is
replenished daily. The hose from the third carboy run down to the Daphnia
tank and is set to drip one gallon of water a day. The gallon of water (with
the one teaspoon of fertilizer) is cold and when set in place it runs into
the first carboy at night. True, it lowers the temperature of only one carboy,
but this is all to the good. The carboys must be on different levels.
One gallon of good green water dripping into the Daphnia tank feeds a
great many Daphnia.
We mentioned proportions in considering the relative size of a fry and
a Paramecium. Think of the chief food of Daphnia and you will see what
small food particles must be eaten by them. Studies of the intestinal con-
tents of Daphnia reveal that it is almost all algae. It has also been found that
Daphnia eat some bacteria and can live on yeast cells.
The Fish and Wildlife Service of our U. S. Department of the Interior
publishes a Fishery Leaflet (No. 33 J ) on the culture of Daphnia, in which
are given instructions for raising Daphnia indoors or out. Fish hatcheries use
large amounts of Daphnia, Bass preferring the D. magna species.
Every student of the various Daphnia species emphasizes the importance
of using water which has not had contact wi th copper pipes or vessels. In
our experience, rain water gives excellent results. Water from a home well ,
as well as water which came through copper pipes killed algae and Daphnia
quickly.
Once you have a good green bloom, Daphnia increase rapidly. If you
inoculate the culture with Daphnia, in three weeks thereafter you will be
harvesting large numbers. Since Daphnia cultures begin to run out after a
month, a fact which you can ascertain by the numbers of winter eggs to be
seen, it pays to let the water out of the pond and start over.
During the hot summer days, unless you can keep the temperature of
the water below 75 ° F. it hardly pays to attempt to raise Daphnia. It is prob-
ably best to harvest large amounts in the spring and fall and freeze the sur-
plus for summer and winter feeding .
Frogs lay eggs in Daphnia pools. Winged insects do this too, but both
classes can be managed by netting out the visible frog eggs, thus preventing
tadpoles from hatching. The larvae of air-breathing insects can be killed by
pouring soybean, corn or cottonseed oil on the pool's surface. Since many
of the insects must breathe air, the oil destroys them.
Gammaridae
Tn this same class of shrimp-like creatures, Gammarus must be in-
cluded. It is excellent fi h food for large species. For small fishes it is useless
and lives and thrives along with them , living on both animal and vegetable
life either alive or dead. Most scientific descriptions of Gammarus tell us
the species is vegetarian.
Just which of the 250 species of Gamrnaridae may be infecting your
tank and eating your plants and fish food, and just which is worth growing
for fish food, remains for further study. Gammarus fasciafus has been de-
scribed by many authors as if it were the only one. Many species live in
fresh or brackish water.
Of the fifty genera in the Gammaridae family only a few concern us. To
the naked eye all are quite similar and a zoologist would need to be con-
sulted to identify those which anyone might net from a pond or stream.
Some will be 25 mm. long; some only 10. They vary in color froID white to
a greenish or brownish hue. Some remain in the water all the time; some live
in sea water part of the time and in damp seaweed for many hours on end
while tides ebb and flow. It is po ible that all of them can live several days
in damp plants. They are often shipped in damp plant bundles from grower
to hObbyist.
Gammarus jascia/us.
Gammarus [ocasta lives under stones and in seaweed. It is most com-

mon along the seashore from the Arctic Ocean to New Jersey and from
Alaska to California. G. annulatus is found froID the Bay of Fundy to Long
Island Sound. G. limnaeus and G. fasciatus live in fresh-water lakes and
streams.
There are nine known species of Carimogammarus a creature closely re-
sembling the species of Gammarus. C. mucronatus lives from Cape Cod south
to Florida, in brackish water and among algae.
Elasmopus includes a species, E. poeillimanus, which lives in salt water
and when the tide ebbs can be found in seaweed and under rocks near the
low water mark.
All of the Gammaridae can be bred in tanks. The above information
tells you their habits and where to collect them. Once baving found them,
then comes the job of making them increase-anyone of them is worth trying
but G. fasciatus to our knowledge is the only one much studied for aquaria.
They will breed at nearly any reasonably warm temperature. Out-of-doors
breeding begins in Spring and lasts until November. In thirty-nine days the
female is mature enough to produce her first eggs and thereafter produces
about twenty eggs every eleven days.
One indication that Gammaridae are in one's tank is holes in plant leaves
and the frequent loss of whole leaves by plants. C . fasciatus likes to live in
plant crowns. In stirring coarse gravel one may rout a great many which can
be netted and fed to tho e fishes which will eat them. Sea Horses are
especially fond of Gammarus.
Hya le lla (H. kn ickerbocke ri)

An excellent live food for the larger species of fishes, and one easily
raised , Hyalella is something many aquarists have been looking for. Some-
times it is mistaken for Gammarus. You can find it living on the bottom of
ponds of stagnant as well as clear water, for this crustacean is not par-
ticular about its environment. It will thrive at temperatures of 70 ° to
80 ° F. and reproduce throughout the year. Hyalella are large enough to eat
Daphnia.
This creature, which looks like a tiny lobster without claws, is about 6
mm. in length-or about two to three times as long as D. pulex. lts food
is anything that aquarium fishes will eat-animal or vegetable. It will evcn
eat Anacharis, and is something of a scavenger. No fancy equipment is
needed for its culture nor any great amount of aeration. Anything from one-
quart containers to larger receptacles is quite satisfactory.
Artemia (Brine Shrimp)

Artemia is frequently cited in biology classes as an animal which in
different environments varies so greatly in appearance as to seem to be two
distinct species. If Brine Shrimp are hatched in water with but a small
amount of salt and several generations are raised , the Brine Shrimp appears
one way. If, however, the generations are raised in increasingly salty water,
the Brine Shrimp looks like another species. Brine Shrimp from Great Salt
Lake in Utah appear different from Brine Shrimp found in the ocean off the
Connecticut shore; the species changes to suit its environment.
Every now and aga.in some new fish food comes to light from an unex-
pected place. One of the best of these was the eggs of Brine Shrimp which
the California Aquarium Society made available to hobbyists. They also have
a pamphlet on Brine Shrimp. These eggs, which wash up on the shores of
bodies of water in which Brine Shrimp live, are dried, processed and sold for
hatChing all over the world.
They are a clean, wholesome, enemy-free food which has been found to
be one of the best diets ever-for growing fry. Indeed, even in commercial
game fish hatcheries the feeding of newly hatched nauplii, not only grows
the fry fa ter but fewer of them die. Before this wonderful food was fed, the
® GelJeral BioloKical SlIpply fl ollse
Brine Shrimp (Arlemia salina).
percentage of fry raised might be 25 per cent of the hatch ; now, it is often
close to 100 per cent.
The same thing holds with aquari um fLhes ; they survive in much higher
percentages when fed Brine Shrimp nauplii .
For several years all of the Brine Shrimp egg. came from California, yet
they had been reported in Great Salt Lake and in Connecticut. The last
named locale has produced few shrimp but Great Salt Lake is now the
world's newest and most abundant source. The illustration shows a pile of
eggs-each of which is like a mustard seed-that was assembled by a
bulldozer. This gives one an idea of the enormity of the egg crop and makes
one realize how many shrimp must live in the lake to have produced such a
crop of eggs.
Mr. leon Sanders is the man we have to thank for two facts. First he
harvested mature shrimp for us, packaged tbem in small bags, froze and then
di tributed them. The shrimp crop failed due to several droughts when tbe
lake level was too low, and tbi ingenious man decided to hatch eggs separate
the nauplii from the shells, package, freeze and distribute the product. The
San Francisco Aquarium Society also markets packages of frozen Brine
Shrimp, both adult and nauplii. Today almost every fish supply tore sells
these frozen packages and tbe results from feeding the product are as good as
feeding nauplii one hatches oneself.
Over ten tons of shrimp eggs waiting to be processed.
Still many commercial batcheries continue to batch their own, buying

eggs eitber from California, Utah, or from a distributor. And some hob-
byists still batch their own using a pan or a small tank for a hatchery. Al-
most any non-con·o ive container can be used to hatch Brine Shrimp. Use six
tablespoons of coarse salt, one tablespoon of Epsom salts, and a balf-teaspoon
of borax to make up tbe sol ution in which to hatch the eggs. The water
A battery of lOO-gallon shrimp egg hatchers.

should be kept between 75 ° and 90 ° F. Add a half-teaspoon of eggs to each
gallon of water. Aeration is helpful.
Mr. Sanders conducted much research, making microscopic studies of
how the shrimp eggs hatch , the ideal temperature and the best mean of
hatching them. He found the ideal temperature to be 85 ° F. at which degree
hatching is complete in twenty-four bours. He learned that tbe water needs
movement to keep the eggs from settling and asphyxiating the bottom ones as
they are hatching. And Mr. Sanders invented the hatching bottles which
many fish supply stores sell.
If you are interested in hatching your own, you sho uld k now these facts
about the eggs:
Each egg is about 11, ~,(lth of an inch wide. It is shaped like a teacup
and appears hollow with a distinct rim around it. After the egg has soaked
in the water it becomes round but still shows the rim as a circle about the
egg although the circle is depressed.
The egg cracks at right angles to thc depression and the crack extends
only as far as the depression. The shrimp nauplius emerges through the
crack a nd is enclosed in a thin transparent sac which fi lls the crack and
prevents water from entering the egg. The shrimp inside the sac emerges
and the egg closes. The depression ha acted as a hinge. The shell , now
empty, floats like a ball, holding onto the sac below until the na uplius has
ruptured the sac and swum away.
How to Operate a Hatcher

Do you want to halch shrimp eggs? Get a bottle like that in the illustra-
tion.
/ ___- - - - -,\............ _ Handle for bolding jar .

......... .......... Arrow shows direction of the air after it bubbles up
throu gb tbe hatcbing solution in the jar.
:. ~ :~ .~
::'~;: .:........................... Plast ic tube conducts the a ir from the jar to your filter or
·~·W· a ir stone. in the aquarium. Note that it extends above 'the
:!-. water line.
.':~.:
.",.
':ot~ I
, !.'
~'~~'
,,"
:!: ............ __ ._ Air sl'oue. It is faste ned to the line from your pump.
i' i! ' .................... Rubber cork .
........................ This line comes from your pump. (Line A.)
,,: .. ........... , ... This line goes to your filter, or airstone, on your aquarium.
(Line B.)
First, stand the jar in an upright position and remove the rubber cork.
Pour in tbe solution to within two inche of the top . A sinlple solution can
be made up of six tablespoons of non-iodized alt to the gallon of water.
In a one-quart hatcher, put one-fourth of a teaspoon of eggs; in a two-quart
sized hatcher. use a half-teaspoon of eggs; and in a gallon hatcher use one
teaspoon of eggs. Now run line A (see above diagram) to your air pump
(have the motor shut off). Line B can now be connected to your filter or air
stone in the aquarium. Take the hatcher by the handle and turn it upside
down . 1n this position hang it on the aquarium, either inside or out. It is
best to hang it at the back of the aquarium so that it will be out of sight. Now
start the air pump. The air will come from your pump to the hatcher,
entering it at line B, and will aerate the shrimp hatching solution upon
emerging from the airstone at the bottom. Line B is a long plastic tube which
reaches above the hatching solution in the hatcher. )t is through this line
that the air continues on to your aquarium, to be used by your filter or air-
stone. The hatcher utilizes your air for your aquarium without taking one
bit from it. And, if your hatcher is hung inside your aquarium, the tem-
perature of the aquarium wiH give you a fair temperature in your shrimp
hatching solution-and this is important, as proper temperature in th e
hatching of shrimp is the most important single factor! If you can arrange
to have it 85 ° F . that is even better.
An aquarium fitted with Brine Shrimp egg hatchers.

How to Remove the Shrimp

Turn off the motor. Remove the hatcher from the aquarium. Stand it
upright. In a few minutes the shrimp will have gathered at the bottom, and
you can siphon them off with a rubber tube into a fine nylon net.
Other Methods of Using This Shrimp Hatcher
If you have lots of fish and need lots of shrimp every day for several
feedings, you can hook up several of these hatchers together, in series.
Simply hang up as many hatchers as you want, side by side. Run the air into
the first one and from there into the second and so on down to the last jar.
For a small fish hatchery, this is an ideal setup, as you can operate such a
large number of them with one small motor.
Another simple method for hatching is to use an aquarium with salt
water, a heater to maintain 85 F., and an aerator. Seed th eggs on the
0
water. Twenty-four hours later place an electric light bulb at one end of the
tank. The nauplii will move toward it. You can use a fine net and net them
out, putting them into a small container of fresh water and then feeding
them with a bulb syringe. Or you can siphon the shrimp out through a nct
and return the water to the tank.
Turn the air off for several hours and siphon the empty eggs off the bot-
tom through a net and save the water. For over a year, that was the way one
of us hatched all the nauplii we needed for eighty tanks of Guppies-all from
a 23-galJon tank.
Should you decide to raise the shrimp to fulJ size, you. can do it but you
must feed them. Better maintain a large tank of sea water in a sunny window
and let algae grow in it. Feed the green water to the shrimp and they will
thrive. Ocean water seems to have plenty of natural algae to start its own
culture. Air is helpful in keeping it agitated and in bringing the organisms to
the outside where they can absorb their charges of light energy.
In an outdoor tank, we have kept Brine Shrimp all summer and they
reproduced nicely. The brine was not 25 per cent salt like that in Great Salt
Lake but simply water from Long Island Sound with two pounds of salt and
a half pound of Epsom salt added to the 200 gallons of water.
This formula has been found satisfactory for growing Brine Shrimp:
Use a 10-gallon tank. •
Water, 5 gallon.
Table salt, 5 coffee cupfuls (60 ozs.) .
Epsom salts, 10 tablespoonsful.
Bicarbonate of Soda, 5 tablespoonsful unless water is alkaline.
Keep the solution alkaline (pH 8).
Temperature 75 0 to 80° F.
As the tank water clears add 6-3-6 fertilizer which will be about
twice a week.
When the shrimp are large enough to feed, swish some out with a net
which is coarse enough to permit the nauplii to strain through. Leave enough
large shrimp to breed-which they will start doing at about two weeks of age.
The male attaches himse lf to the female and they swim about in this fashion
for several days. The female lays eggs-about 200 eggs per spawning-
which float and stick to the glass above the water line, especia lly above the
aeration . It makes an unsightly tank.
H you find the adult shrimp disappearing it is because tbey have a short
life span. It is, therefore, wise to seed the tank once a week to get started.
Feeding wi th specially grown salt-water algae is usefu1. And don't let
the water level drop too much from evaporation. Raising adult Brine Shrimp
is possible, fun , and educa tional. You judge whether it is practical.
With the advent of frozen Brine Shrimp and their nauplii, those of us
who have tried it find that the time and troubII! which raising adult shrimp
entails makes the process scarcely worth-while. But there will be those who
will insist on trying it, and who knows? Perhaps someone will hit on a way
to make it practicable.
Fairy Shrimp
With the present emphasis on Brine Shrimp and their frozen nauplii. one
tends to forget that Brine Shrimp are only one member of the group of
species collectively called Fairy Shrimps--of which group one particular
species, Eubranchipus vernalis, goes by that name. They can be found in
pools in early spring-sometimes even pools made by melting snow. Then
in a few days they will be gone.
Most of the shrimps used for tropical fish food are able to lay egg.
which hatch without being fertilized . Such eggs are small and thin shelled.
the so-called summer eggs. If drought or cold weather approaches, males
are born from these parthenogenic eggs, and they fertilize the females. The
eggs from such unions are large and thick shelled and are called winter eggs.
These can survive drought and freezing. Many are so light they can be blown
by the wind for considerable distances.
Most Fairy Shrimps live in fresh water. They nearly all swim on their
backs. There are three divisions and ove! 100 species and almost all live in
places which dry up in summer.
Fairy Shrimp (Euhranchipus vernalis).

Fairy Shrimp grow to 23 millimeters-almost an inch-long. They are
soft and are relished by fishes large enough to eat them-Killifishcs, Cich lids,
Barbs, Anabantids. They keep everal weeks in a refrigerator if the water is
changed regularly.
Insecta
Mosquito Larvae
When we realize that tropical fishes of several species have been used by
sanitation engineers to control tbe mosquito nuisance, we can better under-
stand what a wonderful food the larva of the mosquito is. The wonder
is that more hObbyists do not regularly collect the food. Perhaps they dread
the mosquitoes which will emerge from the larvae if too many are fed. For
such small fishes as breeding Guppies we have found this food among the
very best and have had no trouble with the mosquito problem. Frozen, too,
the e larvae make excellent food for any aquarium fish .
Let's see how they reproduce, where they live and how best to collect
them. Mosquitoes are arthropods belonging to the class Insecta.
Only female mosquitoe. suck blood, u. ually from mammals and birds.
Once charged with an 3bdomen full of blood the female copulates with a
ma le. When the eggs are ready to be laid, she flies to the surface of a body of
stagnant water early in the morning, deposits the eggs, and binds them to-
gether in a tiny saucer-shaped raft. The rafts of some species contain 200
eggs.
The eggs hatch in a day and each minute larva-called a wriggler and
scarcely ~~ (ith of an inch long-is equipped with a breathing tube on
the tail end of its body. At the slightest vibration it can dive downward
and remain submerged several minutes. Mosquito larvae can also take oxygen
Mosquito larva and pupa.

from the water. They live on decaying organic matter, algae, bacteria, pro-
tozoa and so forth and grow rapidly. The larvae molt several times, then are
near the time to turn into mosquitoes. They turn into pupae and breathe from
two air tubes at the thorax . You can see them curled up, looking like small
blackish balls when you catch them , but even in a glas jar they soon uncurl
and gather at the surface, pushing their thoracic air tubes through the water's
surface.
When they reach about a quarter of an inch in length it is almost time
for them to hang at the surface while they split down the back. From the
shell the flying insect emerges. The whole proce. requires about seven to
ten days depending on the temperature.
Anyone can coHecl mosquito larvae by setting some containers of water
out and cau ing the water to become active with decaying vegetable material.
Part of a head of lettuce will soon decay and in a few days larvae can be
netted .
For young fry the darkish rafts of eggs, about as large as bran flakes.
can be carefully transferred to the aquarium where the fry will eat the
larvae as they hatch.
Collecting a supply for home use or for freezin g can be done in many
places. If you can find a swampy area, shovel out a few holes two feet square
and ten inches deep. Sometimes for several weeks in the spring you can
net a half teacup of larvae once a day from three such holes. But you must
stand perfectly still beside them until the surface is black with the larvae
and net them with one swish of a broad net.
One of us once visited a city dump where there were many containers
capable of holding water and each was swarming with larvae. We poured
the water through nets and then put the larvae into a pail of water. From an
hour's fun we had a full pint of larvae which we froze.
One need not be careful about overcrowding the larvae or fear they will
die as Daphnia do in hot weather, because tbe larvae mostly breathe air.
Mosquito larvae 'probably eat algae, for they did very well in one of our
algae tanks which bad a little sbeep manure in it for fertilizer. From that
tank we had all the larvae we needed for our fishes for most of a summer. We
were glad the neighbors never discovered this menace because we are sure
many mosquitoes escaped from it despite our best efforts to sneak up on them
and remove all which were at tbe surface. There are some species of algae
with which mosquito larvae cannot jive. If your attempts to raise larvae fail.
perhaps you have the wrong kind of algae.
Glassworms
Transparent creatures that appear to be half worm and half fish, Glass-
worms are the larvae of Chaob-orus, an aquatic insect. They have the unusual
ability to live in freezing water and doubtless supply some of the food for
lake fishes in the winter. Glassworms are almost transparent with dark spots
near either end, and are about half an inch long.
Glassworms.
When you have made certain that they are present in a pond. you can
break the ice and catch large numbers jn a cheesecloth net. The plankton,
the masses of miaoscopic animal and plant life in fresh water, usually contains
large numbers of Gla sworms. They can be kept alive in cold water for a
month or even more. Keeping them cold also prevents their development
into an insect. There need be little fear of their dying from crowding.
Gl assworms are often sold during the winter months by aquarium supply
companies.
Some ag uarists feel that Glassworms, possibly because of their length,
are dangerous. Fry appear to choke on them when overfed, but small
quantities do no harm.
Bloodworms
These larvae of a mosquito-like insect, the midge Chironomu.I', are greatly
relished by fi sh. Three-quarters of an inch long. Bloodwonns are small ,
jointed creatures, red in color. They are a favorite food of Brook Trout.
Bloodworms live in muddy , silty places and are collected just as Tubifex.
Worms are. Even without silt they will keep a long time in cold water, but
if the water is allowed to get warm Bloodworms will often develop into
winged forms.
Bloodworm.
Meal Worms
Sometimes Meal Worms die for want of ventilation, so do not try to raise
them in sealed containers. The best temperature is about 80° to 85 ° F.
The size of the container to use depends upon the number of worms desired.
The best culture medium is bran. Meal Worms will not thrive in a medium
which is bone dry, and neither will they live long in damp environments,
because mold grows there. Some Meal Worm growers lay one or two thick-
ne ses of damp burlap over the whole mass but this mu t not be too wet.
Small amounts of apple peelings, carrots, and potatoes can be placed on the
burlap.
® G eneral Biological SlIpply Jl Ollse
Meal Worms.
After you have introduced beetles into the culture, you will have to wait
some time for worms to feed. You can count on about three generations a
year. The beetles lay eggs. The larvae which hatch eat the bran or whatever
you are using to feed them. This passes through the larvae and becomes
powdery, so fresh bran should be added. When there is a preponderance of
the powder, ift it all through a one-eighth inch screen sieve which will per-
mit Jarvae eggs and culture to pass through .
The beetles which have died of old age will not cling to the screen ; the
live beetles will, so you can tilt the screen and let the dead ones roll out. Put
the live beetles into a new culture to lay more eggs.
Now sift the larvae out of the powdery culture with a fine screen and
put them into fresh bran, with some vegetables. Sift out the dusty material
and add fresh culture. You will have full grown larvae in three months, at
which time they pupate for about ten days, lying about helplessly. Remove
the pupae to a fresh dry culture, or pick out the beetles as they emerge from
the pupa cases and place them in another container. These are the egg layers;
the larvae are the fish food. The Meal Worms to be fed later may be kept in
the refrigerator which prevents their developing into beetles.
Drosop hila (Fruit Flies)

Drosophila are clean, have no parasites harmful to fi h , are easily fed
and greatly relished. Each fly is about one-tenth of an inch long. Because
the fly's body is soft, a small fi sh can bite pieces off. They float and any un-
eaten flies can be netted off the surface.
Wingless fruit fly (Drosophila).
To breed fruit flies use any kind of widemouth bottles of any size. Pint-
sized, old-fashioned milk bottles are excellent. Place a plug of cotton in the
mouth.
For food or culture medium mix:
One heaping teaspoon of shredded agar dissolved in one and a half pints
of boiling water. Add two heaping tablespoonsful of yellow corn meal and
boil five minutes. Add three and a half tablespoonsful of dark molasses and
the same amount of corn syrup (Karo) and mix them into the solution.
Sterilize some bottles and pour a half inch of this medium into the bottom
of each and store them away in a refrigerator. As you need a bottle, take a
yeast cake, make a thin paste, and pour this over the jelly in the bottle. Crum-
ple some absorbent paper and drop it into the bottle so it will soak up surplus
moisture and provide a place for the flies to live.
Introduce some flies and leave the bottle at room temperature. Female
flies lay eggs at the surface of the medium. The eggs hatch in two days, feed
on the medium and live in it. They grow for three or four days, pupate,
emerge four days later, and will soon be laying eggs.
Each generation takes about ten days. Adults live three or four times
that long, so start feeding flies by the time your second generation appears.
You will have a swarm in each bottle by that time. There are both winged
and wingless varieties of Drosophila. Make sure that you use the wingless
variety.
Flying Insects
Included in the natural foods of all omnivorous fishes are flying insects.
They are blown down onto the water of their native habitats and quickly
consumed . Every fish owner has seen how avidly the fishes in his aquarium
will dart up at a stray moth, mosquito, or other insect which is dropped on
the water.
Very few aquarists, however, seem to realize how easy it is to capture
myriads of these creatures during the summer. An electric fan with a large
cheesecloth stocking attached to the guard, plus an electric-light bulb, is all
one needs. The light is fixed directly in front of the fan. After dark the light
and the fan are turned on, and nature does the rest. The bugs fly to the
light; the fan sucks them into the stocking, from which they can be removed
and fed to the fishes after sorting out those too large for the fishes to eat.
These insects furnish good live food. Usually they have been so badly mauled
by going through the fan and being pinned against the cloth that they are
unable to fly from the top of the water of the aquarium where they are
dropped.
Annelida
Today when the average aquarist thinks about worms for his fish, either
White Worms or Tubifex Worms come to mind. This is a shame as many
other species of worms constitute excellent fish food . And this is written with
no intention of detracting from the value of these two species. What boy
hasn't fished for wild , coid-water fis hes with garden worms? ADd you now,
"a boy grown tall," can still remember what small fish you ca ught on quite
large worms.
The Annelid Worms

In the phylum Annelida are all of the true worms that we feed our fis hes.
What are called worms are freq uently not-Blood worms, for example-but
merely the larvae of insects. Yet there is a true annelid worm properly called
Bloodworm, a creature too large for aquarium fishes.
All the "real" worms have a distinct head, a coelom (that part of the
body which in higher animals contains the vital organs), a digestive tube,
and some have paired appendages which are never jointed. They seem quite
crude creatures but they do have brains and some have tentacles and special
sense organs. Some of them have appendages which are used for breathing.
Some have eyes. A cuticle covers the body which is smooth without cilia.
One of the important feature of the annelids, one which many persons
never knew, is that they "breathe" through the entire surface of the body.
They have blood vessels and some have red blood. They have nerves and a
primitive brain. Their reproductive organs, which frequently are not noticea-
ble until the breeding season arrives, are quite simple in the case of unisexual
annelids. Some are hermaphroditic-each worm being of both sexes-and
have complicated reproductive organ.
Some annelid worms are very small; some twelve feet long-one such
species lives in Australia. Some live in water among seaweeds, but many are
terrestrial- living in the soil. If one reads descriptions of them in books on
zoology. one can't help wondering how many could be easily bred in cap-
tivity and used for fish food. Only half a dozen of the 6,500 different species
that have been described by scientists are ever discussed , so one would be
foolish to say that the opportunities were not tremendous for the discovery
of many as yet unknown food sources for our finny pets.
The species of Annelida are grouped into five classes. The earthworms,
White Worm and some others we use for fish food all belong to the class
Oligochaeta. These are all characterized by producing cocoons containing
eggs.
Earthworms
Earthworms belong to severa l families including Lumbricidae. Most of
them live in soil but a few live in water. In all there are eight genera and about
150 species. Some common worms are ten inches long, some five , some four,
some three and some one and a half inches long when mature.
It is possible for anyone wanting to raise worms to start with sonle
spec ies and produce large numbers. but it is much easier in the case of the
larger species to collect them at night.
Worms eat more food than most people realize. Worm casts on an aver-
age acre of farm soil or lawn by loosening the soil actually raise the level of
the soil one-fifth of an inch a year. This is the work of about 50,000 worms.
Reproduction in all the earthworms, and all are hermaphrodites, occurs
by two worms joining in opposite directions and each expelling sperm
which is received by the other and stored in tiny sacs. Just before egg laying
a thick band of mucous is built up, encircling the worm's body. Into this band
the worm secretes a milky food for the newly hatched worms. The band
moves forward along the body picking up the eggs on the way. Farther for-
ward it receives the sperm which fertilizes the eggs. As the ring passes off
from the front end of the worm it contracts to form what appears to be a
seed, about a large as a grain of wheat. This is the cocoon. You can find
these under stones or boards-in any protected place. They can be used to
start worm cu ltu res.
Decide which specie of worms to raise. Get some of tbe adult worms or
worm capsules. A 50-gallon barrel sawed in half can be kept in a cellar and
thousands of worms raised in the two halves. Fill them with rich garden soil
mixed with chopped alfalfa, hay or grass; lawn clippings are excellent. Keep
the soil moist. Put rotted leaves aD top to hold in moisture.
Worms will grow in proportion to the food they consume. 1n sand or soil
without humus when not fed they perish in a short time. And earthworms of
all the terrestrial species will thrive on many forms of organic matter. Rolled
oats, potatoes, cottage cheese, dry dog food-many foods nouri. b them but
one must not feed so much that mold forms . And remember that worms drag
food down into their burrows.
Separating earthworms from soil may be done by removing a lump
and letting it become dry in a box. The worms will leave it for a damp patch
of soil next to the dry lump. Wash this dirt off them and soak them in water
for ten or fifteen minutes and they will at least partially clean themselves.
Even the smallest of the earthworms may be too larg for smaller fi shes.
Cichlids, Paradise Fish , and other such large varieties can negotiate a fair-
sized worm. but White Clouds, Tetras, and Guppies do no more than peck
at them. For them, the worms must be chopped or ground-a messy business,
to be sure, but one well worth the effort. When they are ground. however,
it is most important to feed no more than the fish will cat quickly , as any
surplus decays and soils the tank.
White Worms
Most of the 350 species in 17 genera live in fresh water or along the sea
coast. All we aquarists read of these species is abo ut one which is called the
"White Worm" without any identification (really Enchytraeus alhidus) , but
let us tell you briefly about some others:
Lumbricillus riva/is. Half an inch long; pink or brown; found along the
shore under seaweed near the high water mark.
Fredericia alba. Two-thirds of an inch long; found in wet moss and leaves
in the woods.
F. parva. One half-inch long a nd opaline white. Also found in damp
leaves in the woods.
F. agilis. One inch long ; found in the soil in I1Jinois.
Mesenchytracus beumeri. One inch long; found in wet places. Com-
mon in Europe and also found near Philadelphia.
These are worms anyone can obtain and perhaps start a new source of
fish food when he learn the best culture methods for them. But they are only
five out of many simi lar species. What an opportunity!
Enchytraeus albidus, to aq uarists the most widely known species of
White Worm, is fully as good for fish as is the earthworm, and it breeds
more rapidly. It grows to an inch in length and as thick as a heavy thread,
and has the advantage of not needing to be diced or hashed for feeding.
If the fish fanc ier has facilities for keeping a tub or box of rich garden
soil with some leaf mold in it at a temperature between 45 ° and 60 ° F. , he
can raise E. albidus by the thousands. Now that we have worm separators,
it is no trouble to obtain adequate portions for feeding in a few minutes.
The first breeding lot can be purchased from a supply house , transferred
to a tub of well-rotted leaf mold, fed on nearly any organic human food,
except meat, and the worms will thrive and multiply prodigiously, a given
number doubling every three weeks.
The worms must not be overfed for the excess food putrifies. Holes may
be poked in the soil with a broom handle and small amounts of bread,
powdered dog biscuit. rolled oats, raw oatmeal, cheese, corn meal, rna hed
potatoes. skim-milk powder, or meal-type dog food dropped in.
Too much water is inadvisable because it produces mud in the tub bot-
tom and leaves less room for worn1S. There may be some virtue in leaving the
tubs uncovered , since the evaporation of the water and its constant replace-
ment help to keep the soil cool. The leaf mold need not be expensive. Soil
from a Horist's compost heap, if it is not mostly sod , is fine for White Worm s.
The black, decaying leaves from the forest floor. mixed with a little dried
sheep manure, will grow worms as well as any medium. Powdered decay
from old stumps can be mixed in to provide a good consistency.
For those who raise their own White Worms some mean of separating
them from the leaf mold is essential. Many an amateur has tried picking the
wom1S out of a ball of soil with tweezers and has wondered if there weren'(
some easier and better way. As a matter of fact, there are a number of prac-
tical method, all of them based on the fact that worms like cool temperatures.
One practical application of this principle is a device consisting of a
small screw-top Mason jar. A metal container an inch high with a wire
bottom is screwed onto the jar. On top of the con tainer there i a metal
cover in which a small electric-light bulb is fixed . The jar is filled to the
brim with cold water. The container is filled with leaf mold holding the
worms to be separated, the cover is put in place, and the light switched on.
In a few minutes the worms begin to fan through the water to the bottom
of the jar, from which they can be transferred to the aquarium.
Some aquarists slowly lower containers fiIJed with White Worms in leaf
mold into their aquariums by string attachments. As the worms start to
A White Worm separator.
crawl from the soil, the fish pull them out and eat them. This method soils
the water less than one would think .
Still another way to harvest a crop of White Worms is to lay a piece of
burlap over the leaf mold or soil, sprinkle a littl e damp food on the top, then
cover the tub . By the foUowing morning a good number of worms will have
crawled on top of the burlap and can be scraped off and dropped into tbe
water.
When a culture is thriving, a depression in the soil may be filled with
oatmeal gruel and by the next day a tangled mass of worms will be found
surrounding it. The mass will come away from the soil and gruel quite
cleanly.
Other methods are: place a walnut-size lump of soil containing the
worms on a saucer. Pour about a thimbleful of water over it and place ao-
other saucer on top. Do not disturb for about ten minutes. At tbat time lift
the top off and you wiU find the worms clinging to the saucer in clumps.
Or place a lump of soil and worms in a dish. Pour half an inch of water
over it. As the lump disintegrates the worms crawl away from it and may be
picked up with tweezers.
Always let White Worms soak in water for ten minutes or so before
feeding them. In that time they will not drown and will have voided much
of their intestinal contents.
The Grindall Worm

Named for Mrs. Morton Grindall who first showed the aguarium world
the practicability of cultivating this one-fifth inch long, thin , white worm.
We are not sure of the exact nomenclature. According to one zoologist,
there may be more than one worm represented . Referring to Pratt's Manual
of the Common Invertebrate A nimals, one finds a large number of possibili-
ties for discovery and culture; worms from the size of what we call "micro-
worms" up to the common White Worm, all awaiting study by aguarists.
This little Grindall worm may be cultured in a much warmer temperature
than can Enchytraeus albidus, a point in its favor. The medium is usually
moist peat moss, kept at about 70° F. Food is oatmeal , mjddlings, bread
and milk-more or less the same food that the large White Worm eats.
Cover the box with a tight glass and if you have the peat moss higb
enough in the box so that this lid touches it, tbe little worms will be found
sticking to it. To feed them to your fish use a spatu la and scrape off what
you need.
Micro-Worms
The smallest species of worm for fish feeding is also one of the newest
introduced to the fancy. The creature is so small one mu t look hard to
distinguish one; Micro-Worm are seen as a mass.
The name is Penagrellus silusia. It lives in moist environments with
plenty of carbohydrates present. 1n optimum culture media the species in-
creases with amazing speed. This is partly explained by the short gestation
period-the young are born alive-and by the hart time interval between
birth and the age at which the young begin to reproduce.
Many culture have been tried but fish hobbyists find it easiest to use
a mixture of baby cereal-Pablum, Cerevim etc., five to ten parts plus one
part of dry brewer's yeast. This is moistened sufficiently to make a gruel and
placed in a flattish container with a lid. Ordinary room temperature i
practical. The culture is inoculated with worms, which in a matter of days
cover the culture and soon are crawling up the sides and even on the lid.
To feed the worms to young fry and to fishes of the smaller species it
is only necessary to scrape the orms off the sides of the container with a
thin-bladed knife, or dip the lid in tank after tank washing off some worms
in the water of each. Another way, and this is practical, is to stick slivers of
wood into the culture. The worms ascend these, often covering them thickly.
Each sliver is grasped by a pair of tweezers, removed and turned upside
down a it is swished in a fish tank, thus washing the worms off. This done it
is returned to the culture.
Fish trained to eat other foods will often refuse M icro-Worms. Those
which learn to eat them grow well. Be sure, therefore, that your fi sh eat the
worms and that you are not simply polluting the tank.
Lining the bottom of a Tubifex feeder with absorbent cotton converts
it into a Micro-Worm feed er.
Tubificid Worms
These small , reddish, jointed worms are coming into greater popul a rity
every year becau e fish fanciers are learning how simple, if messy, it is to
gather them, and beca use they are relished by most fi shes. Nearly all fi sh
stores sell Tubifex Worms of which there are 113 known species. Actually,
although they are still called Tubifex, th e worms col lected are sometimes of
other genera- Limnodrilus, for example. To be precise, we should call the
worms Tubificids.
In muddy patches on a stream bottom they live in colonies. E ach worm
has a tube-like pocket in the mud, from which its posterior end projects and
whips slowly back and forth. The slightest disturbance ca uses it to withdraw
completely into the pocket. The best place to find Tubificids is in the mud of
the flats made by a sluggish stream, below a sewer outlet. At times Daphnia
fishermen sieve out a good catch of worms which have been moved in a large
group well up in the water. But, since they live in the mud in large numbers,
they can also be obtained by shoveling up an inch or two of the surface
mud and transferring it to a carrier, mixing it with water until the thread -like
worm can be drained out and washed free of dirt. If you can find a shallow,
flat area of a stream some distance below a sewer entrance, you are quite
likely to find a large area of the stream bottom a waving ma s of these red
worms. The sewage may have decomposed sufficiently to have depOSited a
dark film of decaying organic matter which the worms break down further
A colony of T ubificids.
and increase rapidly. This is not to say tbey must have sewage to live on,
because often they can be found in the mud on lake bottoms into which no
sewer drains. Only Tubificids found in ponds away from sewage are safe to
handle with one's fingers.
Another way of separating Tubificids is by filling a fairly large container
with the mud and warming it. As the heat reaches tbem the worms migrate
to the surface where they can be easily removed. Suffocation forces tbem
out of the mud . If they are then placed in gently running water, the mud will
be washed away and leave the worms in a large spongy mass at the bottom
of the container.
Tubificids live well in cold storage. They survive best in shallow un -
covered containers with an inch of water which is changed daily and
refrigerated at 40° to 45 ° F.
The worms should be fed only as fast as the fish consume them. Those
that are not eaten will burrow into the gravel.
Some aquarists feed Tubificids every day. Many of the finest fishes are
raised and grown rapidly on them; but you will find that other experts ad-
vise feeding the worms not oftener than at three day intervals. We have fed
Guppies, Platys, Mollies on Tubifex twice daily for several months without
noting any harm.
Some fish owners permit tap water to run over a sha llow container of
Tubifex to keep them washed and to eliminate any gray dead ones. It pays to
break the knots of worms up occa. ionally to rid them of these dead mem-
bers and the filth which accumulates under the knots . There is no dirtier
food to feed your fish than Tubificid Worms, yet with proper precautions
few better foods either.
Place a large ball of Tubifex Worms in a pan, and half a day later turn
the lump of worms over and observe the mass of evil smelling filth which
has collected, almost all of which was di gorged by the worms. You may
smell the typical odor of feces in newly harvested worms before they have
been allowed to clean out in running water. It is probably not the substance
of the worms themselves which is harmful but the intestinal contents which
sickens fish-if it does. Nevertheless, our experience with these worms is
most satisfactory. If the lump of worms is turned over occasionally and
water is circulated about tbem, in a few days the worms will be clean.
Rotifera
The rottler belongs in the phylum Trochelmintbes (wheel-worms). The
illustration appears unlike any worm, and yet rotifers have many character-
istics in common with worms.
Tbese minute, yet very common, aquatic animals constitute excellent
fry food and orne can be cultivated in tanks. However, with wild rotifers
growing in such abundance in pools, it would seem quite unnecessary to
raise them. An interesting feature of their natural history is their sex life.
The males are minute degenerate animals while the much larger females are
of two types: mictic and amictic. The former are capabJe of being fertilized
and the latter are not, but both types produce eggs. The amictic produce only
female offspring. If the mictic are not fertilized they produce only male
offspring, whereas if they are fertilized these females produce "resting" or
winter egg which can survive drying, cold and general unfavorable condi-
tions. When these eggs hatch the progeny are amictic which in turn produce
both types of females .
Because of these fact Rotifers are easy to find in ditch water. They are
visible to the naked eye but are not large enough for their details to be ob-
served. If you have even an 8-power glass you can enlarge them enough to
see them quite distinctly. They are about as large as newly hatched Brine
Shrimp nauplii- J,~(l th of an inch.
They live on decaying organic matter. algae and bacteria. In appearance
all of tbe rotifers , and for that matter all of the Trochelminthes which com-
pose the phylum of which Rotifera are a class, are cone shaped with the
left and right sides being the same. The top, or corona. has a band of cilia,
which does not propel the organism but probably directs food into its
mouth. At the lower end there is a foot containing glands capable of secret-
ing a sticky substance which is adhesive even under water. The foot has up
to four "toes"-sometimes none at all--depending on the species. Some
possess eye spots.
The rotifer known as Ephipanes senta (or Hydarina senta ) is one of
the best fish foods. The illustration shows it in detail. It has two "toes."
With a microscope the five prominences about its mouth and the fine short
hair-like tufts may be plainly seen.
To grow rotifers, should you decide to try some spring or fall, it is only
necessary to use a tank with considerable light for algal growth, some de-
caying leaves in the bottom, and a small amount of fertilizer for the algae.
Harvesting the tiny creatures may be done by using a fine nylon net, swishing
it through the water and then turning the net inside out in the water of the
tank of fishes to be fed.
Collecting rotifers is simple once their pre,ence is determined. Look for
them in slightly alkaline water. Rotifers of the most useful kinds are cool
water creatures. All during March and through the first week of June--even
later if the spring is a late one-millions may be found in the proper places.
Then in fall when the water temperature falls below 50 degrees look again,
but don't waste time during umroer, because in hot weather rotifers are
mostly dormant. Some collectors find them even during winter months in
areas where the water does not freeze over. We have never found rotifers in
clear water with gravelly bottoms. Pools Or ponds without fish and with
muddy bottoms seem ideal, particularly if drainage from a dump, a barn-
1 9
2
10
3
4 11
12
5
13
14
15
16
© Gelleral Dioiogic(li Supply H ouse
A typical rotifer (£phipanes sen-ta).
I. Corona 9. Papill ae
2. Brain 10. Mouth
3. Pharynx showing mastax I!. Esophagus
4. Gastric gland 12. Flame cell
5. Ovary 13 . Lateral antenna
6. Muscle 14. ViteUaria
7. Bladder 15. Nephridium
8. Toe 16. Pedal gland
yard, or a slaughter house flows into it, feeding the algae and bacteria which
the rotifers consume.
Live Fish
There is something which goes against the grain for most of us in feeding
live fish to larger fishes. Yet in nearly every aquarium store you will find a
Piranha or a huge Catfish which is kept alive by feedin g it misshapen , dying
or sick fish from the other tanks and it is remarkab le how curious peopl e
will cluster about to watch the Piranha at feeding time. What emotions they
feel one cannot say. Or are we unduly sensitive? A s a boy o ne of us used to fish
with a man who always immediately killed every fi sh we ca ught beca use he
believed they suffered out of the water.
We don't know whether fish suffer in being eaten or not. Their nervous
system is altogether different from ours. Certainly the on ly parti ally organized
nervo us system of yo ung fry permits little if any suffering when they are
eaten.
Which brings us to the question of raising smalJ species of fishes to feed
the larger ones. A breeder of Black Angels buys inferior Guppies to feed to
them. A Guppy breeder raises broods of Bettas to feed his Guppies. Almost
all fish fanciers feed their adult fi shes on fry whether intentionally or not.
1£ you have any doubt think of the occasional fry found hiding among the
plants and then realize that only it, of a whole brood, remains. Think , too, of
the community aquarium in which a pair of Angel Fish begins to grow rap-
idly and little by little yo u awaken to the realization that more than half of
the other fishe are missing-eaten by the Angels.
If you must feed live fish to some large species of fish , large Guppies
can at times be bought for five to seven cents apiece wholesale, or yo u can
raise them in quantity by using a large tank , many appropriate hiding plants,
a bundant food so the Guppies will not eat their own young, and by avoiding
netting out the gravid females.
Snails
Snails make good fish food just as they are-for a few species of aquar-
ium fishes. Some fi hes simply annoy the snails by nibbling at their "borns."
Some of the species which act ually eat young snails are Paradise Fish, the
larger Cicblids, Channa, and Puffers.
However, it scarcely pays to raise snails for fish food. If you try, be sure
to have the water on the alkaline side because acid water tends to dissolve
their shells. When you find a great many snail shells lying on the gravel of
your tank, you may be sure that the occupants which died did not serve a
fish food but only to pollute the water. The fish themselves may have killed
the snails. These creatures ordinarily live on algae and organic matter.
Every experienced aquarist has seen them clinging to a dead fi h eating it,
or on the aquarium glass eating algae. In a crystal-clear tank , dimly lighted,
in which the fish are lightly fed , snails often starve to death.
To feed those which do live to your smaller fishes, catch them in a net
and mash them, either between your fingers or between the halves of a
worm shredder, and then drop them into the tank.
Feeding Live Foods

The following table indicates the minimum size of the fish to be fed the
different types of live food. As immature form, the various live foods may
be fed to sma ller fishes. Prepared foods may be gro und , chopped, or other-
wise graded to different sizes for feeding to fish of various sizes.
Gambusino
Fry. Fry
New-Born of Egg-
Fry of Layers Fishes
most Egg- Approxi- Fishes Fishes Larger
Laying mately !.4 Under J to 2'h th an 2 '12
Species. Inch Long. 1 Inch. Inche . Inches.
Algae x
Protozoa x x
Daphnia x x.
Euglena x x
Cyclops x x
Brine Shrimp x x x
Brine Shrimp nauplii x x
Fai ry Shrimp x x
Gammarus x x
Bosmina x x x
Hyallela x
Mosquito larvae x x
Glassworms x x
Bloodworms x x
Meal Worms x
Earthworms x
Drosophila x x
White Worms x. x x
Grinda ll Worms x
Micro-Worms x
Tubificids x x x
Rotifers x x
Frozen Foods
With the expansion of the frozen food business, many fi h foods may
be purchased in a practically fresh condition. And since so many persons
own freezers of their own or have commercial freezers avai lable in tbeir
towns, almost anyone today can collect and freeze fish food . Today large
amounts of frozen products are flown from packer to distributor. Probably
Brine Shrimp ranks first. Care must be taken to defrost only the amount
which is to be fed. Frozen foods should not be thawed and refrozen.
Brine Shrimp
Frozen adult Brine Shrimp make an excellent food and even month-old
Guppies eat them lustily. They contain 14 per cent dry matter, three times
as much as Daphnia, Tubificids or Bloodworms and should be worth
three times as much , ounce for ounce.
Brine Shrimp Naup/ii

Jnstead of buying the eggs and hatching them , the frozen nauplii may be
had at almost any aquarium store or pet shop where a deep freeze is operated.
To our knowledge, as of 1957, only the Sander Brine Shrimp Company of
Ogden, Utah, hatches and freezes them . If a local dealer does not handle
them, the Sanders Company will tell you the location of the nearest dealer
who can supply them.
An easy way (0 feed frozen Brine Shrimp or Daphnia.
There is sometimes loss due to thawing. Be sure to buy only clean un-
thawed shrimp. You can tell whether it has once thawed when you feed it.
An unthawed package, if the container is removed, and the tan -colored
lump dipped into water, will shed off cleanly defined individual nauplii. A
once-thawed package will discolor the water with tan-colored material.
In our experience frozen nauplii are the equal nutritionally in every
way of the freshly hatched nauplii, and fish will eat them in preference to
any other food . One precaution : do not overfeed.
Daphnia
Fish eat frozen Daphnia almost as readily as they eat fresh, live ones.
Actually fresh-frozen Daphnia are a delectable product. Dip a lump of them
into an aquarium and whole, motionless Daphnia drop away from it. This is
the test for the value of the product. Sometimes the winter eggs are frozen
with the Daphnia. These survive freezing and sometimes hatch in the tank .
Frozen live food can be thawed and fed efficiently by the syringe
method.
Rotifers and Cyclops

It is only rarely that these two species are collected in number too great
to be fed while they are alive, but in the event you find yourself with an
oversupply, freeze them. One sample of "frozen Daphnia" which we bought
in a store consi ted almost entirely of Cyclops.
Bloodworms
These are tbe same creatures we discussed under Live Foods but frozen
into a solid block. In this condition they wiJl keep almost indefinitely, pro-
vided the temperature is kept below 35° F. You can often collect ample
amounts to freeze when you locate the right pond. Peculiarly enough,
fishes go for the frozen worms even more avidly than they do for the live
Bloodworms.
Mosquito Larvae
There is no reason why surplus mosquito larvae may not be preserved by
freezing . Fish relish them as much when they are freshly thawed as they do
when fresh. and sometimes even more. ]t pays to cultivate mosquito larvae
just to freeze them.
How to Feed Frozen Foods

Many other fish foods may be frozen and it will pay anyone well to ex-
periment with new ones and to give fish fanciers the benefit of their findings.
If you do freeze fish food don't make the mistake that so many do of usin g
cardboard containers. The cardboard absorbs water and the outside of the
frozen lump will become dry. Use a container imperviou to air or moisture
such as small cel lophane, wax-paper, or plastic bags, and seal the opening.
This is especially important if you expect to sell some. Stores will not buy
partially dry products.
Frozen foods may be thawed in water and then fed from a large rubber
syringe with a glass barrel , or in small quantities from a medicine dropper.
They may be cut up into small chunks and dropped in the tank where
some of the pieces will float and shed off th e thawed animal. Those which
do not float may be dropped into a feeder. In it they will settle to the pan
a they thaw , and be eaten from the pan. This is an easy way to feed frozen
Brine Shrimp nauplii.
Another way is to hold a lump of the food in the hand and dip it in one
tank after another, swishing in the water until the desired amount has been
thawed off.
1t is easy to overfeed with frozen products, and even with a Catfish to
eat what settles, one can pollute the water quite quickly.
Fresh and Cooked Meats
Shrimp Meat
Probably the most frequently fed sea food is boiled shrimp. There are
few better cooked protein foods than this. It is not quite nutritionally com-
plete but does furnish an excellent form of complete protein as is evidenced
by the fact that fish live and grow on it when no other protein is fed.
Many ways to feed shrimp meat to fish have been suggested. Some
aquarists hang a boiled shrimp on a thread in the aquarium. Some put it
through a fine food grinder which mashes it. Some squeeze it between the
thumb and finger which leaves the food in shreddy particles. Another way is
to rub the shrimp over a fine food grater.
No one wants to boil one shrimp a day, so a person who own. a deep
freeze can boil a goodly number and take one out daily for the following
day's feeding leaving it in the ordinary refrigerator to thaw.
Brine Shrimp are probably superior as a food to dry, shredded, or fresh
shrimp. This may be due to the fact that a Brine Shrimp is consumed in
its entirety. The shel ls of the larger shrimp are seldom fed to fish , and yet a
large portion of the carotenoid pigments are found in the shrimp shell.
When fed to fish these pigments help enhance their color. For example, Glow
Light Tetras and Rummy No e Tetras kept on a mixed dry food and Tubificid
diet exh ibited little color. When the authors added frozen Brine Shrimp to
their diet they immediately assumed brighter colors. The red hues in par-
ticular were enhanced. When the Brine Shrimp was again eliminated from
their diet, the colors faded.
Other fish Meat

Although we seldom hear it mentioned, many other cooked fish meats
are excellent tropical foods. Salmon , Trout, Cod, Halibut, Swordfish and
even crab meat, to mention but a few , are relished provided they are rendered
small enough to be swallowed . Some raw fish contains the thiamine-destroyin g
enzyme however.
Beef Liver
In Trout hatcheries large amounts of beef liver are fed , usually mixed
with other food. Most aquarium fishes thrive on it, so a good many com-
mercial breeders u e it alone or in mixtures. When fed Chopped. there is so
much fluid in the mash which comes from the chopper that the water be-
comes cloudy and contaminated. For that reason it seems advisab le to boil it,
but only long enough to coagulate the protein. As soon as it has turned gray ,
it may be ground with less chance of the water becoming fouled . After a
short boiling it is still relished and of almost equal nutritional value .
Boiled Muscle Meat

Finely ground meats may be fed to advantage. Fi h will eat meat from
almost any mammalian species. When feeding it one must be sure not to intro-
duce into the aquarium lumps too large to be swallowed. It is better to sieve
the meat-a tediou process-and to discard the large particles. A great deal
may be squeezed through a fine-mesh sieve in a few minutes. There is also a
small instrument to be had at scientific equipment companies which has
small perforations at the end of a tube-a plunger in the tube forces the
contents through the holes. Meat or worm or any soft food comes out like
spaghetti. This device can be used for supplying meat to the fish. A vo id
fatty meats.
Other Meats
Scraped raw meat is an excellen t food for fish. Finely scraped or
minced liver is also among the best fish foods known . Freezing meats, then
scraping the thawing edges is another way of obtaining small particle.
Raw clams, minced, make a wonderful fish food if anyone has the
patience to cut them finely enough. Discard the tough foot and cut the rest
with a razor blade or scissors. Store the minced clams in a refrigerator and
feed only as much as the fish will eat quickly. A wet meat mash can be han-
dled more easily if it is mixed with dry shrimp powder.
Fish Eggs (Roe)

As every experienced aquarist knows, fish eggs from any of the several
species of aquarium fishes almost never remain in a tank long enough to
become fry-that is, unless only one bubble-building fish is left or a pair of
a species which tends its young. Eggs are generally eaten as fast as they
are laid. For this reason it seems that fish eggs are as natural a fish food as
are fry.
The excellent results obtained from feeding eggs indicate that more
aguarists could adopt the prac tice to advantage. Immature roe in many
species remains in a solid chunk, the eggs mixed with stringy tissue. But
ripe or nearly ripe eggs are separate and will float apart. Whole roes may be
frozen or fed fresh. Packed frozen roe is available at many dealers.
The kind of roe to use more or less depends on the species of fishes one
keeps . Anyone who has eaten caviar realizes the great variety of sizes avail-
able. Some fresh-water fishes, like Carp, are taken when ready to lay and
their eggs are particularly relished; the roes of Flounders, Smelts. and many
others can be had at a fish market.
According to some ichthyologists, one disadvantage in feeding certain
fish eggs is the tendency they have to make the fish which eat them overly
fat. Some fish eggs, they tell us, are high in fat and so contain many calories.
Shad roe is mostly protein (21 per cent) and contains only 3.8 per cent fat,
but it is 7 1.2 per cent water, so on a dry basis it would contain about 12
per cent fat which is actually low as fresh foods go. O n the other hand,
Sturgeon roe is 30 per cent protein, 38 per cent water, and 20 per cent fat
(about 30 per cent on a dry basis).
A warning: D o not feed roe exclusively because some kinds contain a
factor which destroys thiamine; an essential vitamin. The result of this
deficiency is Chastek paralysis and fishes, as well as other animals, can uffer
from it.
Ca nne d Foods
M any ag uarists prefer canned products, and there are some excellent
ones to be had . They may come in glass jars or in tubes. The contents of
some float, while others settle. One enterprising manufacturer suggests that
the jar lid be used as a plate to hold the product and this arrangement
works well. The lump is guided onto the dish with a thin stick, and the
fish pick away at it until it is gone . Any food which is not eaten will remain
in the lid and not contami nate the gravel.
Canned Pet Foods

There has been quite a lot of trial-and-error experimenting with canned
dog and ca t foods as food for fish. Many accla im it while others-probably
those who have overfed their fishes-denounce ir. Many of these canned
products are "too well watered," however. In fact, most of them contain from
70 to 76 per cent of that inexpensive in gredient, making it necessary for the
fish to eat a considerable amount for the nourishment they receive. But the
nutritious part of the food is often of a. good quality. Some of the fish-base
cat foods have more nourishmenl beca use of their lower water content.
Actual tests made by friends of the authors were quite satisfactory when
the canned food was used as one part of the ration , but not the exclusive
part. This is not to say th at can ned foods co uld not. be used exclusively.
Since many fishes eat foods, squeeze the fluid s from them and disgorge what
is left, the fis h with its short intestine may do better with a high percentage
of liquid in its diet.
The only valid objection we know to canned foods is their wasteful-
ness. Once a can is opened the unused portion must be refrigerated. Where
one has sufficient fish to use all of the contents, canned food may be of great
value. P aste foods in tubes are better though, because only a small spot is
exposed to the air and the bulk remains uncontaminated and sterile.
Home Prepa red Paste Foods

As this is a book for the home aguarist and not fof the professional who
raises huge numbers of fishes, we are not going to reproduce formulas to be
blended and stored . There are many to be followed. We have made excellent
formulas for our fishes but having had experience with hundreds of en-
thusiasts who have tried it, we know that every one in our acquaintance ga ve
it up as too troublesome and wasteful.
First, a variety of ingredients must be secured; secondly, a blender must
be bought or borrowed (the blender must be washed and cared for, just as
.any other expen ive piece of equipment); thirdly, the product must be stored
in small packages, because cutting it after it is frozen is like cutting bone;
fourthly, it must be thawed before feeding by aIJowing it to stand in a room
or in an ordinary refrigerator and this is easy to forget.
Egg Yolk Infusion

This is an excellent first food for the tiniest fry of the egg-laying fishes.
The yolk of an egg which has been boiled for twenty minute is crushed
through a piece of cheesecloth into a few ounces of water. The resulting
cloudy yellow liquid should be fed sparingly several times a day to the fry.
The surplus must be kept refrigerated.
Milk Infusion
An odorless culture may be made by adding five drops of skim mi lk or a
pinch of skim milk powder to a quart of boiled water. Expose the culture
to the air in an open-mouth glass or enamel container. The cultur(' may be
kept going by adding a few drops of skim milk every four or five days. The
temperature should be approximately 75 ° F. Feed sparingly four or five
times daily.
To examine a c ulture for infusoria, use a strong magnifying glass, a low
power microscope, or hold a vial of the culture up to tbe light. A swarm of
fine, moving dust-like motes in the mixture indicates a good culture.
Prepared Dried Foods

Manufacturers and food processors have learned that vacuum dehydra -
tion is less expensive and more efficient than tbe high-temperature process.
Today the best dried foods are dehydrated in such a way that the best
qualities are very little impaired . An amazing variety of such foods is
available: fish eggs of several species (Salmon, Flounder, Mackerel, Cod,
etc.); beef meal, liver meal, whole meat meal; fish meal of several species
(Whitefish, Sardine, Mackerel, Cod, to name a few); fish-liver meal of
several kinds (Cod, Shark, Halibut) ; blue-crab meal , shrimp meal , clam
meal; Daphnia and other crustaceans; dried flies ; infusoria for fresh or salt
water; and ant "eggs."
There are besides these, mixtures of various sorts and in different textures
and many grades of fineness. Some float, some sink. Some are recommended
for omnivorous, some for vegetarian fish species. Some come in shaker-top
containers, some in paper bags, some in bottles.
The table on page 149 shows us the composition of these dry foods
where analyses have been made. By reference to it, one observes the great
variation even in the mammalian and fish meats. Whale meat meal with
86 per cent protein stands near· the top and our results from feeding it bear
out Our high expectation.
Some warning is necessary regarding certain of these products. Shrimp
meal may be of the fertilizer type which is made of shrimp heads principally,
or it may be the clear meat. Meat meal may be partly bone meal or clear
meat; the latter is hard to obtain. Fish meal can be had with 80 per cent
protein and a minimum of bone, or it may be heavily loaded with bone
and 65 per cent protein . Crab meal may be made of whole crabs dried and
ground, with a ll the chitinous, indigestible material in it, or it may be crab
meat meal.
Be sure to buy the high quality food , vacuum dehydrated . You can
partly determine the quality by the percent of protein ; it should be as high
as possible.
Commercial Dry Foods

A number of conscientious manufacturers have done their best to combine
the above products with inexpensive bases such as finely ground dog bis-
cuits or dehydrated bread crumbs and have produced in a few instances
foods which, alone, will maintain tanks of fish.
Novices all too frequently overfeed these products and pollute the water,
which causes them to condemn the foods unjustly . One of liS has maintained
fish on a mixture of dry ingredients, being certain that all the known vitamins,
minerals and amino acids were present. This mixture included a bread crumb
base. The fish were fed four times a day , and the tanks were siphoned
twice a week. We know, therefore, that certain fishes at least, like dogs and
cats, may be raised generation after generation with such food as ~n ex-
cl u ive diet.
Screens for sifting dry foods

or Daphnia. The sizes of 30,
50 and 80 meshes to the inch
have proved adequate. The
coarsest screen goes on top.
Screen All Prepared Foods

As we have seen, keeping the aquarium clear and its occupants healthy
depends on not overfeeding. The amount fed is important but the quality
more so. You may feed a tiny pinch, yet if part of that amount is inedible
or contains particles too large for tbe fisbes to eat it is still dangerous.
Likewise if the food contains particles too small the result can be just a
devastating.
In feeding dry foods it is well to screen it all . We use the sa me screens
which, incidentally, we also use in screening Daphnia. They are 20, 30, and
50 meshes to the inch . Food which will not pass through the 20 is disca rded
as is any which passes through the 50, it being practically dust. The fine
grade we feed to fry and the coarser to older fish .
Diseases, Parasites,
and Enemy 'ntruders
Prevention one{ Care
THE DICTIONARY defines disease as "a deviation from a state of health ."
Using that definition freely, this section will discuss the answer or answers
to the question often asked of us by harassed fish owners: "My fish are
dying; what shall J do?"
Frequently there is much which can be done to save diseased fishes.
But you should learn to recognize the approach of a disease in its very early
stages to prevent the spread of the disease to the uninfected fish . The most
important factor contributing to a low disease and mortality rate in your
aquarium is providing healthy conditions.
Aquarium Conditions and Health

We realize that we are going out on a limb in making thi statement;
but after many years of keeping fishes, of acting as consultants on fish
care and inspecting thousands of aquariums for interested people, we are
firmly convinced that the vast majority of deaths among tropical aquarium
fishes are due to improper care and handling. What are usually thought of
as diseases caused by infestation or infection by vegetable or animal para-
sites are a relatively minor cause for fishes dying.
This is not to deny the existence of infectious disea es and death-causing
parasites. They do exist and frequently cause a great loss of fishes. Their
prevention, recognition, and cure will be considered at length in this chapter,
primarily from the aquarist's viewpoint.
We do want to stress the fact that if kept properly fishes are very
healthy creatures. When they are in good condition, they are frequently
capable of resisting infection. We have seen many apparently spontaneous
cures. That is, fishes which had become infected with di ea e-causing or-
ganisms were left untreated and yet the disease disappeared after a period of
time. No doubt a certain number of the e cures were due to water condi-
tions inimical to the continued existence of the parasites. There may even
have been natural antibiotics present in the water. There is little doubt,
however, that if the fishes had not been in a healthy, vigorous condition,
they could not have survived these disease attacks.
To keep fish healthy, all the factors in aguarium maintenance must
be taken into consideration and due attention given to all. These factors are
all considered separately elsewhere at greater length but the following brief
enumeration of the most important will serve as a reminder:
1. Provide ample swimming room for each fish . Overcrowding weakens fish
and helps spread disease. The proper pH for the average aguarium is close
to 7.0, or neutral. U ually it is 6.8. Deviation of more than 0.4 from neutral
may indicate improper aguarium conditions and should be investigated.
2. Mix only compatible species in a community collection. Fishes which are
enemies will cause wounding and fin-tearing, both of which are open invita-
tions to infection.
3. Feed the fish enough of the right kinds of food . Underfeeding weakens
fish; overfeeding poisons them . Improper foods may cause them to starve
in the midst of plenty.
4. Quarantine new fish for at least fifteen days before introducing them
into an aquarium. The newly purchased fish may be incubating disease, un-
known to you and the dealer. Fifteen days isolation is sufficient time for
the fish to throw off the disease or for the disease to progress to a visible
stage. It can th n be treated without infecting the other fish. If di ease
shows up in a fish, or if it dies suddenly a few days after you have pur-
chased it, go back and check the tank from which it came. If the fish was
incubatiJ1g the disease at the time you purchased it, the odds are that the
rest of the fishes in the tank will display the di ease in an advanced form at
the sa me time that yours does.
5. Proper temperature control is essential. The proper temperature for the
average mixed collection of tropical fi~hes is 75 ° F . Most fishes will be com-
fortable at this temperature. Avoid temperatures below 70 ° F. or above
85 ° F.; and al 0 avoid sudden fluctuations even within this range.
6. Avoid sudden water changes. Even when changing fish from one tank to
another next to it, a reasonable precaution is to take the fish out in some
of its own water and slowly mix this water with some from the new tank to
reduce the possibility of shock.
7. Dispose of dead leaves and plants. Decomposing organic matter can be
dangerous. Keep the aquarium clean. Cloudy water is a visible sign of
improper aguarium condition and should be investigated.
8. Give the tank enough light for the plants to grow well , but do not over-
light or you will find algae increasing too rapidly.
It is possible for fish to have more than one disease at a time. Some-
Diseases, Parasites, and Enemy Intruders 201
times one follows the other, and the organism following IS called a "sec-
ondary invader."
Hitchhikers
Dr. Ross F. Nigrelli bas described bow certain microscopic one-celled
animals called epibionts are normally harmless coinhabitants of an aquar-
ium, frequently riding on the fi sh without affecting them . Should the fisb
become weakened due to poor conditions or injuries, tbe epibioncs can be-
come savage aggressors and feed on the body fluids and cells.
These Jekyll and Hyde characters may seriously aggravate the wound.
and even death may be caused by these normally harmless hitchhikers. Tbis
further points up the necessity for keeping fish in good condition as essential
to disease prevention.
Overfeeding
A detailed discussion of overfeeding has been included in this chapter
on disease beca use it is indirectly the greatest single cause of mortality
among aquarium fishes. Overfeeding consists of giving the fi 5hes more food
than they can consume at a meal. It occurs most frequently with non-livin g
foods.
Overfeeding does not mean that a fish will eat too much. Occasionally
fish will snatch at food on the surface and swallow air with it, causing them
to bob back up when they try to swim down . This condition is not dan -
gerous; the fish soon recover. This is particularly noticeable when Barhus
tefrazona are fed dry food.
The fi sh eats all it wants at the time. Some fishes are notorious gluttons,
but they all have their limits. The food wbich is left over starts to decom -
pose. By the time the fish are hungry again, the food may be so rotten
that they will not touch it. Hunger can return only a few hours later, for a
fish's stomach empties quickly. At this point many amateurs will return to
the tank, see the fishes' anxiety for food, and give them another meal. The
same amount of food, if given in two or three feedings over the course of
a day, would probably be entirely consumed by the fish.
A rule of thumb is that a fish's stomach is ab ut the size of its yeo
Enough food to cover one eye will fill its stomach. Another way of measuring
is to allow as much food as the fish will eat off the surface of the water
in one and one-half to two minutes. These two rules apply to the feeding
of dry food only. Live food , which may contain as much as 90 per cent
---<>r even more-water, is fed in proportionately larger quantities.
Symptoms of overfeeding are a milky gray cloud in the water, cotton-
like puffs on the leaves and bottom, a gray slimy mass along the bottom,
and a black discoloration of the gravel. Any or all of the e symptoms may
be visible. The last is the most common and probably the most dangerous.
. The particles of food are as a rule smaller than the particles of gravel. It
is a rule of physics that when objects of unequal size are mixed together
the smallest will work their way to the bottom. These small particles of food
lie at the bottom of the gravel and decompose there. Because of the poor
circulation of water through the gravel, colonies of anaerobic bacteria become
established. The gravel rapidly turns black, starting at the bottom and
working up. The surface of the gravel, however, usually retains its cleanli-
ness for a long time.
This rising decay may be seen along the sides through the glas as a
black layer below a lighter layer of gravel. First carbon dioxide and then
foul-smelling sulphurous gases are given off. If no filter is present, there is
u ually an accompanying smoky cloud in the water. Ordinary filtration will
remove this cloud, but will not affect the basic trouble. Stirring the gravel
will cause bubbles of these gases and particles to rise to the surface. There
is usually a lowering of the pH. An acidity of 6.0 is not uncommon under
these conditions.
If Ramshorn snails are present they often burrow under the gravel to
lay their eggs. The aquarist is then plagued by a swarm of small snails
which devour his plants. The bottom slates of some tanks we have seen
were literally covered witb the amber-colored jelly masses of snail eggs.
From one such 17-gallon tank we once removed enough snails to fill an
8-ounce teacup.
The effect on the fishes is drastic. Forced to live in a "gas chamber,"
they become progressively weaker. They swim with an effort ; their forward
progression is almost a shimmy. The stomach tucks up so that the fish ap-
pears to be doubling over, giving the back a hunched appearance.
This condition is often incorrectly diagnosed as "consumption" (tuber-
culosis) which is a comparatively rare disease in fisb. If a number of your
fish assume this "hollow bellied" appearance, the chance are that it is
due to improper water conditions usually caused by overfeeding.
To check for overfeeding. stir the gravel with a thin stick, turning some
of it over. Bring up a handful from near the bottom. If the under gravel is
black and if there are a lot of bubbles given off, but there is no sewage
odor from the spe imen brought up, then something can be done without
changing the entire tank. Run a stick through the gravel to release the
gases and allow oxygen to get down under. After tbe the water has settled,
siphon or dip-tube the bottom off carefully. Repeat this every evening for a
week ; thereafter, once a week. Check the pH using hydrion papers or an
electric meter. If the water is too acid add sod ium bicarbonate to neutralize
it (see Chapter 8). If the gravel smells as well as showing the other symp-
toms, it is advisable to change the entire aquarium. If possible discard the
gravel and start again with fresh gravel. It is difficult and dangerous to try
to reuse this contaminated gravel. If no other gravel is available, wash the
old gravel well with a soapless detergent, rinse carefully, and sun-bleach it
in a thin layer for several days.
The effects of overfeeding are felt by the plants .too. They become
twisted, spindly, and tend to shed leaves. Such plants as Water Sprite will
rot at the base. Plants which are uprooted will have black, slimy, smelly
roots.
Using an under-gravel filter (see Chapter 3) will help alleviate the
effects of overfeeding. Stirri ng the gravel once a week to keep it fresh and
clean is highly recommended. If care is used and the plants are well rooted,
stirring does not unduly disturb the aquarium. T he best cure is prevention.
Follow the feeding recommendations given in Chapter 1 I.
Und erfe ed i ng
This is less frequently encountered as a cause of death than is over-
feeding, but excessive caution or neglect in feeding may cause starvation.
The starved fish becomes weak and is listless except at feeding time. Most
characteristic of the disease is a pinched appearance, alma t as though some
one had squeezed the fish with thumb and forefinger in front of the anal
region. If the fish is held stomach up in a net, the stomach looks thin and
rather like a knife blade. The appearance in underfeeding is totally different
from that due to overfeeding. In the latter the stomach is pushed up toward
the backbone ; in the former it is compressed from side to side. The cure
for underfeeding is obvious: feed nourishing food more often.
Sign s of Sickn ess

Fish owners often ask how they can tell when their fishes are sick.
There are many different djseases and the symptoms vary both with the
type of disease and with the species of fish affected .
A general rule is that when the fish or fishes deviate from their normal
behavior or appearance, they shou ld then be examined closely for more
specific signs of disease. For example, the Platyfish u~ually swims actively
about, and when a Platyfish continually lies on the bottom there is some-
thing wrong. Conversely, Corydoras spend most of their time on the bottom.
Occasionally tbey will be seen hovering continually in mid-aquarium. We
see, then, that a pat description of symptoms su h as "lying on the bottom"
can be misleading. But if we are familiar with our fishes' behavior we can
recognize when they are not bebaving normally and then look for the
cause.
Study your fishes carefully, not just as a group but also as inilividuals.
Study their appearance, their behavior, and their actions. That is the sure t
way of recognizing disease when it appear.
Common Symptoms
There are a number of general symptoms with which the aquarist shou ld
be familiar. Loss of appetite is one sign of sickness though it is not an
infallible indicator. Clamping of the fins is another. Emaciation and a
drawn-up belly, abnormal bulges or lumps, distended eyes, and undue
abdominal swelling usually indicate the presence of a disease. Darting about
crazily, followed by periods of rest; swimming on one side; curling tail
towards head; swimming straight up and down-these and the obvious
lesions of fungus and tail rot, as well as the presence of parasites-are all
signs of an unhealthy condition which should be corrected as soon as pos-
si ble.
Does Treatment Pay?

We have been asked innumerable times, "Does it pay to try to cure a
sick fish?" It does indeed, if for no other reason than for the s tisfaction
derived from success in overcoming the sickness. And success is far from
impossible. One important thing the aquarist soon learns is that early rec-
ognition of symptoms is half the battle. Even fish with advanced symptoms
often respond amazingly to appropriate treatment. It is often surprising
what dra. tic treatment fish will survive, and, as you will find from the
methods recommended by experts, some are drastic.
Isolation
As a rule , a sick fish should be removed from its home aquarium at the
first signs of sickness and isolated in a treatment jar. Such jars usually hold
no more than a gallon of water. Artificial aeration equipment is often de-
sirable in such cases, as is heat. When several similarly affected fish are
kept together, be sure no bully is among them, for sick fish, like sick pets
of all kinds, like to be left undisturbed.
Danger of Overdosing
The rules for adminjstration of drugs to fi sh differ greatly from those
involved in treating: mammals and bird. Fishes, living in water, need very
minute quantities of medicine, since the water holds the drug and maintains
its concentration. For example, the amount of penicillin or sulfa drugs
needed to treat a dog is enormous compared with that needed for a tankful
of fish. The drug pa ses out of the dog's body rapidly and has to be re-
newed, but with fish once the concentration is built up in the water it
remains long enough to produce a cure. With many remedies, fish would be
killed by even a fraction of the dose used for other pets. Let us emphasize
the fact tbat it is the tendency of most people to overdose when treating
fishes. Only recommended quantities should be used for specific treatments,
so do not proceed on the assumption that because a small amount of a
drug is good, a larger dose will be even better.
Use New Solutions

Always discard treatment solutions after they have been used once. The
solutions needed are so weak that the drug cost is small. Evaporation of the
water may also reduce the solids to dangerous concentrations. Drugs and
antibiotics, on the other band, often lose their potency througb chemical
change. It is poor economy to try to save a few cents by using a solution
several times. Partial changes of water will remove chemicals.
In the following pages you wi1l read what drugs we have found most
effective and how to use them. For more about the drugs themselves, see
pages 224-35.
Ich
Ichthyophthirius multifiliis is the causative organism for the disease known
as ichthyophthiriasis which is commonly called "ich ." lch is one of the com-
monest, most dangerous, and most readily curable of fish diseases. On a
fish the ich-causing parasites looks like granulated sugar and are about the
same size and shape. Most Jive-bearers will shimmy furiously for several
days before the spots become large enough to be een by the naked eye.
The dead-white spots can cover the entire fish , but except in the case of a
dark fish like a Black. Molly are mo ·t readily visible on the fins and tail.
At first the affected fish wi ll show a spot only here and there, but if
nothing i done, the fish will be almost covered with them in a few days.
_., -
- ~
~--=.:- -::.~-=--- -- ---- Life cycle of tbe parasite, Ichthy -
\ -==;J - ophrhiritH multi{ilis. Upper left, the

free- wimming form ; upper rigbt,
the mature parasite whicb attacks
the fish; lower center, the cyst-like
form .
The parasites lnJure the protective skin, and fungus which often attacks
these areas helps kill the fish. The actual agent of infection is a minute
motile protozoan organism. lts life history is a fol lows: a single protozoan,
swimming about in the water, attaches itself to the fish and bores its way
into the ski n, feeding as it goes. After a few days- the time depending on
the temperature of the water-it falls from the fish to the gravel bottom.
Here it develops into a cyst-like form which may develop hundreds or even
thousands of minute immature parasites. This is the infective stage. Beca use
of the enormous numbers released in the water, some of the parasites are
certain to reach the hosts, and tbe process is repeated . Before the parasites
attach themselves to the hosts they are very tiny and most easily destroyed .
In this form they will Jive less than ten days, and many chemicals prove
lethal to them.
Should a newly acquired fish display the characteristic spots, isolate it
immediately and disinfect the net you caught it with. 1£ several fish show
spots you must assume that the entire tank is infected and the aquarium with
all the fi shes should be treated.
Raise the temperature slowly over a period of forty-eight hours to 85 ° F.
and maintain it there. A thermostatically controlled heater is essential for
this. Many authorities claim that simply raising the temperature to 85 ° F.
or 90° F. for a few days will end the trouble. Others say this simply inter-
feres with the parasite's propagation and th at when the temperature falls
the trouble will start again.
All agree that heat simplifies treatment. Arsenicals, mercurials , and the
same types of drugs known to kill protozoa in animals wi ll usually kill
lchthyophthirius in water, but very weak solutions must be used. Tincture
of metaphen, two to four drops per gallon of water, is effective. Methylene
blue is also useful. A fresh 10 per cent solution at the rate of one drop to a
galJon is generally u ed, but even this small amount tends to blue the
gravel and may injure the plants. To prevent damage, be sure to leave the
light on until a cure is effected and then partially change the water.
Probably the most effective cure is two drops of a 2 per cent solution
of mercurochrome to each gall on of water. The medicine's color will dis-
appear within a few days by itself. Should the color disappear before th e
disease, the dose may have been too weak and should be repeated. To pre-
vent a possible recurrence, the temperature should be maintained at 85 ° F.
for at least a week after the 1a t spot has disappeared.
Most aquarium supply companies and dealers sell jeh remedies. Some
are common drugs listed under complicated names. It is usually advisable
to get one of these dependable remedies and use it according to directions.
Of the home cures, one teaspoon of salt to a gallon of water and a tem-
perature of 85 ° F. is often quite enough to cure the disease. Quinine, which
is frequently mentioned as an ich cure, is not as effective as either mer-
curochrome or salt.
A fish with "ieh" and tail rot.
Velvet
This disease which is also known as "rust" or "yel low ich" is frequently
confused with ich. The mistake is u. ually made by those who have not seen
an actual ca 'e of ich, and who try to identify it from written descriptions.
Once both diseases have been seen it is unlikely that they will again be
mistaken for each other. The resemblance is only superficial. The visible
symptoms of velvet are mall ye llowish spots cover ing the fish . They are
considerably smaller than the icb granules. In addition they are of a tan or
sand color, while ich is white.
Velvet can attack almost any species of fish. In some cases adult fishes in
good condition have withstood velvet infections for weeks or months, and
many spontaneous cures have been reported. lt is a dangerous, virulent dis-
ease and highly infectious, although not as great a killer as is ich. It i most
dangerous to fry, but a heavy infection wi ll ki ll adults.
Part of the life cycle of the velvet-causing organism is spent as a free-
living form. It has fla gella, or whip-like structures, with which it propels
itself in this stage. It comes in contact with a fish and anchors itself firmJy
to it with root-like tentacles. Soon it becomes pear-shaped. growing to be
Velvet. Left to right, the free-living form, the mature parasite, the
mature parasite dividing.
. about eight times as large as the free-swimming form. After a few days it
drops off and divides several times, until, by this division, it has multiplied
to over two hundred organisms which grow flagella and attain the free-
swimming form. This parasite also reproduces while attached to the fish .
There are several possible treatments, but cure by the use of metallic
copper is so simple and effective that there is no point in using any other
treatment. Full details on the use of copper are given on page 224.
Tric hodi na (Cyclochaeta ) Infection

Characterized by white splotches over the body and fin , this is another
disease wh.ich, externally at least. closely resembles ich. To the naked eye,
the most important distinction is that the spots caused by Trichodina are
much lat;ger (by two or three times) than the ich spots. The outline of the
ich spots is sharp and clearly defined, while the spots from Trichodina are
fuzzy in outline and splotchy. While not as commonly seen as ich. a
Trich dina infection is more serious and fatalitie. occur with great rapidity,
once the infection becomes easily visible.
Trichodina is a protozoan. There are a number of species. not all of
which are parasitic. There is no free-swimming stage; and infection is by
direct contact. The parasites move over the surface of the fish, feeding as
they go. Due to this irritation the fish's skin cells multiply. This gives the
fish a slimy appearance. The growth of cells is irregular, causing the splotchy
appearance characteristic of the disease. Fishes with Trichodina seldom
scratch or shimmy. although they do both with ich.
Trichodina.
Trichodina does not yield to treatment with mercurochrome, or any of
the dyes frequently used in the treatment of ich. It can be cured readily by
the addition of one teaspoon of salt to each gallon of water and raising the
temperature to 85 0 F., as described for ich. An alternate treatment is soak-
ing the fish for one hour in a solution of twenty drops of ' formalin (40
per cent formaldehyde) to the gallon of water. This treatment should
be repeated daily for three days, a fresh solution being made up each
time.
Grubworm
This is another infection which appears as one or more spots on the
fish 's body or fins. The spots are much larger than those seen with any of
the foregoing diseases. Spots, when seen on the fins, are quite large and are
called "oatmeal " spots becau e of their characteristic shape and color. The
body spots differ from the foregoing diseases also in that the grubworm
spots appear to be embedded in the body of the host, wherea. the others have
more of a raised or bumpy appearance. The fish themselves show no dis-
comfort and seem undisturbed by the parasite. (See illustration, page 216.)
The grubworm , Clmostomum marginatum, bas quite a complicated life
history which must be known for a proper understanding of the cause and
treatment. The worm , which forms the cyst on the fish , is an immature
form called a metacercaria. In this stage, unless present in great numbers,
little harm is done to the host. It is not contagious although it is unsightly.
To continue the cycle the fish must be eaten by a bird. Inside the bird, the
metacercaria develops into an adult fluke. The eggs drop into the water and
hatch into a small free-swimming larval stage called a miracidium. The
larva swims until it finds a certain species of snail and then burrows into
its liver, where it reproduces and develops a fork-tailed stage called a
cercaria. This form then seeks out a fish . It burrows under the ski n forming
a cyst. Deve lopment at this stage takes about seven weeks.
In the open pools of Florida fi sh hatcheries and in nature thi disease is
quite common. As we have seen by its history, it is possible to receive an
infected fish with the grub too small to be seen. Theoretically it is poss ible
for larvae to be present in the water in which the fi hes are shipped . It is
impossible, however, for the life cycle to be repeated in an aquarium, and
no new infestation can take place.
Grubworms on the fin or tail can be picked off with a pair of tweezers.
Grubworms which have encysted just under the surface may be removed by
nicking the cyst with the corner of a razor blade--causing it to open up.
Press ure with a pair of forceps on either side of the opening will cause part
of the worm to emerge. Then it can be removed with the forceps. The fish
should be held in a wet net during this operation. Touch the wounds with
mercurochrome before returning the fish to the tank.
Discus Disease
This is a particularly dangerous disease. Discus infected by it frequently
die in spite of all treatments tried. It appea rs to be contagious only to other
Discus and to Angel Fishes.
The characteristic appearance of the disease is white cotton puffs similar
to fungus which appear along the lateral line and above the eyes. This
localization is also characteristic. A slime scraping placed under a low power
microscope will u ually reveal a swarm of oval flagellate parasites. These
protozoans are known as Hexamita. Further microscopic examination will
reveal that the internal organ are riddled with them. Apparently when they
reach the brain, death ensues.
The literature reveals no cure for this disease. However, unpublished
work by the authors indicates that a combination of the copper treatment
plus 50 milligrams of terramycin to the gallon of water is a probable cure.
Four out of five Discus positively infected with this disease recovered after
this treatment. The fifth specimen, wh ich was in an advanced stage of the
disease, showed some improvement but eventually succumbed.
The use of various dyes and strong salt solutions are not to be recom-
mended with Discus. They appear to be quite sensitive to these substances.
We have seen their slime come off in sheets after immersion in too strong a
solution.
Flukes-Gyrodactylus and Dactylogyrus

Together with the grubwonn, the fluke Gyrodactylus and the gill fluke
Dactylogyrus belong to the class of Trematodes or parasitic Platyhelminths
(Flatworms). Unlike the grubworm, Gyrodactylus and Dactylogyrus belong
to a different order, the Monogenea, which require only one host to com-
Two flukes
(left, GyrodactylLls; right, Dactyfogyrus) .
plete their life cycle. Daclylogyrus, which lay eggs, infest only the gins.
Gyrodacrylus which are live-bearing can be found anywhere on the surface
of the body and the fins of the fish.
Flukes are primarily transferred by direct contact-an infected fi sh
rubbing against an uninfected one. For this reason flukes are particularly
dangerous in crowded pools and aquaria. In pools where the fish are not
too crowded, this is not serious. Here the fish appears to be capable of
coping with the infection naturally. When these same fish are shipped to
dealers and crowded into small tanks, flukes frequently become a serious
problem. The first symptom of Gyrodacrylus is a slow weaving motion of the
fi sh. It is a shimmy similar to the shimmy induced by ich. The difference
is that fish with ich shimmy as they swim; fish with flukes swim a few
inches and then stop to shimmy. They seldom shimmy while they are swim -
ming actively forward. As the disease progresses, close examination with the
naked eye reveals light gray slimy patches. The fish gradually wastes away,
but rarely assumes the hollow belly associated with "overfeeding." The en-
tire body shrinks, and the fish tend to scratch themselves against the
bottom, leaves, and rocks. Examination of the fish with a microscope will
reveal the accordion-like worms moving and weaving on the body of the
fish. They are anchored to the scales by hooks about the periphery of the
base, and two larger hooks in its center. One mature fluke may show an-
other smaller one within it, another within that, and yet another within the
third. Four generations visible at once-all in one!
Progress of the disease is slow, sometimes taking weeks to make itself
visible. The length of time before the fish succumbs depend on its condi-
tion, size, and strength . A strong fish might last indefinitely; one in poor
condition only a few weeks.
The symptoms of Dactylogyrus or gill flukes vary considerably from the
forcgoing . Infesting the gi lls, they are protected from sight by the gill covers
although strong glass and a good eye may discover some at the edge of the
opercula. The gill covers gape and become red. There is also a tendency
for the fish to dart madly about and sometimes spin around.
Both types of fluke are quite difficult to eradicate. They do not yield to
salt treatment and most of the dyes have little effect on them. Copper is a
specific treatment and is the one that is recommended. Formalin, potassium
permanganate, and a peroxide dip (useful for Guppies) are also effective.
When flukes are suspected, a formalin dip is a good precaution to take
before placing new fish in your tank.
Chilodonella (Chi/odon) and Costia

Like flukes, these two diseases are frequently found in fish raised in
outdoor pools. Like flukes , they are often tolerated by the host without its
being seriously affected. When fish are crowded into tanks these two diseases
. take a serious tol1. Because of the small size of these protozoan parasites,
their presence is often overlooked. Positive identification is possible by
scraping a little slime off the fish near the base of the dorsal fin and examining
it under a low-power microscope.
Chilodolt Coslin
Symptoms of both diseases are similar. A slimy appearance, loss of ap-

petite, debilitation and, most characteristic of all, the fish , exhausted and
reclining on the bottom. Treatment is similar for both. Copper is most
effective. Formalin as a dip is a good control. Chilodon can be removed
by a 3 per cent salt dip, but Cosfia does not respond to salt treatment.
Mouth Fungus
This disease is not a fungus at al1, but is caused by a motile slime bac-
terium Chondrococcus colum.naris. It strikes suddenly, often the first warn-
ing coming only when a few fish die. Usually the most noticeable sign that
the disease is present is when the fishes hang near the surface even in a
well-oxygenated tank. Clo e examination usually reveals the white lips char-
acteristic of this disease. Occasionally slimy patches may appear on other
parts of the body. We have never observed these on the fins.
Once mouth fungus invades an aquarium it may kill off a large number
of fi h ; then it suddenly ceases its attack and never infects another fish. Pos-
sibly the development of a natural antibiotic in the water, in the form of
some mold, destroys the causative organism. It behaves in a most peculiar
manner. There are times when it destroys al1 of one particular species with-
out affecting any fishes of other species. In other instances, it may destroy
most of the fishes of all the different species. It is possible that there are
actually several different forms of this disease and that each acts differently.
Mercurochrome (one drop per gallon) or Merthiolate (two drops per
gallon) plus sulfathjazole or sulfadiazine, at one-half a teaspoonful per 5
gallons, usually cures the disease and prevents it from attacking other fishes.
Terramycin or aureomycin , when used at the rate of 250 milligrams to a
10-gallon tank i tbe most effective treatment. This treatment, which was
first reported by one of the authors, is exceedingly effective against mouth
fungus. It also ki1Js a wide variety of disease-producing organisms withoLlt
apparent harm to fish.
Saprolegnia
Although the word fungus is frequently used in naming di eases, such
as Mouth Fungus and Tail Fungus, these are not really diseases caused
by fungi. True fungi are seldom seen in the aquarium and are rarely epi-
demic . Saprolegnia is one of these few.
© G el1 era l Biological Supply House
Saprulegnia
1. lmmature zoosporangiuDl
2. Mature zoosporangium
3. ZoosporangiuDl with mature zoospores escaping
4. Zoospore
Fungu may attack any part of a fish, either living or dead. The spores
are probably always present in the aquarium. Injury to the fish or infection
by parasites (particularly ich) which leave wounds, enables fungus to gain
a foothold. Usually it is confined to a small area around the site of the in-
jury. As a rule the fungus appears as tufts of white threads which may
radiate from the body of the fish one-third of an inch or farther .
Single infected specimens should be isolated for treatment. If the infec-
tion is widespread in the tank, it is probably as a econdary invasion. An effort
should be made to determine and treat the original cause of disease.
The most effective treatment for fungus is to add a solution of perman-
ganate to the aquarium. Salt and heat are also effective, as is malachite green.
A ten to thirty second dip in a I: 15,000 solution of malachite green i a
specific treatment. This should be repeated once daily three times.
A fish in fec ted with SaproleRllia
Crown Fungus
Although thi. sometimes passes as Saprole~nia it is of a different type.
Crown fungus does not grow in a flat patch; its mycelium threads stick
up high above the surface of the fish in a tiny thicket.
Penicillin has no effect on the organism. One drop of mercurochrome
to a gallon of water has destroyed the fungus. Some treated fishes were then
given the salt treatment and others were not. Both classes recovered. Salt-
treated fishes also recovered without the drug, but not so rapidly.
Dropsy and Bloat

This is an abnormal condition of which the basic cause, or causes, is yet
unknown. The immediate ca use is typically a degeneration of the kidney.
There is no known cure. Dropsy is not considered infectious. Fish affected
by dropsy blow up like balloons, but distension in fishes is not always caused
by this ailment. The characteristic appearance of dropsy, in addition to
the bloating, is a roughened appearance as the scales stand on end. Some
cases are caused by the body cavity filling with liquid--others with gas, the
latter being called bloat.
Occasional success with dropsy has been reported by inserting the tip
of a fine hypodermic just ahead of the vent and parallel to the backbone and
withdrawing the fluid. It is not a safe procedure, but there is nothing to be
lost, because the fish wou ld die anyway. Progress of the disease is slow , the
victim often surviving for weeks. A possible cl ue to the disease is the fact
that it is seen more frequently in fish which are fed dry, baked, cereal-
based fish food as a regular diet.
Neon Disease
Frequent ly called tuberculosis, this disease is seen most frequenLly in the
Neon Tetra (Hyphessobrycon innesi) , although it has been reported in other
fishe . Neons attacked by the disease waste away. The red stripe gradually
fades and whitish patches and or lumps appear near or on the caudal pe-
duncle.
Actually there are two diseases, the external symptoms of which are
similar. One is tuberculosis and the other is microsporidiosis caused by the
parasite Plistophora hyphessobryconis. Neon tuberculosis is not transmissable
to human or other warmblooded creatures.
Streptomycin sulphate in a concentration of j 50 milligrams per gallon of
water has been suggested as a possible cure for Neon tuberculosis. The most
important treatment is the continuous one of maintaining your fi 'h in good
health. Strong vigorous fish seldom exhibit symptoms of the disease. Any
fish which have the early symptoms should be disposed of or isolated im-
mediately.
Fin and Tail Rot

This is characterized by a gradual rotting away of the fins. It may be
distinguished from torn or chewed fins by the white line marking the uneven
edge. This white line is the mark of the bacterial infection. The area may
be trimmed away with a sharp pair of scissors. Terramycin or aureomycin
(tetracyclines) are very effective. Use a 2S0-mi lligram capsule for 10 gallons
of water. Acriflavine, methylene blue, and potassium permanganate are all
effective treatments. The infected area should first be swabbed with the
dye; then the fish should be kept in a solution until the white line is gone.
R egrowth of the fin takes a little longer. Fin and tail rot is usually associ a ed
with extremely acid and / or foul tanks- another argument for maintaining
aquaria properly.
Tumors
Fishes, as well as mammals and birds, may have tumors. They may be
simple lumps which can be removed, or they may be malignant. One can
tell that a tumor is growing by the distention of the body or by the lopsided
appearance of the fish. For humane reasons, it is better to de troy such
fish at once.
A fish infected wi th Grubworm cysts, nOl to be mistaken

for malignancies. (See page 209.)
Rickets
Thi. is probably the only deficiency disease among aquarium fishes
which the average owner needs to be concerned with. A Vitamin D defi-
ciency may be brought about by neglecting to feed fish any food containing
Vitamin D and foods with calc ium and phosphorous. The ultraviolet rays of
the sun will probably produce Vitamin D in the fish's body, provided the
fish is near the surface of the water, but if the fish has no access to these
rays, rickets may develop unless . upplementary food is furnished
With a Vitamin D deficiency, fish will develop a Tooked back or other
deformities. In our experience, the Zebra Fish and the Guppy are particularly
suscept ibl e to this disease.
Ordinary gla s excludes some of the sun's beneficial rays, and most fish
are kept shielded by at least two layers of glass, namely that surrounding
the aquarium and the window in front of which it may be placed. It is there-
fore advisable to include some Vitamin D in all fish food ". Fish liver meals,
as well as percomorph oil, are useful supplements. If the ration contains 5 to
] 0 per cent fish liver meal, there should be sulllcient Vitamin D to prevent
rickets. The owner must be careful that the liver meal does not become
rancid. One drop of percomorph oil well mixed in a quarter of a pound of
fish food will also supply an ample amount of the essential vitamin.
Leeches
Most of the leeches seen in aquaria are plant leeches and come in as
eggs on the plants. They resemble black or dark gray earthworms; they
swim with a looping motion and dive into the gravel when frightened. They
are repul ive looking, but not dangerous. They do not yield readily to chemi-
cal treatments. The be. t way to get rid of them is to hang a piece of meat
in the tank overnight or invert a sa ucer on the gravel overnight and catch
them with a net the next morning.
Fish leeches are more secretive and are also different from plant leeches
A common plant leech.

in appearance. They are more pear-shaped . T heir color is a dirty wh ite.
F ish leeches are occasiona lly seen on aq uarium fish . With the fish held in
a wet net the leech may be picked off with tweezers. The spot can be treated
by touching it with mercurochrome.
Planaria
Planaria are flatworm s. From an eighth to a half inch in length. they are
sometimes found gliding over the glass or along the underside of the water
meniscus like a snail witho ut a shell. Near the front end , or head , are two
si de extensions like ears and two light patches wh ich resemble, but are
not, eyes. Tn addi tion they have a structure resembling an elephant's trunk
on the underside which serves both as a mouth and an anus.
® Gerleral Bio logical SII/,/, I,' H OUSl'
A Planaria n.
P lanaria will not ordi narily attack any fish as large o r larger than the
free -swimm in g young of li ve-bearers. They will attack a dying or dead fish
and fry which are not yet free ·wimming. They will also devour spawn.
Some adu lt fishes in turn will eat Pl anaria . In a community tank Planaria
are not dangerous. I n fact. they are rarely seen in suc h tank s. But once they
are established in a breed ing ta nk they are diffi cult to eradicate . They are
nocturnal and often a tank is infested without the owner bei ng aware of it
unless he switches the light o n at night.
The addition of eighteen drops of ci tric acid to each qu art of water is
said to eliminate them , also the use of one teasp on of lorox to the quart
of water. The fish should be removed before the addi ti on of these chemicals.
Of course, the water shou ld be cbanged before the fish are returned .
Spirostomum
This harmless. oversized protozoa n i frequently mistaken for a Planarian
or a Hydra. It is white, threadlike and nocturnal. It crawls along the glass like
Planaria. It lacks the earli_ke extension, the eyelike spots, and the trunklike
structure. It is not branched like Hydra. It is an infusorian and multiplies
rapidly when there is decaying matter such as dry food in the tank. For this
reason these parasites are found most frequently in breeding tanks. Some
fishes will eat them . It is simple to dispose of them. Keep the bottom of
the tank siphoned clean and they will disappear by them selves.
CD Gelleral Biological SlIpply /I o llse-

Spirostomum
Argu/us (Fish Louse)

More often a parasite of pond fishes, Argulus is occasionally introduced
into the aquarium w.ith live food or plants. It i ' about one-eighth of an inch
in diameter, usuall y dark brown in color, and resembles the bedbu g with
its circ ular. nat shape. The louse is readily visi ble particularly on light-
co lored fishes and may be easily picked off with tweezers, whi le the fish is
held in a wet net. Touch the wound with mercurochrome after removing
Argulus. To rid pools of Argulus use potassium permanganate.
Hydra
Thi is another enemy which may be introduced into aquaria when
pond water is added or when Daphnia are fed. The Hydra is a fresh-wa ter
polyp, appearing in aquaria in two common forms, H . viridis (green) and
H. ItAsca (gray) . It varies in size from one-sixteenth of an inch to three-
fourths of an inch in length , and to a tiny fry it takes on the proportions of
a gia nt.
The food of the Hydra is freshwater aq uatic life in the smaller sizes,
such as protozoa and fish fry up to an eighth of an inch in length. It eats
food in the aquarium which hould be eaten by the fishes, such as mosquito
larvae, Daphnia, Cyclops. It envelops fry and also uses oxygen needed by
the fish.
® G eneral Biological Supply H Ollse
Byrda clinging to a leaf.
A Hydra consists of a cylindrical body, at one end of which is a foot

to anchor it and at the other end a mouth surrounded by five to ten tentacles
with stinging cells which emit a venom . It seizes whatever minute animal it
can, numbs it with venom , and propels it into its mouth with the tentacles.
The muscular contractions of the Hydra's body walls force the victims into
the lower part of the polyp's body.
Larger fishes, notably Blue Gouramies, find Hydra delectable food ; but
small fishes doubtless Jearn the folly of attacking Hydra and being stung
by its defensive poison or stinging cells. Hydra probably attract fishes at
first by the movement of their tentacles. Once they have attached themselves
to a base, they swing and sway, looking for food. However, they can also
move about. You may even see them somersault in the water, after which
they right themselves and rest. Or you may see tbem on the glas looping
along like inchworms. Sometimes they appear as little knobs. If a Hydra
breaks into pieces accidentally or deliberately, each piece will generate
a whole organism. The danger lies in their numbers. One student counted
] 31 to a square inch in a trough where trout were hatched, and found
they caused a high loss of fry. Hydra are usually found in colonies, so it is
easy for a sizable number at one time to develop.
Hydra are very sensitive to the presence of even minute quantities of
copper. For thi reason the copper treatment is very effective. They may also
be destroyed chemically. Dissolve 31;2 to 4 grams of either ammonium nitrate
or ammonium sulphate in a few ounces of hot water. This is enough to treat
ten ga llons of water. Stir it slowly into the aquarium. Raise the tempera-
ture 5 to 10°, not higber than 85 ° F. It is not necessary to remove the
fish during treatment. The addition of one tablespoon of ammonia to each
five ga llons of water will destroy Hydra. The fish must be removed during
this treatment and the water changed afterwards.
Another suggested method is to avoid feedin g Daphnia or other fine food.
The Hydra will starve. Of course, if the fi sh are removed and if there are
no fry present. the Hydra will starve a nyhow.
Other Fish Enemies

In their natural environm ent fi shes have many enemie . The larger ene-
mi es seldo m trouble aquarium fishes ; but in outdoor, unsc reened tanks they
often play havoc with the occupants. Am ong these are such creatures as
Hellgrammites, the la rvae of th e Dobson Fly (Cordalis cornuta) , a nd Water
Tigers ( larvae of members of the order Ordonata, which contains the Drag-
onftie. and the Damselflies). Though a ir breathers, they can trap air under
® Gel1eral Bjo lu~ic(l l Slfpp ly H Olfse

A Hellgrammite, the larva of th e Dobson Fly.
the hairs of their bodies and live und er water for many minutes at a time.
Some grow to be three inches long. The e carnivorous creatures have power-
ful pincers which they use to catch th eir prey.
Water Scavenger ( Hydrophilus obtusafus) larvae are similar to those
of the predacio lls Diving Beetle . This predacious Diving Beetle (Dytiscus
marginicolLis) is aquatic with legs adapted for swimming. Its larvae are also
known as Water Tigers. The Giant Water Bug (Lethocerus americanus) ,
al. o called the Electric Light Bug, is an enemy.
Water Scorpions ( Rana/ra americana) are guite terrifying insects with
heads one-third of the length of their bodies. Their forelegs nap shut over
a fish a nd hold it. The e insects" breathe through air tubes which reach above
the water.
Some enemies such as the Water Boatman (Artocorixa alternata) and
Back Swimmers (Notonecta ) are usually seen on tbe surface of the water.
The Water Boatman has one pair of its legs standing out at right angles
to its body. The Back Swimmers actualJy swim on their backs. The former
is dark brown; tbe latter white with red eyes. These insects live under water
too, and eat small water creatures, including fry as well as fish eggs.
All of the above. or the eggs from which th ey develop, may be netted
with Daphnia and innocently dropped into a tank . While they are attaining
a size large enough to make themselves conspicuous they may destroy many
fry. When noticed, they can, of course. be removed. But in outdoor tanks
they are not always apparent until they have done much damage.
Gammarus (Fresh-water Shrimp)

Looking like dark gray rice grains. Fresh-water Shrimp kim over the
bottom or crawl along the gravel on short legs. They do not harm the
fi sh and are excellent scavengers. Tbey are included in this section because
tbey are also plant eaters. Adults are bard-shelled , so only larger fishes will
eat them. A sma ll fish that will is the Glassfish. Chanda lala. We are told
by Mr. Herman Blass of Franjo Fisheries, that when Gammarus are found
in a cement pool , Glassfi sh added to it will destroy the shrimp.
Fresh -water Shrimp are not a serious menace, preferring decaying to
healthy leaves. But in large nLimbers they can be a nuisa nce. They are usually
brought in with plants. They are able to survive out of water, as long as
they are moist. Although they are said to be vegetarian, one of us once
found a small mouse drowned in a tank , and on close inspection the mouse's
body was found to be swarming with Gammarids which were quickly netted
out with the mouse.
Limpets
Looking like slim translucent clams on the half she ll , Limpets glide over
the glass looking for food . They are quite mall-about half an inch at the
greatest diameter. Limpets are harmless scavengers related to snails .
Pond Limpets.
Aphids (Plant Lice)

When plant leaves project above the surface they occasionally become
infested with Aphids. These are small black bugs which do not harm the
fish but are injurious to plants. They are not aguatic, so cutting back the
leave to below thc surface is an effective control method. Another method
is to cover the surface of the aguarium with a layer of cloth for several
days, thus smothering the Aphids. The fish should be removed if this is
done.
Plumatella (Moss Animals)

Plumatella belong to a class of animals known as Bryozoa. It resembles
a pl a nt but is actually a colony of tiny animals. In appearance a colony of
Plumatella is fairly flat and usually dark brown in color. They form a struc-
ture which resembles a narrow tree trunk with branches leading off at ir-
regular intervals. Plumatella may form on any smooth surface, such as the
glas , a flat rock, or the broad leaf of a plant. It is freguently found inside
fil ters which are not cleaned regularly. It is a harmless water conditioner
and purifier which is easily removed (when unsightly) with a scraper, stiff
brush, or steel wool.
Plumatella.
Fear Psychology
Mass fright occurs most frequently when a group of fishe is placed in
a new aquarium . It may occur when a new object is placed in an established
aquarium. It is most likely to be seen in a group of fish that are of the same
species. It sometimes makes its appearance for no discernible reason . The
fish tend to huddle in one corner with all heads pointing outward from the
center of the group . They usually stay near the surface, with qUIvering fins
and tails spread out. Disturbance of the water sets them dashing around
madly, frequently leaping above the surface.
This action should not be confused with the huddling of sick fish or
oxygen-starved fish. Sick fi sh do not hold their fins erect, and they respond
only sluggishly to disturbance. Oxygen-starved fish are a lso sluggish. They
keep their mouths "glued" to the surface.
"Fear psychology" usually runs its course in a few days. Fish gradually
return to normal behavior by themselves. The addition of one aspirin to
each five gallons of water acts as a temporary sedative and calms them .
Poison
Whenever mass deaths occur with no visible di ease symptoms, poisoning
should be suspected . Paint and shellac fumes; "bug" poisons, powders , and
sprays; or certain metals in contact with the water are aU known to pOi son
fish .
The best cure for poi soning is prevention. Keep metal s out of contact
with the water. Cover the aquarium to keep out harmful materials. You should
always remember to be careful of foreign materials on your hands when work-
ing in the aquarium.
Even a dog freshly dusted with certain flea powders can jump into a
fish pool for a swim and cause a heavy fish kill .
The adverse effects of fumes in a room is greatly enhanced by the ac-
tion of the pump, which sucks in the fumes and pumps them into the water.
If it is necessary to paint or spray a room , certain precautions should be
taken. Either shut off the pump or, using a long piece of tubing, put the
pump in a fumeless area or outside a clo. ed window .
When painting or spraying becomes necessary, lower the water several
inches. Leave the reflector light on but substitute low wattage bulbs to pre-
vent overheating. Cover the aquarium with wrapping paper and fasten
it down with scotch tape. Over this throw two or three blankets. All this
should be done just before the start of the painting or spraying. The room
should be well aired before the covers are removed. A tank protected in this
way will last for two or three days without further attention or feeding.
The best antidote for contaminated water i to change all or IUost of it
as soon as pas ible.
Drugs
Because of the difficulty the average hobbyist has in diagnosing the spe-
cific cause of disease, a fish keeper's pharmacopoeia has evolved consisting,
for the most part, of mUlti -purpose drugs . That is, drugs which are effective
against not one but a number of diseases . These drugs also overlap in appli-
cation. Frequently several drugs are all effective against a certain disease.
We have tried to indicate, wherever possible, the treatment which we feel
to be most effective in a specific case, and also to give alternate treatments.
This is done with the thought that in many cases, where diagnosis is not
certain, an alternate drug may give protection against several diseases which
may be considered as the possible cause.
It is best not to administer several treatments at one time on the theory
that you will kill all the disease-causing organisms. Such a procedure might
kill the fish. Remember, in order to kill organisms, these drugs must be
poisonous. The task is to regulate the dosage so that it is too sma ll to harm
the fish , yet strong enough to cure the disease. Moreover, some drugs are
antagonistic and cannot be used together. Do not administer two treatments
at one time unless you are sure of your ground.
An experienced aquarist observes his fish closely while they are under-
going treatment. There are two reasons for this. One is immediate: if the
fish shows signs of being adversely affected by the drug, it can be rescued
in time. The second and long-range reason is that should the treatment fail
to show signs of curing the fish. there may still be time to switch to another
treatment.
When treating a fish by dipping it into a solution , make sure that the dip
is the same temperature as the water in which the fish is kept.
Filtration will remove many of the drugs from aquarium water. For
this rea~on the filter should be shut during treatment. On the other hand ,
aeration is very beneficial while fish are undergoing treatment and should
be used whenever possible. Treatjng fish outside the aquarium should be
done in bare, all-glass or enamel containers. One advantage of treating them
in their own tank is that the aquari um and its contents are being partially
sterilized at the same time.
Copper in the Treatment of Diseases

We would like to outline some experiments we have performed and their
results, involving the use of metallic copper in the prevention and treatment
of various fish diseases and in general aquarium management.
In order to give a more lucid explanation it will be necessary, however,
to review briefly the use of copper sulphate solutions in hatchery manage-
ment. For many years copper SUlphate has been recognjzed as a tool in the
treatment of various diseases of fish. Although the widespread use of copper
sulphate is evidence of its serviceabi lity , its shortcomings are also well known.
For example, there is very little margin for error between an effective dose
and a toxic overdose. The effect upon fish varies greatly with differences
in water conditions, such as the calcium content. The reaction to copper
sulphate varies according to type of fish, their size and also their general
condition. Certain species are more susceptible to injury from an excess of
copper su lphate than are others. A fish in a weakened state might succumb
to a treatment that would not affect a more vigorou one.
In spite of these drawbacks, copper sulphate has continued to be used
because of the wide range of organisms again t which it i' effective, its rela-
tively low cost and th e ease of application. Among aquarium fishes. with
their relatively high unit cost, greater over-all delicacy and the crowded condi-
tions under which they arc kept, copper sulphate has proved too toxic to come
into general u ·e. Add to the aforementioned the fact that frequently many
different species of fishes are kept together and that different species vary in
their reaction to copper sulphate.
Using Metallic Copper

We felt that our inability to make greater use of copper sulphate was
unfortunate since copper is so effective against many of the parasites that
affect aquarium fishes. parasites for which other effective treatments have
not yet been found . About seven years ago we began to experiment with
metallic copper in the form of sheets or sponges and also with copper pen-
nies. The advantages of using these instead of copper sulphate result from
the fact that the amount of dissolved copper in the water is gradually built
up, rather than started at full strength. Here are the various advantages of
using metallic copper:
1. The fish became accustomed to the gradual accumulation of dis-
solved copper and can tolerate a much stronger amount than they cou ld
otherwise.
2. By observation, it can be determined which fishes are reacting ad-
versely to the copper and they can be removed before any extensive dam-
age has been done.
3. By observation it can also be determined when a sumcient do :.lge
has accumulated and treatment can then easily be stopped.
4. When the metallic copper is removed, the copper in solution "pre-
cipjtates out" rapidly, thus obviating the neceSSity for extensive water
changes.
5. The use of copper in this manner has proved more effective against
various parasites, because j'rel.!d from the fear of overdosage, the aquarist
tends to employ stronger concentrations of copper than could otherwise
be permitted.
6. Since this treatment is effective against a wide range of organisms.
is mo t simple to administer. and apparently has no harmful effects on
fish, it can be used when there has not been a positive determination of
the cau ative disease organism and very frequently it shows astonishing
results.
7. When a small amount of copper is kept in an aq uarium, the fish
are healthier, grow faster and suffer less mortality than do fish kept
under comparable conditions but without copper.
Standard Method of Treatment

Frequent uSe of thi treatment has enabled us to standardize the method.
First of all, certain conditions must be considered for proper usage a nd to
avoid dangerous concentrations. Water hardness does not seem to affect
the treatmcnt. but the proper determination of pH is important. If the water
.is acid , it must be adjusted to a pH slightly above neutral, 7.2 to 7.4 being
sati 'factory. A pH grcater (more alkaline) than this will also give satisfactory
results, but adjusting the pH over a greater range may have in itself harmful
effects on the fish. Using metallic copper in an acid medium appears to
increase the rate at which the copper enters into solution and therefore de-
creases the safety factor dangerously.
For the purpose of adjusting pH. the small kits sold for aquaria usc in
which bromthymol blue i the indicator are completely unsatisfactory. We
have found them to be invariably inaccurate. We suggest the use of a pH
meter Or of one of the better kits ; the rolls of hydrion papers that are avail-
able provide a reasonably accurate and inexpensive method of testing pH.
The effect of copper in precipitating mucus, espec ially on the gills. must
al 0 be considered. The addition of small amounts of pure common salt to
the water greatly d creases this danger. The add iti on of o ne teaspoon of
salt to each three gallons of water gives optimum results. Aeration during
treatment is also a good practice.
While the amount of copper used may be varied, certain restrictions
must be borne in mind. As the dissolved copper is constantly being combined
with organic substances and thus removed from solution, too small an area
of copper metal exposed to the water may result in an insufficient amount
of copper solution becoming concentrated in the water. A greater amount
of copper wi ll frequently result in a greater concentration of copper within
a shorter period of time and thus decrease the length of time reguired for
a cure. The danger of using too much copper metal is tbat the concentration
of copper in solution may become too great and damage to the fish may re-
sult.
The optimum dosage, as we have determined it by actual use, is twenty-
three grams of copper sponge material to each fifteen gallons of water, or
twenty copper pennies to each single gallon of water. It is extremely im-
portant that the copper sponge used be pure copper and not an alloy. Cer-
tain alloys in addition to being toxic to fishes, do not appear to have any
effect upon the organism against which the treatment is directed . When in
doubt, it is advisable to use copper pennies as these are of uniform composi-
tion. It is unnecessary to use bright, newly minted pennies; old dull ones
do just as well.
Continued immersion of a piece of copper in an aquarium results in
an insoluble coating being formed on the metal itself. This preve Its further
utilization of th e copper. The dark appearance of the coated copper as con-
trasted with the uncoated metal is sufficient evidence of its un uitability for
further use. It may be possible to dissolve this coating by immersing the
copper in an acid solution. Up to the present we have not found it necessary
to experiment with this. The low price of copper sponges and the relatively
small amounts of water to be treated make it practical to provide a fresh
piece of sponge for each treatment. The u 'e of pennies does not, of cour e,
affect their value. After the treatment is over, the pennies can bc spent and
banks provide an inexhaustible 'upply of new pennies whenever they should
become necessa ry. However, the great amount of water in hatcheries that
want to employ this treatment, might make it practical to experiment with
the rejuvenation of used copper. Immersion of the copper in a dilute acid
may effect the desired result .
Tn aquarium use, the foHowing parasites have been positively identified
and cured by the use of metallic copper. Cont rols that were untreated all died .
Chilodonella: A very hardy microscopic organism. All traces of Chilodo-
nella were eliminated in forty-eight to seventy-two hours. The fish showed a
marked improvement very rapidly. Within twenty-four hours the clamped
fins and resting on the bottom, which are characteristic symptoms of this
disorder, disappeared in mixed groups of Platies. Untreated fish started
to die in ten days .
Gyrodactylus: This parasite causes a considerable loss among pool -raised
fi shes when they are crowded into dealers' tanks. A group of one hundred
Guppies was separated into two seventeen-gallon aquariums. A copper sponge
was placed with one group; the other group was untreated. A complete
cure was effected in seventy-two hours. Members of the untreated group
died gradually until at the end of three weeks there were only balf a dozen
emaciated specimens left.
Dactylogyrus: No controlled experiments were conducted with this para -
site. However, the danger of gill flukes is well known. Positive identification
was made microscopically and the organism eradicated by copper treatment
within forty-eight hours.
Oodinium: Perhaps the most dramatic cure is effected against this tiny
but hardy protozoan, which is the cau e of the disease known as "velvet."
Visible to the naked eye at certain stages in their life cycle, the parasites
may be seen leaving the fish as the copper affects them . Rasbora heteromor-
. pha heavily affected by Oodinium were divided into two groups. Twelve
parasitized fish were placed in two gallons of water with forty copper pennies
and aeration was supplied. Within twenty-four hours all signs of the parasite
were gone. After forty-eight hours the copper was removed. The fish were
kept isolated for fourteen days longer in order to determine whether there
would be a recurrence of the disease. No further infection occurred. The
twenty-four control fish remained untreated for a week during which time
their condition gradually worsened as tbe infection increased. At the end of
a week , however. because of the value of the fish, they were treated with
copper and they all recovered .
Unidentified organisms: There are many parasitic and bacterial diseases
of tropical fishes , the causative organisms of which arc not known by the
aquarist, although he recognizes them by tbe simi larity of the ymptoms the
fishes display. The so-calJed "Angel Fi h disease" and the "Betta disease"
are examples. These have responded readily to treatment with metanic cop-
per.
Tolerance of Fish to Copper

The ability of fish to withstand heavy doses of copper when accustomed
to them in graduall y increasing amounts is really remarkable. For instance,
some Zebra Danios were treated for Oodinium by placing a copper sponge
in their seventeen-gallon aquarium. Although the disease was cured in
twenty-four hours, the sponge was not removed. Ten days later, with the
sponge still present, approximately thirty more Zebra Danios were added to
the aquarium in one netful. They were all dead within ten minutes. When
the Zebra Danios that had been in the aquarium were removed and placed
in fresh , copper-free water with no preparation or gradual transition. the
sudden change did not appear to affect them. The copper sponge was then
removed and twenty-four hours later a new lot of Zebra Danios was placed
in the aquarium which still contained the same water. The fish showed no
symptoms of distress at a ll.
A small amollnt of copper maintained over a period of time in an aguar-
ium appears to exercise a salubrious effect upon the fishes. Similar aquar-
iums contain ing the same types of fishes do not appear to be as clear and
healthy. Of course, this is only visual observation. However, the growth rate
of copper-treated fish is markedly faster and their mortality rate lower. Their
birth rate does not appear to be affected, live-bearers bringing forth young
as regularly as fish in untreated aquaria.
There still remains much work to be done with copper. It is certain that
it is effective against many more of the parasites that adversely affect fish,
than we have yet determined .• It is probably also effective in the treatment
of true fungu (Sapro /egnia ) and of various bacterial diseases.
Heat
Increasing the aquari um temperature from the normal 75 0 F. to 85 0 F.
is usually beneficial to sick fish. 1t can be considered standard procedure
in fish treatment. The only exception is when the difficulties are due to or
complicated by lack of oxygen. ]t shou ld be remembered that warm water
holds less oxygen than doe cold water.
Potassium Permanganate
This purple dye has long. been known as an effective treatment against
a wide range of disease-causing organisms. 1t is somewhat more toxic than
the majority of medicines used by the aquarist and must be handled with
special care. Many patent fish medicines utilize potassium permanganate as
a base. Potassium permanganate is also availab le in tablet form. The 1/2 -grain
or one-grain tablets arc the most convenient sizes; they provide a convenient
and accurate measure. The use of crystals is inadvisable except for the most
experienced aquarist because of the difficulty of measuring the dose.
For best results, the u(juarium should be sl ight ly acid or neutral. pH 6.6
to 7 .0. The tablets should be crushed , dissolved in warm water. and the
resulting 'olution stirred into the aquarium. A repeat dose shou ld not be
added to the aquarium until the co lor is completely gone.
For cloudy, green, or gray water. use one grain of potassium perrl1an-
ganate to each nve gallons of water. No water change is necessary. The
color will disappear by itself.
When disease is widespread. it is best to treat the entire aquarium . Use
one grain to each three ga llons of aquarium water. After one hour. change
one-third to one-half of the water. The remaining color will disappear by
itself. If only one or two fishes are infected , isolate them (to prevent the
disease from spreading) and dip them once a day for fifteen to twenty sec-
onds in a solution of one grain of potassium permanganate per quart of
water. The solution should be discarded after a single use. The dip should
be repeated for at least three days or until an signs of sickness are gone.
A n important precaution: If the fish show signs of distress during treat-
ment, either by hanging at the top with gaping gills or lying on the bottvm,
remove the fish from the solution or dilute the solution by a partial change
of water. Potassium permanganate probably has the broadest application
in disease control of any of the standard aquaria drug~ except possibly salt.
lt bas two advantages over sa lt in that in the recommended doses it does
not harm plants and that no water change is necessary after its use. The
color loss indicates when the drug has been reduced.
Potassium permanganate is particu~arly effective against SaproZegnia in-
fections. It may be used in the treatment of both body and gill flukes, as
well as Costia and Chilodonella. It is moderately effective against ich, velvet
and Trichodon. It will also remove Argulus.
Formalin Dip
Formalin is formaldehyde in solution. Formaldehyde itself is a poisonous
gas. The standard strength of formalin is 371/2 per cent. As a dip, formalin
is very effective against many external protozoan parasites. It is apparently
ineffective against bacterial infections. Formalin is effective for the removal
of body and gill flukes. also Cosfia and Chilodonella.
Formalin should not be used as a treatment in the aquarium. The in-
fected fish or fishes shou ld be placed in a solution of eight drops of formalin
to the quart of water. The duration of the bath depends on tbe reaction of
the fish, the average being thirty minutes. If the fish starts to hang at the
surface, remove it immediately from the solution.
Salt
Either as a dip or as a continuous bath, salt is one of the safest and
most effective treatments. Unfortunately, salt in effective quantities is usually
injurious to plants. For ich or Trichodon, add one to two teaspoons of salt
to each gallon of water. Two teaspoons per gallon is close to the level of
tolerance of mOst plants. The aquarium temperature shou ld be maintained
at 85 ° F. during treatment. The salt should be diluted by gradua l, partial
changes of water over several days after the cure has been completed.
A salt dip is made up of five level teaspoons of salt to each gallon of
water. This should be well aerated. The fish should be kept in the dip
until it shows signs of distress. The strong dip treatment is effective again:t
Chilodonella, Coslia, Saprolegnia and Trichodon. Repeat if required.
Mercurochrome
Mercurochrome is widely available as a 2 per cent aqueous solution for
disinfecting wounds. It is effective for treating ich and mouth fungus in
dosages as low as one drop per gallon of water, but the recommended dosage
is two drops to every three gallons of water. Fish could probably tolerate
up to ten drops per gallon of water without any ill effects, although at that
strength the plants would be affected. A temperature of 75 ° F. is satisfactory
when mere urochrome i used to treat icll. No change of water is necessary
after treatment, and the color disappears by itself. The dose may be re-
peated if necessary. Mercurochrome i recommended as a treatment only
for ich and mouth fungus.
Acriflavine (Euflavine, Trypaflavine)

This acridine dye has been used extensively as a general antiseptic,
disinfectant and disease treatment and as a prophylactic agent. It has the
general merit of being fairly effective against a wide range of disease-causing
organisms, and it is quite mild itself. Except in massive doses it does not
harm the fish or plants. It is widely used a the basis for many packaged
fish remedies.
For a stock solution dissolve two grains (avai lable in measured tablets
from Abbott Co.) in one ounce of distilled water. Kept tightly closed in a
brown bottle in a dark place, this sol ution will keep for some time. Five
drops per gal lon is the most effective dosage.
Acriflavine can be used as a general treatment when the cause of disease
is not clearly indicated . The greenish color that it imparts to water will
disappear in a few days .
Antibiotics: Terramycin, Achromycin, and Aureomycin

Anyone of these is very effective against certain bacteria-caused diseases.
The one you use depends on personal preference and availability.
They are available in capsules containing either 50, 100 or 250 milli-
grams. For use, the capsule should be opened and the contents di . olved
in warm water immediately before being added to the tank. The proper
dosage is 25 milli gram~ per gallon of water. These antibiotic break down
within a few days in the water. However, as they are relatively quick acting
it is seldom necessary to repeat the dose.
The amount of antibiotics found in fish foods which are advertised as
containing them is too small to be of any therapeutic value.
Penicillin is frequently used but the above mentioned antibiotics are ef-
fective against the sa me types of bacteria a penicillin is, plus their effective-
ness against many other bacteria-caused disea es.
Antibiotics have been widely advertised as "wonder drugs. " In the sense
that they cure certain diseases which did not respond previously to any treat-
ment, they are "wonder drugs." But they do not cure everything. In an
aquarium they are a specific for mouth fungus and tail and fin rot. They
will often clear a gray cloudy tank when the cloud is caused by bacteria.
Their use may cause a gray oi ly cloud resulting from yeast multiplication.
Antibiotics will not cure ich, velvet, Chilodonella, Trichodon, true fun-
gus, or any of the flukes. They are valuable in the treatment of these dis-
eases, however, when used in combination with other drugs. Used in this
manner they often help prevent secondary infection.
Hydrogen Peroxide
As a quick cure for Gyrodactylus in Guppies, it has proved safe but not
for other species on which it had been tried. For Guppies, a 50: SO solution
with water is placed in a small container. All the Guppies in an infected
tank are removed from the tank. One small netful at a time is dipped into
the solution for not over two seconds and the Guppies returned to their tank.
In our experience, only those Guppies too near death to be saved by any
means have succumbed.
Mud Treatment
Certain ailments have been cured merely by putting enough garden soil
in the aquarium to make the water opaque when stirred. The treatment con-
sists simply in placing the fish in the muddy water and leaving it there for
several days. It helps to stir the settled mud purposely from time to time.
Since some of the antibiotics are made from bacteria found in garden soil,
there is a stron g likelihood that the value of mud baths lies in the bacteria-
inhibiting substances which mud contains. Certain toxins may be stepped-up
by bacteria still in the mud , but they are harmless to the fish.
Green Water Treatment

Fish are often revived by leaving them in a tank contammg healthy
algae. Sometimes this does wonders as a tonic. Grecn water can be had from
almo t any fish breeder. ]f water is placed in the bright sun and kept at a
temperature of about 75 0 F. and fert ilized the algae will grow rapidly. Fish
can be left in green water for an almost indefinite period of time.
Live Food Treatment

Many a sick fish that has been fed on prepared food has recovered
promptly when fed worms, Brine Shrimp, Daphnia, or other live food. Re-
covery after such a change of diet does not always mean that the illness
was a res ult of nutritional deficiencies, however. There seems to be some-
thing in live food that has a curative effect on diseases and which is quite
unrelated to diet.
Aquarium Sterilization
It often becomes necessary to disinfect an aquarium. The best way to
do this is to remove the fish and plants, throwaway the sand or gravel.
scrub out the tank: with a brush, rinse, and use either acid, alkaline, or a
strong oxidizing agent. (Acid wash : glacial acetic acid in a 5 per cent solu-
tion ; Alkaline: ammonia in a solution of one teaspoon per quart ; Oxidizing
agent: potassium permanganate at a strength of 1:1000.)
The plants can be disinfected by soaking them in a 4 per cent solution
of aluminum sulphate for ten minutes on two successive days. Another method
is to soak the plants in a solution of one part of concentrated lime water
(obtainable from any druggist) to even parts of water. Leave them in this
solution for three hours. After rinsing, they may safely be replanted in the
clean tank.
Diseases, Parasites, a nd Enemy Intruders 233
" Disinfecting" Fish
When quarantining fish is impractical, it is good practice to resort to
"disinfecting" them. While not too effective disinfecting does provide some
measure of protection. Here is the procedure: The fish should first be placed
for a half hour in a formalin bath and then kept twenty-four hours in water
to which is added four drops of mercurochrome and 50 milligrams of a
recommended antibiotic per gallon.
Gene ral Comment on Fi sh Diseases

There arc many other fish diseases known to pathologists and fish cul-
turists that are not likely to be encountered in the home aquarium. We have
therefore tried to confine this section to those causes of death which are
contagious or by their nature likely to affect all or a good many of the fish
in an aquarium.
There are also many other drugs which could be listed as treatments. But
we have attempted to avoid confusion by limiting our suggestions to those
drugs that have the widest application and are the most effective and the
safest.
Anesthetics
One use of anesthetics is to quiet the fi sh's actions for measuring, weigh-
ing. stripping. microscopic examination or other purposes requiring handling
of the fi sh out of water.
For this purpose urethane or chloretone may be u. ed. For chloretone
anesthesia, make up a 1 :2,500 solution. Suspend the fish in a net in the
solution until the tail stops moving; this usually takes two or three minutes.
Returned to fresh water, they recover in three to eight minutes. Should
they recover from the anesthetic too soon, they can be reimmersed in the
solution.
Chloretone anesthesia can also be induced by adding a few crystals of
the drug at a lime to the fi sh's water until it stops moving. It sh uld be re-
moved from the water and after handling returned to fresh water.
Urethane may be used in the same way. The correct strength is 1 :200.
Recently there have been reports on the use of the barbiturate, sodium
amy tal , in the transportation of trout. According to the reports , this drug
slows down the general activity of the fish , thus making it possible to trans-
port greater numbers in a given quantity of water. These reports have led
people to presume that the same results could be obtained with tropical
fishes. Several experiments have been conducted but the reported re ults are
contradictory. For the more scientifically minded of o ur readers, it is sug-
gested that they experiment using one-ha lf a grain of sodium amy tal per
gallon of water.
Tranquilizing and Anesthetizing Drugs

In Chapter lOwe mentioned the fact that tranquilizing and anesthetizing
drugs cause some fishes to become more brilliant in color and the probable
physiological basis for the change. Because fright and unfavorable conditions
produce fading, it i assumed that the brilliant colors are the natural colors.
Thus anythjng which banishes fear and tranquilizes should bring out the
best color values.
Euthanasia
There a re times when it is necessary to destroy a fi h. Common kindness
dictates that yo u do it as quickly as possible. Squeezing the head hard enough
to crush the bra in destroys small specimens instantly. Any movement after-
wards is refl ex. With the brain gone, there is no possibility of pain. Larger
specimens may be laid flat and struck with a metal or wooden object on the
base of the skull. Don 't be squeamish but strike hard ; it is really kinder.
Hold the fish firmly while striking. A fisb is slippery and may sli e.
Preserving Fishes
For preserving specimens, the following solutions are recommended by
Dr. George S. Myers. Use ful l strength formalin (35 to 40 per cent form-
aldehyde solution) which is diluted with water-I part formalin to 9 parts
water. Add a pinch of borax to prevent decalcification. The fish may be
dropped in this even if it is still alive as the sol ution kills almo ·t instantly.
Killing it thjs way also prevents injury to the fish's body . The specimen should
be kept in a tightly sealed jar or vial.
Ethyl alcohol diluted 3 parts of 95 per cent alcohol to one part water
or 95 per cent isopropyl alcohol diluted 2 parts alcohol to 3 parts water are
also excellent preservatives, but are better used after a fish has first been
pre erved in formalin for about a month.
Grains of Substance Required to Make One Ounce of Aqueous Solutions

Percentage strength of solution Crains req uired
0.02 (1:5000) ljj o
0.05 (1 :2000) Yo
0.1 (l: 1000) %
0.2 (1:500) %
0.25 (1:400) 1:JA
0.5 (1:200) 21,4
4lh
In America and England, degrees of temperature are measured on the
Fahrenheit scale abbreviated F . On this cale, the freezing point of water is
32 degrees F. and the boiling point 212 degrees F. Many countries, as well
as individual scientists, use the Centigrade sca le which is abbreviated C. On
this scale, water freezes at 0 degrees C. and boils at 100 degrees C.
To convert Centigrade degrees into Fahrenheit degrees, multiply the num-
ber of Centigrade degrees by % and add 32 to the result. To convert
Fahrenheit degrees into Centigrade degrees, subtract 32 from the number
of Fahrenheit degrees and multiply the difference by %.
The Metric System
INCHES 2
! 1' 1,111 II'lllq

"I'1111,I
1
I''II1I' 1 1
IIIIIII Illlfl
"
' 11
lllllljilllllllllll1
CENTIMETERS I 2 3 4 •
There are approximately 25 millimeter , abbreviated mm., to the inch.

There are 10 mm .'s to each centimeter, abbreviated cm.
Volume Equivalents
Home meClsure Fluid measure Metric ~ystem
1 drop 110 -10 fl . oz. ~0()
cc.
I tea po on YH fl. oz. 4 cc.
I dessert spoon l:! fl . oz. 8 cc.
tablespoon :;':-; fl. oz. 12 cc.
I cup 8 oz. 240 cc.
I pint 16 oz. 480 cc.
I quart 32 oz. 960 cc.
One liter is 1000 cc. or roughly one quart.
Weights
Grams Grains A vOirdufJois
1 gram 15.432 grains .03527 oz.
28 .350 gm. 437.497 grains I oz.
453 .592 gm. lIb.
One kilogram (kg) is 1000 grams or 35.275 ounces.
Miscellaneous
1 gal. water equals 231.00 cubic inc he .
1 gal. water equals 8.33 lbs. equals 58310.00 grains.
1 lb. water equals 0.1200 gallon.
] fluid ounce water equals 456.3 9 grains equals ] .0432 ounces.
1 oz. avdp. water equals 0.9586 fluid ounces.
1 cubic inch water equals 252.879 grains.
Purchasing Fish
TH1S is a difficult and touchy subject on which to advise the beginner. The
first thing he should do is read through the catalogue of fishes and the section
on diseases in this book. The former will give him some of the characteristic
of the fishe , their requirements and their behavior in a community aquarium.
A careful reading of the section on diseases will give him many of the
symptoms which he can look for and avoid in selecting fish from a dealer's
tank.
To a great extent he must depend on the dealer's reputation and
good judgment. 1t is best to deal with a reliable source rather than look for
'o-called "bargains." A healthy, properly priced fish that will live for several
years is a good investment. An undersized , poorly nourished fish is likely
to carry disease into the aquarium and cause the loss of good fishes. Many
diseases are co ntagio u . Introducing a sick fish into an aquarium invites
trouble.
When inspecting fishes in a dealer's tank , look carefully for signs of dis-
ease. These signs include dead fish in the aquarium, fish lying at the bottom,
listlessnes , sluggishness, clamped fins , and fish hanging consistently at the
top. Many times symptoms of the same disease cause diverse reactions in
different varieties of fishes. The only way you can increase your knowledge
about these reactions is to study the fishes so that you learn just how they
should swim when in normal health. That knowledge will help you detect
any deviation from their normal behavior.
There i ' no guide which you can use to judge the value of the fish. The
quality of a specimen even varies with the season of the year. At certain
times of year, particularly in cold and extremely hot weather, shipping fish
from hatcheries is a dangerous procedure. Very often Shipments are lost and
tbe resulting losse are reflected in higher prices in subsequent shipments.
Imported fishes are frequently brought in in large lots. When they first enter
the market the price may be comparatively high. When the majority of the
Purchasing Fish 237
shipment has been di posed of the price may fall to reflect the lessening of
the demand.
Always try to keep track of the number of fish in your tank. A dealer can-
not advise you well unless he has some idea of the number and type of
fishes you have. All too often a dealer is forced to wait wbile a customer
tries to count on his fingers from memory. Be fair to your dealer by giving
him the facts he needs in making recommendations to you. In most cases
you can rely on him; if you ask him a straightforward questioll you can
expect an honest answer.
After you have made your purchase tell your dealer approximately how
long it will be before you can put the fish in the aquarium. In that way he
can best judge what size container to give you. If you tell him you will have
to carry them for a considerable period of time in the container, he will give
you the proper sIze for the number of fish and tbe length of the trip . It is
not necessary to punch a bole in the top of the container. This only causes
water . pillage, and there is enough air between the top of the water and the
surface of the container to keep the fish in good conditi on until they ar-
rive at their new home. A void co ld and overheating on the way home . If
you have told the dealer that you will be home in an hour. he will pack the
fish accordingly: but if you suddenly decide to make a side trip for several
hours you may find your fish dead on arrival.
In selecting fish, pick fairly young specimens, not babies or fully ma-
tured fi h. The fins shou ld be erect, clear, and unmarked. The body colors
irid escent and strong. The fish should fairly glow with health. Remember
the capacity of the tank is limited , so buy on ly the best.
When you purchase a fish, ask your dealer whether it is suitable for
life in a community tank, with small, medium or large fishes, whichever you
happen to have. This information will help the dealer to advise you against
purchasing a pugnacious fish. Your dealer is your ally. He want your con-
tinued business, and so he will help you and answer your questions.
Pictures and Fishes

Beginners are frequently puzzled when they find that the fishes they see
are not as brilliantly colored as are colored illustrations of the same fishes.
There are several reasons for this.
You usually buy young fish beca use they are less expensive and because
young fish can adjust more easily to stresses and changes. So most fish are
immature when purchased. But, in most species, the color improves as a
fish matures. In many, full coloration does not occur except during periods
of sexual excitement.
Many varieties of fishes have some control over their coloring. When
frightened, disturbed , or crowded, the color fades. This is probably a defense
mechanism designed to make the fish less conspicuous. Moreover, but for-
tunately not too often, color photos are retouched to emphasize certain colors
and perhaps make them more recognizable. But don't despair; if you keep
your fishes properly, you will see them become more like the pictures every
day.
Bullies
To a large extent the problem of handling bullies is a matter of know-
lng your fishes. Some species of fishes are always buHies, and should be
kept alone. Others are "mean" only while breedin g. Some fi shes fight only
with others of their own kind, while others are peaceful only when they have
enough company of their own kind.
Wherever possible, we have tried to include along with the description
of the fish a description of its requirements and habits. At times an indi-
vidual fish of a normally peaceful variety turns bully. Frequently this can
be cured by removing the fish and isolating it for len days to two weeks
before returning it to the tank .
It's Fun to Breed Fishes
IT DOE not take the amateur long to discover that tropical fishes are fun
to breed . Best of all , it is not difficult, and not much extra eq uipment is
required. For the live-bearers even a I-gallon jar floating in the tank can
bc pressed into service as a maternity ward and nursery tank. For egg-layers
a little more is required ; but for mo t of the small egg-layers, a 5-gallon tank.
some spawning medium , a thermostatic heater and an aerator are alJ the
eq uipment needed to begin .
The age at which fishes start to breed is variable and greatly dependent
on envi ronmental conditions as well as on hereditary factors. In general,
the appearance of the secondary sex ual characteristics is the indication of
readiness to breed. In live-bearers this is the formation of the gonopodium;
in egg-layers the appearance of adult coloration and mating behavior. Cich-
lids, for example. will start cleaning a site ; Anabantids, building nests.
There is no harm in breeding young fi sh . If they are wilting, they are
able. The number of young in a spawning is likely to be sma ller with young
breeders, but the babies will be perfectly normal in size and development.
The growth rate of the young fry is greatly influenced by their environment.
If they are crowded aDd improperly fed they may sti ll go on living, but they
wi ll grow very ~Iowly or may not grow at all. Such fish are known as
runts. They may resume growth if conditions improve; but it i unlikely
that they will ever attain maximum size. This holds true for all species of
fi shes. Some are hardier than otbers, but all are affected adversely by a poor
environment.
The first few months of a fish 's life are important to growth. During
this period keep food in front of babies as much as possible, but be careful
not to fou l the tank with tbe excess. This is best done by feeding small
amounts freguently- a many as six or seven times a day if possible.
The size of the food must always be proportionate to the size of the
fi h. Tbe small fry cannot swallow large piece and must be fed a fine food.
As the small fry develop and grow, small size foods may not provide enough
nourishment, so it is necessary to change their diet to keep pace with their
growth.
One side of a hobbyist's J 2 x 12 foot room . Such a layout is capable

of commercial production .
Determining the Sex of Fishes

Where individual differences ex ist they will be given with the descrip-
tion of each sp cies in the catalogue of fishes . Aside from these differences
certain general determinants should be considered. They are :
1. The young of all species usually resemble the mother.
2. When there is a difference in color and/ or finnage, the male has the
brightest color and the largest or best developed fins.
3. When there are no obvious differences in a group, body shape must be
used as a guide. In a mature female the ripe sex products may compri e
one-fourth to one-fifth of the female's body weight. This gives a healthy
female a rotund appearance in comparison with the slimmer male. Holding
several fish stomach up in a wet net is sometimes the best way to sex the
It's Fun to Breed Fishes 241
hard ones. The male's stomach comes to more of a point. like tbe keel of
a boat, while the female's is round. In some species the sexes are so
much alike that the only practical method of distinguishing is by behavior;
the males fight other males but not females.
Conditioning the Egg Scatterers

Professional fish breeders pay a good amount of attention to conditioning
fishes before trying to spawn them. This is not a short-term procedure but
a continuing process. The most important part of the procedure is the sepa-
ration of the sexes. If both sexes were kept together, the males might
continually drive the females. This can keep the females from developing
a fuJI complement of eggs. Separation has the further advantage of increasing
ardor. Then the pairs can be placed together and spawning initiated at the
breeder's convenience. The two sexe should be separated out of sight of
each other or the female may be stimulated to useless egg laying by the
mere sight of the male.
Occasionally two females will pair off and spawn together. This does
no permanent damage, but to prevent a repetition it is best to separate
them . Experienced breeders genera lly do not attempt to separate and condi-
tion a single pair. This is too uncertain a procedure. Anywhere from twelve
to twenty of each sex are kept in separate aquariums and from these the
ones most likely to spawn are selected.
Usually the prospective breeders are kept in bare aerated tanks and
heav ily fed several times a day . Live Daphnia and mosquito larvae are fa-
vored as an over supply can be put in the tanks and will live until the fish
finish them off. Another method is to put a cup of Tubifex Worms on the
bottom of the aquarium. The fish can and do pull worms out of the clump
all day without danger of fouling the tank . Dirt is siphoned from the
bottom at regular intervals and the water removed is replaced with fresh,
slightly cooler water.
Fishes which mate for life and also live-bearers should not be separated.
Selecting Breeders
Experience helps considerably in selecting breeders, but there are certain
signs that the amateur should look for. Here are some of them: The color is
greatly intensified ; the fish fairly glows with vivid hues. The body becomes
rounded out. Males become restive and more aggressive around the tank.
Characins partic ularly will sq uare off at each other in sparkli ng displays of
extended fins . The female's abdomen becomes noticeably distended as she
fills with roe, and she may alternate periods of restlessness with resting
quietly in the corner, with her head held lower than her tail.
Breeding can take place at any time of the year. There is no particular
season although certain fishes will breed more readily and frequently in the
spring. The temperature shou ld be maintained at 80 ° to 82 0 F. during con-
ditioning. As one experienced breeder said to us when we told him that we
were writing about breeding egg-layers, "It's really very simple. Separate
the sexes until they're ready. Bring them together in a tank with something
to receive the spawn and that's it. Most aquarium egg-layers breed the same
way."
While this is an oversimplification, there is a good deal of the truth to
it. Almost al l of our aquarium egg-layers fall into the following b reeding
categories: non-adhesive egg-scatterers (comparatively few); adhesive egg-
scatterers (almost aU the Characins and Barbs plus some others); bubble
nest builders (most Anabantids and one or two Catfishes); fishes which ex-
ercise parental care (Cichlids, Nandids, some Gobies and a few Characins );
egg-laying Tooth Carps (some of which are plant spawners and some bottom
spawners); and the Catfishes. A few have distinctive breeding habits which
will be treated under the individual species' description .
Egg Binding
Egg binding is rare . It is usually due to a sudden drop in temperature
and l or feeding an excess of dry starchy foods. The egg-bound female should
be placed in a solution conSisting of one teaspoon of Epsom salts to each
gallon of water at a tempcrature of 85 0 F. until she is relieved. Laxative
foods such as Daphnia shou ld be fed.
Stripping has been tried experimentally. Because of tbe small size and
delicacy of most tropicals it seldom succeeds and should be used only as
a last resort. Fish eggs are enclosed in a membranous sac within the body
cavity. In some species tbis sac is easily ruptured and the eggs massaged
out. Hold the fi h, head up, in a wet net. With a wet piece of absorbent
cotton gently stroke the fi h's belly down from gi lls to vent. This should be
done for one or two minutes and the fish then returned to the medicinal
solution. This procedure may be repeated every few hours until relief is ob-
tained.
Wholesale Breeding
There are several requirements for breeding tropical fishes on a large
scale. Warmth, plenty of room and an adequate supply of good water are
all essential ingredients for success. Florida has all three in abundance. It
was therefore natural that fish breeders should soon gravitate to the sun-
shine state. At one ,time, land and labor were very inexpensive around both
Tampa and Miami. Another consideration was regular transportation service.
1t was no good raising fishes unless they could be shipped directly to the
customers with a minimum. of loss. Both Tampa and Miami have large
rail, air, and motor terminals with regular direct scheduled service to many
large citie .
Because of the difference in terrain, slightly different methods of fish
farming evolved in these two areas. The principles are the same, but the
methods differ.
Fish Farming Around Tampa

In the Tampa area the ground is soft and has a high water table. Pools
are bulldozed out. These are mud bottom pools with no lining. The high
water table and flowing water keeps them full. Many of these are quite
large-50 to 75 feet long. 10 to 15 feet wide, and sloping on the bottom
from a few inches to 3 or 4 feet. Artesian wells which go down everal
hundred feet bring up water which is always 72 to 74 degrees F. Only a
small flow into the pool is enough to keep the water level even. Water
brought up from even temperature wells serves another purpose. In warm
weather its flow cools the pools, and in cold weather it warms them. It is
not unusual to see thousands of fish congregating around the spigots to
keep warm in cold weather. Certain fishes cannot take the cold spells and
must be brought indoors. Some fishes, like the Kissing Gourami which
breathes air, cannot take breaths of cold air without being adversely af-
fected, even though the water itself is warm .
Live-bearers and some of the egg- layers are allowed to breed freely in
these pools in conditions which approximate nature. Certain egg-layers and
live-bearers are bred indoors in hatchery buildings. These contain tanks on
racks and concrete basins on the floor. Most of them have spigots arranged
over each tank and basin to let in fresh water. In addition, the tanks are
aerated. The old water drains , or is siphoned, onto the cement floors which
have cha nnels f or the run-off. The selected fish are bred in here and put
into outdoor pools to grow. Some of the more expensive fishes are kept
indoors while growing up. Bettas, too, are kept indoors. As they grow, the
males are separated in jars so tha t they won't spoil their finnage by fighting.
These hatcheries are heated , usually by oil. The cold-sensitive fish are kept
in the hatchery durlng the winter months.
Because of their size and the fact that they are open, the outdoor pools
become infested with fish enemies. Frogs abo und, but the worst enemies
are the crayfish. These freshwater relatives of the lobster can travel overland
from pool to pool. They are carnivorous, feeding almost exclusively on
fish which they catch in their strong pincer-like claws. They are particularly
dangerous during cold spells when the fish are torpid and cannot swim
away.
Sometime a pool becomes infested with disease and this is difficult to
eradicate. When a pool goes bad, as many fish a can be ca ught are re-
moved. The water is poisoned, usually with copper sulphate. Sometimes it
takes a year or two before it is safe to put fish back in it. When tests show
that the poison is all gone, the pool is restocked.
Fish Fa rming in the Miami Area

Here fishes are bred for the most part in rectangular concrete tanks or
pools. The e are quite large, varying from 6 feet by 4 feet to 20 feet by
8 feet. The depth varies from 12 inches to 3 feet. These pools are not
sunk into the ground like swimming pools but are raised above ground.
Near the base of each tank on the outside are overflow pipes, which can be
opened to drain the pool.
The smaller areas and ease of drainage give the breeder greater con-
trol of his operations. Otherwise the procedure is very similar to operations
around Tampa. Like Tampa's hatcheries, the Miami. hatcherie ' have perma-
nent cement or frame buildings in which egg-layers are kept and bred, and
water at a constant temperature is pumped in from deep wells. Many of
these cement pools contain plants as well as fish. Breeders tell us that
altho ugh the fish do not require any shade from the sun the planes do .
Pools in which plants are grown have a framework of slat: or a reed
coveri ng over them to diminish the fury of the southern sun.
A section of a large Miami fish farm , showing some of the concrete

tanks.
Feed ing the Fish

The basic diet fed at the e hatcheries is a formula consisting of oatmeal,
fish or shrimp meal, and egg~. Here is the formula as used at one hatchery :
Beat two eggs well and mix them in a quart of water. Bring the water to a
boil a nd slowly stir in equal parts of oatmeal and shrimp meal until It IS
a loose paste. Boil five to ten minutes until the paste has thickened and
al low to cool. This food must be kept refrigerated or it may be frozen.
L umps of the food are dropped into the pools where they can be seen. The
food retains its consistency for some time, giving the fish a chance to pick at
it for several hours.
Harvesting the Fish Crop

The crop is ' harvested from the pools by two methods-seining and
trapping. The same methods are used in both the Tampa and Miami areas.
Seining is avoided whenever possible as the netting may injure the fish.
Usually lucite minnow traps are baited a nd hung in place. These must be
watched and emptied when filled . When the fish are hungry, they rush in
and may smother from overcrowding. During cold spells they lie on the
bottom. They ignore food and cannot be trapped. Until the weather warms
there is no shipping, but fortunately cold spells are infrequent and do not
last long in Florida. Occasionally there is a really bad spell with the tem-
perature going down around freezi ng and staying there for several weeks.
The last such spell was in the winter of 1955-56. The fish farms suffered
severely. Even the hardier fishes which norm ally winter outdoors were af-
fected . The more fortunate fish men saved their breeders by keeping them
in the hatchery. Many marginal farms were wiped out.
Shipping Fish
The fish are dumped from the traps into tanks and hand orted. Some
of the best are selected as breeders or fo r shipment. The smaller specimens
arc returned to the pool to grow . The inferior specimens-those of poor
size, color, or development-are djscarded. Thus, by constant selection of
the best and elimination of the poor ones, the strain is being improved.
The ones selected for Shipment are packed in water-filled polyethylene
plastic bags. If the fish are crowded or are being sent a long way, the bag
is filled with oxygen before being sealed. The bags are then placed in card-
board cartons which are labeled as to the contents and with instructions to
the carrier as to how to handle them.
During the winter, double or even triple cartons, nested one inside
another, are used as insulation . The cartons are then taken to the airport
or rail terminal for immediate shipment.
At one time, F lorida Ii h farms were restricted to breeding primarily
live-bearers and a few of the egg-layers which bred freely in the heavily
mineralized water of Florida. Today many of the progressive hatcheries
have installed water softenjng systems to provide soft water for the more
particular oviparous species.
Importing Fishes
When one talks of a fish collector, it brings to mind sun helmets,
butterfly nets, jars and cans, and magnifying glasses. The fish collector him -
self is pictured as a romantic felJow who goes on safari into the jungle
and perso nally catchcs every fish brought back .
This picture may have been partially true years ago, but it is entirely
different today. Today's fish collector is a business man. The collecting is
done by natives. In many tropical countries. fish collecting has become a
big business. As such, it is a source of considerable revenue to the govern-
ment and is strictly controlled. Export Ijcenses must be secured and fees
paid before one fish can leave the country. The number of licenses which
are iss ued is strictly limited.
Unfortunately, in some countries it is not what you pay but who you
know which determines whether an export license is issued. Some countries
have laws limiting the issuance of fish export licenses to citi7ens. In that
case. the American fish importer must take in a native as partner. Every
minor official, guard, customs collector. office clerk-all exact tribute along
the way. As we were told by one major importer who brings fish regularly
from South America, there is rarely anything so crude as an outright
demand . 1t is more in the nature of, "That i a beautiful American watch
you are wearing; I would be so happy if] had one." When the request is made
by the Clerk in the office in charge of filling out and approving the applica-
tions. weU--.
Or perhaps the customs inspector checking you out with a sh ipment
sees by your visa that you intend to return. "I have alway. ," he says.
"longed for one of those fine suede jackets which I see in the Sears Roebuck
catalogue." Oh yes, they have Sears Roebuck catalogues in South America!
The picture is further complicated by frequent changes of government.
When the national government changes, either peacefully or violently, it is
mentioned in the papers up here, but changes in the local officials are
just as important to the fish dealer. He must re-establish contacts and go
through the whole rigamarole all over again. So you can see why the dealer
mu t be a business man and a shrewd one at that.
The actual collecting is done by native fishermen. They use seines
throw nets and fish traps to collect the fishes. These are then carried by dug-
out canoe to the fish dealer. Rarely does the dealer venture out of the
village. There are several reasons for this. There are head hunters in the
jungle, and they have scant respect for the white man and little use for his
trade goods. Recently a party of missionaries was murdered by Jivaro In-
dians in the midst of one of the most prolific fish collecting areas.
Fish importing is an expensive business. Tens of thousands of fish must
be brought in for the hipment to show a profit. Transportation in the
jungle is primitive. Were the importer to go out after the fishes himself,
he couldn't carry enough fi sh from collecting area to collecting area to make
it worth while.
Instead, he establishes a camp. He constructs holding tanks, which may
be temporary enclosures or permanent ones of conc rete. The temporary ones.
are made either by fen cing off a section of the river or stream , or by con-
structing wire drops which are anchored in the water attached I floats.
Word is spread a long the jungle grapevine as to what types of fi sh are
required a nd the a mount to be paid for them . The natives bring in the
fishes as they arc collected and are paid so much per fish depending on
the spec ies. They all ow a 20 per cent overcount to compensate for losses.
The fi sh are held in the collecting tanks to condition them and then shipped
north by air. Usua ll y. as already me ntioned. they go to Florida, where the
water is chan ged a nd th e fishes rested and co nditi oned and made up into
shipm ents for destin ati ons all over the world.
The question is frequently asked. "Wh y don't they brin g in new fishes?"
We once asked a vetera n collector th at. He replied, " When we bring in
k nown species, we know how much we can get for them and how many
we can sell. It is ha rd 10 predict wh at people will like. We might take up
our limited space with new species and find that no one wants to buy them ."
Reproduction and Heredity
PART of the keeping of fishes-to some, the most excltmg part- is in

reproducing them . Charles Darwin said that heredity is almost implied by
the word "reproduction"-and so it is to the avid aguarist. He wants to know
how fi h reproduce and how they inherit. Fortunately, many of nature's
most deeply hidden ecrets have been uncovered by scientists with th eir
microscopes and mathematical computations. We have but to unde rstand
their technical language to sift from their scientific writings the facts about
fi h breeding which language difficulty shuts from the eyes of the layman
uneducated in physiology and genetics (and how few do understand these
sciences!) . To be a successful breeder, even on a small scale, yo u will want
to know something about the reproductive systems of various fi hes; how
the species in which you are particularly interested propagates, and some of
the ways of saving from extermination newly born fish , newly laid eggs, or
newly hatched fry. We'll start with the basic substance for which all the rest
of the fish exists and go on from there.
The Germ Plasm

If we say that a human being is here upon the earth for one primary
purpose- to reproduce his kind- we might run into some theological
argument and the only persons who would applaud might be biologists, but
we can safely say this about fishes.
The most precious article in the world-the germ plasm--creates the
fish and remains within him , its custodian, waiting to be joined with the
germ plasm of a custodian of the opposite sex to fo rm other fish , other fish
which will most perfectly fit the environment in which they find themselves.
Consider any characteristic of the natural fish and you will find that that
characteristic helps the fish to live and pass on his germ plasm. Each
Reproduction and Heredity 249
characteristic belps the fish fit into his environment and those fish most
perfectly adapted to their environment are those which tend to be perpet-
uated.
MALE FEMALE
MATURATION
How the sperm cell and ova are

formed a nd the ovum fertili zed .
6
F £ /( r ILIZATIOIV
The germ plasm is set apart early in the development of the fish and is
stored in the tissue of the ovaries and the testicles. There it stays, constantly
sending off descendant ceUs which , after certain changes in form, become
sperm in the males, and after the addition of yolk and other changes, be-
come eggs in the female. One sperm of the male unites with one egg of the
female to form a new individual. The union is accomplished by various
marvelous devices.
It is necessary to realize that the fish does not only produce his germ
plasm, but is, as we have said, only its custodian as well as having been
produced by it himself. He or she cannot produce another just like himself
or herself because only half of his or her germ plasm will be given to each
offspring; the other half has to be supplied by a fish of the opposite sex. It
might seem that each generation, therefore, would see a doubling up of
germ plasm, but such is not the case. The mean of keeping the proper
amount of germ plasm is accomplished by a remarkable mechanical-chemi-
cal device.
eNTRY 01' lOSS 01" OIV. 01"

SP~RM SPIf_ /'i'IIL CETI/OSOME
APPROAcH 01' IN~SE J'()~TI(WOI'

S P£IlA1NtlCLEId crNtlC<£JJS CIIA:lMIlfOfll;1
SPLI TT/ NO or: ..-4NAPlfASE

CHROMOSOMES
Fertilization and maturation, show -

ing schematically the behavior of
the chromosomes.
rWO-CElLI?D STAGE
Within each cell of the germ plasm , there are hundred ' of packets of
chemicals called genes assembled into entities called chromosomes (the
chromo omes existing in pairs). Every gene in one chromosome has a
partner in the other. It is these genes and their interaction that produce the
architectural plan, 0 to speak, of the adult fish .
In fisbes and birds the principal sex differentiator has been called by
geneticists the Y chromosome, carried only by the male; whereas in mam-
mals, including man, it is the X. The X and Y chromosome. make a pair,
usually the least well-matched pair among the many pair of these bodies.
In short, males are XY ; females are always XX.
Basic to any understanding of the mechanics of heredity is a realization
of the importance of gene and chromosomes-really a simple conception to
understand, at least in its broad applications. Because chromosomes are in
pairs, we can see that when a new individual is formed it needs half the
pairs of chromosomes of each parent. And that is what it gets. This neat
provision is accomplished by the germ plasm making two sperm from each
cell and giving each perm one chromosome from each pair. The female
egg gets all the chromosomes, but just before it is joined by a male sperm it
automatically extrudes half of them. So when the sperm and egg unite, each
contributes half the number of chromosomes which each parent possessed.
The genes now have new partners.
From this microscopically small beginning. tbe fish develops to its final
size by absorbing nourishment for its cells. The nourishment, if it is ade-
quate for growth, does not affect the germ plasm. That is set apart at a very
early stage and is dormant until the fish is old enough and properly de-
veloped . Then it undertakes its function of reproduction .
Each character of the fish is determined in the germ plasm by a pair of
genes, not one. If you remembcr that fact it wi ll be easy for you to understand
how inheritance '·works."
Sometimes one gene determines that a fish should be gray colored, its
partner gene that the fish sho uld be albino-that is, devoid of pigment. It
has been found th at when the two partner genes differ in this way, the
product will usually not be a blend but either o ne co lor or the other. One
gene is sa id to be dominant, the other recessive. To produce the recessive
color, you must have a pair of the recessive genes in the germ plasm. And this
same principle applie. to all other traits or characteristics of the body. Some
of them, howevcr. are determined by many pairs of genes.
lt does not require a mathematician to see how traits seem to skip a
generation, how recessives appear among the offspring of dominant-appear-
ing fis hes. Suppose both grandpa fl. h were albinos. Their gene for lack of
color we may call a. Suppose both grandma fish are of a natural color. Let's
ca ll their gene A . The father and mother fish then both have one A and a and
are gray and carry red. They arc Aa. Now, what will tbeir fry be like?
Half the sperm will contain a, the other half A. An egg may contain
either A or a. By the law of chance, we wou ld have AA, Aa, or aa; but as you
will find if you want to try a sim ple experiment, these would be in the
porportion of twenty-five A A, to fifty A a and twenty-five aa. The experiment
wou ld be this. Put one hundred black beans in a hat. Tbese represent the
dark-colored genes. Put another one hundred white beans in , representing
the albino genes and mix them well. Now reach in the hat and take them
out two at a time just as they come and keep a record of how these one
hundred pairs match up . You will have very close to twenty-five black
pairs, twenty-five white pairs, and fifty pairs with one white and one black.
Only the white pairs (aa) could produce albinos. Only the black (A A)
could produce pure darks, and the rest (Aa) would produce hybrid darks.
They would look dark but be \..apable of producing recessives. These prin-
ciples were discovered by Gregor Mendel who studied inheritance in garden
peas.
There are six possible ways in which pairs of genes cou ld combine; here
they are, using Guppies as illustrations; the letters representing the genes:
aa with ao gives all aa
AA with aa gives all Aa
Aa with Aa gives 25 7- AA, 50 %, Aa, 25 % aa
AA with Aa gives 50 70 AA, 50 J, Aa
oa with Aa gives 50 7r· Aa, 50 7(} aa
AA with AA gives all AA
PARENTS OFFSPRING
~ ~~ l 0
~~
~ ~ ~ 5=W
~~ ~~
~~
~ ~
~~ ~ ~
~~
~~ ~ ~
~~
~ ~ ~~
The six po sible ways in which individual characteristics are inherited (the parents are
left; the offspring, right) . The blaek dots represent dominant genes; the white spots
represent recessive genes. Each individual wit h one or two blaek dots will appear
dominant. A fish with one white and one black dot is a hybrid, capable of transmitting
the recessive characteristics if it mates with another fish ca rrying the recess ive gene.
In each species of fish , wherever anything about their heredity has been
discovered, you will find published in some scientific publication the known
inherited characteristics and their mode of inheritance. Most of this work has
been done with Goldfish, Guppies, Mollies, Platies, Swordfish, and Medakas.
What you have just read will help you to understand what you read in the
future.
There are several other older ideas about heredity which were once be-
lieved by almost everybody. Hereditary changes were thought to have been
influenced by inheritance of acq uired characteristics. Many persons today
still entertain this belief. Russia recently insisted by government proclamation
that [heir geneticists proceed with their work as if this theory were true,
even though the world's best geneticists are of the opinion that no research
results have ever demonstrated it. Applied to fishes, the idea wou ld be that if
a fish becomes somewhat darker by existing for a long time on a dark back-
ground , it will pass on to its fry some of the acquired darkness. The fry
should be darker; but they are not.
Still another old wives' tale about heredity is the '"birth-marking" tbeory .
1f a female fish is so frigbtened that it becomes exceedingly timid, will her
fry be more timid than if she had not been frightened? No. science tells us.
Scientists have found that birth -marking can generally be exp lained only
by coincidence.
Yet another explanation is the old "blood" theory that heredity was based
in the blood rather than in the germ plasm. Blood implies the idea of
dilution. It is easy to see how anything could happen if that is true .
But since Mendel and Morgan, we know that the fish's blood has nothing
to do with heredity except to nourish the germ plasm. The sperm are too
sma ll to hold even one blood cell. Yet our whole popular terminology about
heredity is blood. Our fish is a pure-blooded, fUll-blooded , or a blooded
chaillpion-all of which are just idioms. Very likely, because of this popular
terminology, most persons today have the wrong ideas about heredity. Blood
dilutions cannot account for changes in inheritance.
Then there has been another inaccurate idea tbat hereditary changes
come about by "telegony." If a female live-bearing fi sh is mated to a
certain male and, after shc bas produced a few spawnings. i mated to an-
other male and produces his offspring, accordi ng to telegony these fry will
be partially related to the first male to which she was bred even though none
of the first male's sperm are left in her reproductive tract.
If these old, widely held concepts are wrong, bow do hereditary changes
come about? How can we find so much variation in Goldfish, in Platies?
These variations occur because of an ability in the germ plasm to make
sudden changes. Among thousands of fish there may be one single change.
It may be in some quite obvious feature such as color (it may be an additional
length in tbe fins of a Betta) , or it may be a change completely invisible
from the outside. But it occurs suddenly, and nobody knows why. It is called
a mutation. Mutations can be induced by X rays and other forms of radiation
and chemical tinkering with tbe germ pIa ro, but practically all of these
changes are backward in the evolutionary road.
Of all tbe fishes, none approaches the Guppy for the number of known
mutations, many of which changes have been fixed by inbreeding, which
accounts for all the hundreds of types of that littJe fish. Can you think of any
other species of living thing with so many obviously different features among
its numbers? Platies, too, show this to an interesting extent. Goldfish are
produced with many body and fin differences. And all these changes are due
to this mysterious ability of the germ plasm to make udden changes.
It should always be the hope of every aguarist that among his fishes
mutations will appear and that he wiJl be sufficiently keen to observe them
when they do occur. Among our Guppies we are sure that the gold mutation
has occured four times. The great fish experts who have developed our
varieties to the high points of beauty have done so by detecting mutations
and incorporating them in their strains of fish .
How can one incorporate such a mutation? Just as we have wi th one of
our "golds" -brecd it to an extra fine pecimen of normal color. Raise th e
fry to breeding age and either mate two of them and choose the twenty-five
per cent of "golds" to raise, or if the original mutant was a male, breed him
with one of his daughters and then hal f of the fry will be "golds."
How closely can one breed fishes? Probably closer th an most persons
think . Anything as close a first cousins is considered inbreeding; anything \
more distant but still related is line-breeding. While we cannot advise i ~.,
without more data , it appears th at fishes stand inbreed ing remarkably well.
One of us has twelve strains of Guppies now in the tenth consecutive genera-
tion of brother-to-sister matings and the Genetics Laboratory of the New
York Zoological Society has a strain of Platies similarly inbred for twenty-one
generations.
Inbreeding simply tends to bring about a more uniform assortment of
genes among all the products. After the first cross, each generation may be a
little smaller but will be more uniform. After six or seven generation s of
brother-to-sister matings, if you have been selecting the most prolific in-
dividuals, there is almost no decrease in vigor. The strain is usually safe
against any degeneration. By the eighth or ninth generation. every fish is so
much like the others that it is well-nigh impossible to tell them apart; they
are all like identical twins . Only the most vigorous of inbred fishes can
survive. Inbreeding brings together the good characteristics which survive
and the inferior weaknesses which perish, so the sum total is actually im-
provement of the stock. It is most important that only the best be chosen
and that, while inbreeding is progressing, selection for type be carried on or
else the final product will not be worth the effort.
Hybrid vigor or heterosis is a process used in plant and animal breeding
and one which can be used in fish breeding to good effect. If two unrelated,
highly inbred strains of any species are outbred their progeny will be more
prolific, grow faster and larger, and be far more vigorous than the parents.
But they cannot be bred together with any hope of maintainIng that size
and vigor. Each generation becomes poorer. There is no doubt that the
finest specimens of the future will be inbred-outbred fishes with hybrid vigor.
Linkage
In all fishes, the genes lie along the chromosomes in orderly fashion and
then , when the sperm and ova are formed and the chromosomes split, the
assortment of dominant and recessive genes is guite different, for the new
chromosomes are formed with different assortments of genes from those
which each parent carried. For example, here are two chromosomes with
a theoretical a sortment of genes: a, b , c, d, e, f g, h, i and A , B, C , D, E, F, G ,
H, J. One set is a ll recessive and one all dominant.
Now picture the chromosomes joining and then splitting in the process
of producing sperm or eggs :
,." "
.. .. "
a A: :
a iA a A
b B b B b B
,
c C c c C
d D' D d
'e E E: e 'E e :
,
:
f F : F f F f
,g G g G : g G
,h H' h H : h H
, ,
i I : i I \i j 1,
" "
..~ .... ,. ... _. .... ' ......
The new chromosomes, as you wiIl note, have a different assortment of

genes. One of the obvious facts is that the genes are not completely scrambled
but that the chromosomes seem to combine in blocks of genes, This is called
linkage. In breeding, it is sometimes most difficult to break up these
linkages, An excellent illustration of the fact is the Golden Guppy. Have you
seen a Golden Guppy with a long flowing veil tail? Have you tried to
create one? In almost all Golden Guppies the tail i small and many have
tried to produce one with a veil tail. One of the authors tried for five years
and did not succeed unti l in another strain from the one with which he was
working a mutation occurred. and from that one mutation, which he fixed,
thousands of golden, veil-tailed Guppies are descended.
Sex Linkage
There is another kind of linkage which resides in the X or the Y
chromosomes. We have observed how the X and Y chromosomes differ and
how this difference accounts for the males and fema les in a brood of fry.
There is So much difference between the X and Y chromosomes that the
two can' t join and disjoin as completely as do th e other chromosomes. In at
least part of th ~ Y chromosomes in fi hes th ere is never any amalgamation
with the X. So the males' offspring continue to stay in a definite pattern
generation after generation. It was difficult, before the discovery of sex hor-
mones, to say what was the genetic composi tion of a female and so several
researc hers noting male patterns asc ribed inheritance in these fishes to the Y
chrom osome entirely. Wben females were treated with androgens (see Page
258) male characteristics appea red a)1d such studies demon strated that the
traits were not sex linked as had been supposed. An illustration is the Sword-
tail Guppy. Females were never seen with swords. So the assumption that
swordtail was a sex-linked gene seemed correct. But when females of that
strain were treated with androgen and developed swords, the conclusion was
vitiated . In other words, there i sex-Linkage due to chromosomes a nd sex-
limiting due to hormones.
Sex Reversal
In fishes, as in poultry, there are records of individuals which cha nged
from the female sex to the male. Thi s is not a matter of chromosome change
within the germ cells but rather the res ult of degeneration of the ovaries
and development of testes.
Hormones in Fish Culture

At a ] 956 ti h show, a number of fishe were exhibited which won top
honors . A careful scrutiny revealed to the meticulous observer that there was
something about them which was different. To de cribe this difference wo uld
be difficult. Perhaps the term gross would come nearest to it. Among
Guppies the fema les had a shade of the male coloring.
The world of aq uarists was agog with excitement over the possibilities
of using hormones to produce more exotic specimens. "Is it right? Is it fair?
Is it desirable? Is it honest?" These questions were frequently heard.
Had the inquirer asked Is it new? any scientist would have answered
no. Whether or not it is right , fair, desirabLe, or honest is not for us to answer,
so here we give you tbe method by which hormones affect fish , to experiment
with as you desire.
Each gland of internal secretion (endocrine organ) discharges relatively
minute amounts of hormones into the blood. Each hormone produces different
effects. Some glands produce more than one kind of hormone and some
glands excrete hormones which affect other glands causing them , in turn,
to produce theirs or to stop functioning. A good example of this effect is one
of the chemicals produced by the pituitary gland now called ACTH (adre-
nocorticotropic hormone) . This, affecting the adrenal gland, causes it to
produce cortisone (as well a other, related hormones) about which there
has been so much "wonder-drug" publicity.
The truth is that scientific research has barely scratched the surface of the
effects of hormones on fishes. but enough has been published to give us a
glimpse of the possibilities. To begin with-as we have pointed out in the
chapter on dosages of drugs to cure diseases-treating fish is quite different
from treating species which are dosed by mouth because fish are bathed
in the solution into which chemicals are introduced and definite doses are
practically impossible to achieve.
To give you an idea of how little of a hormone is required, only five
milligrams of stilbestrol a day. given by mouth, will cause a thirty-pound
dog to come into heat. Imagine, therefore, how small is the amount to use
with fish.
We cannot give general directions because some hormones are water
soluble, . ome come in alcohol, some in aqueous suspensions. Few are toxic
in fairly strong solutions, but in much weaker solutions sterility is almost cer-
tain to result.
Should you desire to test a certain strain of live-bearers for the hereditary
make-up of the females, be sure to use the minimum quantity (you use
androgen) to produce the result. In our experience it has proved best to
test one or two females from a pure strain. Or, if a breeding female is to be
tested, remove her from the te t solution as soon as indications of what you
are seeking to learn have been demonstrated.
Should you decide to mix the hormone with food, dilute the oi l-soluble
in cottonseed oil and mix that with dry food in minute amounts. For aJ-
ministering via the water, one milligram of water-soluble hormones in a two
gallon tank once a day will produce drastic results. For testing females
for genetic characters, where testosterone is used, a further dilution of this
amount will u ually be enough. Metbyl testosterone, being alcohol soluble,
will need to be dissolved in ethyl alcohol first and then diluted with water.
One milligram can be dissolved in 10 cc. of alcohol. The 10 cc. can be
further diluted with water to make 100 cc. An amount of one or two drops
per gallon of water, once a day, will be sufficient. The females should be
removed as soon as possible after showing results.
So one must be especially careful in not overdosing. No one has published
any study indicating the M.L.D. (minimum lethal dose) and we hardly
know the threshold doses for any hormones for aquarium fishes. Nor do
we know exactly how long the hormones in so lution retain their effective-
ness-bow quickly they are lost through disintegration and chemical change.
So, since aquarium fishes of many species are inexpensive, the hormone
question presents a challenging problem, waiting to be attacked by anyone
who wants more fun from his hobby and to share the satisfaction of
achievement. Try different strengths on, for instance, Guppies.
Here are the effects of hormones on mammals, and there is evidence tbat
the effect is similar on fishes:
Tbe Pituitary Gland situated below the brain in the base of the skull
has two parts or lobes, called the anterior and the posterior lobes. Each part
secretes hormones. Some are potent in mammals, some are not even se-
creted in fishes . The anterior lobe hormones and their effects are as follows:
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH). In the male, this cause tbe testes
to increase in size and stimulates the production of sperm. In the female,
it stimulates an increase in the size of the ovary and production of eggs.
In the case of fishes this hormone needs more study.
Growth Hormone. Produces growth in tbe body.
Thyrotropic Hormone. Regulates the thyroid gland.
A drenotropic Hormone. Regulates the cortex of tbe adrenal gland .
Another anterior pituitary hormone is concerned with milk production-
something we may forget in the case of fishes, except in the case of
broodiness in certain species.
The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland produces effects on the kidneys
and nerve function.
The Thyroid Gland secretes thyroxin which controls the rate of metabo-
lism or the rate of burning up of food and use of the food elements, thus
affecting the rate of growth.
The Pancreas produces insulin which regulates the burning of sugars
in the tissues and the storage of glycogen in the liver.
The Adrenal Gland produces in its marrow (med ull a) epinephrin , a
nerve stimulant. In it outside layers (cortex) it produces corticosterone
which influences the metabolism of carbohydrates, protects against stress and
helps with adjustment to cold, heat, frights, and it influences muscular
efficiency. In females it tends to produce signs of maleness, but only clinically
and in the laboratory.
The Testes produce androgen hormone (testosterone) whicb in females
produce signs of maleness.
Another hormone, copuLln, bas been described as secreted by male
fishes. This may affect tbe bebavior of females. In live-bearers tbe females
assume an elevated position head up and tail down in contrast to the normal
horizontal position. It is fairly well established that capulin is not the same
as any of the mammalian hormones.
The Ovaries secrete estradiol an estrogenic hormone. If this is used in
males it tends to repress signs of maleness. Also progesterone produced by
the yellow bodies of the ovaries represses sexual activity in mammals and is
associated with pregnancy. It is also called the "pregnancy hormone" but
what effect it has in fishes remains to be stud ied.
But, you ask. How can this information be useful to me if I want to
try hormones on my fish? First you must decide what it is you want to
accomplish. Then you go to a druggist and purchase the material. You need
not be bewildered by the names (each manufacturer will have his own
brand name) because after the manufacturer's name there must be stated
the accepted name, and on the label you will find the concentration or the
number of units.
Next you decide whcther you will feed the hormone or dissolve it in the
water. Be sLlre to use no oily solutions for adding to water. Many manu-
facturers have waste from the manufacture of hormones which may be mixed
with food and show considerable hormone activity. Do you want extra-large,
gross specimens with the females showing a trace of male coloring? Obtain
some anterior pituitary waste and feed it. Do you want to make females
show male color, and at the same time be sterile? Dissolve a water-soluble
androgen in the tank. Do you wish to make males grow larger-for instance
for maJe Guppies to become large like females but with less color than males
and little or no male behavior? Add estradiol or stilbestrol (which wi ll sub-
stit ute for estradiol and save your money) .
Somc perso ns consider that a vitamin made by the animal is actually
a bormone. We have a small amount of evidence which points to the con-
clusion that in the wastes of some antibiotic manufacture there is such an
influence. To the A nimal Growth Factor, a cobalt compound now called Vi-
tamin B l2 , is attributed great growth-producing ability. Some fish hobbyists
claim the addition of aureomycin, terramycin , or bacitracin wa. tes to their
fishes' foods is productive of a greatly accelerated growth. Others claim these
products cause sterility. There is more than a possibility that such wastes
possess hormones but no published study with fishes has yet shown any
worth-while growth-producing effects.
Inherited Characteristics in Guppies

With the introduction of sex hormones, some of the early conclusions
of geneticists must be discarded. As already pointed out, many characteri tics
in females, had they no female hormone to repress them , would show up as
male. The swordtail characteristic is a good example. One investigator tells
us the character is "absolutely Y-linked" (sex-linked and located on the
Y -chromosome). Now we know that this is not necessarily so. To read
this early work, one might conclude that only one pair of chromosomes was
of much consequence in Guppies- the X and Y- but there are twenty-two
other pairs to reckon with. The early work mentions only yellow, red and
black, and occasional blue spots on the body, as if there were no other
Guppy colors. Yet we know that, even on gold males, it is common to see
brilliant green patches. Blue-tailed Guppies are a favorite color type among
fanciers . Some of our loveliest Guppies are of this variety. A great deal
remains to be learned. Perhaps you will be one to add materially to our
knowledge about inheritance in fishes.
Further scientific study will alter the present conception of the dominant
and recessive characters of Guppies but the following is the best compila-
tion which we can make:
DOMINANT R ECESSIVE
Wild gray Gold
Wild gray Blond
Gold Blond
Wild gray Albino
Lack of swordtail Swordtail
Rounded end of tail Square end of tai l
Rounded end of tail "Superba" type tail
Normal color Black spots in fins of females
The geneticist who bas described more color characters and their in -
heritance than any other person is Winge. th e Danish geneticist, who ga\e
each color type a name and from breeding the fi sh estimated on which
chromosomes the genes were situated. Winge described the color effects
produced by each gene and named them. Some he thought were located on
the X and some on the Y chromosome. He reported some hermaphroditic fish
which , while they looked to be intersexes and had orne color, behaved like
females and produced young. But Winge did not use sex hormones to de-
termine which characteristics were sex-limited-an all important device em-
ployed to differentiate between sex-linked and sex-limited inheritance. He
described in all eighteen color pattern characters.
Results of color crosses sometimes surprise one. When a gold is mated
with an albino, the result is neither gold nor albino, but wild gray. This is .
due to the fact that the offspring each have only one gold gene and one albino
gene, but it takes a pair of each to produce either a gold offspring or an
albino.
Genes called modifying _genes doubtless are present to affect the amount
of color shown, the size of spots, the size and shape of fins; indeed, the size
Reproduction and Heredity 26 1
of the Guppy. Their number and dominance or recessiveness have not been
determined.
Color Inheritance in 8ettas

We owe to Wallbrunn the following information on inheritance of color
in the Siamese Fighting Fish. And we should first remember that our
present beautiful creature is not the same as the wild type but has been bred
for its form and vivid colors to be a greatly improved fis h. Each mutation
was capitalized on until we now have colors which breed true. 1£ will be
necessary to reread the paragraph in the chapter on anatomy on chroma-
tophores to understand this study more easily.
Wallbrunn found that these colors were due to not one but several
factors in the skin of the Iish. Color, as we have sa id, is the result of reflected
light. ln the Betta, Wallbrunn found melanophores, erythrophores-different
kinds of chromatophores, as you will recalJ-and crystals in guanophores, to
be concerned with color. He found no xanthrophores-yell ow pigment
granu les.
The initial given to loca tion in the guanophores by the researchers was
C. He found that the pure steel-blue Betta was GG , having a pair of dominant
genes. The rece. sive was g. gg produced green Bettas. The hybrid, or Gg
produced blue Bettas.
The G determines the co lor which the guanophores produce, but the
distribution of the guanophores is controlled by other genes. To these gene ',
Wallbrunn gave the letters a and s, both of wh ich are concerned with
distribution of fins and tails.
The ao fish have steel-blue, solid blue or green fins because of the
density of the guanophores which mask the erythropbores and melanophores.
So A A fish have large, pure red fin areas with the guanophores restricted
to defin.ite areas. The hybrids, A a, he reports, are practically identical with
AA.
Fish without melanophores, Wallbrunn gave to the gene the initial c.
Fish with melanophores are ee.
The S gene has a slight affect on both body
and fin guanophores.
Therefore, sscc fishes have a spar e body covering of rnelanophorus.
SScc have a much denser and uneven covering of guanophores so that some
scales and spots appear darker than the surrounding area.
Color Inheritance in Platyfish

lnheritance in P laties has been studied exhaustively by Dr. Myron
Gordon and several other thorough students. A large number of genes have
been named : albinism, yellow, orange-red, modifying genes for the amount
and placement of dark areas (Po, Pm, Pmc, Peo, Pc, Pee, Pt), a gene
called E which is responsible for modifying Pco, and a spotted dorsal fin
pattern called Sd. Even the location of the red-orange gene, R , is known ;
it is on the Y chromosome. Crosses of hybrids of red and white males with
white females produce white females and red males because of this location
of the dominant gene R on the Y chromosome.
Another gene-camet-produces a comet-like pattern on the tail fin.
When one of the comet-tail variety is mated with a non-comet tail , al1 of the
fins of the offspring are darker and the pigment more extensive, thus pro-
ducing the Wagtail type, a beautiful creation which now breeds true.
The Wagtail-Swordtail was produced by crossing with the Wagtail Platy
and back-crossing until the color pattern was established.
Tumor Inheritance in Platyllsh

There is in Platies a. series of genes which produce color in tbe dorsal
fin in a spotted pattern. This spotted dorsal pattern (Sd gene) is dominant
and incompletely sex-linked. Along with the Sd gene are seven ther similar
genes which control spotting in this species. All are dominants in members
of their own population. The patterns which these genes produce vary in
size from a mere speck to the almost complete blackening of a fin.
When a Platyfish is crossed with a Swordtail and the hybrid back-crossed
to a Platy, some of the offspring may develop colored (melanotic ) tumors.
In this important field of study, Dr. Myron Gordon has been a pioneer. He
has published many papers to which the reader interested in this subject is
referred.
Other Aquarium Inhabitants
THERE are other water dweller which make interesting pet . Many of them
will live with fish . Others require aquaria of their own.
Turtles
Everyone is familiar with these living prehistoric relics. Most of those
littl e green fellows with red spots on either side of the head are from Louisi-
ana and Arkansas. Th ey are known as "Troosts" or "Sliders" ( Pseudemys
scripta froosti ) . They a re available in most pet shops.
When yo ung they will live in an aquarium and will rarely bother the
fish. Th ey hunt out a nd cat every nai l small enough to crush in their jaws.
If there are enough snails present, no other food is necessary. A varied
diet including small pieces of raw meat, Tubificids, earthworms, meal worms,
insects, cooked egg, vegetables and fruit is needed if there are not enough
snail s.
Turtles should also be provided with an island , onto which they can
climb and bask. A rock projecting above the water, or a bark float, will do.
These turtles are quite cold -sensitive, and should be kept in water of 70 ° F.
or warmer.
If turtles are improperly fed or subjected to chill they arc subject to
swollen eyes and softening of tbe shell. They may also refu e to eat.
Turtles thus afflicted should be kept in a dry pl ace, with a few short swims
in warm water daily. To correct this condition, swab the eyes with a boric
acid solution daily. If the eyelid are White, let them dry and paint them
with mercurochrome. Put a drop of percomorph oil in the turtle's mouth
every other day, and a pinch of bone ash on its food at each meal. Keeping
a small lump of plaster in the turtle's water will help prevent calcium de-
fiCiency .
Painting a turtle's back for decorative purposes is cruel. It causes de-
formity and crippling. If your turtle has a painted back, chip it off carefully.
Your turtle will live a longer, more healthy life.
Newts
At one time, the American Red-Spotted Newt, Diemictylus viridescens
viridescens, was quite popular as an aquarium scavenger. It is also known
as the Spotted Salamander. The newt has been largely replaced as a scavenger
by the more useful Corydoras. The newt, however, can still be recommended
as an interesting, if not useful, aquarium inhabitant. The newt is com-
pletely aquatic. He does not require a landing area, although he may make
use of one if provided. He wi1l not bother any but possibly the tiniest
fishes. The same cannot be said for some of his relatives. The newt subsists
on dry fish food , Tubificids, White Worms and Daphnia. A word of caution :
cover the aquarium well. Newts can climb.
Tadpoles
These immature forms of frogs and toads do very well in an aquarium.
They are active scavengers and will eat brown algae which most scavengers
ignore. Unfortunately they soon develop a taste for fish food , and then they
no longer bother to scavenge. The larger tadpoles are more satisfactory
as they remain in the tadpole stage for a longer period of time. The bullfrog
tadpole may take as long as two years to complete development, while some
of the small toad tadpoles develop within weeks.
Tadpoles may be kept in the aquarium until the front legs develop. The
mouth changes at this time from a sucking disc, and the animal becomes
carnivorous as its method of life changes. It is best removed from the
aquarium.
Fresh-water Mussels
These are more commonly known as Fresh-water Clams. They resemble
the salt-water variety in appearance. These animals are frequently advertised
for sale as aquarium scavengers. It is true that by turning themselves into
strainers they filter organic matter and microorganisms from the water, but
in a well-kept aquarium there is seldom enough of this material in the
water to keep a mussel alive for long. It is hard to detect the death of a
half-buried mussel. The result is that the decaying body pollutes the aquar-
ium.
Even while the mussel lives there are other drawbacks. Normally the
mussel lies half buried in the gravel. When the mood takes it to travel,
it travels through the gravel leaving a furrow, uprooting plants as it goes.
Another danger is that the spawn called Glochidia are free-swimming, and
parasitic on fi he . They are hard-shelled, so only a few fishes will eat
them. Some mussels are hermaphroditic; that is, they have both sexes under
Other Aquarium In habitants 265
one shell. The Glochidium attaches itself to a fish on which it lives until
it j ready to drop off, settle to the bottom, and develop into an adult. If
a mussel is kept in the aquarium, its half-open shell should be tapped
regularly. 1f it fails to close, the animal is dead. Also look for a slime-like
haze issuing from the shell. This haze is also an indication of decomposition.
Ghost Sh rimp
Occasionally one finds the Ghost Shrimp, Palaemonetes exilipes, among
the fish in a shipment from Florida. These interesting crustaceans are found
in many sections of the country but are most numerous in Southern streams
and ponds.
Ghost Shrimp are excellent scavengers, and they are completely inof-
fensive. They have a typical shrimp shape, but they are almost transparent.
They are a light gray-green and so translucent that they are difflcult to see
in a well-planted tank. Peculiarly enough, when they die they cease to be
translucent, turning first pink and then white. As a matter of fact, the first
sign of ill-health is when the Ghost Shrimp starts to turn pink . Adults are
about two inches long. The females are much heavier in body than the
males. It is not unusual to see the female with eggs or young which they
carry attached to their small rear legs.
Ghost Shrimp feed on algae, dead leaves. and excess food which drops
to the bottom . Ordinarily they walk forward alon!! the bottom , but when
alarmed they dart rapidly backwards by flipping their tail like a paddle
under them . So far as is known the Ghost Shrimp is not host to any fish
para. ites.
Snails
Old myths die hard . For years the belief has persisted that snails are
valuable aquarium scavengers. This has been disproved long ago but still
people appear in tropical fish stores to a k for scavenger snails. Snails are
interesting aquarium inhabitants. They may do some scavenging, but they
are of little practical value. They will not botber live fish, but they will
eat dead fish and, of course, fi sh eggs. (One observer, J. Codrington, claims
to have seen Mystery Snails catch new-born fry by sucking them in.) They
will also eat a fish that is dying and is too weak to move away. The snail
fastens itself on and holds the fish down by its weight. Seeing the fi sh
feebly moving, one might think that the snail caused the trouble. The snail
may hasten a fish's death but it certainly cannot cause it. Many fishes will
pick on and kill snails by "worrying" them to death.
Snails gathering near the top are a sign of trouble. They come to the
surface when the water is deficient in oxygen. The most u eful snail is the
Malayan or Horn of Plenty snail, Thiara tuberculata. It derives its name
from its shape which resembles the traditional cornucopia. This snail is
nocturnal, spending most of the day burrowing below the gravel in search
of food . It undoubtedly doe some good by loosening and stirring up the
gravel. There is no agreement as to whether this snail is live-bearing or
an egg-layer.
The large Japanese Live-Bearing or Golf Ball Snail, Viviparus mallealUS,
was quite popular at one time as a scavenger for goldfi sh bowls. It does
not do well in warm water tanks . and it eats some plants and breaks others
with its weight.
The Pond Snail. Physa, i ' fairly satisfactory. Tt is quite sma ll and can
be kept only with small fishes. It can often be found crawling along the under
side of the menisc us eating leftover dry food .
The Mystery Snail, A mpuLLaria cuprina, is also fairly sa tisfactory. al-
though it grows quite large. There are several Ampullarias but cuprina is
the only one which does not devour plants ravenously. It may be distin -
guished from the other AmpulJarias by the slight depression around the
turns of its spiral. These snails lay eggs above the waterline. The eggs re-
semble bits of honeycomb. The true Mystery Snail lays a white egg case.
The eggs hatch in about two weeks and the young, which are full formed .
then fall back into the water.
The plant eating A mpullaria paludosa, also known as the Infusori a
Snail, is used to make infusoria cultures. It is kept in a container of water
with a few leaves of lettuce. which it devours. The waste matter of the
snail is highly decomposable ; and this, together with the remains of the
lettuce, forms an excellent culture medium.
Ramshorn snails, Planorbis corne us, are probably the most popular of
the aquarium snails. There is both a black and a red variety. They diff r
onJy in color. Ordinarily well -behaved in an aquarium. these snails some-
times seem to go "wild" when the gravel is foul. They burrow under the
gravel , lay their eggs on the slate, and multiply rapidly. They then turn to
plants for subsistence, drilling neat little holes all over broad-leafed plants
such as the Amazon Sword Plants and Cryptocorynes. Ordinarily the eggs
are laid in fiat , amber colored jelly-like masses on the glass, plant leaves, or
rocks . These are frequently mistaken by amateurs for fi sh eggs. The eggs,
which are quite hardy, frequently hitchhike into the aquarium concealed
on plants.
Another well-known aquarium snail is the Columbian Ramshorn,
Marisa rotula. This good sized snail is shaped like the Ramshorn but much
larger, reaching almost two inches in diameter. It is dark brown with light
stripes. It is a vigorous plant eater.
PART II
About The Classification of Fishes
IT IS somewhat frightening to read about phylum, class, order. family, genus,

species, but really there's nothing complicated about it. Put yourself in tbe
place of Noah. Suppose you received an order to build a ship which would
hold all of the animal life in the world. seven of each kind , as tbe Bible
tells us Noah was commanded to do for only the creeping things (Genesis
7:2) . How would you go about making sure you bad them all? In the case
of the inh abitants of water-our interest here- you couldn't just go out
with a net and swish it around in fresh and salt waters , and bring the contents
in , putting the fresh-water creatures into fresh-water aquaria and the sa lt-
water creatures into salt-wa ter aquaria.
We immediately rea lize how necessary a classification is. Everyone with
any knowledge of tropical fi sh varieties knows that the many kinds fall into
groups : live-bearers, bubble-nest builders, Catfishes, and so forth . And of
the fishes, there would be some from Ind ia, some from South America , some
frol11 Florida. You'd have to have them all.
To be sure you had them all. you'd first devise a system of classification
and allot names to them. Just suppose you were -Noah- really now, how
would you have gone about it? We doubt you could have figured a better
way than tbe naturali ts of the world did long after Noah figured out his
system . Try it. Tbey found it was necessary to have main groupings, and
then each of these was broken up into sub-groupings, divisions and ub-
divisions.
There i a long and interesting history behind the naming of animals
but this can be highly confusin to the person who has no idea how fi shes
of the various pecies got their names in the first place. Long after Noah,
but before the Dark Ages and the Renaissance in Europe, there was no such
thing as science as we know it. When all of Europe was under Roman rule and
everyone spoke Latin , Pliny bad grouped animals according to their en-
vironment, placing in the same category those having similar methods of
living. He had fresh-water fishes in one group, salt-water in another , land
animals in another, birds in yet another. Some students, following Pliny's
classification methods, listed all the species in each category, narning them
after letters of the alphabet. But they soon ran out of letters.
During and after the Renaissance. those persons with curiosity in their
make-up began to study and classify knowledge, and they naturally began
by giving each animal a name-one name, and that, naturally enough, in
Latin. This was the universal language of learning.
It remained for a Swede, Carolus Linnaeus. in the tenth edition of his
work, Sysfema Naturae, in l758, to set forth what is call ed the binomial
(two-name) system of nomenclature. By giving two names to each species-
the latter for the specific name; the preceding for the next higher sub-
division, the genus-he clarified the naming the animals with one stroke.
The genus gave the clue to the natural affinities, and sc ientists the world
over acclaimed the system. Linnaeus became so famous and so much trusted
that they said of him, "God creates, Linnaeus puts in order."
Linnaeus started a new era; every branch of biological science received
a tremendous impetus. And, naturally, as time went on his system was
broadened. Linnaeus' classification of mammals, birds, amphibia, fishes , in-
sects and worms. was inc rea ed to seventeen groups to make room for other
forms.
How many species are there in the world? Probably two million or more.
Those classified to date according to the Linnaen system number over half
a million.
Noah , we are told , took only creeping and flying animals on the ark; not
plants and fishes. Even getting these animals on a 300-foot ship must have
been quite a task . Perhaps you think of animals as creatures with legs which
walk. Most persons do have such a mental picture, but they are wrong
because an animal is any living thing which is not a plant. When the word
animal comes up, the picture of a mammal is what comes to mind. One of
us was speaking to a group of fish fanciers and mentioned a Cyclops which
he calJed an animal. At that point he was interrupted by a member who
asked if it wasn't a fish. So he bad to explain.
Fishes are animals; birds are animals; amoebae are animals; Daphnia
and sharks and alligators and turtles and whales and horses are all animals .
An animal which has a backbone and suckles its young is a mammal. Whales
are therefore mammals. But alligators. while they have backbones, do not
give milk, so they are animals but not mammals. Birds have backbones too.
They are animals but not mammals.
There are two major kingdoms of hving things: plants and animals.
Not aU plants may be separated from aU animals. Some of the algae, for
About The Classification of Fishes 271
instance even have what are apparently eyes and they can move about.
There are many motile plants which propel themselves in various ways. There
are organisms classified as animals which are so low in the evolutionary
scale that it is difficult to say which they are. Motility and sight are not the
solc distinguishing features of plants and animals.
Among the two-million-odd living creatures in the animal kingdom ,
there is enough similarity for zoologists to classify them into seventeen great
sub-divisions or phyla.
A phylum includes all the creatures which are of one common general
type-a horse and a mouse for example. No one would think of including
a crab with them. All of the animals with backbones are considered in the
phylum Chordata. Other phyla are Protozoa, Arthropoda, and so forth,
some of which wc investigated in the chapter on fish foods. If we know
something about the anatomy of one representative, we know in general
about the others. Fishes constitute several classes of the phylum, Chordata.
And there are many classes, all sub-divisions of phyla (plural of phylum).
Fishcs are divided into several sub-classes; in this book we are con-
cerned with gristly fishes and bony fishes. In the first ub-class consisting of
Sharks, Dogfish , Skates, Rays, and others, very few of which are kept in
aquaria, the gill slits can be seen as separate openings; in the bony fishes
the gill slits are covered by a mass of bone.
The animals which compose classes are subdivided into orders.
Orders are subdivided into families.
Families are composed of genera. (The singular is genus. )
Genera are made up of species.
Zoologi ·ts have given as the scientific names of animals, first the generic
name, and then the specific name. These are usually written in italics, the
generic name is always capitalized; the specific name not-thus Daphnia
magna.
For an example of how the system works, we will take the Guppy
(Lebistes reticulatus).
Kingdom: Animal
Phylum: Chordata (sub-phyLum-Vertebrata)
CLass: Osteichthyes
Order: Cypridontoidea
Family: Poeciliidae
Genus: Lebistes
Species: reticulatus
After the species name, the name of a person is often added. Biologists
call this name the author's-the author being the person who first described
the species. This is done in the interest of scientific accuracy, but it is also fre-
quently omitted, especially after a species has been known for a long time.
After consulting with several biologists we have decided that, since this book
is for the layman and not for scientists, there is no point in adding the author's
name to each pecie. Therefore, we shaH say Lebistes reticulatus and not
Lebistes reticulatus (Peters). ] ust as we would omit the author's name after
Daphnia magna or Daphnia pulex.
In the following Ii ting we are cataloguing the fishes by famiJies in
order of evo lution as shown by their structure. The families which most
closely resemble the primitive fishes come first, followed in order by those
with a more advanced structure. Within the families the various genera are
listed alphabetically according to their Latin names.
In describing the fishes we have tried to provide the following informa-
tion:
A description of the fishes. We do not intend to give a complete ichthyolog-
ical description, but a hobbyist's description-one which points out the
outstanding colors and other characteristics of the Hving fish in sucb a
manner as to enable the hobbyist to recognize and identify the fish readily
and with reasonable accuracy. AU measurements given are body measure-
ments exclusive of fins and tail
Sex distinctions. Whenever known, sex distinctions are given. It must
be borne in mind that many of the difrcrences appear only when tbe fish
is sexuall y mature. Some color differences appear, even in mature fishes ,
only when they are sexually ripe or stirn ul ated ; at other times both sexes
may closely resemble each other. Immature fishes resemble the females as
a rule.
Breeding. Breeding habits are also given when known. Breeding age and
breeding size are not included as they arc so variable as to be meaningless.
Under optimum conditions a fish will grow rapidly and breed at a very
early age. When conditions arc poor a fish grows slowly and matures later.
It may even mature sexually when conditions are so poor that the fish
stops growing when still only a fraction of the normal size. Under certain
conditions breeding may never take place regardless of the age of the fish.
Distribution. The areas in which the fishes are found are also included
in the descriptions as a matter of general interest. The actual range may be
much greater than the area given. Collectors are frequently quite secretive
and reluctant to reveal the exact location in which desirable specimens wel'e
found .
Habits. We attempt to indicate when possible the habits of the fish
described: whether it is pugnacious or shy; its food preferences, pH and
temperature tolerances, etc.
There are over 25,000 separate varieties of fisbes known. Only a fraction
of these are suitable for aquarium life, but even this fraction represents
About The Classification of Fishes 273
many hundreds of species. Many of these are seldom if ever imported, and
many more-by reason of drab coloring, delicacy, or bad habits-are
undesirable. Even after all of these are eliminated, there are still many
hundreds left and new ones are being discovered frequently. We have tried
to select the most suitable and desirable of these for inclusion in this book.
Also by drawing on aUf experience, and we maintain close contact with
collectors and importers, we have tried to include, in addition to the more
standard aquarium fishes, those fishes which are most likely to be imported
in the future and those which are already being imported in limited num-
bers.
Applying the correct Latin names to fishes is not as easy as it seems-
even for professional ichthyologists. In our endeavor to do the right thing.
we may step on the toes of some professionals. Apparently there is no world
court to decide what to name the fishes. When we consult authoritative books
of our own country, we find one name. For the very same fish the German
and English authorities may have agreed on a quite different name. Take an
outstanding example, tbe Barbs. Tbe English and Germans label them
Punt ius for the genus, while in America we call it Barbus. One writer says it
may be either name ; the matter is not settled.
The common names vary even more in different countries. In England
they call our Black Tetra, tbe Black Widow or Blackamoor. In Sweden, our
White Cloud is the Cardinal Fish, and-to complicate tbe situation-the
fish which we know as the Cardinal is Hyphessobrycon cardinalis, a relative
of the Neon Tetra. The Germans call our Giant Danio the Malabar Barb.
Still another example is Pantodon bucho/;:} whieb we call the Butterfly Fish.
The Engli 'h call a Dwarf CichJid by that name.
Some fi ' hes were named by students who perhaps filed their papers
away to gather dust and be forgotten. It has been agreed that a fish mu t be
called by the first name given to it-if, of course, it is properly classified .
Sometimes, later, another student describes the fish and gives it another
name ; and then , when someone discover the first name, the second is
dropped in favor of tbe first. This has often led to confusion, but what are
a few years or a century to science? Eventually ichthyologi ts, the world
over, will agree on one name for each species.
Freq uently when a fisb is reclassified after it has become popular, the
incorrect scientific name sticks with it and remains in general use a the
common name. One of the outstanding examples is the Barb which became
popular as B. sumatranus. Later it was correctly identified as B. telrazona ,
but it i still popularly called "the Sumatran us."
Another cause of confusion to th~ hobbyist is that the common name
of some fishes seems to have no relation to the scientific name. The Tetras
are good examples of what we mean. Long ago, several Characins were
included in the genus Tetragonopterus and were called TetTas for short.
Although they are now mostly classified in the genera Hemigrammus and
Hyphessobrycon , the name Tetra (for the Black Line Tetra, Tetra von Rio,
Neon Tetra, etc.) still persists.
Family LEPIDOSIRENIDAE 275
African Lungfish-Protopterus onnectens
Native to tropical Alr;ca. Length: Up to 3 leet
THER are six known species of Lungfish in the wor ld. One i found in South America,
one in Australia, and four in Africa. The unique ability to survive duri ng periods of
drought is enjoyed by the African and South American species. As the waters which
these Lungfish inhabit dry up during the summer heat, each fish burrows into the
mud. Gradually the mud ha rdens a round it and the fish 's skin secretes a thin cocoon.
The fish is curled up head to tail. A little opening is kept in the mud through which the
Lungfish breathes a ir. In this conditio n they have been successfully shipped great
distances. All its body processes slow down and the fish lives on its fat, or if this
summer resting or estivation is prolonged it may absorb muscle tissue for nourishment.
When the rains come, to melt the concrete-like mud, tbe Lungfish revives and resumes
a normal life. Lungfishes have been known to live as long as four years in this condition
and revive none the worse for it. Natives frequently dig them out for food.
Tbe gills of the African and South American Lungfishes are rudimentary. They Olust
have access to air or they will drown. A curious fact is that if the water is so shallow
that the Lungfish cannot tip its body · the proper angle, it is unable to breathe and dies.
276 Family LEPIDOSIRENIDAE
This is one of the very few fishes which has nostrils opening into the mouth, but it
does not use them to take in air. In nature it eats fish, snails and other shellfish which
it crushes with its strong teeth. In an aquarium it should be kept alone or with fishes
larger tban itself. It is sluggish and voracious. It will take any kind of live food which
is large enough, also lumps of meat, fish or shellfish. It is fairly hardy but prefers a
high temperature. Lungfish have never been bred in an aquarium. In nature the male
clears an area in which the female deposits her eggs. The male guards and fans the
eggs which hatch in about eight days. The young have external gills, vestiges of which
may be seen in some adults. They are visible in the young specimen in the illustration.
Family NOTOPTERIDAE 277
African Knife Fish- Xenomystus nigri
Native to Central and West Alrica. Length: 8 inches.
THE African Knife Fish is one of the more interesting aqu ari um inhabitants. Although
its color is rather dull (a plain gray or brown), its interesti ng shape with its prominent
eye and the rippling anal fin which extends from the pectorals to the tip of th e tiny tail
make it outstanding. It is carnivorous and semi -nocturn al a lthough not as secretive or as
pugnacious as the Gymnotitlae. Smaller specimens arc quite suitable for inc lusion in a
collection of medium -sized fi shes. The greatest danger for the Knife Fish is that it fre-
quently loses the tip of its tai l to more pugnacious fishes. They do not pick on each other.
The Knife Fish cats only li ve or frozen foods. It prefers a tempe rat ure above 70° F.
Never bred in aquaria.
278 Family OSTEOGLOSSIDAE
Rainbow Arowana- Osteoglossum bicirrhosum
Native to the Amazon and neighboring waters. Length: Up to 30 inches.
THE Arowana is one of the oddest fishes to be found in the aquarium. A pramltlve
type, its structure closely resembles species now extinct. It spends its time at or near
the surface of the water. Some fishes which lack swim bladders can leave the hottom
only with an effort. The young Arowana is the exact opposite. It can swim down only
with an effort. As soon as it ceases its swimming motions it rises again to the surface.
They like floating plants to hide amongst, for they are carnivorous and in nature they
hide in the surface vegetation and dart out at their prey. in an aquarium they take
almost any meat or fish from thc urface. Small specimens thrive on Tubificids and, as
they grow, meal worms and earthworms may be fed from a tweezer. They will cat
small fish, but do not bother fish their own siz.e or larger. Catfish should be ke.pt with
them to keep the bottom clean as Arowana usu ally eat only at or just below the surface.
A school of them get along fairly well, but two or three kept together will fight con-
tinuously. In a large aquarium at a high temperature- over 80 ° F .-and with plenty
of food, growth is rapid. A 4 inch specimen will triple its size in a year. The bod y is
very tlat. The basic coloring is yellow-green. Each of the scales which cover the body
has a dark border with a pink dot at its base giving a mottled effect and making each
scale appear conspicuous. The body is iridescent and it glows under a good light.
There are two projections like feelers from the lower jaw. They are movable but their
function is unknown.
The Arowana bas never been bred in captivity. it is believed to be a mouth breeder.
It is capable of breathing atmospheric oxygen and can thus exist under poor conditions.
Family PANTODONTIDAE 279
Butterfly Fish- Pantodon buchholzi
Native to West Africa. Length: 5 inches.
THIS and the Hatchet Fishes are the only fresh-water flying fis hes main ta ined in aq uar ia.
The fish is unbelievably bizarre, as the illustration shows, and one is impressed by its
huge mou th , especially when open. PanloJon meltnS "tee th eve rywhere." Eve n th e
longue has tee th . In th e wild, it skims the surface of the wa ter with long lcaps, and
in co mmodious tanks it may resort to this behavior. It seldom grows to be over 5 inches
long. In color it is gree n-brow n, lighter on the belly.
The fin rays a ppea r to be black spotted lines because of the alternating black and
white shades. Males have larger fins than females.
Those who have had real success in kee ping Pan l odon report that it is practi cally
esscntial to mainta in another species of fish along with it for sa nitary reasons. Catfishes
which remain at the bottom will eat th e food the Palll adon fails to ca pture. Remember,
if you bu y this interesting fi h, th at it needs a large tank, that it eats only flo ating food
a nd th at it lives at tbe surface.
Because it is a surface feeder, it must not be offered food that quickly sinks. This
interesting fish can be tamed to take food f rom one's fin gers. Small earthworms, strips
of meat, live small fishes, if held , will be consumed. And any small fish which come
to the surface may be captured. Wingless fruit f1ie ma ke excellent food because they
flo at; all dead flies, for that matter, may be used.
They lay unusually large eggs wh ich float and hatch after a week. The youn g can
be fed sifted Daphnia, mosquito larvae, floating food.
280 Family CHARACIDAE
ALL of the Characins (the adhesive egg-scatterers) are from tropical America
and Africa. None is known from Asia, Australia or Europe. They are fre-
quently, but erroneously, called Tetras because many of the Characins wer.!
originally included in the genus Tetragonopterus. This classification has been
changed.
There is a good deal of variation in size, shape and color among the
Characins. Most of them have a distinctive glass-like finish to the scale
which serves to distinguish them from the Barbs, and most of them possess
an adipose fin, which is a small fleshy fin on tbe back just ahead of the ba e
of the caudal. Characins aL~o possess teeth , and these teeth in Some of the
smaller "Tetras" may be felt by running a finger along the fish's upper jaw.
Some Characins have teeth in both jaws ' some in only the upper. Barbs do
not have teeth in the jaws, and fortunately few other fishes possess teeth
which approach in size and effiCiency those of the famous-or rather infa-
mous- Piranha, one of the Characins.
For the most part, the various Characins are best kept in small schools
of five or six individuals. They seem happier in the company of their own
kind and less likely to use their teeth on other aquarium occupants.
Many of the Characin are quite small and will breed freely in as-gallon
aquarium. The sexes should be separated for conditioning, and the aquarium
set up the same as for Barbs (page 334) but an important consideration must
be kept in mind : Characins are partial to very soft, slightly acid water for
breeding. In addition to pH, water hardness should be checked. If a ny
changes are necessary, they should be made before the fish go in. The recom-
mended temperature is 82-85 ° F. Characins are not as rough and tumble
as Barbs during breeding. However, some are guite active. ]t is a wise pre-
caution to keep their breeding tank well covered.
After persistent driving and posturing by the male the female swims into
the thicket. The pair hover side by side for a few minutes while the adhesive
eggs are xtruded and fertilized. Like the Barbs, most Characins are avid
egg-eaters and should be removed when spawning is completed. The young
are tiny at birth and therefore require very tiny food after the egg yolk is
absorbed.
We know a successful breeder who turned out a phenomenal number of
small Characins and Barbs with only ten tanks in his living room. Four of
his tanks were of about 2Q-gallon capacity and were used to house the adults.
These were set up with gravel and plants. They were filtered and aerated .
Although several varieties were mixed in each tank, care was taken to see
tbat both sexes of the same variety were not kept together. Two small, bare
S-gallon tanks were kept near a north window which was shaded by a tree.
The e tanks were aerated but not filtered and the pairs were brought to-
gether in them to spawn. When the eggs hatched, the fry were transferred
Family CHARACIDAE 281
to the remaining tanks, of 30- to 40-gaJ1on capacity which were aerated and
filtered, but had neither gravel nor plants. These were the growing tanks and
they were always packed with young. The varieties were mixed indiscrimi-
nately, but the young were separated according to the size. As many as 500
young a week left this fancier's living room.
In some of the smaller species of this family, the males have what is
known as the "Characin hook ." This is a . tiny hook-like ending to the rays
of the anal fin (although it has been known also to appear on the caudal
and pelvic fins). Unfortunately, in most of the species which possess this
feature the hooks are so small that they cannot be readily seen with the
naked eye. However, held in a net, the male, by means of the hook, will
often stick. Put several in a light cotton net and invert it over the aquarium.
The ones caught in the net are males. But, of course, not all of the males
will necessarily be caught.
Abramites microcephalus
Native to South America. Length: Approximately 3 inches.
MUCH like Leporinus in its form and swimming pOSltlOn, this fish differs mainly in
color. The body is mostly gray with several brown-black vertical lines on its sides, the
most prominent of which colors the forward th ird of the dorsal fin. As the name
microcephalus implies, the head appears small for the fish 's size which may reach 4
inche in it tank.
There is an adipose fi n with a blaek edge, the caudal and anal fins are bright tan and
the pelvic fins gray-b lack. We can find no record of its having been bred in captivity.
With its own kind it is a reasonab1y safe fish but it persists in picking on other smaller
species, making it anyt hin g but a desirable community fish except with those of its own
size or larger. A jumper. Eats anything and may chew plants.
Blind Cave Fish or Blind Characin-Anopt;chthys jordan;
Known from a single cave in Mexico . Le ngth: Approximately 3 inches.
THE Blind Characi n, as its popular name suggests, has no eyes. This does not, how-
ever, prevent its being a memher of a community tank for, although blind, it fares well
enough by living on the food that the other fishes eit her miss or refuse. The body color
is a whitis h-silver with a sugge lion of an undercoating of pink. Unfortunately, as it
grows to adult size, it becomes a vicious fin nipper.
The fish hreeds in ca ptivity in typ ical Charaein fashion. When spawni ng is fini shed,
it is wise to remove the adults as they will eat the eggs if the opportunity arises.
Anostomus anostomus
Native to Guiana and the Amazon Basin . Length: Approximately 5 inches .
A LONG slim fish. which may grow to be 5 inchcs long. It has a small upturn ed mouth,
dark green color on its back and dull metallic-gold on th e sides. A broad, dark line runs
from the mouth to the hase of the ta I with another stripe above and below the main
one. There is a small adipose fin . The other fin s have sca rlet coloring at th e junction
with the body and a scarlet hu e whi ch a re th is fi h's chi ef claim to bea uty.
The A nOS/Oll'IUS li ves quite peaceably wi th its own kind but picks at other species
and is not recommended for co mmunity tanks.
It swims somew hat like Lepo rill lls in a head down position. It is easy to keep and
eats a variety of foods as well as algae. We know of no record of its hav ing been bred
in an aquarium.
Bloodfin- Aphyocharax rub r;p ;nn;s
Native to the La Plata Basin. Length: A pproximately J!IS inches.
THE BODY of th e Bloodfin is a greenish-sil ver. A horizontal band of silver-gray ex-

tends from th e gill cover to the root of the ca udal fin. The pectoral fins have a glass-like
transparency, a ll other fins being blood-red, darker at their base than at their outer
margi n. The red fades when the fish is frightened or sick . The male has the "Charac in
hook" on the anal. The fish is also ab le to withstand low temperatures of 45- 50 ° F.
lis breedi ng habits do not dcpart fro m the usual methods of the family. The fish
will, however, leap into the air when exci ted , but not to mate as once thou ght. It is
better to place two male with one female and remove th e breeders as soon as the
spaw nin g i fin ished. The aquarium temperature should bc about 75 ° F . during tbis
time for incubation to take place, and the tank thi ckly planted with non-floating plants to
provide both protection and anch orage for the eggs.
The fry appear in about thirty hours, thrive well on infusoria for tbe first two or
three weeks, latcr on sc reened Daphni a and Micro-Worms. As tbey develop, tbe fry will
eat almost anything tbey are offered.
Head-Standing Fish-Chilodu$ punctatu$
,..
Native to Guiana . Length: Approximately 3 inches.
THIS fish derives its popular name from the fact that it spends much of its time stand-
ing, as it were, on its head . The general color is olive-brown to gray, darker on the
back and shading to silver on the belly. A black band extends from the mouth, through
the eye, to the caudal fin. All scales, except those on the breast, carry a brown spot at
their base. The mouth of this fish is rather small so it is wise to see that the food is suf-
ficientl y small in size.
They will bully each other although they do not bother other fishes. The breeding
habits are unknown .
Copei na- Cope;na a rnold;
Native to Amazon Basin, Guianas. Length : 2 17 inches.
COPEINA (C. arnoldi) is olive-brown on its back, shading to white on the underside.
A stripe extend fro m the eye around the lower jaw. The scales arc darkened along
their edges giving the fi sh a net-like effect. Tbe dorsal fin of this species has a distinct
dark spot, below which th e male's fin is wbite and the female 's red .
When reproducing, the fish leap out of the water and the female deposits the
eggs on a n inclined surface, a n inch or two above the water. Eitber leafy plants whicb
grow out of the water (Water Sprite or Hygrophila) or frosted glass outside the water
should be placed in the aquari um before spawning time to catch tbe eggs. Those eggs
that fall into the water will not hatch. The male guards the eggs and keeps the eggs
moist by periodically splashin g tbem witb water. In two or three days the egg hatch
and the fry drop into the water.
Copeina callo/epis
Native to the Amaron . Size: Up to 2!1 inches.
A QUIETLY attractive fish, (hi Copeina is suitable even for beginners. The basic
color is light gray to brown. There are 5 rows of dark red or blaek dots along it s sides.
Like the (lrnoldi there is a dark edge to each scale which gives it a nel·like appearance.
Jt resembles a slim arnoldi. The males have it deeper body color, a longer more pointed
dorsal. The upper lobe of the tail is longer in the male and the tips of the venlra ls are
dark.
The eggs are laid on top of flat leaves near the water surface. Both parents clean
the leaves before laying the eggs. The young batch in 36 hours at 85° F., but are quite
small. They require ~ery fine infusoria.
Red-Spotted Cope ina-Copeina guHata
Native to the Amazon Basin, Guia nas. Length: 4 ~ inches.
C. flLllla l a . known as the Red-Spotted Copeina. has a body color of gray wi th a

brownish cast to it. On its sides a rc horizontal rows of red spots. The fins are oraogeisb,
edged in brighter ora nge. Its size in capitivity reverses the usual condi tions of tbe wild
state in that it becomes larger when confi ned in aquar ia.
The fis h spawns much in tbe way of some C ichlitls by the female depositing the eggs
in a depression in the sa nd , the male g uarding and fanning th e eggs until they hatch.
The female should he removed upon completi o n of spawn ing and the male wben the
fry start to school. The fish is hardy , peaceful and easily fed.
Swordtail Characin-Corynopoma rUse;
Native to Trinidad . Length: Approximately 2 inches.
THIS is one of the real curio iti es which may be bought and kept as a nov elty. Cer-
tainly it is not the color-sil ve r- which entices bu yers and viewers but rath er the odd
physical characteristics. The males ha ve them in mu ch more exaggerated form s than
the fema les: the dorsal fin is tall, shows the rays pla inl y and fl ares 0 th at it is almost
fan-shaped. The anal fin, too, is quite long a nd extends almost to th e ta il, the end of
the body being quite small and of a compressed cylind rical form . The lower half of the
tail extends far beyond the upper, giving the fi sh a swo rd effect. But unique is an ex-
tension of the gill cover, a plate which protrudes from each side above th e pectoral
fin s and exte nds far outwards and backwards. The fish has the power to move these
extensions, wh ich have enlargements on th e tips, so that they are at ri ght angles to the
body, and does so especially when mating. When be does this, he moves his long ana l
fin out li ke a fan and exhibits his magnificence to the female.
This is a peaceable fish, quite easy to breed but difficu lt to sell, as only ad ult males
have the odd fins. The fema les and young are plain.
Silver Tetra-Ctenobrycon spilurus
Native to Guiana. Length : Approximately 3 !-2 inches .
NOT to be mi sta ken for the Silver Tip. th e Sil ve r Tet is nearl y twiee as large. growing
to three inches long, wi th a dee p fl attened body and a si lvery shee n. The a nal fin of
th e female shows a somewhat red tinge. Th e fish is uncommonl y ha rdy. It is eas ily
bred in rather small ta nk s a nd is eas ily ke pI. It has a drawback which has m ade ma ny
aq uarists turn aga inst th e fish: it nibbles pJ a nt s until they d ie .
C. spilurus can withsta nd lower tempe ra tures t ha n most of the C haracins.
Exodon--Exodon paradoxus
Native to Amazon 8asin. Length : Approximately 3 inches .
THE Exodon has little but its grace and a certain heaut y to recommend it in our estim a-
tion . There was a tim e when they were almost imposs ible to sec ure but in 1955 several
lots were imported. The fish is si lver with one large black spot on its side and other
sm aller spots-one at the base of the dorsal fin , one at the base of the pink tail and an-
other on th e small adipose fin. The female has no pink in her tai l.
Whil e the fish seldom exceeds three inches in len gt h, one look at its mouth should
make one suspicious. The obvio us teeth which project are not only dan ge rous looking,
tor thi s little fish uses them on other fishes and even on his own kind. He had best be kcpt
singly or in a large well -planted tank with one of the opposite sex. Practically nothing
is known about this fish's breedin g habits.
Flying Characin or Hatchet Fishes- Gasteropelecus
levis, Carnegiella marthae, C. strigata, Thoracocharax
maculatus, T. securis, T. stellatus.
A ll are native to north e rn South America . Length: Approximately 2J-2 inch es.
THE HABITS and needs of these species. which go under the popular name of Hatchet
Fishes or Flying Characins. are approximately the ame. a is their appearance (ex-
cept for Carnegie/la which may be distingui hed by the lack of an adipose fin).
Characteristic of these species is the likencss of tbeir appearance, when seen head-on,
to the V-shape associated with th e head of a hatchet. In other words, the fish is wedge-
shaped, tbe top being the widest part of the body. The depth of body is due to tbe
tremendously developed fl ying muscles which may make up as much as 25 per cen t of
the Hatchet Fishe ' weight. The same m uscles in other fishes may co nstitute only lfLOO
of their weight. These fl ying muscles are used to move the pectoral or fl yi ng fins like
wings. And this enables the small H atchet to fly more than six feet througb the air.
In their natural state they sw im at the surface of tbe water.
C. le vis has a back of olive color, shading into silver on the sides and belly. A m.r-
row dark stripe exte nds from the operculum to the root of the caudal fin . Another
band goes from the anal fin around th e belly. The fins ar almost transparent, only the
dorsal being darker at its base. C. levi.\' is pictured above.
C. marthae is silver in color. with the same dark line extending from the shoulder
to the cauda l fin , and the belly stripe as G . levis. The fin s a re almost transpare nt except
for the pectorals whi ch are inclined to be black in the middle.
length : Approximately I V2 inches.
C. strifiato is olive-brown in color. The sides blend into silver upon which are three
parallel stripes runnin g th e length of th e body. The fin s are semi-t ransparent.
length : Approximately 13,4 inches.
T . macu /(I/Us var ies in color from lemon to gray i h-brown. T he sides are spolled
and lined a nd the lower part of the body is outlined in black.
Length: Approximately 3 inches.
Fam ily CHARACIDAE 295
T. securis is a yel lowish-brown in color. The hlack line, common to thcse Hatchet
Fishes, extends from the operculum to the root of the caudal fin .
Length : Approximately 2 inches .
T. stellatLiS is olive-brown with a silvery sheen. The lowcr part of the body is
outlined in black. Likc T. secllri.l', thc fins arc semi-transparent.
Length : Approximately 4 inches.
These fisbes a re heavy eaters. In view of their delicate appearance it is amazing to

see the quantity of food they can consume. 1f not fed sufficiently tbey waste away,
bence tbeir reputation for delicacy among some aquarists.
Hatchet Fish are primarily surface feeders, altbough they learn to snap at food as
it sinks. Occasionally they will learn to take food from the bottom, but usually Catfish
or other bottom feeders should be kept with them. They will eat dry food, Daphnia, or
mosquito larvae. Many aquarists, with a lillie patience, train their Hatchets to eat small
worms held between their fingers. Others rig up a worm feeder so that its perforated
botlom is level with the sur face, and the Hatchets eat the worms a they tart to crawl
through. Carc must be taken so that other fishes do not crowd the Hatchets away
from the food.
Platinum Tetra- Gephyrocharax atracavdatv$
Na tive to Panama. Length: Approximately 3 inches.
THE OVER-ALL color of this T etra is a silvery blue-green. The base of the tail has
spot of a satiny sheen that reflect many different co lors when light strikes them . The
base of the caudal fin, its marg in and upper and lower Jobes are black; the other fins
being transparent with whitish borders.
It has not, as yet, been bred in captivity.
,..
Black Tetra-Gymnocorymbus ternetzi
Native to Paraguay. Length , Approximately '* inches.
THE Black Tetra is a vivacious, active little fish that appears to "wear" a dark skirt, be-
cau e its la rge dorsal a nd long ventral fins and the last th ird of its hody arc black. Two
wide, ve rti c.. !. black para llel lines adorn its sides, aod are most conspicuous aga inst the
sil very body . A third less prominent and shorter line edges the gi lls. The tail is a thin
and colorless th at it is almost inv isible.
Some fi shes do not look their best until they are mature, but the Bl ack Tetra is an
exception . It is most exotic when two-thirds to three- qu a rter~ grown, for at this time
the black is inky. As the fish nea rs maturity it fades somewhat, but never sufficiently
to make it less th an a most .. !tractive member of the community tank. In aquari a, it
seldom exceed two inches in length but in natural habitats ami large outdoor pools,
it reaches three inches.
Man y favor the Black T etra for it qualities in the community tank . The contrast
with other highly colored fishes, and the fact that it school so well, make it a prized
inhabitant. The fem ale is heavier bodied than the male. Eats anything. It breeds in
typical Charaein fa shion.
Glow Light Tetra-Hemigrammus erythrozonus (formerly
Hyphessobrycon gracilis)
Nativ e to Guiana. Length: Appro ximately '* inches.
SOMEWHAT like the Neon Tetra in its beauty and charm . the blue-green line from
the mouth through the eye is replaced in the Glow Light by a sparkling red line. The
glowing red spot above the large eye is responsible for the popul ar name attached to
the fish . This specie is slightly larger than the Neon Tetra.
Although this fish breeds rather readily in captivity, some precautions and prepara-
tions are advisable. As in the case of the Neon, the aquarium and its contents should be
cleaned thorough ly prior to the spawning. Breeding temperatures should be no hi gher
than 74 ° F. A slightly acid pH and soft water are required. The aquarium should be
kepI in shaded light during breeding and then, after the brood fish have been removed,
placed in total da rkness during the incubation period of twenty-four hours. For a week
after this, the tank, if 110t darkened, should be shaded.
The breeding habits differ from most of the rest of the gen us. The male and fem ale
lock fins, embrace and roll on their backs. The embrace, during which a few eggs are
extruded and fer tilized, is repeated until the spawning is finished .
Feeding Brine Shrimp improves the G low Light's color.
Silver Tip Tetra- Hemigrammus (Janus.
Na tive to So uth America. Le ng th : Approximately ,v.. inches.
IF YOU see Silver Tips in ordinary lighting you may not be tempted to want to own
them. But with top lighting and against a dark background , you will probahly find
tbem unusually attractive. They are quite small, only an inch and a quarter long. Of
si lvery color, the fin tips seem almost luminescent and the ma les' points even brighter
than the females'. Silver Tips breed readily in tanks. Tbey are peaceful and hardy and
school well.
Head-and-Tail-Light Fish-Hemigrammus ocellifer
Native to the Guianas. Length: Approximately 1!-2 inches.
THE GLITTER of sparkling gold from the eyes and cauda l spot gives this fish its
popular name . The fish has three color areas: translucent grecn on the back, gO ltlen-
brown on the sides, and silver on the belly. There is a black spot on a grecn backgrouod
immediately behind the gill cover. A thin line which widens as it extends to the base of
the caudal terminates in a large black cross on a wh ite background .
Sexes are distinguished by thc fuller body of the female and a rounded top to the
dorsal fin . The male has a pointed dorsal fin and a faint white line in the middle of the
anal fin.
Breeding behavior is typical of the Characins. Peaceful and hard y.
Rasbora Tetra- He migrammus pulcher
Native to the Amazon region . Size: A p pro ximately 2 inches .
THERE is little chance of mi stak ing thi s member of thc family, for on thc posterior
of the body, just in front of the caudal fin , there is a large wedgc-shaped area in black.
The body color is olive-green with a reddish cast to it. T here is a shoulder spot as well
as several green spots on the head. There is a light area just in front of the black wedge.
Breedin g is in the usual fashion of the majority of small C haracins. This particular
species lays a large Dumber of eggs but does no t spawn too frequcntly. Peaceful and
hardy.
Rummy-Nose Tetra-Hemigrammus rhodostomus
Nativ e to the upper Amazon . Size: Approximately 2 inches.
THE STRIKING rcd no e , as the popular name implies, is a feature of this fish . The
fins are hyaline, except the caudal which is partly marked in black. From the shoulder
a thin black lin.c extends and widens to the base of the caudal fin where it tapers ofT to a
point on the fin.
This Tetra has not been bred frequently in captivity, although with proper con-
ditions it may be induced to spawn. 1t thrives best at temperatu res between 74-78 ° F.
The red color of the no e tends to fade unless a good deal of shrimp (eitber Brine Shrimp
or fresh shrimp ) is included in the diet.
Hem;odus sem;taen;atus
Nativ e to Guiana and Amaron Basin . Le ngth : Approximately 8 inch es.
THIS silvery fish is one of those usually kept onl y by persons who own large tanks. for
it can grow to eight inchcs in length. It i a jumper when disturbed . When small, it
schools niccly but becomes independent when maturity approaches.
On the centcr of the ide, two-thirds of the body length back from the head, there
is a striking black spot and from it a black line starts, widening as it progresses all the
way to the tip of the lower half of the tail. There is a slight green iridescence reflected
along the lengt h of the back.
T hc fis h is easy to keep. It eats dry or live food. We know of no record of its having
been bred in aquaria.
Yellow Tetra- Hyphessobrycon bilasdatus
Native to Southeast Brazil. Si:ze: Approximately 2 inches.
THIS fish has been mistakenl y called by some aquarists the Brass or Bronze Tetra, but
these arc brigh ter fishes. The Yellow Tetra is a rather plain fish overcast with dark yel-
low. The posterior pa rt of the body is almost transparent. The shoulder bears two
vertical bars, between which is an area of metallic-green . There is a faint, silvery
lateral stripe that extends the length of the body on which are a number of faint
V-shaped markings. The fins of the male are yellow; those of the female are trans-
parent.
The fish is peaceful, and will tolerate temperatures from 68-85 0 F. Too, it is one
of the easiest members of the Hyph essobrycon genus to breed.
Tetra Minor-Hyphessobrycon callistus (formerly
Hyphessobrycon serpae)
Native to Brazil. Length: Approximately I ~ inches.
THE WHOLE bod y shines with a reddish sheen . The back is an olive-green ; the sides
are somewhat darker green and the belly si lver. There is a dark spot on the shoulder
from which a fine dark line extends to the tail- this feature of the coloring distinguish-
ing it from H . rosaCI!US, which it resembles closely. The dorsal fin has a large black
spot on it and th e whole fin is edged in white. The caudal fin is reddi h at the base. Both
tbe anal and pelvic fins are edged like the dorsal in whitc. Thc adipose fin of this fish
is almost transparent. There appear to be several strains of this fish and taxonomists
arc studying these strains now in order to classify them properly. They are simi lar in
sbape, but differ in color intensity. The best specimcns are importcd from Ger-
many and are a gorgeous red. These German fisb do not have tbe black shoulder
patches.
The fisb in tbe color plate is called the Perez Tetra. It is probably a local variety of
H . callistus. It is mistakenly calJed H. rubrostigmll.
Perez Tetra (H. callistus variety)

Cardinal Fish-Hyphessobrycon cardinalis
Native to South America. Length: 2 to 2 YS inches.
SLIGHTL Y larger than the Neon, the Cardinal is almost certam to take its place
among th e most desirable of all aquarium fishes. Watching a school in an aquarium,
one is struck by their almost unbelievable beauty, especially when th e light is strong.
Their brilliant red lowcr sides and pink bellies contrast strongly with the shimmering,
mctallic blue-grecn Mripe charac teristic of the Ncon. The back is tinged with red . In
the Neon , the red stripe i only in the rear half of the fi sh. The red tripe of the
Cardinal fish extends through to the lower jaw.
In 1956, those we have kept and sold have proved to be the equa l in vigor and
hardiness of the Neon and sma ll specimens have grown well in the hands of many
amateurs. Everyt hin g which has been said abo ut the Neon applies to the Cardinal
and the latter is even more beautiful. They will cat dry food, but for most rapid de-
velopment live or frozen foods of a size suitable to lheir small mouths shou ld be fed.
Tetra von Rio (Flame Tetra ) -Hyphessobrycon Ilammeus
Na tiv e to South America . Length: I ~ inches.
THERE are few more satisfactory dwarf fishes for individual tanb where the hobbyist
is interested in breeding fishes, or for the community tank. Onl y one a nd a half inches
long when m ature and a beautiful metallic Ted color, the Tetra von Rio has a gray belly,
fins edged with gray, and a pair of parallel vertical, short black lines just behind the
gills on the sides. No wonder they are favorites. The coloring of the fins, particlliarly
the dark edge of the anal fin. is much deeper in the adu lt male.
Von Rios eat dry and live foods and prefer well-planted tanks where they swim
amongst tbe fOliage and contrast exotically with the shades of green.
Striped Tetra- Hyphessobrycon heterorhabdus
Nativ e to the Ama zon . Length: Approximately ,~ inch es.
THIS fish has been known incorrectly for some time as the Hemigramrnus ulreyi. The
genera l body color is an almost transparent green with a silvery sheen. Running from
the gill cover to the caudal fin there is a three-colored stripe- the upper part red, the
middle a ye llowish while, and the lower part a bluish black.
T he ma le is easily distinguished by the hook. on the anal fin which causes the fish
to stick when lifted from the water in a fine-mesh net. What record of breeding there
are suggest that the fish is not inclined to spawn in captivity.
Neon Tetra-Hyphessobrycon innesi
Native to the Amazon Basin . Length: Approximately 1!4 inches;

female slightly larger.
THE Neon Tetra, one of the most handsome of all aquarium fishe , created quite a
sensation when it was introduced in 1936. The general color is one of silvery-gray OVl!r-
cast with a greenish sheen. A metallic blue-green line extends from thc mouth through
the eye, in glowing contrast to the rest of the coloration. From the center of the body
to the tail there is a swecp of red . These colors, under artificial light, glow with neon-
like brilliancy which accounts for the popular namc of the fish.
The Neon will take dry food but prefers and thrives better on live foods. Brine
Shrimp, either live or frozen, are ideal if they are not too big.
The Neon is quile hardy as a ru le. Ich is one of its worst enemies. The parasi te is so
large in relation to the size of the fish that unless prompt remed ial aClion is taken, all the
infected fi h will succumb. For instructions on the treatment of lch and a discussion of
"Neon Disease" see hapter l2.
The only difficulty most aquaris( encounter in keeping this fish comes with the at-
tempts to breed them and raise the fry. It seems tha t moSI of the trouble is centered
about protecting the eggs, which have a habit of disintegrating. Much bas been writ-
ten on the subject, most of which does little more than offer conflicting suggestions as
to the water pH, temperature and size of the aquarium. Despite tbeir beauty, breeding
Neon Tetras is usually a most discouraging venture for any amateur aquarist to em-
bark on, and yet, with persistence, breeding can be achieved. Water condition is def-
initely one of the factors which must be right. There can be hut little mineral content;
the water must be soft and crystal clear. A scrupulously clean tank of 5 to 10 gallons in
size is adequate. Many successful breeders usc no gravel on the bottom . Some of the
most succe stul raise their Neons in an almost sterile environment, add distilled water
to reduce the hardness, a nd steri lize everything that goes into the tank with potassium
permanganate or by boiling. Others use alum , one teaspoonful to the quart, to sterilize
th e plants. It is believed th at th e c hi ef agent whic h militates against success in Neon
raising is bacteria which destroy the eggs. Hence all the precautions. Use of antibiotics
(penicillin , a ureom yci n, streptomyci n) may be worth trying.
A temperature of 72 ° F. is id ea l. Put in a few sprigs of washed floating plant like
Nitella or Myriophyllum which sho uld be held down with weights. As plants and fish
are transferred to th e breeding tank , try not to introduce any of their old water with
them. The parent fish, too, shou ld be raised in soft water. Sexing is done by observ-
ing your Neons from above. The male ta pers from the head, right from the jaw lin e, to
the ta il ; the ripe female appear ' to bulge just a litt le. Put the male and female in two
separa te tanks a few days before yo u intend putting them together in the breeding
tank, which sho uld be done in the eveni ng. They usuall y tart spawning the followin g
morning. Spawning takes (rom two to six. hours and the male either drives tbe fema le or
spen us his time fertilizi ng the eggs.
Place one ripe fema le and male in the tank and watch for spawning. Remove the
parents at once when spawning is fmished and darken the tank. You may have nega-
tive results th e firs t time but separa te the pair and try again in twelve days. Use a fla sh-
li ght to examine the tank. In twenty-fo ur hours, you will sec the young on the bottom.
Some spawnings produce two hundred and fifty youn g, but the average is aboul fifty.
By the fifth day start feeding egg yo lk infusion ( th is is made by boi lin g a n egg ha rd ,
then syueezing the yo lk thlough fmc gauze into clean water, boiling th e mixture to
sterilize it, and refrigerating that which is not fcd) in amoLlnts of one drop to a dozen fry.
Newl y hatched Brine Sh rimp can be given to the fry by the twelfth day. Some experts
advise keeping the tank dim until the fry are three weeks old. In sueh a case, no plants
arc used . For severa l weeks the fry are sma ll and need small food , hut after a month
they will show some color and by the age of six wecks will be tiny Neons, resp lendent
and fasc inating.
Lemon Tetra-Hyphessobrycon pvlchripinnis
Native to the Amazon Basin . Length : Approximately '* inches.
ALTHOUGH not tbe most strikingly colored fish of tbis family, the Lemon Tetra is
an attractive yellow fisb. Its body, whicb is lemon yellow, is almost tran parent. There
is an intense yellow edging on both the anal and dorsal fins, the former being lined in
black. The markings on the anal are more prominent in the male. Tbe eye is yellow with
an upper edge of bright red.
This Tetra will breed but it is necessary that tbe temperature of the water be from
78 to 80 0 F . The fish also requires a dense planting of spawning plants, for if given
the opportunity the parents will eat tbe newly-laid eggs. Very peaceful.
Rosy Tetra-Hyphessobrycon rosaceus
Native to British Gu iana, Brazil. Length: Approximately Jl~ inches.
THIS. unfortunately. is one of the fishes which do not show to advantage in dealers'
tanks, but it is well worth keeping. The soft, red bod y color, which has a silvery to
oli ve-green sheen, makes the Rosy Tetra one of the most attractive fi sh of this family.
The fins are a deep pink, except for the dorsal. In the adult male, the dorsal is black.
That of the female is black, but the upper third is white wi th a red tip. The male de-
ve lops a larger a nd more pointed dor~a l than the fema le. The body of th e Rosy Tetra
may be somewhat transparent.
Although not a ready breeder, there are times when the fish can be induced to
breed provided a few preparation a re made by the aquarist. Tap water (78- 80 ° F .)
should be deep enough to cover the aquatic plants, for this fish sometimes elects (0
spawn above rather than among the plants. Best results come from allowing the in-
dividual fish to select their own mates. The water shou ld be soft with an acid pH. The fry
need infusoria for the first two weeks, later screened D aphnia or Brine shrimp nauplii.
Black Line Tetra- Hyphessobrycon scholze;
Native to the A mazon Basin . leng th : 2 to 2 !7 inches.
AQUARIST find the Black Line Tetra amon g the eas iest egg-layers to breed. It is
frequently kept in a community tank, where it att ai ns a length of 2 to 2V2 in ches and
reflects light beautifully. ex hihiting a slight golden or brassy sheen. A long black line
along the side is characteristic, with a pale black diamond shape at its termin ation in
th e center of the tail. The body of tb e female i deeper than that of the mal e, which
makes it easy to distinguish th e sexes. T he Black Line Tetra lenos to be a fin nipper.
Black-Banded Leporinus-Leporinus fasciatus
Native to the Amazon Basin and nearby areas of South America .

Length: Approximately 10 inches.
IF YOU are interested in another curio, Leporinus may appeal to yo u. It grows to bc

six inches long in aquaria. Few fi shes can jump so hard and so far. One of ours once
jumped with such vigor against the plate glass cover over the tank that it fractured its
skull. There are several rare fi shes of the Leporillt./s gen us and all are cylindrical in
body with strong swi mming a bility, for they live naturally in rapid streams where they
must swim against currents.
This one, called the Black-Banded, has a series of blac k rings which circle the body
and are equally spaced a lon g its entire len gth . All of the fin s are pink-toned and yellow
at their ba es, except the anal fin whieh is orange. There is a small adipose fin .
The fish swims in a head downward position , one of th e fe w fishes which do so. It is
easy to keep and can be fed either dry or live food. It is a plant eater, consuming soft
algae and tender plant shoots. It often picks on smaller fishes. Never bred.
Silver Dollar Fish- Metynn;s hypsauchen, Metynn;s
roosevelt;, Myleus sc:homburgki,
and Mylossoma aureum
All a re native to northern South America , south to Peru. Length : Up to J2 ;n, hes.
THERE is a very close resemblance between these "pancake sided," bright silver
fishes and their close relatives the Piranhas. They may be distinguished from the latter
most easily by the shape and structure of the jaws. The lower jaw of the Silver Dollar
is not so heavy as the Piranha's, and it does not protrude. It does have tiny teeth which
are not readily noticeable. Another difference is that the body of the Silver Dollar
fishes drops down gently to a rounded stomach, while the lower body of the Piranha
comes back sharply to a flatter stomach.
It is difficult to correctly identify the many species and varieties of the Silver Dol-
lars. Some have dark spots and some have orange fins-and some have both. Coloring,
and even shape, may vary between the young and adult fish.
In an aquarium they arc quite hardy and peaceful, but they do have one fault: all
of the Silver Dollars devour plants. They love Vallisneria and will go through a tank
full of it like a sickle. They s'hould be kept in an unplanted tank where they will thrive
on any standard diet, plus the addition of oatmeal twice a week. The oatmeal should
be boiled into a thick paste and fed sparingly as it tends to foul the tank.
There is only one account of a pair of Metynnis breeding. The male drove the
fema le intermittently for some time. About 2,000 non-adhesive eggs were laid, of which
about 200 were raised .
Metynnis hypsarlclllm-Frequently called M . schreitmu lleri or M. roosevelti, this
fish, pictured above, has silver sides and clear fins. The adipose lin is long and low.
M etynnis roosevelti- A lead-sil ver colored fi sh with dark markings. There a re
round dark spots on the sides and dark markings on th e shoulder. The dorsal, anal and
caudal fin s have an orange band . The edge o f th e tail has a black bo rder.
Length: 4 inches.
M y /ellS srhomburgki- Thi s fish has a characteristic dark vertical blotch whi ch
makes it outstanding.
Length: Up to 9 inches.
M y lossom a aurellfll- The shape of tbe body o f this fi sh is unusual. T he edge of the
anal fin is quite orange and it is much shorter and round er tban th e anal fin of the
M etYl1llis. It is a very tbin fi sh and appears emaciated.
Length: Up to 8 inches.
Red Eye Tetra-Moenkhausia o/igo/epis
Native to Guiana . Length: Approximately 4 inches.
ON of th e largest of th e so-called Tetras, this fi sh grows to four inches. The females

a re sli ghtly la rger th an the males. They arc shaped mu cb like th e Si lver Te tra but differ
in colo ration . The red eye supplies so me color while a black spot at the base of the tai l
and th e sca le , eac h wi th its hlack edge, and a red ad ipose fin (the small fio on the back
in front of th e tail) ma ke this an attra cti ve fish.
In fish stores we have seldom seen representatives of this species in any but partly
g rown specim ens. You should kee p in m ind thc ultimate size in the event you bu y any.
Larger ilsh of the spec ies may attac k smaller fisbe of all species. It is difficult to breed
in aqu aria, but the feat has been accomplished.
,..-
African Tetra-Nannaethiops unitoeniotus
Netive to Alrice- found in the Nile , Congo , end Niger Rivers end tributaries.
Size: Male 2 !-7 inches; female 3 inches.
EXCELLENT community fi sh, somewh at retmng. they stay in the bac k of the aquar-
iu m and lose co lo r when disllIrbed, but otherwise they are a n attracti ve addition . Th ey
usuall y a ppea r on th e m a rket in a partially grow n size a nd they school bea utifully or
stay together in pa irs. The ir co lor is e pee ia lly a lluring. as is their grace ful form ,
and beca use they a da pt to ta nk conditi ons and breed readily, th ey find favor wi th
man y aquar ists. Th e body is fuller in width th a n most fi she a nd the fins are a lways
extended. They show a meta llic luster in a good light.
A black lin e run s th e length of the body termin atin g in th e center of the ta il. Ju st
a hove it there is a golden line, which a ppea rs coppery nea rer the tail. The upper ha lf of
the ta il is reddish , wh ile a spo t of red a ppea rs on the lower ha lf. The arn e spot is to be
seen in th e dorsal which a lso has a disti nct black line a t its forward edge. T he coloring of
the fem ale is so mewh at fa inter a nd she is noti cea bl y larger. Th is fi sh eats any food .
Nannostomus anomalus
Native to Amazon 8asin and Rio Negro. Length ; 2 inches.
ANOMALUS is a beautiful little fish whi ch in a school makes a strikin g show, as do

th e others of th e genus Nallna ·/ O/1lUS. This fish has o ne black line which runs from its
lips to the base oC its tail, th e line being edged wit h gold. The back is dark green, shading
down to white o n the belly. The fins are redd ish wi th while tips o n th e ventral and ana l
fins . The eye shows gold in a good light. To ob ervc the fish at its best, switch on the
light after it ha s been in the dark aw hil e.
All of the genus are susceptible to mouth fungus. Seldom bred.
Nannostomus marginatus
Native to Amazon Basin and Guiana s. Length: I v., inches .
M A RGINA TUS may be disti nguished from /ri/asci(l/us by th e w ider. black body stripe
a nd consequently th e narrower yellow stripe. T he borders of th e ventral a nd anal fins a re
black. The red in the tai l i lacking. This spec ies has been found easier to breed th an
trija.vciallIs. It is a slightl y smaller, heavier bodied fish.
Nannostomus trifasciatus
Native to Amazon 8asin . Length : Approximately ,~ inches.
A SCHOOL of Iriiasciallis makes a ve ry beauti ful sight in any ta nk. T hey are sma ll
-one an d one- half to one and three-quarters inches when mature. T hey have ni cely
shapcd bodie and exquisit e cOlorin g of contrastin g red, blac k and ye llow. Three blac k
bands run parall el along th e sides. Between th e first and second bands, th e bod y is
golden yellow. M a les show red dots and das hes in this ye llow st ripe. Thc bellies are
sil very. Red blotches appea r in all of the fin s, o ne on each halI of th e tai l whi ch is oth er-
wise translucent. Thc tips of tb e fin s are blue. In th e dark, or when frightened, thi s species
shows light vertical hars which fa de when th e cause of fea r is removed.
They arc bred fair ly easil y in soft ac id wa ter and the fry arc particul arly intriguin g
beca use they are so long and they pose at grotesque angles in relati on !O one another.
All of these fis hes arc pa ni cul a rl y susceptible to mouth fun gus.
Pencil Fish- Poecilobrycon auratus
Nativ e to the Amazon and the Guianas. Length : Approximately '* inches .
THE GENERAL body co lor of thi~ fish is gold en-brow n wi th ~evera l brown a nd wider
black stripes running th e entire length of th e bod y. Towards th e posterior of the fish ,
this black band spreads to cover the lower ha lf of the ca uda l fio . The a nal fi n is
brownish wit h red spots near its base. T he fish has a n adi pose fin .
Attempts to breed the Pe nci l Fis h have not met with notable success. If th ey do
spawn, the fema le, wh ic h is no ti ceably heavie r, deposi ts th e eggs o n the underside of
th e aquar ium pl a nts. At 80 ° F., the fry hatch in approxi mate ly forty-eigh t ho urs. The
ad ult fish m ay as weJJ be removed afte r pa wning , fo r th eir Care of th e f ry is both
slight aod c urso ry. Beca use of their tin y mo uths, only sma ll size food s sho uld be fed.
The sma ll mouth a lso m akes them se nsi tive to a lla cks o f mo uth fung us.
The leisu re ly mo ti oos of thi s tish a re misleading. It is a n excellent jumper.
Red-Tailed Pencil Fish-Poecilobrycon unifasdatus
Native to the Amazon 80sin. Length: Jl7 to 2 inches.
ANOTHER " ta il stander" when it rests. Itnijasria/lls swims horizont ally. 11 differs
markedly from the others in eolor but not in size. The only stripe is black and runs from
the nose, through the eye , to the fork of the tail. The body is tan above the line. silver
below. Its chief color decoration is a bright red spot on the lower half of the tail. fol-
lowed by a wbite crescent, then a black crescent and a white fin tip. The male has a
larger anal fin.
This fish is ea ily mai ntained and like its cousins thrives in community tanks or
alone with others of its species. Similar in bebavior to P. (Iura/us.
Pristella-Pristella riddle;
Native to the Amazon 8asin, Guianas. Length: Approximately I ~ inches.
THE Pristella is a peaceful fi sh well suited for commun ity a(luari um life. The body is
ge nerally a translucent yellow ish-brow n or ye ll owish-gree n. The lower part of tbe body
is almost transparent. The caudal fin is red ; the dorsa l and anal are lemon , adorn ed
with black spots and white tipping. Tbe side displays a dark shoul der spot, from which
a dark band, in-lined wit h a light colored band , extends to the root of the ca ud al fin .
Onl y a few requirements need to be fulfill ed to keep this fi sh successfull y. A tem-
perature between 76 and 80 0 F. (not below 70° if th e fisbes are not to be endangered),
clear water, good light, preferably sunlight , and live food will promote the growth and
well-being of th ese little fish.
Breeding dem ands a little more attention on the part of the aqua ri st. The brood
fish should be about the ame size and well over a year in age. The eggs are deposited in
batches of six to eight, with as many as three hund red eggs bei ng deposi ted in one
spawning. As the male and female are apt to eat both the eggs and fry, it is wise to re-
move the fi sh as soon as th ey complete the spaw ning.
The fry will thrive on sc reened infusoria, later screened D aphnia and Micro-Worms
about ten days after hatching. There is a lso an albino variety wbich has typ ical red
eyes. It behavior is the same as th e norm al variety. The albino variety i pict ured above.
Flag-Ta iled Tetra- Prochilodus insignis
Native to th e Amazon 8asin. Le ngth: In nature J 2 inches.
IF YOU want a fairly large fi sh-four to five inches when mature- and one which
enjoys a vegetarian diet , but is not particularly colorfu l, this is your fish . Jt is a lank
cleaner, eating a lgae (rom the glass, the plant s or rocks in the tank . It will e'll boiled
green vegetables too.
Its claim to beaut is its large spreadi ng tail with parallel horizonta l hlack stripes.
lts belly is pink bUI the remainder of the body is gray with some yellow on the fins.
These colors fade in older r ecimens.
A vigorous jumper, it must be mai ntained in covered tanks.
Roeboides guatemalensis
Native to Me xico and South America. Length: Up to 6 inches.
THIS rather attractive fish is frequently seen in shipments from Trinidad and British
Guiana. They have a crystal-like translucence, which, seen in a good light , i quite at-
tractive. The upper part is greenish-yellow, becoming silvery towards the bottom.
There is a shining sil very longitudinal stripe ending in a large dark spot at the tail. In a
strong light the bod y sparkles with tiny tliekering silvery green dots. Young specimens
have a black spot on the side also.
It is a hardy fish, which likes clear soft water in a well-lit tank. Its " head down" posi-
tion is characteristic. It will live with a temperature as low as 60 ° F., but prefers 75 to
80 °. One or two in an aquarium are peaceful but in a group they may quarrel with
other fishes. They are peaceful with their own kind. They breed freely in typical
Characin fashion.
It is often, but incorrectly, called Aphyocharax la/fini.
Piranha-Serrasalmus nattereri
Native to South America . Length: Up to 10 inches.
THE NAME Piranha is applied generally to several similar Characins comprising sev-
eral genera. They are almost all carnivorous. possessing strong jaws and sbarp trian-
gular teeth. In appearance the various Piranha arc all quite similar. They arc pre-
dominantly silver in color, although some have red markings and/ or dark spots, and
they are disc-like in shape. Probably their most readily noticea ble features are the thick,
powerful lower jaw, which projects beyond the upper part of the face, and the sharp
teeth which project visibly. giving tbe fish a bulldog appearance.
Many are the tales of their blOOdthirsty nature and insensate ferocity. They are
found in great numbers in many South American streams from Argentina to Vene-
zuela, and Piranha are the dread of people in that part of the world, for it is probable
that they have killed more people than sharks. The odor of blood in tbe water drives
them into a biting, tearing fre nzy. They know no fear at this time and seem to feel no
pain . They have been known to rip tbe flesh from a [our hundred pound hog in less
than ten minutes. Their diet does not consist entirely of warm-blooded creatures, and
they will eat other fishes, including other Piranha. They are also said to eat fruit and
seeds.
They are caught as food fishes in many parts of South America. They will take
hooks with all sorts of bait, including dough balls, and have even been caught on un-
baited hooks. When caught in nets they must be removed quick.ly for they will chew
through the toughest fibers.
In an aquarium-kept alone, of course-they are docile and hardy, thriving on a
diet of fish . They prefer live fish. but if strips of fish are thrown into the aquarium and
moved about with a broom straw, they soon learn to eat them.
Care should always be exercised when near a Piranha. One of the authors knows
threc people who lost portions of their fingers to pet Piranha. Pet Piranha often appear
timid and sudden jarring or the introduction of a net into the aquarium set them
da shing franticall y around look.ing for a way to escape; but they can turn just as sud -
denly and leap clear out of the water with a sudden vicious snap. People bitten by a
Piranha agree on one thing : the bite is almost painless. So sharp the teeth, so stro ng
the jaws, so fast the snap that the flesh is sheared away as cleanl y as by a surgeon 's
scalpel.
They prefer a temperature in the high 70's. They are remarkably free from diseases,
a lthough occasionally they have mouth fungu , probably as a result of dashing into
th e sides of the tank . This is best treated with antibiotics (see Chapter OD Diseases).
The largest specics of Piranha is Sei·ra.wllllus piraya , which is fo und only in the
Rio Sao Francisco and which grows to a lcngth of at least 20 inches.
Penguin Fish-Thayeria obliqua
Native to the Amazon 80s;n . Length : 2~ inches.
SO SI MILAR to T. sallclae-mariae as to be mi stake n for it, this species is sli ghtly

larger and the lo","er half of the tail fin is lon ger.
Penguin Fish- Thaye ria sanctae -mariae
Native to the Amazo n 8asin. Length : Approximately 2 ~ inches.
lWO fishes which except for size are quite si milar are this and the fish described on the
previous page. This is a silver, iridescent fish wi th a long black line which starts
above the eye and extends the length of the body and down the lower lobe of the tail
to its tip. On ei ther side of this black line there is a narrow silvery line which reflects
more light th an the shee n of the body.
The fish when restin g assumes an oblique, head-up position in the water but swims
horizontally. They live principally on live food and the fry, which are extremely small
at birth, require infusoria and the smallest kinds of live food for some time after
hatching. As they get a little older, Micro-Worms are relished, as are finely sifted
Daphnia and Brine Shrimp. Peace1ul.
332 Family GYMNOTIDAE
Banded Knife Fish-Gymnotus carapo
Na tive to Panama and northern South America. length : 10 to 12 inches in aquaria.
THE COLOR is a faded yellow varying to brown ; the sides are decorated with man y
oblique bars of yellow. One long fin runs almost the entire length of the body. No tail
or dorsal fins .
This fish is secretive, hidin g amon g plants, behind or under rocks. It is believed to
guide itself while moving backward by a radar-like mechanism . Jt is often suspected,
probably wrongly, of being a killer. Not too satisfactory in a community tank bccau e
its tail is ofte n bitten by other fishes and disease develops in the abrasion~. A group will
live together, but two when kept alone will fight continually.
Family GYMNOTIDAE 333
Spotted Knife Fish-Hypopomus artedi
Na tiv e to the Guianas . Length: Approximately 8 inches .
TH IS Knife Fish is much like a knife blade in its appeara nce. The general body is a
grayish-green with black dots and a thin dark line running th e lengt h of the body. The
eye is almost unobservable. The fish, despite its lack of a dorsal and tail fin, is quite
adept at swimming backwards.
As all of the pecies are cannibalistic, they must be kept by themselves. Nothing is
known about their breeding habits. T he fish is hardy and is able to tolerate fair ly ad-
verse conditions.
334 Family CYPRINIDAE
The Barbs (The Adhesive Egg-Scatterers)
OF THE several hundred Barbs known, only a few dozen are suitable for
aquaria. The others are too large. Most of those that are small enough are
very satisfactory. They are hardy, attractive, peaceful, and, for the most part,
easily bred. On the average they require a little more room tban do other
fishes of the same size, probably because of their heavy oxygen requirements.
They are not timid fishes, and are quite hardy as to temperature requirements.
Many Barbs will breed when still a good deal sma ller than their mature
size. As a general rule the smaller Barbs (up to 3 inches) will start breed-
ing at about three months of age; the larger Barbs at five to six months of age.
Both size and breeding age are extremely variable. The sexes should be con-
ditioned separately.
Most of the Barbs may be spawned the same way. The ouly difference
is that the larger Barbs require a tank of 10- to 15-gallon capacity. The
smaller Barbs are satisfied with a 5-galloD tank .
For breeding the tank should be washed carefully with sa1t, rinsed well
and emptied. Refill the tank with tap water and allow it to age only 24 to 48
hours before introducing the fishes. The temperature of the water should be
80 to 82 0 F. Check the pH just before introducing the fishes and, if neces-
sary, alter it to pH 6.8.
The spawnin g plants sbould be disinfected by soaking them for 20 min-
utes in a solution of 1 ounce of powdered alum to I gallon of water. Rinse
the plants under running water for 5 minutes to remove the alu m. A water
depth of 7 inche is best. Almost any dense, fine-leafed plant may be used
for spawning. Nitella, Myriophyllum, and even Cabomba can be used . Pro-
fessional breeders often use artificial breeding plants. They can be sterilized
easily ( by heating and drying) ; tbey do not decompose when kept in the
dark ; and they are always avail able. One of the most commonly used arti-
ficial plants is a dried, treated Spanish moss, which is sold under the trade
name, "Everlast Grass." Nylon mops of the type used in kitchens for cleaning
are also utilized.
Half the tank (the lighter side) should be planted fairly heavily. Either
one pair may be used or (in a large aquarium) 3 males and 2 females. The
danger in group spawning is that if they are not all "ready" the ones which
are not spawning will eat the eggs which the others lay.
The recommended procedure is to place the female or females in the
breeding tank in the morning. The males are added that evening. Spawning
u ual1y starts early the next morning. Provide artificial illumination for tanks
in dark locations. If the fish do not spawn in 24 hours, syphon out one-
fourth of the water and replace it with fresh, slightly cooler water. If this
does not help, separate the pair, break down the tank and try again in a
Family CYPRINIDAE 335
week. If the male tries and the female is not receptive, try another female.
(This is one of the advantages in conditioning a number of fish at once.)
In spawning, the male circles the female and displays his brightest colors.
His fins extend seemingly to the bursting point. He swims in a tight circle
around the female until she joins the "whirligig" spinning, which culminates
after a few minutes in a rapid dash for the plants. The male pursues the female
vigorously through the plants, fertilizing the eggs as she sprays them at random
in all directions. The transparent eggs adhere to whatever they touch.
Spawning may take one or two hours. When the pair stop frequently
to rest-usually head down in a corner-it is time to remove them from the
breeding tank. If not removed they may spawn again but it is more likely
that when they have rested they will seek out and eat the eggs they have
already laid. The number of eggs may vary from a few hundred to several
thousand from the large Barbs.
The eggs hatch in about 30 hours. The tail literally grows out of one
end of the egg, and the head out of the other. For two or three days the fry
adhere to the glass and plants while they absorb the egg yolk. They are not
yet ready to eat. At this stage the air bladder is not yet operative; and they
move from. place to place by a . eries of hops.
Once the egg yolk is ab orbed and the bladder is fully developed and
functioning they must be kept well fed at all times. Barbs more than many
other fishes show the effects of semi-starvation. The young must be fed the
finest grained foods, such as egg YOlk, infusoria, dry powdered food , etc. At
about two weeks of age they start taking Brine Shrimp nauplii and Micro-
Worms. From then on growth is rapid . Careful breeders can raise Barbs to
a salable size in six weeks.
As a group the Barbs are su~ceptibJe to attacks of Velvet which is hard
to detect on their large scales. The disea e is characterized by listlessness,
fading of the colors, half closed fins , and a tendency to hang head down at
a 45 0 angle. For further details and treatment see Chapter 12.
The name Puntius to replace Barbus has been suggested . Some European
ichthyologists use the generic name Puntius when referring to the Barbs. The
majority of American ichthyologists prefer to retain Bat'bus, which we have
used throughout this book.
Rosy Barb-Barbus conch on ius
Nativ e to India . Lengt h: App roxim a tely 311 inch es.
THE GENERAL color of this popular Barb is a greenish-brown shading to light olive.
It bas a silvery belly. The scales are large and glitter. Tbere is a black marking edged
with gold on the side of the fish just between the dorsa l fin and the base of the tail fin.
Tbe fish arc orangeish, the upper parts being black. There arc no barbels.
At mating time, tbe male as umes a gorgeous, iridescent reddish color. His fins
become a yellowish-orange. The female ' coloring is more sombe r and her fins are al-
most transparent. The dorsal of tbe male ha a black lip which the fema le lacks.
Breeding is relatively easy. A plant eater if nOI fed well.
Cuming's Barb-8arhus cumingi
Na,ive '0 Ce ylon. Le ng,h: Approx ima'ely 111 inches.
T HJS add iti on to the Ba rbs suit a ble fo r aqu ar ia i a ra th e r colorful fish. It has li ght
o live sidcs a nd la rge sca les th a t refl ect li ght when it str ikes them . Just bac k of th e gi ll
cover th ere is a black horizonta l bar, a nd th erc is also an irreg ula r blac k ma rkin g at th e
base of th e cauda l fi n. T he fin s are yell ow ish. The male ca n be dist ingui shed from t he
fe male hy the reddish ba nd along the upper m argins of th e do rsal fin . T he e nds of the
pelvic tl ns are also red. The pale fin s of the female so metimes beco me rosy. Bar bu.l'
clI m i l18i is quite sensi ti ve to sudd en wa ter c ha nges. We have seen ent ire shipments
wiped o ut by c ha ngi ng th c wu te r too uddenly. Breed ing present s no diffi culties.
Clown Barb-Barbus evereHi
Na tive to Mala y Peninsula , Borneo. Le ngth : Approxim ately 5 inches.
THE GENERAL color of this Barb is a greenish-yellow which becomes darker on

tbe back, lighter n the side and belly. There are several dark spots and wedge-shaped
bands that appear on the side. The fins are pinkish . The male is more vividly colored
and has a slimmer body than the female.
It is not too ready a breeder, but a diet of live food , high temperature and a wel1-
aerated tank will sometimes encourage the fish to spawn. It is really too big and
boi~terous to be kept with small fishes. Very hardy.
Tiger Barb-Barhus hexazona
Native to Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula . Length: Approximately 2 !-7 inches.
THE Tiger Barb is distin gui shed from th e other Barbs by the six vertical green-black bars
that appear on its side. The first one passe through the eye ; the last one crosses the
base of th e tai l fin .
The males have a reddish-orange color on the bases of the anal and vertical fin s
as well as on th e central portion of the dorsal fin . They may a lso have, at maturity,
small spots of red on the upper side oj' the body. The female shows color only on her
dorsal fin.
Though not bred too frequently in ca pti vi ty, this fish is a peaceful member of any
communit y aqu arium and adds considerable bea uty to a ta nk. For some unexpla ined
rcason most of those raised in captivity a rc femal es. It is often ha rd to find a male.
T Barb-Barbus lateristriga
Nativ e to India, Malaya and East Indies . Length: 4 inches .
THIS fish is called T Barb because of the letter T on it side, but it someti mes goes by
the name of Spanner. A most attractive creature with pale go ld body and green-black
stripes-two verti ca l and one horizont al. The first vertical line is loca ted just behind
the gi ll cover; the second starts at the tip of the dorsal fin and drops across the midd e
of th e body. From this line. a noth er sta rts perpendi cularl y to it and runs to the base of
the tai l along the ceOler of th e side. A prominent dot is locnted on th e body at the rear
of the dorsa l tin; another is just a bove the ana l fin . T Barbs possess two pairs of barbels.
Beca use of its large size and rapid growth , it i suitable for in clusio n on ly in tanks
of larger fishes. It is a fairly free breeder a nd eats a nything.
Black Ruby- Barhus nigrofasciatus
Native to Ceylon. Length: Approximately 2!-2 inches.
THE Bl ack Ruby is li ght gree n in body color. Imposed upon thi. background arc three
broad verti cal stripes. A fOLirth bar, lightcr in color aod somewhat narrower, extends
across the hcad a nd through the eye. T here is a dark area at th e ca ud al peduncle; and
black markin gs on thc dorsal, anal and pelvic fin s. Some spccimens of this fi sh have
bright orange on th e caudal fin , others a pinkish-o range. The pectoral fins are glass-
like. The eyes are encircled by rings of hinin g gOld. This parti cul ar species lacks barbels.
The male has a b lack dor al while the female's is eithcr clear or black only near the
basco When brecding, the ma le, especial ly, acquires a lovely ruby red overcast which
give the fish its popular name.
This is a very active species a nd a fin e inmate for a community aquar ium . It spawns
freel y if given plenty of food and the temperature of the water is maintained at about
78 0 F.
Tiger Barb-Barbus oligo/epis
Native to Sumatra . length: Approximately J 17 inches .
T H E MALE of this small species is a brilliant, light redd ish-brown. Eacb scale has a
black isb spot at its base and o palescent edging. T he fi ns are deep orange with the u pper
edge of tbe do rsal be ing edged in black. T he female is more su bd ued in coloration. H er
fi ns are a lmost colorless. Duri ng breedin g season, the male becomes overcast with
black, througb whic h the sca les spark le as blue and gree n. Easily bred in typica l Barb
fashion . Eats anything. Peaceful and hardy .
.
Schubert's Barb
Native to India. Length: 2 Y.. inches.
THIS color variety of B. semifasciolalus was bred by Thomas Schubert. It is fre-

quen tly called Barbu.1' schuherli but this name has no scientific slanding.
Orange colored, black spotted with pink fins, Schubert's Barb is attractive and a
good community fi sh. The body is dee per hued above, paler below. A series of black dots
of irregul ar size and shape appear on th e side. one formin g a short vertical stripe at th e
tail's junction with the body. The male is substanti ally smaller and slimmer tban tbe
female.
Barbus stoliczkanus
Native to Surma. Le ngth : 2~ inches.
NOT many aquarists know this rarc Barb from Burma, but it is worth knowing. Much
like B. lielo in color, a school of these sparkling graceful fish, with their distinctil·c
target-like dots and the dark-trimmed dorsal fins of the males, is a colorful addition to
any aquarium. Their breeuing habits and requirements are like those of most of the
other Barbs.
Sumatra Barb-Barhus tetrazona
Native to Sumatra, Borneo and Siam. Leng th: Approximately 214 inches.
THIS fish was known in the past as Barbus JU/11atrollUs but now is classified under the
name of B. tetra zon(/. It is perhaps the most vividly colored of all the Barbs. Four dark
vertical bars on its side rest on a si lvery background. The dorsa l fin is dark at its base,
red in the center, and yellow or white at its upper margin. T he upper and lower edgings
of the cauda l and pelvic fins are red. The male has a brighter red on its fins and, as an
adu\\, more red on the nose. When k.ept in pairs, they tend to nip fins. A group of four
or morc in a community tank will usua ll y content themselves wi th chasing each other
and leave the rest of the fishes alone. Easily bred in typical Barb fashion.
Ticto Barb-Barhus tieto
Native to India. Length: Approximately 2 inches .
THIS dwarf Barb is quitc an attractive fish. Tbe male is ilver with a gold area just
a bove tbe anal fin . There is a si mil ar marking just behind the gi U plate. On botb tbese
areas there is a dark spot. The dorsal is red at its outcr ma rgin, th e rest of the fins being
bya line. The fem ale is somewhat more subdued in color. This Barb bas no barbel .
Easily bred, B. liel o is a durable fi sh and a graceful, although not too colorful, ad -
dition to an aquarium.
Cherry Barb-Barbus titteya
Native to Ceylon. Length: Approximately J ~ inches.
THE TASK of describing tbe Cherry Barb is by no means a simple one, largely due to
the color variations that exist within the species. The body color can vary from a light
pink to a raspberry red. The most characteristic feature of the fi sh is the heavy dark line
that extends from the nout, along the center of the body, to the tail. The upper part
of this line is edged in yellow. The fema le is rounder than the male and her colors are not
quite as b ilJiant.
The fish wi ll breed readily, but is inclined to eat its own eggs if it is not prevented
from doing sO by heavy planting in the breeding tank and sufficient food to keep it
satisfied.
The aquari um should be covered as the fish, especially during spaw nin g time, has
the habit of leapi ng out of the water. An excellent fish for the comm unit y tank. It is
exceptionally hard y. but it is quite susceptible to Velvet.
. ~
348 Family CYPRINIDAE " 'f,
The Nonadhesive Egg.Scatterers
THE FISHES in this group derive their name from the fact that they scatter
their eggs promiscuously. These eggs are not adhesive. Being heavier than
water, they drop to the bottom.
The Brachydanio all breed in this manner. Typical of these is the be-
havior of the Zebra Danio. Brachydanio rerio. The Zebra will live at a tem-
perature from 50 ° to 100° F. The preferred temperature is 75 ° with a breed-
ing temperature of 85 ° or even higher. The water should be slightly acid-
6.6 to 6.8-and well aerated.
The pairs are separated for 11 or 12 days, and then put together for
spawning. They can lay eggs every 12 to 14 days for months on end with
no apparent damage to themselve and no apparent diminution of the spawn-
ing urge. When they are kept together, some pairs lay eggs every day for
weeks. A female 11;4 inches long can lay 95 eggs in 15 to 30 minutes.
The spawning tank for these nonadhesive egg-scatterers should be long
and low. The tank should be 20 inches or longer and the water depth ap-
proximately 4 to 5 inches. The bottom of the tank should be well covered
with a layer of medium-sized marbles or a mat of dense plants such as Nitella
or Myriophyllum laid flat and weighted down with pebbles. Some breeders
construct a breeding trap about 20 inches long by 4 x 4 inches, with the bot-
tom made of round glass rods set a half inch apart, or use a wood frame trap
with a wire mesh bottom. This latter type is only for use in pools.
Either one pair can be bred at a time or community spawning may be
practiced with three males and two females; or, in a very large tank, five
male and three females .
In breeding, the need for a long shallow tank soon becomes apparent.
The female initiates the action by driving the male. After various nudges the
male turns and drives the female . Action is fast and furious as the male drives
the female vigorously up and down the length of the tank. When a group is
spawning at one time it looks as if the water were boiling.
The females scatter the eggs and the males fertilize them as they drop.
Tn a short tank, or if the water were deeper, the parents would eat the eggs
before they finish dropping into the hiding material.
One laboratory which was raising Zebras for experimental purposes de-
signed a square glass dish with a funnel-shaped bottom. The angle of the bot-
tom must be at least 60 °. The bottom is made of round glass rods which
are set a half inch apart just below the start of the funnel bottom. A rubber
tube and stopcock is placed at the end of the funnel. When the eggs are
laid they sink between the rods and pile up in the lower end of the funnel.
They are then drawn off through the petcock flnd placed in glass hatchjng
dishes.
When spawning is completed the parents should be removed. The eggs
hatch in 76 hours at a temperature of 80° F. The young may first be ob-
served adhering to the sides, looking like little tadpoles. During this time
they live on the unabsorbed egg yolk, which is what gives their beUies the
distended appearance. In another two days they are free-swimming, and
should be fed liberally with infusoria, very finely ground baby food, and any
other of the smallest foods as recommended in the chapter on foods and
feeding.
All the Brachydanio school readily and should always be kept in groups
of four or more.
Pearl Dan io- Brachydanio albolineatus
Na tive to Bu rma. Le ngth: A pproximately 2 !-7 inches.
THIS Burmese native is a glca ming green-blue, suffused with a shell-pink . The pink
sLripe extends from the pclvic fin to the ca ud a l fin . The rear part of th e body is ho t wi th
dee p pink. T he fins a re a yellow-g reen. and the anal fin is crossed by a bright green and
blue line, one color above th e other. The fema le is mu ch heavier. Breed in typical
nonadhesive egg-se3 ttercr fashi o n.
Spotted Danio--Brac:hydanio nigrofasc:iatus
Na tive to Burma . Length , Approximately 2 inches.
THE Spotted Danio is a native of lower Burma. The length of this warm brown-
colored fish at maturity is approximate ly one and one half inches. A golden line sepa-
rated by two steely-blue stripes extends from the operculum LO the caudal fin. The
lower part of the body is yellowish-white or tan, on which rows of blue spots extend up
onto the anal fin . The female is fuller.
The spawning act is somewhat unusual as far as the Cyprinidae are concerned.
The fish assume a vertical posi ion during which an embrace of the bodies occurs.
Otherwise breeding is typical of non adhesive cgg-scatterers.
Zebra Danio--Brachydanio rerio
Nativ e to India . Length: Approx imately 134 inches.
THE Zebra Danio is perhaps one of the most popular egg-layers wi th tropical fish
ent husiasts. The back is o live-g reen and the sides are colored wit h alternating blue and
silver stripes that extend from the gi ll cover to the tip of the caudal fin . T he pectoral
fins are transparent; the do rsal and pelvic bearing lines made of blue dots. The coloring
of the female is identical, but because of the difference in shape. the stripes along the
stomach appear curved . Zebras do best when kept in small groups.
T he fis h is quite hardy and wil l to lerate trea tme nt that would kill most tropica ls.
Tts readiness to breed , its penc hant for schooling. and its ability to withstand disease
place it well in front of some of the other members of the genus.
Breeding has been described on page 348.
Red-Bellied Dace- Chrosomus erythrogaster
Nativ e to th e Mis sissippi Valley . l e ngth: 3 inch es.
V E RY sa ti sfactory as an aqu a rium inh a bit a nt. During the hreedin g season th e base of
the dorsa l fin s of th e m ale a nd fe ma le a rc bri ght red. Two lateral blac k lin es on the
sides a re se para ted by a ba nd of pa le gOld . Will ea t almost a nything. A communit y
breeder, it requires large space. Like the Black-N osed Dace, it sho ul d be g iven ple nt y
o f roo m a nd hea vy aera tion until it adjusts to the wa rm water of the tropical aqu a rium.
Once this adjustm ent is made it proves quite hartl y.
Giant Danio-Dan;o malabar;cus
Native to India . Length: Approximately 4 inches.
THE GENERAL body color of the Giant Danio is blue to olive-gray with alternating
horizontal stripes of gold and blue. The tins are transparent for the most part, being
suffused with red, as is the belly during breeding season.
The female is .slightly larger than the male and is inclined to have a fuller belly out-
line and not to have so vivid a red cast during the spawning season. The lower jaw of
the male is more prominent. The breeding of the D. malabaricu.\· is similar to that of
the Barbs and the eggs are of adhesive character. Best kept with large fishes.
Flying Fox-Epa/zeorhynchus kallopterus
Native to Sumatra, 80rneo and Siam . length : Up to 6 inches.
THIS very attractive fish is unfo rtun ate ly in short suppl y. It has never been bred in
ca pti vity a nd import are few and far between. The bod y is cigar-shaped. A da rk line
runs from th e nose through the center of the tail. The back of the fish is also dark. The
light area between is go lden ye llow. T he stomac h is whitish. The fin s a re always carried
ereel giving th e fish a n alert a ppeara nce. The fins show black and red. The dorsal , a nal
a nd ve ntral fins have black ce nter stripes.
The F lyi ng Fox is very peaceful. It does not eat its young. ]t is a n excellent scavenger
and it will eat a nyth ing a nd will suck algae off the sides with its underslung mouth . It
fre quentl y rests on the bottom o r on leaves, propped up on its pectorals. Jt is a very fast
sw immer and an active fish. It s aq uarium should be well covered. Sex distinctio ns are
no t known.
Re d-Ta iled Shark- Labeo bicolor
Na tive to Siam. Length: Approximately 3 inches.
ALL black with a red tail, this recent importation is a most attractive add ition to the
aq uarium . Some specimens are described as having red pecto rals, while others have
black pectorals. The male is slimmer, darker, a nd has longer fins.
It is a peaceful fish but, un fo rtun ately, it is somewhat secreti ve and tends to hide.
It is a hardy fish and not fussy as to wa ter requirements. It prefers a diet of live foo d,
preferably wo rms, whieh it takes from the bottom. Not yet bred.
Black Shark- Labeo chrysophekadion
Native to Indonesia, Indo-China, Siam . Le ngth: Up to 70 in ch es.
THE F ISH si mpl y looks like the common idea of a shark, but it is, of course, not a rela-
tion of the shdrks. Jt is a bottom feeder with a sucker-type mo uth. It possesses short
barbels and all of its fins are rather large. With its black color, it makes a slrikingly
beautiful aquarium fish contrasting with th e greens and whites of the tank and with the
other inhabitants. Pa irs of Black Sharks seem to swim together, preferring company
when th ey are in a strange tank, but are mo re solita ry in familiar surr unding . We
have see n them ten inches long in an aq uarium .
Several a uthors tell us that Black Sharks arc pugnacious an d nol III inhabitants of
community tank.s hut this has not been our experien ce with many pecim ens. Even
with small species they have been peaccful. With larger fishes th ey sometimes suck.
at the sides, proving an annoyance.
Black Sharks spend much time lyi ng on the bottom. Wh en out of condition their
color lightens-a signal th at something is wrong and to be corrected. oming from
Indo- hin a they are tru e tropicals, but are quite to ugh and survive und er conditions
which wo uld kill many other species. They will ea t almost a nything.
Osteochilus vittatus
Na tive to Indo-Ch ina and Mala y a . Le ng th: 2!-2 inch es.
ONE of the striking features noticeable at oncc in this fish is the black stripe running
lhe length of the body. along the middle of the side. Above this line the back is olive
colored , blending to a lighter shade. Below the line, the color becomes lighter until
the belly appears silver. No color in the fins. The fish has short barbels. Although the
color is so plain, it has a sprightly, sparkling appearance which is guite attractive. Ac-
tive swimming is interspersed with intervals of resting on leaves or on the bottom.
Brilliant Rasbora- Rasbora einthoveni
Na tive to Ma la ya . Length : Approximate ly 3!-1 inch es.
THI S less than brilliant (despite its popular name) Rashora comes from Siam, Ma laya
and Indonesia. It is n li ght gray in color with darker edging on the scales. A heavy
black strire ex tends along the side of the body, from thl:! lower jaw to the root of
the caudal fin. The eye is golden exce pt where tbe black line cuts through it . The
cauda l a nd dorsa l fin s of the male have touches of red. whereas the corresponding
fins of the fem ale are tin ged with ye llow and are semi-transparent.
This three aDd onc-half inch fish will spawn in captivity, but the eggs are quite
subject to fungoid diseases which necessitates their being transferred as soon as possi-
ble to soft shallow water with a temperature of 75 ° F. and a pH of below 6.6.
Yellow or Elegant Rasbora-Rasbora e/egans
Native to Sumatra and Malaya . Length: Approximately 5 inches.
AT A satisfactory tempera ture (70°-80 ° F.) this fi sh will reach a length of fi ve inche-s.
The body color varies from ye llow to green , often tinged with rcd on the back. Along
the side th ere is a blue line which rllns from an oblong mark below th e dorsal fin to a
triangul ar mark at the root of tbe caudal fin . The fin are generall y hya line except th e
male's dorsal which has a yellowish base and ca udal lobes which are black. A peace-
ful fish. Very hardy.
Red Ra sbora- Rasbora hefe romorpha
Native to Siam , Ma laya, Sumatra. Length: App ro ximately 1~ inches.
TH MOST distinctive feature of thi s small fish from Malaya, Singapore and Sum atra.
is a large blue-black triangle exte ndin g from the mid -section of th e body to the root of
the caudal fill . The upper edges of (his marking arc go lden; the lower edges intensified
by the pink a nd coppery body color. The general body color is brown-green wit h a
sufTu ion of pink. The dorsal and ca ud al fin s are deep sa lmon , lighter on th e edges.
The other fins are glass-like, tint ed with pink. There are loca l variation in int ensity
of color, fishes collec ted from some regions being more brilliant th an others.
T he male can be recognized by the deeper and more intense colorat ion, the "pointed
forward" edge of th e lowe r limb of th e triangle and the slimmer shape.
Many have tried to breed the Red Ra bora, but few have succeeded. Enough peo-
ple, however, have done it fo r us to have a good description of the spawn ing pro-
cedure. Red Rasboras prefer soft. aged water with a pH of 6.0 to 6.5 and a tcmpera-
ture of 75 0 F. They should be well conditioned witb live food or frozen food before
the sexes are brought together. They usually attach their ad hesive eggs to the under-
side of broad-leaved plants. The eggs are laid as tbe pair embraces in an upside down
posi tion under the selected leaf, although on occasion the eggs are laid on top of the
leaves. Up to 300 eggs may be laid in one spawning. Red Rasboras will spawn in a
group, th e act ion of the first to start a pparentl y stimul atin g the otbers. They mate
promiscuously. The young hatch io 48 hours at 75 0 F. Tbe youn g, which do not be-
come free-swimming for another four to five days, will take newly batcbed Brine Shrimp
ao d Micro-Worms.
Harlequin Rasbora-Rasbora maculata
Nativ e to Ma laya and Bu rma . Le ngth : J inch .
A TINY peaceful fis h , oli vc-co lo red a nd sho wing a purplc sheen . Blue spots-o ne each
a t the base o f the ta il a nd a nal fin , and a no th e r be hind th e o pe rc u lum- ad d to uchcs
of color, as do th e fin s, whi c h a re red -to ned w ith d a rk er red s pots. Th e fem a les m ay
be di stin guished by th e presence o f two spots at th e base of th e ana l fin . Beca use of its
sm all sizc and tiny m o uth , it is safe to kee p with fry as la rge as the yo ung of live-bea rers.
Jt s ho u ld neve r be kept with la rge fi shes. It sho u ld h ave oft . s lig btly ac id water a nd
fine fo ods, ei th er li ve o r d ry. F rozen Brine Shrimp n auplii a re id eal.
Red-Striped Rasbora- Rasbora pauciperforata
Nativ e to Sumatra . Length : 2* inches .
A BEA UTIFUL silver-colored fish. with a red stripe and a black stripe beneath it,
both running the length of th e body; the whole givi ng off a m etallic lustre. The silver
has a green tinge.
Peaceful and ideal for community tanks, it takes ei th er dry or live foods.
ScissortaiJ or Three-Line Rasbora- Rasbora trilineata
Native to Malaya and the East Indies. Length : Approximately 6 inches .
THI S is a large member of the Rasbora family, coming from the Malay P eninsul a
and East Indies. Although in th e wild state it atta ins a length o f aho ut six inches, in
aqu ari a it seldom grows beyond three inches in length, at whi ch size it will breed.
On a somewhat tra nslu cent sil ve ry hody tinged with light brown, a da rk brow n stripe
run s from th e mi ddle of th e body to th e caud al fin . The ca udal fin is unique-th e
scissorli k.e action of th e lo bes (w hich accounts for the popular name) is accented by
the coloring. ach lobe is ora nge. ma rked by a jet-blac k tri angle. Thc female is hea vier.
This fish breeds very freely in captivity. It can be kept in a lon g bar tra p, the eggs
dropping throu gh. Several adults well fcd in a heavily planted aqu arium will produce
young regul arl y as th ey do not eat the eggs or fry.
Black-Nosed Dace--Rhinicthys atratu/us
Na tive to Ea stern Nort h Ame rica. Le ngth : Appro )(;mate ly 3 inches.
ON E of the hest nati ve fi sh for aquari a, th e Bl ack-Nosed Dace is found in the swift-
running strea ms of th e Delaware Valley and over eastern North America. Well-
round ed and with a fu ll body, th e belly is a cle ar white, wi th black horizon tal stripes
circling th e body. The fin s of th e male become tin ged wi th mange during th e breeding
season. It is harmless and will eat almost any food . Although found in cold water,
it soon becomes acclimated to aq uarium tempera tures, and it ean survive in the aq uar-
ium for several years.
Bitterling- Rhodeus ser;ceus (amarus)
N ative to Europe . Length : 2 to 3 inches .
SOMETIMES known as the Ra inbow Carp. the male is vividly colored during mating
seaso n. t other tim es, the mal e is sil ver wi th a tou ch of rose on th e fins. The female
is usually silver with a yellowish back and lateral blue stripes. They look rather like
washed-out Goldfish .
Co mmunity tank life see ms to agree with this fish. Its eggs are deposited in fresh-
water mussels and these mussels must be present in order (0 breed Bitterlings. This
applies to the European natives only. for tbe American Bitterling is not known to
breed with tb e use of mussels. Temperature: 68-72 0 F.
At one tim e tbe BitlerJing was used in testing hum an for pregnancy. This test
does not give accu rate results a nd has fallen into disuse .
White Cloud Mountain Fish- Tanichthys albonubes
Nativ e to Ch ina . Length : Approximately J!-7 inches .
THIS native of Ca nt on, C hin a, reuc hes a length of approx imately one and one-fourth
inches. The general body color is a brownish-green; th e fins are redd ish. At the age of
two to three months, a fla shin g brilliant blue-green stripe ex tends from the eye to the
root of the cauda l fin . With the approach of age, the stripe loses some of its brilliance,
though th e red fins almost compe nsate for th e loss of the stripe coloring. They are
difficult to sex. The fema le is fu ller and has a smaller dorsal fin .
This is a hardy fish ao d will tolerate a temperature range from 40-90 ° F . It t hrives
best at approximately 65 ° F. and breeds best between 68-72 ° .
The White Clo ud is a ready breeder and generally presents no difficulties to th e
aquarist . The brood-fish are not inclined to eat their eggs. A school of White louds
wh ich are kept well fed in a heavily planted tank wi ll produce young ones a lmost COn-
tinu ally. The fry may be removed for sepa rate rearin g or may safely be left with the
ad ults.
A similar species, Aphyocypris pooni, may be sold und er the sa me name. Tn A.
pooni the base of the dorsal is red ad the tips of the fins are blue. It is not as ready a
breeder.
368 Family COBITIDAE
Coolie loach-Acanthophthalmus semicindus
Native to the Maloy Peninsula . Length : Approximately 3 inches .
UNTIL recently, this Loach had been given the classification of A. kllhlii-a similar
fish in form but different in its ma rkings. However, for practica l purposes, it may be
referred to by its popu lar name ··Coolie." The fis h is worm -like in a ppearance and
method of movement. I.t possesses six short barbels on the upper lip and a short spine
in front of each eye. The dorsal fi n is set well back on th e bod y. The ana l fin is behind
the end of the base of the dorsal fin. Its body color is a pinki h-yellow th at is cro sed
by a number of brown vertical areas that do not continue around the body in the form
of bands as they do in A. kuh lii. In an aq uarium , they tcnd to hide under rocks or by
burrowing into the gravel. They are very peaceful and are fa irl y good scavengers.
The "Coolic" h as been bred in captivity, but little is known about the method
of breeding employed by these curious creatures.
Family COBITIDAE 369
Botia hymenophysa
Nativ e to Indo Ch ina . Le ngth: Up to 5 inch es.
For hyl17ellophysa , there is, a< yet, no common name. It is a pearl gray, against
which several gray-brown stripes edged with blue-black add contrast. These stripes start
at the head and arc horizonta l, and each stripe becomes increasingly vertical until those
at the junction of the tail with the body arc vertical. Similar to the other BOlia de-
scribed in shape and habits.
The fish rarely exceed five inche even in a fairly large aquarium . A temperature
of 75 0 to 80 0 F. is ideal.
Clown Loach- Botia macracantha
Native to Borneo. Length: A ppro ximately 5 inches.
THIS Loach , like all the BOlia. has a "fi sh-lik e" shape and is not eel-like as many
Loaches are. They have flat beilies, pointed sno uts and barbels. The general color is
light orange, upon which arc two band of darkish color-one in front of the ca ud al
appendage and another over the shoulder. Therc is also a dark marking on the head
that continues dow n throu gh th e eye to the jaw. The pectoral and pelvic FinS a re red:
the dorsa l is almost transparcnt.
This fish is shy and largely nocturn al. It has th e somew hat quaint habit of remain-
ing on th e bottom of the tank and resting-an attitude which in any other fish would
suggest that its end was near. The Clown Loach should bc watched carefully for signs
of ich-to which it is very susceptible.
As good cavengers a re supposed to, the Clown Loach will eat anything. Attempts
to breed them in captivity, to date, have been unsu ccessful.
Family COBITIDAE 37 1
Bofia modesta
Nat iv e to Indo-Ch ina . Le ngth : Up to 12 inches .
This green Loach, with a hlack spo t on (he back where th e ta il joins th e body, has
reddish-ora nge colo red fin s wh ose ma rg ins show a bright er red. J( is simi lar in sha pe a nd
ha bits to m ac-r ael/ Illha. Even in aqu a ri a, i( may reach a Icn gth of six in ches. a nd it
grows a foot Jo ng in nati ve e nvironm ents. ldcal (cmpe rature fo r Ih ei r we lfa re is
75- 80 ° F . It cats dry or live food a nd is quit e peaceful. Unfortunatel y it likes to hide. It
m ay be nocturna l.
Botia strigatus
Native to the East Indies. Length : Up to 5 inches .
ST RIG ATUS is a dull hrick-rcd color with lighter ve rtic al stripes, narrower and li ght er
colored than Itymenophysa. H ere we have lig ht stripes against a darke r backg round in
contrast to dar k stripes agai nst the li ght bod y color. In all other respects the fish is quite
similar to its close relatives di scussed before.
Family COBITIDAE 373
Nemachilus lasciatus
Native to Sumatra , Java and Borneo. Length: 4 inches.
IN SHAPE this attractive fish is hetween the worm-like A call1hophlhalnllls and the
heavier bodied BOlia. In color it has a green back wi th yell ow-green sides and a li ght-
yell ow stomac h. The bars which may va ry in num ber fro m 10 to 20 are fairly dark red
or reddis h-brown. T he fins are light tan with dark red or brown spo ts on the dorsal and
tail. It is a good scavenger, but it appreciates a n occasional meal of li ve food. It is quite
peaceful a nd hardy but has never been bred in an a'luari um . Like most of the Loaches
it is nocturnal.
374 THE CATFISHES
CATFISHES are used in aquaria principally for scavenging, not as orna-

mental fishes. Those active during the daylight hours furnish amusement and
excite admiration for their industriousness, because they seem so eager to keep
their homes neat. Some 'pecies are forever bobbing around, mouths to the
gravel, cleaning house and consuming food which has fallen uneaten to the
bottom.
Most of the Catfishes are nocturnal, doing their best work after dark.
They hide during the day and remain largely inactive. Because of the great
variations among these intriguing fishes , there is DO category or description
that covers all of them or their breeding habits. Some of them do not even
live on the bottom of the tanks as all good Catfishes are thought to do. The
Upside-Down Catfi h and the Pigmy Catfish (Corydoras hasfafus) remain
well up in the tank.
There are over 1,600 species of Catfishes known, but only the fre h-
water dwarf type interest us. At least seventy of these have been kept in
home aquaria. The greater number of these come from South America. A
few of them live in salt water.
Catfishes have certain characteristics which distinguish them from other
species. First, they have a smooth skin which is without scales, or else the
fish is covered with bony plates. Most of them have a fat adipose fin behind
the dorsal. and nearly all bave spines which they can erect and lock so that
they cannot be pushed backward. Almost a11 anglers remember the spines
of the river or lake Catfishes they have caught.
Care should be taken to see that the bottom-feeding types receive a fair
share of the food. In a heavily populated tank, not enough food may reach
the bottom to provide meals for the Catfish . Conversely. too great a de-
pendence cannot be placed on the scavenging ability of Catfishes. They aren 't
vacuum leaners. They just eat enough to fi ll their stomachs and then they stop.
Many Catfishes have an accessory breathing mechanism-sometimes in
the intestinal tract- which makes them less dependent than most fishes on
the oxygen in th e water.
Two or three of the Callichthyidae are bubble-nest builders and their
nests are placed among surface plants which support them . One or both par-
ents, depending on the species, guard the nest. The eggs hatch in approxi-
mately four days.
Of the eight genera of the Callichthyidae, on ly four have given us aquar-
ium fishes. These are Callichthys, Hopiosfernum, Corydoras and Brochis. Be-
sides these, our dwarf Catfishes come from other families: First, but not fore-
most, the Doradidae, which includes the "Talking Fish," an interesting crea-
ture which makes grunting noises both in and out of the water. The two
THE CATFISHES 375
smalli h species of this family are not good scavengers, are inactive and
secretive.
There are also the Pimelodidae (marked Catfishes) whose members have
much longer barbels and larger adipose fins than other Catfishes. Species
belonging to the Family BunocephaJidae are marked with a few plates on
the sides of their bodies. The Loricariidae are also long-bodied. We shall
describe only those best suited for aquarium life. The Siluridae arc all Old
World Catfishes, the most interesting of which is the "transparent" member.
The Mochokidae family is from the fresh waters of Africa. It contains
several interesting but little known Catfishes including the Upside-Down Cat-
fish.
An account of Corydoras breeding, which is typical of the breeding be-
havior of the genu. , is given under Corydoras paleatus.
376 Family CALLICHTHYIDAE
Blue Aneus-Brochis coeru/eus
Native to the Amazon 8asin . Length: 3 Y.! inches.
THIS Catfish closely resembles Corydoras aeneus. In fact the resemblance is 0 great
that a national magaz ine which printed an a rticle on tropical fishes used a picture
of Brochis coeruleus and mi labeled it a Corydoras. The difference was a lmost
impossible to detect in th e photo, but one of the authors had supplied the fishes from
which the pictures were made and recognized it. The sa me mistake was made in one
of the aquarium m agazines. The snout of Brochis is more point d, the body is chunkier,
and the dorsal fin is longer and with more ra ys. The color is gray-green with a blue
sheen on its sides.
]n habits it is much like C. aeneus. It prefer a higher temperature and is not apt
to thrive below 75 ° F. It has never been bred in captivity. It frequently arrives in
shipments from Trinidad and British Guiana under the name of Blue Aneus.
Family CALLICHTHYIDAE 377
Armored Catfish-Callichthys callichthys
Native to South America . Length: Aproximately 7 inches.
THE BODY of the Armored Catfish is mud-brown, the color extending out to tbe
otberwise hyaline fins . 11 has two pairs of barbels, those of the lower lip pointing
upwards, and those of the upper lip pointing downward.
The fish is a bubble-nest breeder, the male building and guardi ng the nest, but
records of its breeding in captivity are few. The male may be distinguished by its
heavier barbels. CalJichlhys is a rema rkabl e overla nd traveler. It appear to cover
ground faster than the Climbing Perch can .
Clara-C/arias lazera
Native to Africa from the Senegal to the Niger. Length: Up to 4 feet in nature .
CLARAS are among tbe Ca tfishes showing up in shipments from Africa and Asia.
All of the fishes of the ge nus Clarias a re large. ugly ( th ey resemble Bullheads), hardy,
omnivorous, ancl nocturn a l. Their colori ng is usually dark brown or dark gray.
Bright colors are seldom found in fi shes of th e ni ght. Their eyes are ve ry weak and
in some species the eyes may be able to do litt le more than distin guish between
night and day. To co m pen ate th eir ski n is very se nsitive. Their barbels, fins and tail in
particular arc very ensitive and a id the fish grea tly in findin g food. The barbels are
also lIsed in love play prior to and dur ing matin g.
Claras will cat almost anything. They prefe r food of anim al origin. They wi ll chase
and ea t sm a ller fishes and small amphibia-a nd probabl y small mammals and birds if
they can catch them.
Two sponge-like organs in the head extract oxygen from the air enabling Claras to
live in th e wet mud when tbe water dries up. These Catfish frequently travel overland
in schools from one body of water to another. The lucky natives who meet such a scbool
have a fish fry.
Claras are scaleless. T here is no record of their breeding in captivity. The young, as
in the illustration, have light markings, but these fade as they grow.
Bronze Catfish- Corydoras aeneus
Native to South Ame rica. Le ngth : Approximate ly 2!-2 inches .
THE Bronze Catfish is probably the most popu lar of the Catfishes. The general color
is a shin y olive to brass that changes with the light. There is a golden st ripe th at curves
fro m the nape of the neck to the adi pose fin . Below this stripe, the side shades from a
brownish-green to an ofT-white, with ye llow on the bell y. The fin s-dorsal and ca udal
-a re dusky. The ae ne/ls. a it is popula rly known, is one of the most active of the
Corydoras. Frequently bred.
Corydoras arcuatus
Native to the Amazon Basin. Length: 2 14 inches.
A NICE little Catfish, ivory white in color with a laven der sheen. From the eye,
a dark line runs to the tail. Its gill plates each have a pair of golden yellow spots.
Elegant Catfish-Corydoras e/egons
Native to the upper Amazon Basin . Length: 2 inches.
ONE of the "higher swimming" species of Catfish, it spends less time rooting in
the gravel and yet it is a scavenger. it is not particularly showy. The body is olive
with a pair of wide black lines (nol too well demarcated) running along th e posterior
two thirds of the bod y. T he dorsal fin shows so me gray dots.
Pigmy Catfish-Corydoras hastatus
Native to the Amazon Sasin . Length: Approximately J inch.
A MIDGET. and the smallest member of the genus, th e Pigmy Catfish is a ligbt
brown in color . There is a dark, blue-black band that extends along the side from
above tbe pectoral fin to the base of tbe caudal fin, where it terminate in a large
spot shaped like an arrow that is bordered in white. Anothcr line edges the lower
part of the body from bebind the pelvic fin to behind the anal fin . The body, as well
as the fins, bas a covering of tiny black dots.
You can tell that breeding time has arrived wben the beUy of the fem ale becomes
red. Pigmys breed in an unu sual fashion. Bent in a half circle, the male lies on the
aquarium gravel. The fema le approaches and pushes her barbels under the male's left
pectoral fin. They separate after the fem ale bas produced one egg which she carries in
her ventral fin and which is fe rtili zed by the male. The fema lc proceeds to some up-
right surface and moves her barbels up and down on it. She then deposits th e egg and
goes back to the male again. The entire spawning will amount to a few dozen eggs which
take several hours to lay and place. Unlike most Corydoras, which rest on the botlom
continually, hasla",s will hover a few inches up.
Leopard Catfish- Corydoras juli
Native to South America. Length: Approximately 2Y.! inches.
T HIS fi sh is gray with olive shadings on th e bac k. The head, as well as the upper part
of the body, is covered with a number of dark and irregular markin gs. In th e middle
of th e body , th ese markin gs fo rm a series of three di stinct lines. The dorsal fin has a
large black spot on it. The adiposc and anal fi ns are dotted . The ca ud al fin has six o r
more dottcd vertical bands. T his is one of the prettiest and most sa tisfactory of t he
CorydorGs.
Black-Spotted Catfish-Corydoras melanistius
Native to the Orinoco River. Length: 2 17 inches.
ANOTHER "little cat" of pale gray with a pi nk overcast and speckled all over
with small black dots. A vertical black band runs from tbe top of the head through
the eye, and another, wider, one runs from the tip of the dorsa l fin downward aod
forward to tbe gill plate. A good scavenger, active a nd usually procurable.
Peppered Catfish-Corydoras paleatus
Na tive to La Plata an d Rio Grande do SuI . Le ngth . Approx imate ly 2Y2 inch es.
THE Peppered Catfish is green to brown in general body color with a series of large
spots along the 'ide, und a series of smaller spots on the back. The dorsal, anal and
caudal fins are marked with irregular spots. The other fins are without marking. This
species breeds freely in captivity.
T he breeding habits of C. paleatus arc in general typical of the breeding behavior
of the members of the genus Corydor{ls. Sexing the adults is not too difficult. Viewed
from above the body of the male tapers back sharply from the head. The body of a
ripe female will show a definite bulge through tbe midsection ; in addition, tbe stomach
of the female shows a rosy hue as she fills with roe.
Spawning is initiated by tbc female swimming restlessly up and down the side of the
tank and in front of tbe males. Only later do tbe aroused males pursue the fema les.
One or more will swim close to her and bring their barbels in contact witb the top
of her bead. It is not unusual in weak-eyed nocturnal fishes for toucb to play a large
part in breeding behavior. This contrasts witb tbe bebavior of diurna l fishes among
wbom visual display is usually so important.
As this "feeling" continues, the males becomc morc and more agita ted until one
of them ca uses the female to halt for a moment. Tben, vibrating his wbole body, he
throws bimself in front of her sn ut and clamps tbe female's barbels between his
nearest pectoral fin and the side of his body. Tbe fcmale presses her mouth tight ly
against the side of his body while he vibrates rapidly. As the eggs are ejected tbey are
caught in the pelvic fins of the female which are brought together to form a pocket.
Tbey are inseminated by the male who bends his body in several sharp contractions.
The female takes no sperm in her moutb as her mouth is never brought in contact
with his genital pore. The female swims to a previously selected site-which can be
any smooth surface-and presses the adhesive eggs against it. This process is repeated
until 100 to 300 milt.y white eggs have been deposited. There is no specific pairing.
Once the female start to spawn she will accept any male who offers himself.
Although Catfishes seldom eat their own eggs, they will devour the spawn of other
species readily.
The eggs hatch in abollt three days at 80° F. As soon as they hatch the fish drop
down into the tank. The babies will take the finest foods, plus the oatmeal paste
described in the section on wholesale breeding.
It is probable that in nature a number of species of Corydoras will interbreed
producing fertile offspring. This may be the rea on why there appear to be so many
overlapping and similar pecies.
Spotted Catflsh-Corydoras punctatus
Native to British Guiana and the Amazon. Length : Approximately 2 !1.z inches.
THE COLOR of the Spotted Catfish is Light brown with sides spotted with blackish-
brown dots. A dark bar extends from the top of the head, through the eye where
it stops. Anot her bar runs over tbe first two dorsal rays. The caudal fin is spotted.
The other fin~ are without marking.
Corydoras rabauti
Nativ e to th e upper Amazon 8asin. Length: 217 inches.
FEW Catfishes approacb rahaL/Ii in brightness of color and distinction. Its body form
is much like tbat of tbe other member of the Co"ydor{l~ genus but its color sets it
apart. A wide black band starts on the back between the head and dorsal fin, rllns
parallel to the back line, and terminates at the ta il where it broadens to cover the
base of the tail. The body is a golden tan. Fins are hyaline witb tbe ventral showing a
dark tinge.
Family DORADIDAE 389
Croaking Catfish- Acanthodoras sp;nos;ss;mus
Native to Brazil. Leng th : 4 inches.
THE LARGE fins of this fish are an unu ual feature-especially the pectorals, dorsal
and ta il. T he barbels are long and prominent, showing alternating spots of brown and
white. There are many spiny protruberances over thc body. This is a brown fish with
white markings on thc side in narrow longitudinal bands. The tail and anal fins have
irregular bars of white and brown, lighter near the borders.
This fish is so hcavi ly armored that it is almost rigid. It swims with an elIort,
preferring to hidc on thc bottom or lie buried under the gravel. When removed from
the watcr this fish grunts-hence the names roaking or Talking Catfish.
390 Family LORICARIIDAE
Whipta il Catfish- Loricaria parva
Native to Pa raguay . Length: Approximately 3 inches.
THE Whiptail Catfish is indeed a strange looking creature. The body is grayish-olive
and is club shaped, tapering towards the caudal fin . On the tail there is but one
whip or ray. th at being on the top of the caudal fin. Although the Whiptail has a
mouth which is modified to form a sucker, it prefers lying on the bottom to
clinging to the sides an d leaves.
There are records of a few breedings in captivity. The amber-colored eggs are
deposited on a flat, clean rock after which the male takes up watch over them,
fanning them for the whole incubation period of eight days. He cleans the eggs, removes
tho e that have been infested with fungus, but wholly ignores the fry once they are
hatched.
Family LORICARIIDAE 391
Sucker-Mouth Catflsh-Hypostomus p/ecostomus
Native to Brazil, La Plata . Length: Approximately 7 inches.
WHILE many aquarists have shunned this interesting species, fearing tbat it will
grow too large for their tanks, those who have tried it find that it fulfiUs all expectations
of what an ideal Catfisb sbould be. It never eats fry and lives mostly on algae. Because
it grows rather rapid ly, its appeti te is hard to satisfy a nd it scavenges better than any
other of the fam il y by removi ng algae remarkably well and eating food wh ich falls
to the bottom of the tan k. However, one shou ld purchase small specimens and re-
move them when they grow to be too large for the tank. The large sizes will destroy
plants by slick ing the sap from tbe leaves.
It is grayish-brown in color with a horizont al series of dark brown spots running
along the side. The head is marked with small dark dot s. The fin s bear wavy rows
of light gray and blackish spots. The cauda l fin has, at times, vertical bars n it.
The fish has a sucker mouth- this feature of the species being used as a means of
anchoring to a stone or object in the water.
392 Family LORICARIIDAE
Arnold's Catfish-Otocinclus arnold;
Native to La Plata . Length : Approximately 2 !1 inches.
THJS species is dark olive-brown in color, with markings that form somcwhat in-
distinct stripes from the head (0 th e base of the caudal fin. The beUy is a dirty white.
The fins are brown; tbe dorsal and caudal marked by black vertical stripes. This fish
has a sucker mouth.
There is orne disagreement as to their hardiness. Some fanciers have no trouble
keeping them, while many others report a high mortality.
Family LORICARIIDAE 393
Xenoc:ara dolic:hoptera
Native to the Guionas and the Amaron Basin . Length: 5 inches.
THIS fish is similar in shape, habits and requirements to H ypos to m us pleco.\·tOI7lIl,\·,

It is ehi cJly distinguished by the wild growth of tentacles which project from the
forward ar(.u of the head. This growth is heavier and more branched in th e male.
The color, whicb is variable, is usually dark gray to dark blue with light spots.
X enocara is a peaceful scavenger and is an effective algae eater, 11 does oot outgrow
'the aqu ar ium as H y poslomUJ does. Like most Catfishes Xenocara is nocturo al aod
bides during the day, X ellocara prefers clean, well-aerated water.
394 Family MALAPTERURIDAE
Electric Cattish- Malapterurus electricus
Native to tropical Africa. Length: 6 inches in aquaria .
STRICTLY a novelty, there is no place in a community tank for this deniz.en of

fresh water which by giving 01T electric impulses ca n kill small fishes and harm
larger ones. In nature it grows to be three or more feet long and weighs up to forty-
five pounds, but young ones are imported. The charge given off is harmle s to humans,
but it is strong enough to give an adult quite a tingle.
]t should be kept in a dimly lit aquarium, for, like so many Catfishes. it is noc-
turnal. The eyes are mall and black. The tbh itself is smooth and gray colored with
flecks of black on the hody. A band of light gray adorns the hind end of the body. fol-
lowed by a band of black at the tail junction. The rounded tail has a black crescent
1I1 its middle.
It will eat anything.
Family MOCHOKIDAE 395
Upside-Down Catflsh-Synodont;s n;gr;ventr;s
Native to Belgian Co ngo. l e ngth: App ro ximate ly 6 inches.
THE ODDEST Catfish of them all, the Upside-Down Catfish is not always in that
position. When right side up, it is not particularly distinguished. It is the propen ity
of the fi h for swimming with its dorsa l side down that auraets attention . The fish
is an excellent algae eater. Unfortunately it is quite shy and likes to hide belly up
among plants near the surface.
The young SynOdOl/li.l· is quite pretty. Tbe sidcs have irregular rows of small while
dots superimposed on the general body color of brown . The caudal fin bas two or
more pale bands on it. The fish has six barbels. As an adult it loses a good dea: of its
color.
396 Family PIMELODIDAE
Eutropius niloticus
NCltive to the Nile Region Clnd trop;cClI West Africa. Length : Up to 76 inches .
SPECIMENS of this oddly shaped scaleless Catfis h are beginning to appear on the
market in shipments from Afr ica. The color is reddish-brown or golden-brown with
a metallic sheen. The stomach is pink; the hack dark. There are dark spots scattered
over the forward seelor . The dorsal and tail fins arc black tipped ; th e other fins yellow.
Like 0 many African imports this fish requires a hig h temperature, preferably
above 80 ° F. It is not of much lise as a scavenger as it prefers a diet of live food
only. Young specimens are quite interesting. Adults couJd be dangerous to other fishes.
Never bred.
Family PIMElODIDAE 397
Smooth Catfish-Pimelodella species
Native to Argentina . Length : 6 inches .
ALTHOUGH a tru e Ca tfish and scavenge r, this glistening, smooth silvery fish will
eat smaller fishcs a nd, being mo re active at night when other fi shes arc quiet, can
easily ca tch its food.
This particul a r species has a black back and a long black line along its side
from the bead to th e omewhat tapering tail. The four barbels are long with fine
extensions which seem useless beca use they extend backward so far. Eats anything.
Never bred.
398 Family SILURIDAE
Heteropneustes lossilis
Native to Ceylon and the East Indies. Length : Up to 24 inche s.
THIS is another of the many Catfishes ap pearing in recent shipments from Ceylon .
In color it varies from oli ve-green to black. There are two faint yellowish stripcs
running th e length of the body. Black dots are scattered over the body. The fins
are red-brown . Thc eyes, which are quite prominent, are ye llow.
The fins have small spines which can penetrate the ski n if you grasp the fi sh
roughly. These spines are not poisonous but they ean break off in the wound and
ca use great pain .
This fish is quite hardy. Eats anything but prefers live food. It has been bred in
Germany. Large tanks are required for breeding altbough, as it breatbes air, it
can survive crowded conditions. Both parents guard the eggs and young for weeks.
Family SILURIDAE 399
Glass Catflsh-Kryptopterus bicirrhu5
Na tive to Siam and Indonesia. length : Approximately 2~ inches.
THIS fish is almost transparent except for the opaque sac in which tbe vital organs
a re stored in the vicinity of the bead of the fish. There are two barbels which are
long and project forward from the nose region . The dorsal fin has tbe appearance of a
bristle or hair.
This is one of the most glutt onous fishes the authors have ever watched eat. The
stomach i apparen tl y elasti c and th e fish will continue to eat untiJ the sides project
like water wings. It does not take readil y to dry foods , but it will thrive on Daphnia,
Tubifieids an d Glass Worms.
The Glass Catfish does not "hug" the bOllom as most atfishes do.
400 Family HEMIRHAMPHIDAE
Half Beak-Dermogenys pusi/lus
Native to Java , Sumatra and 80rneo. Length: Ma le 2 inch es; female 3 in ches.
ASIDE from the odd extension of the lower jaw this fish has little to recommend it.
The cylindrical body is silver-gray to silver. The ma le is smaller, slimmcr, and has
a red dot at tbe base of the dorsal fin . They spend most of their time at th e surface
of thc water hid ing among floating plants. ln an aquarium they will take floating
dry food or Daphnia. They are said to eat algae but their odd jaws and surface
living habits hardly seem suggestive of a browsing fish . They like a little sail in the
water- a teaspoon of salt to each two or three gallons of water. They are live
bearers, but unlike the Gambusinos, the fe male probably cannot store the sperm .
Twelve to twenty young are born at a time. The young, whi cb are quite large at
birth, may be fed newly hatched Brine Shrimp and sifted Daphn ia. T he males arc
said to wrestle by locking jaws, but gro ups in aquaria li ve together peaceably.
Family CYPRINODONTIDAE 401
Egg-Laying Kill ifishes
LONG, slim and almost completely carnivorous, the interesting Killifishes

have specialized requirements which should be studied before the fish is ac-
quired. For the most part they inhabit the upper levels of the aquarium, with
their big eyes ever alert for prey. They are not usually fin nippers. If they
cannot swallow a fish whole they leave it alone. But do not underestimate
the capacity of their mouths-they are big.
Most of them resemble a miniature Pike or Pickerel; but Killifishes have
larger and more colorful fins. These fishes are unusual also because they lay
their eggs over a period of days rather than within a few hours. It is in the
handling of the eggs within this group that the species differ. For the most
part they require old, acid water (below 6.8). One teaspoon of salt should
be added to each 5 gallons of aquarium water. Most people think of salt
water a being invariably a lkaline. That is a misconception . The carbonates
in sea water do tend to make the ocean alkaline, but table salt (sodium
chloride) is neutral. Many of the Top Minnows inhabit brackish water
swamps, where rotting vegetation makes the water highly acid.
The large-eyed Killifishes prefer a dim light, and plenty of top pl anting
is appreciated. Being so particular about the kind of water they inhabit, they
are very sensitive to changes of water. All changes must be gradual. When
purchasing any of these Killifishes make sure that the fins are erect and not
pinched together. The color should be clear. Haziness, which makes the fish
look as though it were wrapped in smoke, should be avoided. Ask the dealer
to pack the fish with some of its own water, so that you can mix it gradually
at home. Most of the trouble with these fishes is due to improper water or
sudden changes. They are remarkably hardy and disease free when given the
proper environment.
Correct feeding is also important. Many Killifishes will take a good float-
ing dry food, if nothing else is available. Fresh foods, such as chopped liver,
shredded fresh shrimp, crab meat, frozen Brine Shrimp and frozen Daphnia
are a fairly good diet. Best of all are the live foods. Bloodworms, Fairy
Shrimp, Tubificids, White Worms and, for the smalJer specimens, live Daph-
nia and Brine Shrimp. These fishes like meat and plenty of it. Since they
take most of their food at the surface, it is important to keep a few small
Catfish such as Corydoras with them to keep the bottom clean.
Most of them will live in a group of mixed fishes, but they do much
better when kept with their own or similar species. Many of the males are
inclined to be pugnacious with each other. This may be minimized by heavy
planting. Al 0 , in a group which contains more than three males there is
much less likelihood of serious fighting than where two or three males are
kept together and can really "square off" at each other.
402 Family CYPRINODONTIDAE
Most of them prefer high temperatures. In fact they prefer 73 ° to
75 ° F. or higher temperatures. A two or three degree drop in the tempera-
ture during the night frequently acts as a stimulant. And they are excellent
jumpers, so keep the tank well covered.
The specialized care required for Killifishes may make the reader ask:
"Why bother keeping these trouble orne fishes ?" There are many reasons-
color, for example. The coIors of many of these Tooth Carps are gorgeous.
They seem to specialize in refractive scaling and many glint like living jew-
els. They do have definite requirements but these are not too difficult to sup-
ply. To many hobbyists they represent a challenge. To the jaded aquarist
they are just a bit different ; yet for the novice breeder they represent a fish
that can be spawned and raised fairly easily.
The Plant-Spawners
Most of the Egg-laying Tooth Carps deposit tbeir eggs on fine-leaved
plants. Either Myriophyllum or Nitella is ideal for this purpose. Everlast
Grass and Nylon Mops (trade names of manufactured products) are also
suitable.
As previously mentioned, spawning is almost continuous over a period of
weeks. Then there is a short resting period of several days or weeks, and
spawning is resumed . When a group is kept together some pair is almost
always spawning. An excess of females is preferable-usually about three to
two is the ratio. The males "court" with wide-spread fins and quivering body.
They are not too persistent. If one female does not respond, the male will
approach another, and eventually the male finds a willing partner. She fol-
lows him into the plants where they pause side by side, bodies curved into a
parallel "S" shape. They quiver for a moment. As they straigbten out a
tough semi-transparent egg is extruded. The egg, about the size of a pin-
bead, has sticky threads which adhere to the fOliage. Usually a few eggs are
laid before the pair separates. The hatching time is slow, varying with the
temperature. The fastest hatching is at 80 ° F.; but a higher temperature than
that may kill the egg or weaken the fry. Records kept of the Lyre-Tail
Panchax, A phyosemion ausfraie, a typical plant-spawner, showed that at
81 ° F. the eggs hatched in eight days but hatching took twelve to fourteen
days at 75 ° F.
The young hatch at intervals-since the eggs are laid at intervals. The
fry are very carnivorous. If there is as Httle as a week's difference in age,
the larger will try to devour the smaller. The parents seldom bother the eggs
but they will eat the fry.
For breeding, keep one or several pairs of fish in a well-planted aquar-
ium. Each evening place a strong light behind the aquarium and examine
the plants carefully for eggs. A piece of plant with the egg on it is snipped off
and dropped into a ] -gallon jar, which is half filled with aged, acid water.
This is done for three days; then a new jar is started. These jars are kept in a
fairly dark location. For easy temperature control several jars can be kept
partially submerged in a large aquarium or similar container. The water sur-
rounding the jar can then be kept at the desired temperature.
The young are quite large and have very little yolk sac left at hatching.
It is not necessary to feed infusoria. Micro-Worms and newly hatched Brine
Shrimp. either fresh or frozen , may be fed from the start. Growth is rapid
if somewhat uneven . Most fish spawns have some babies growing faster
than others, but this tendency is very pronounced with these Killifishes. The
young should be sorted for size as they grow. A number of species within
certain genera will interbreed, such hybrids often being fertile. This may ac-
count for the similarity of characteristics found in several species whose
ranges overlap in nature.
Modified Plant-Spawners
Several of the Killifishes have developed a modified form of plant spawn-
ing. Instead of the eggs being individually laid On plants, they are hung by
strings like bunches of grapes onto the female's ventral region where they
are fertilized. As the female swims about, the eggs become detached and ad-
here to the plants and sides of the aquarium. From then on development
takes place in the same manner as with the more orthodox plant-spawners.
This type of breeding procedure is found among fishe of the genera Chrio-
peops, Cubanichrhys, Ory zias and Micropanchax.
Annual Sree ders (Mud-Spawners)

Some of the Killifishes found in South America and Africa have a fas-
cinating life history. It has been verified only in recent years. These fishes
live in small bodies of water which dry up completely during the dry season,
killing the fishes which inhabit tbem . As the water evaporates, these fi shes lay
eggs in the mud bottom. The eggs are hardy and "thick-skinned," so they
resist drying. They lie dormant in the baked ground until the rains bring
them to life. They hatch out a new generation as the water rises, and this
generation grows to maturity within the rainy season, Sl.) as to lay eggs them-
selves and then die when drought again dries up the water hole.
Even in an aquarium this inheritance asserts itself. In spite of the best
care we can give them, these annual fishes become "seedy" and waste away
before a year has passed. It is nature's immutable law-nothing can be done
to save them. It seems a shame that so much beauty must go to waste so
oon, for the annual fishes are beautiful. Sparkling gems of vivid hue, many
of them brighten up the darkest aquarium.
Preparation for breeding in the aquarium is the same for these fishes as
for the plant-spawners, except that the bottom must be covered with a fine
sand or mud. The pair should be separated for two week and conditioned
well. Spawning usually starts soon after they are brought together in the breed-
ing tank. After testing the bottom several times the male stands on his nose
and corkscrews himself into the mulm. Then, side by side, the pair hover over
the depression to drop an egg. They make some attempt to cover the egg
by "wig-wagging" their bodies over it.
After a week the pair is removed and the water gradually lowered to the
level of the gravel. The surface is kept moist with blotting paper or burlap.
After four to six weeks the water level is gradually raised. Too high a tem-
perature slows up the egg development ; 75 ° F. is sufficient.
The young when hatched are quite large. Care is the same as for the
plant- pawners.
Sexing the plant- and mud-spawners is for the most part simple. The
male is much more colorful and many males have long tail extensions. The
female of the Rivulus usually has a black ocellus or eyelike m' rking on the
upper part of the tail base.
Lyre- Tail- Aphyosemion australe
Native to Gabun, Africa. Length: 2 inches.
THE Lyre-Tail male is a dark brown, shading into blue-green on the belly. The
operculum and shoulders have bright red bands and dispersed dots. A row of dots,
more or less forming regular horizo ntal lines, runs down the side. The dorsal and anal
fin s are brownish 10 green with deep red markings, bordered with a white edging. The
tail is large and greenish with red markings in the center. The LIpper and lower
borders of the tail are brown. The top edge is white; the lower is orange and the long
filaments are white. Red margins edge the light brown pectoral and pelvic fins. The
female is brown to reen on the underside. Both body and fins show red spots.
Hardiness, beauty, and readiness to breed make this fish perhaps the most popular
member of the genus. It must be fed live foods and the pH of the water must be kept
close to 6.6. Breeds freely with fine plants or ·'Everlast Grass."
Banded Fundulus- Aphyosemion bivittatum
Native to Cameroons and Old Ca/abar. Length: 2~ inches .
IN THIS species the ma le appea rs so unlike the female that one would think tbey
belonged to different species. The male is trul y a gorgeous creature, but to show it to
effect the light must not be too bright and the fish needs old water. At a fish show-
where one of the authors judged-this was forcibly demonstrated. One exhibitor brought
his own tank with the fish's old water; the other used new water and un fam ilia r
plantin g and, even after two days his fish were practi ca ll y unjudgeable, whereas th e
former were gorgeo us. At best, th e species is fai rly delicate.
The male's fi ns are long and pointed, especially th e tail whose two points are as
long as th e body of th e tail. Tbe dorsal is unusually tall with a point bending slightly
backward. The color is red at th e head end of the body, fading to a yellow at the
tail end. The back is blue, as is the an al fin near the body and along its margin . The
dorsal fin is polka-dotted with red and blue dots. The tail is blue with red dots and a
red margin. It is further decorated with a pair of bright red lines, running from the
body outward and bac kwa rd close to the tail's margin. Requires live food . Spawns on
plants.
Blue Gularis- Aphyosemion coeru/e um
Nativ e to West Africa. Length: 5 inches.
A LARGE fish by aquari um standards. Red-brown on tbe back, yellow-brown on

the sides, and almost white on the belly. A blue or purple sheen reflects from the
body. The gi ll covers and lips are blue. Red streaks run from gi ll covers to the body
behind them. The sides have several vertical red bars and rows of red dots are
sprinkled on th e body.
The tail is quite gorgeous, having a horizontal center of brownish-red. The lower
half of the tail is the color of the body; the upper third lighter.
This fish is a jumper and ea ts small fishes, but is peaceful wi th larger ones. At
breeding time, pairs must be watched because of the tend ency of the male to mutilate
his mate. Some aquarists have become discouraged with trying to breed th em because
the eggs took longer to hatch than had been expected. Their care and behavior are
typical of the annual fishes .
Aphyosemion cognatum
N ative to West Africa . Lengt h: 1'7 i nches .
THERE are few more beautiful fi h in this genu . It is small and quiet, seemi ng to
pose for irs pho tograp h, and an excel len t communit y I·ish . Against a golden-yellow
background , there are rows of red dots a ll over the hody and fin s and exo tic to uches
of white. White borders tb e m ale's dorsal and anal fins and runs along th e upper and
lower edges of th e tail , bo rd ered there, in turn , by red ma rgins. The fem ale is less
hi ghly colored and her fins are rounded, in contrast with the pointed fins oC the m ale.
Breeding and care are typical of the plant -spaw ning Killifishes.
Aphyosem;on gardner;
Native to Africa . Length : Males 2!-1 inches; females 1!-1 inches.
MANY consider thi s the most hea utiful of the Killifishes. Brown , blue a nd crimson
colors predo min a te. The head is bright red. A wnvy line of cri mson co lors the lon g
a na l fin a nd traverses the length of the tai l whose upper a nd lower margins are bright
ye ll ow. The body is a light blue which a lso extends to the tip of th e ta il. Anal and
dorsal fins are blue a nd yellow. All (If th e fin s are frin ged a long the edges. Here ilgain,
a in othcr Killics, th e fem a le i. quite different in size, shape, finna ge and color, being
light olive with pa le red spots.
A typical an nu al fish. Fairly delica te. Feed Da phnia , Brine Shrimp a nd Tubifieids.
Red Fundulus-Aphyosemion s;oestedti
N a tive to W est Africa . Length : 3 inches .
ON LY th ose few aquari sts who have seen this exo ti c s pec ies ( no t including th o e who
have seen only yo ung ones) have a n idea of th e beauty o f a (ull y develo ped ma le
R ed F undu lus. G rowth mu st be " fo rced" for this fi sh to sho w its beau ty. a nd breed ing
th em requires patience. It is a "coll ector's item" in all senses. It ea ts smaller fishes.
is a jumper. and must be ke pt in old water and in a subdu ed li ght.
The body is brassy red on the back ; silver on the side. The chin is blue. The rear
half of the fish i blue and red, whi ch makes for a purple effect. The upper bo rd er of
th e ta il is red, and a red stripe runs from th e bod y thro ugh th e tail. The ana l fin is
rimm ed with red .
Most interesting are its fin s. T he pec to rals ha ve frilly edges, a nd the aoal fin has
an extension at its lo we r m argin which looks like a small fin .
The female is reddi sh-colo red, wi th a du ll stripe which run s fro m the eye to the
ta il- plain indeed compared with th e male. H er eggs which are laid in th e mud like
other annu als requ ire sixty days to hatch.
Aphyosemion splendopleuris
Native to W est Africa . Le ng th: 2 inches.
THE BACK and an terior secti o n of th e body of the male is a deep bronze, shading
to li ght green posteriorly. Two ho ri zontal st ripes are on its side, the upper (dark gree n
to black) ex tendin g from the snout , through the eye to the root of the ca ud al fin.
T he lower stripe is lighter in colo r and extends from th e operculum, through the base
of th e pelvic fin , to the root of the ca uda l fin . Both stripes have red markin gs. The
high dorsal fin is sea-green at its base, shading to gold and th en to gree n at the
margi n.
The fe m ale is gray ish with vio let tints on the side which is also spotted with red
dot. The fins arc ye ll o wi sh with dark spots.
A typical fish of the species, splelldopleuris spawns on plants.
Lamp-Eye- Aplocheilichthys macrophtha/mus
Native to Nigeria. Length: 1 !12 inches.
THERE have been severa l importations of this specie but neve r too many in a ship-
ment, so it must till be co nsiclered rare. It is a n attractive fish wi th its flashing green
eye a nd gree n line down th e body. The body itself is a li ghter gree n. The fins a re
pale blue. The tai l of the male has seve ral dots whi ch the fema lc's tail lacks. Thc
green seems lum inesce nt, but it is not. It only reflects li ght.
Care and regui rements are si mil ar to th at for the rest of the group- old acid
water and live food. It is mu ch more peaceful than most of the others though. In
breeding, it is a " modined plant-spawner," th e eggs whi ch hang onto the female
being brushed off onto plants.
Dwarf Panchax- Aplocheilus block;
Nat ive to India and Ceylon . Length : 2 inches.
LIKE other Panchax in form, thc body is a metallic dark gree n and the belly is
purple. T he sides show alternating red a nd green dots. The g ill cover shows o ne bright
gree n spot. The sexes differ in th at the dots on th e male mark hi s orange fins and his
a nal fin is edged with red , while the fins of the female are orange wi thou t markings.
Also, th e male's dorsal a nd ana l fins are poin ted while those of the fe male arc
rounded.
arc and breeding arc typ ical of th e plant-spawning Killifishes.
Lineatus- Aplocheilus lineatus
Nat ive to Ceylon and southern India . Length: 4 inches .
THE GENERAL body color of tbi s fish is olive-brown, with a darker hack and lighter
underside. The sides have longitudinal rows o f brilliant greenish-gold dOls and th ere
are a number of vertica l bars in the poste rior region. The unpaired fins are green i h-
gold with dark gree n spots. The female is dar ker th an the m ale, with more numerous
and distinct ve rt ical bar . Dorsal an d anal fins, unlike the male's. are rounded , with
the dorsal fin having a large spot at its base.
A gorgeous a nd hardy , but unfort unately a belligerent fish . Lineatus spawn s fairly
free ly on plants.
Blue Panchax- Aplocheilus panchax
Native to Southeast Asia . Le ngth : 3 inches.
THE COLOR of this fi sh i qu ite variah le and may range from light olive-hrown
to da rk green. The ca les have blu e-green spots on them. The dorsa l fin, with a large
b lack spot on its base, is orange. T he ca udal a nd a nal fins are a li ght er orange with
blu e and red edg ing. The fema le is more subdued in color. The tail of tb e male is
ova l a nd a lmost rounded.
Breed ing and ca re are typical of the pla nt -spllwnin g Killifishes.
Cuba n Kill ie (Neon)-Cubanichthys cubensis
Na,ive '0 Cuba. Leng,h : I ~ inches.
THE Cullan Killie is a peaccful fish. Its genera l color is olive-green to brown. There
are four stripes made of bl ue-green dots th at extend from th e operculum to the
base of the caudal fin. Between the e stripes the color is red. All tbe fi ns are hya linc,
a lthough the dorsal and anal fins of the male have a blue edging.
Breeding poses no particular problems for the aqua ri sl. The ad hesive eggs are
attached likc grapes to th e vc ntra l reg ion of th e female and brushed off against plants
as shc swims. In general, however, th is fish is not prolific. A t 75 ° F., incubation wi ll
take place in ten to twclve days. The usual feeding of Micro-Worms, screencd Daphnia
and newly-hatched Brine Shrimp will keep the fry thriving.
Argentine Pearl Fish- Cyno/ebias belloHi
Native to Argentina. Length : 3 inches.
IT WOULD be ea y to believe th at male a nd fema le are of different species, were

one unfamiliar with th ese Argentine nativ es. Even th e males vary in ap pea rance from
tim e to time and in different lights and environments. If yo u buy some you may be
disa ppointed in th em until they se ttle down .
The mal e's bod y is bright oli ve-green with an indigo shade. On the sides and fin s,
exeept the pectora ls, there are many small ivory-colored dots in vertical rows. The
outer edges of the dorsal and ana l fins are black, with a shadi ng of indigo between
tbe black and the body. A patch of gray covers the tbroat. T he eye has a verti ca l stripe
across it which extends over tbe head. Tbe female i a dull olive drab with blac k
vertica l lines on tbe body and also in the dorsal, anal and tail fin s.
Like others of their genus tbey require old acid water and live food. An "a nnual
fish," th ey lay eggs in the mud.
Chaper's Panchax- Epip/atys chaper;
Native ' , om Sierra Leone to th e Gold Coast. Length: 2 l-2 inches.
THE MALE is a dark olive-brown on the hack, shading to a light tan on the under-
side. T he side has four 10 six vertical bars . Those above the anal fin extend onto Ihe fin
proper; the one on the caudal peduncle contin ues along thc lower part of the caudal
fin. The caudal or tail fin has a poin t helow but not above, like the Lyre-Ta il. The
lower jaw and throat are bright red; thc pec tora l fins a bright orange, edged in black.
All other fins are green ish-yellow. The anal, like the pectoral, has hlack edgi ng. T he
female is more suhdued in color as well as having a yellow throat, in this wi e differing
from that of the ma le which is red. The dorsa l and anal fins of the female are rounded
whereas those of the ma le are pointed .
One of the best of the group for begin ners. Jt is hardy, peaceful and spaw ns free ly
on fine-leaved plants.
Striped Panchax-Epiplatys lasciolatus
Native to West Africa , Length : 3 Y.Z inches,
HERE again th e re is cons id e rab le difference between the sexes in form and color.
Thi ' tish is quite large and not too good a ci tizen of the community tank. 11 quarrels
and eats ~ma ll fis hes.
The male's colors arc green-b rown o n th e back. Each side is covered with ten light
green vertica l stripes (with one horizontal stripe cross ing them) running the length of
th e body from g ill cover to th e base of the tail. ac h side has a red dol. The fins
arc po inted and green-ye llow wi th maroon dots. The ta il a nd pelvic fi ns have red
borders. The female is pale by co mparison and has rounded fins.
A typical plant-spawni ng Killifish.
Epiplatys macrostigma
Nat ive to West Africa . Length : 2 !4 inches.
THE M ALE of this species has a red-brow n back whi eh shades to hlu e-green on the
sides and is ycllow ton ed on the bell y. A in the case of A . blocki th ere are dots 00 th e
sides rangi ng in this case from red to hrown.
The fins a re green with red dot s. Red co lo rs the tip of the do rsal, whi ch is set far
back on tbe body. The lower edge of the tail is al 0 red. T be fem ale has rounded
fin s a nd her coloring is dra b compa red with th at of the ma le.
A typical pl ant-spawning Killifish.
Six-Banded Panchax- Epiplatys sexlasciatus
Native to West Africa from Liberia to the Congo region . Length: 4 inches .
THE MALE of this species is oli ve-green o n the back. shading to yell ow on the
belly. Five to 'even wide. bluish stripes lie below th e lateral line. All fins. except the
pectorals, are lemon-ye ll ow wi th dark edging. The pectorals are emi-tra nsparent with
a dark edge. The pelvic fins are long and pointed. The female is Jcs colorfu l and all
ftn~ are rounded and transparent.
Spawning on plants and care are typical of th e species.
Lantern Eye- Oryzias javanicus
Native to Java and Malaya . Length : 117 inches .
TH IS little fis h is characterized by its large bright eye which has a light , prominent
color arou nd it. In its natural environm en t th e body is oli ve, but in aq uar ia it is
pale gold and th e belly is sil ver or white. The ventral fin is very long. The dorsal and
ana l fin s of the male a re much lon ger th an those of th e fe male.
T his fish requires a hi gh temperature, 80 °-85 ° F. Breeding is is not difficult, be-
hav ior bei ng typieal of the "modifi ed plant -spawners" in th is group. The eggs-a bout
thirty in number- hatch in three to len days acco rding to temperature. For some
unknown reaso n tank-raised specimens never atta in full siz.e, and the la rge specimens
seen in aq uaria are a ll imported.
They are considered fin nippers.
Medaka-Oryzias latipes
Native to Japan. Length: 2 inches.
THIS tiny golden or honey-colored fish is quite hardy and prolific. It has a pronounced
bluish or purpli h sheen to it. The belly is inclined to be yellow, and the fins are
green. The male has a small triangular indentation in the posterior edge of the dorsal
fin which aids in sexing the Medaka.
The female carries the eggs like a bunch of grapes below the vent where they
remain until they are brushed off on plants. At about 75° F., incubation will take
place in a pcriod of ten days to two weeks. The fish, if properly and sufficiently fed
after spawning, will have no inclination to eat the eggs or the newly-hatched fry.
Playfair's Panchax- Pachypanchax playfairi
Nativ e to Zanzibar and the east coast 01 Alrica . Length: 4 inches.
THE MALE is an olive-green with a yellowish cast on the underside. The side has a
band of red dots that extends onto the dorsal, caudal and anal fins. The fins arc brown
to yellow; the caudal and anal being edged in red and black. The sca les of the male
stand out, giving him a "roughened" appea rance.
This fis h will breed in ca ptivity if a few simple precautions are considered . The
water should not drop below 70 ° F . A few tablespoonfuls of sea- aJt ad ded to the
aquarium will add to the productivity and tb e general well-being of the fish.
Pterolebios peruensis
Native to Peru. Length: 3 inches.
THIS "easy to keep." satisfactory, brown and black and blue fish is quite new to
the aquarium world but worthy of trial in any community tank or by itself. The
body is brown, dark on the back and becoming lighter near the belly. A series of
dark parallel vertical lines are seen along the fish 's entire length. The ana l fin and
tail are its particular glorys-the former being pointed, quite wide, and long. Rows
of blue dots speckle it and the golden dorsal fin and tail which, in a mature specimen,
has a pair of points, one each on the upper and lower borders. The nose and gill
cover are blue aod a third blue spot appears above the ventral fin . The female has
the same coloring but is much smaller and her fins are all rounded.
This fish is carnivorous and requires a diet of live food. Their spawning is typical
of tbe "annual" fishes, eggs being laid on the bottom.
Green Rivulus-Rivulus c:ylindrac:eus
Native to Cuba . Le ngth: 2 inches.
THE MALE of this species is olive-green. The back is chocolate and the body is
sprinkled generously with green spots on the anterior section and with red spots on
the posterior. The side has a red line which extends the length of the whole fish from
snout to tail. The throat is reddish, shad ing to orange on the bell y. There is n brilliant
blue spot rigbt bebind the ope rculum. The dorsal and caudal fins are a bright green,
edged in blue a nd wbite. The a nal fin is green, with a red margin and a few red pots
at the base. There is a good deal of color variation within this species. The fish sold
as Red Rivulus is probably a color va riety and not a separate species.
The female is less brill iantly "color-trimmed" than th e male. The fins are yellowish
to a bright red with no markings. The " Rivul us spot" (eye spot) is black on a back-
ground of white and is prese nt only in the female.
This fish is a jumper. One of the authors lost fourteen out of twenty from a n
improperly covered tank. Spawns fairly freely on plants.
Herringbone Rivulus-Rivu/us str;gotus
Native to the Amazon 8asin. Le ngth: ,~ inch es.
THE FORM of the Herringbone is much like others of the genus, but the coloring is
most distinctive and attractive. It is red " herr ingbone" against an aqua background.
This ex tends right throu gh the middle pa rt of the tail to its tip. The upper and lower
areas of the tail are orange. The belly fins are yellow with red tips. The dorsal fin is
a lighter ye llow, dot ted with red . The pectoral fins are yellow. The female shows the
Rivulus spot clearly but her fin s arc ot herwise quite hyaline and her colors paler than
those of the male.
This is a fair ly active, peaceable little fish . Care and breeding afe typical of the
egg-laying Killifishes.
Red Rivulus -Rivu/us urophthalmus
Native to Cuba. Length: 2l-7 inches.
THERE are two color varieties of this fi sh : one of which is brown-green and some-
times called the Blue; the other-more popular--color is bright yellow, with horizontal
rows of red dots which also speckle the anal and dorsal fins. It is called "the Red" and,
by some, "the Golden."
The male of the less fancied color has red dots too, and the fins also are dotted.
His dorsal fin bas a dark edge; and the tail has a coppery upper edge and a black
lower edge. Females of both colors are less distinctive. The Red type female Jacks the
Rivulus spot.
Care and breeding are typical of the egg-laying Killifish.
Family POECILIIDAE 429
Gambusinos
DR. GEORGE MYERS has suggested that the name Gambusinos be used
in referring to the live-bearing Poeciliidae . These are the fishes commonly
referred to as live-bearing Tooth Carps or just as live-bearers. These names
are incorrect as they are not really Tooth Carps nor are all live-bearers Poe-
ciliids. In an article in the May 1955 issue of The A quarium, Dr. Myers
gives in detail his reasons for using the word Gambusinos, which is a col-
loquial Cuban word meaning "nothing." We believe that this word fills a
gap in our nomenclature, and hereafter the word Gambusinos will refer to
the Guppies, Swordtails, Moliies, Platies and their relatives.
Reproduction
The male Gambusino possesses a gonopodium by means of which he
introduces the sperm into the body of the female. In most of the live-bearing
species, one copulation provides enough sperm to fertili ze not only one batch
of eggs, but several, the female giving birth at approximately four-week in-
tervals. The male Gambusino differs from males of the egg-laying fishes.
His sperm are not loose in the semen. In fact, he does not produce fluid
Male anal fin . Female a nal fin .
emen but a globe of sperm, all held together, heads toward the outside, tails
toward the center. According to students who have carefully studied the
anatomy of the male, the fin you see under its body-the fin which cor-
responds to the unmodified anal fin of the female-is formed into a
gonopodium or intromittent organ, which is not a hollow tube at all. In action
it moves forward and, together with the pair of fins in front of it, forms a
temporary tube. Balls of sperm are shot through and guided by this lUbe
Fins combining to form the "sperm-tube."

430 Family POECILIIDAE
as it makes contact with the urogenital pore of the female. Those which enter
are stored in the female's reproductive system where they can live for many
month . One Guppy is said to have produced eight broods from a single
fertilization. A case is known where a Swordtail gave birth to living young
ten months after mating.
Although the color and shape of male and female Gambusinos may
vary, these differences are not always reliable sex indicators. The presence of
the gonopodium is the surest indication of the male sex.
Mating in live-bearers is promiscuous. Any male will mate with any
female. It is best to have extra female , as some males may pursue a single
female too vigorously and give it no rest. In experiments performed with
Guppies, the eyes of the male were covered so that he could not see the
female and, after a period of neglect, she came over and nudged him, show-
ing that the female is aware of the male's presence.
True Live-Bea re rs
Some Gambusinos are live-bearing in the fuIJest sense of the word. The
eggs are fertilized, and they develop within the female's body. Special tissues
are formed to nourish and provide oxygen for the unborn young and re-
move their wastes and carbon dioxide. This tissue, which performs the same
functions as the placenta in mammals is called a pseudoplacenta. It should
be noted that the ovary is the organ of gestation, not the uterus as in mam-
mals.
The mechanism by which it is possible for a female to give birth several
times from one mating has been studied . Most Gambusinos give birth to
young every 28 to 30 days. The ova or eggs take about seven days to ripen.
As they Tipen the sperm which has been stored in the female fertilizes them.
The young take 21 to 24 more days to develop. As the ova are ripening for
seven days some of the young are older than others at birth, although all the
young are delivered within a few hours of each other. It is not unusual for
some of the babies to be born with some unabsorbed yolk sac attached like
a little red marble to their stomachs. Such babies cannot swim well and hop
along the bottom. Nothing can be done except to isolate them in warm shal-
low water in a mild salt olution (one teaspoon per gallon). If they are
old enough, they will absorb the yolk, and develop normally. Otherwise they
will die.
Because of the storage of sperm in the female, it is difficult to be sure
that the young when born are from the most recent or from a previous mat-
ing. It is probable that the freshest sperm, being most viable, fertilized the
eggs, but this is not certain. If controlled breeding is desired , the sexes should
be isolated shortly after birth to ensure virgin females. It is not known at
what age a female live-bearer can be fertilized , but there is an account-
which was given much publicity-of two female Guppies giving birth after
being isolated at the age of three days and nine days respectively. (We must
also mention that this was said to be proof of parthenogenesis.) It is pos-
sible that an immature female can store sperm in it body, but in our ex-
perience separating young female -even those which had been previously
kept with adult maJes-did not result in reproduction.
The size of the young is not affected by the size of the mother. A small
female will bring forth fewer young, but they will be the same size as the
young of a larger female of the same species. There are, however, relatively
great differences in the size of the young of any species at birth . You may
rcad statements to the contrary but we have made many observations and
know that this is true.
Superfoetation
The young of the Mosquito Fish. Heterandria formosa. and of some
other live-bearers develop somewhat differently from most of the Gambusinos.
In Mosquito Fish some ova ripen every few days and are immediately ferti -
lized by the waiting sperm. Several broods of different ages develop in the
ovary simultaneously and because of this the Mosquito Fish gives birth to a
few young at a time, often every few days.
Conditioning and Live-Bearers

No special conditioning or preparation is required for breeding live-
bearers. They will bring forth living young sometimes under almost impo '-
sible conditions. There are limits to their tolerance, however and if aquarium
conditions are poor, the females will stop giving birth . One of the limiting
factors is the amount of carbon dioxide in the water. If carbon dioxide
is bubbled into an aquarium. the fishes stop breeding.
Saving the You"g

Beginner, with a mixed collection of fishes which includes Gambusinos,
are frequently unaware when young have been born in their aquarium. The
babies are eaten by their parents, as well as the other fishes, as fast as they
arrive. Extremely heavy planting together with floating plants such as
Riccia or Duckweed, may serve as a refuge for some of the young, but even
these measures will not always work with such notoriou fry-eaters as Angel
Fish and Bettas. A further drawback is that such dense cover makes for a
messy tank.
Breeding and nursery traps which fit into an aquarium are commercially
available. There are several different types but they all utilize the fact that
babies drop down toward the bottom before starting to swim. Females should
be placed in traps when they are noticeably gravid.
The rod trap is a square box with the bottom made of rods set slightly
apart from each other. The babies can slip through but the mother cannot.
The "V" trap has a V -shaped bottom with the base of the V open. In both of
these traps the babies lide through the opening at birth and are protected
from tbe mother. Both must be used in aquaria which are unoccupied or
which are occupied only by babies. A modification of the "V" trap has the
V set inside a square box, leaving a small compartment below the V. Thi
A rod tra p.
A " y ,. trap.
trap can be kept in a community tank because the babies drop into this com-
partment and are safe from the mother and also from the other fish in tbe
aquarium. The mother can tben be removed and the V insert taken out.
Then tbe trap erves as a nursery.
AU of these traps are too small for tbe larger live-bearers. Only smaller
specimens should be kept in them. It is not good practice to raise too many
young in a nursery trap. The space is limited, and there is only a certain
amount of circulation through the perforations. This can be increased by
dipping water from the tank and pouring it gently into the trap. The excess
will run out through the perforations. Six to eight young are really the limit
for these traps, and it is best to have a separate tank for babies and use a rod
or "V" trap in it. The babies can then be raised in a larger space.
Traps should always be placed at the rear of the aquarium. A few float-
ing plants in the trap will make the mother feel more at ease and a cover
should be used to prevent jumping. It is unnecessary to put the male in the
breeding trap.
Signs of Pregnancy
Experience is the best guide in this. In general, when the fish looks as
though it "swallowed a grape without chewing it" it is ready to give birth .
This condition is mo. t noticeable when looking down at a fish from above. A
profile view of a fish is not sufficiently revealing. Older female always look
pregnant in profile but a top view will disclose the true condition .
The a-called "gravid spot" is a darkened area near the vent. It is really
the black peritoneum (the membrane which lines the abdominal wall) en-
closing the internal organs. It is most visible in the region of the vent where
the muscles and skin of the body wall are at their thinnest. Growth of the
babies in the ovary distends this area and makes it more noticeable. It is Dot
really a reliable indication of the extent of pregnancy. For one thing, the
males of certain live-bearing species also show the black spot. So belly dis-
tention is the best way to tell.
Size and Number of Young

Records kept of Swordtails, Xiphophorus helleri, and Platyfish, Xipho-
phorus maculatus, give us these figures:
The average interval between broods of Swordtails is 39 days, that of
Platys 31 days . The young are 7 to J 0 millimetre long at birth and weigh
5 to 8 milligrams. The weight of the average adult Platy is from .4 to .5
grams. Weight of the average ad ult Swordtail is from 0.9 to 1.0 grams. Sword-
tail males mature between 8 to 45 weeks with an average maturity at
21.8 weeks. Platy males are mature between 5 and 44 weeks with an aver-
age of 14.7 weeks.
Records kept of Guppies show that males mature at 80 to ] 00 days,
females 90 to 120 days, with male Guppies starting to show color at 48 days.
Guppy females give birth when they are 3 months old. Brood intervals in
young females are irregular; while older females give birth fairly regularly
at 28 day intervals.
Guppies grow better, according to the records, when raised in a group
rather than when isolated. This appears to be due to the fact that when one
of the group finds food it actions bring the others to the area.
The number of young born to young female live-bearers may be quite
small. As few as 4 or 6 is not unusual. As the size of the female increases
so does the number of young. The average for Platies is 30 to 40, and often
more than 60 may be produced. Dr. Myron Gordon found 168 embryos in a
large wild-caught Platy. Mollies average 15 to 30. Records kept of a large
female Molly show that she gave birth to 570 young in one year. Mr. Paul
Hahnel, the well-known Guppy breeder, has reported a brood of 170 young
born at one time to one large female , of which 120 lived.
Feeding Baby Fishes

This subject cannot be stressed too often. Babies shou ld be fed severa l
times daily. The first few months are always critical, and in the case of
Guppies (and probably other species as well) it is the first two or three
weeks that count most. Crowding and improper or infrequent feeding will
stunt baby fish. Should conditions improve later, the fish will resume its
growth, but it will never be as fine a specimen as it would have been with
proper care in its early life. Babies need almost as much room as do an equal
number of adults. Aeration and filtration will help.
Because Gambusinos are comparatively large at birth, the finest food
such a infusoria can be skipped. The type of food required is basically the
same as for adults but in sizes more sui table for smaller mouths. Tubifex
and White Worms should be chopped fine, and Daphnia should be sifted
to remove the larger individuals. Dry baby foods are available, but these must
be fed with caution. One of the finest foods for b abies is newly hatched
Brine Shrimp, which may be fed either fresh or frozen . For more details see
the chapter on Foods and Feeding.
Moving "Loaded" Females

Much bas been made of the danger of "loaded " fishe delivering pre-
maturely when moved. This fear does not seem to have any foundation in
fact. Fish hatcheries ship live-bearers half-way around the world . Loaded
females are accorded the same treatment as are all the other fishes. There is
no evidence that shipping causes a greater mortality among these heavy
female than among the others. As a matter of fact the heaviest ca ualty
rate is usually found in the males. Of fifty pairs of Mollies in one shipment
which was mishandled , almost 40 of the males were dead on arrival and
almost all the females, including the "loaded" ones, survived.
While it i not uncommon for babies to be born in transit, premature
births as shown by incompletely developed babies in the shipping con-
tainers on arrival are comparatively rare. Confinement in too small a space
or a sudden change to water of a lower temperature is more likely to cause
premature delivery than is the transfer itself. At what age the babies are
large enough to go into the community tank is always a question. The an-
swer depends not so much on the size of the babies as on the size of the
largest fish most likely to swallow them. The answer, then, must be to put
the babies into the community tank when they are too big to be eaten. As
di cretion is the better part of valor, put in only a few at first to ~ee how they
make out. Be sure to feed the adult fishes well before introducing such
small strangers.
Pike Killie--Be/onesox belizanus
Na tive to Eastern Ce ntra l America. including Southe rn Mexico. Le ng th : Fe males 8 inches;

males 4 to 5 inches.
THIS live-bearer looks somewhat like a Pike. Its eye are large and prominent and the
curved jaws with many teeth give it a pincer elrec!. The very appearance of this fi h
warns that it is not a species for the community tank . It is extremely carnivorous.
Young fish show a wide black band the entire length of the body. This fades and in
the older fish each scale on the upper ha Lf of the light olive-green body has a black
center so the net result gives a striped effect. ]n a good light the fish reflects a metallic
hue.
The Dwarf PIke grows rapidl y on a diet of young fry, insects, tadpoles, worms,
chopped clams, small snails. The female gets to be almost twice the size of the male.
Breeding presents a problem of using a lot of hiding plants and removing the mother
immediately after the young are born. The fry are three-quarters of an inch long at
birth and can consume Guppy fry as soon as they are born. Frozen adult Brine Shrimp
are greatly relished, as are smaller species of worms.
Spotted Black and Holbrook's Gambusia-Gambusia afllnis
Native to the Southern United States. Length: J ~ to 3 inches.
THESE fishes are placed under onc heading as ichthyologists believe that rather than
being two distinct species, they merely represent geographical differences within the
same species.
G. affinis affinis, the western form, comes from Alabama, lllinois, Texas and even
Mexico. Both the male and female of this form have pale gray bodie , overcast with a
blue metallic sheen. The dorsal and anal fins have dark markings. As is so frequentl y
the case in fishes, the male is the smaller of the sexes, growing to approximately
one and one-half inches in the adu lt stage while tbe female attains a length of two and OIlC-
half to three incbes.
G . affinis holbrooki, the eastern form , appears native to the Caroli nas, Georgia,
Florida and Alabama. The general color is white, silver or yellow with black spotting.
Specimens have becn found that were velvety black-a coloration of the species highly
prized by tbe fancier. The three-inch female shows very little difference when compa-ed
with the first species. The male, which is largely responsible for the color differentiation
between affinis and holbrooki, attains a length of approximately one and three-fourths
inches at maturity.
Tbe breeding of Gambusias presents no particular problem and follows the pattern
of all live-bearers. The ad ults, however, will dispose of tbeir you ng very quickly if the fry
are not protected by the usual methods (hiding plants, traps, etc.) as described in the
introductory section.
As these fish are notorious for their pugnaciousness and fin-nipping, they are not
welcome members of a community tank. Their one-time popularity came about because
they were the first viviparous fishes to be kept in aquaria. Today, however, they have
been replaced by more docile and unquestionably more attractively marked species.
Mosquito Fish-Heterandria formosa
Native to the Southeastern Un ited States. Length: Approximately , inch.
THIS is the smallest of the live-bearers and a member of the Gambusino Group. The
general coloring is of olive-brown with a silvery-white belly. There is a black spot,
bordered with a touch of red, at the base of both the dorsal and anal fins.
Although the Mosquito Fish is easy to breed and most prolific during the breeding
period (the female delivering at short intervals during the timc), it is not wise to keep
these fish as members of a community aquarium . They and their young are liable to
be eaten by the other fishes of the tank; and because of their small size they are apt
to get little, if any chance, to share in the food and consequently are crowded out by
the larger inhabitants of the tank.
]n a tank of their own, Mosquito Fish can give endless pleasure as they are always
active, participating in harmless fights and displaying their modest (at least in comparison
with some of the other fishes described in this book) coloring to its best advantage.
Because of their small size only the finer grades of dry food should be fed and very
small live food such as Brine Shrimp nauplii.
Guppy-Lebistes reticulatus
Native to Trinidad and Venezuela. Length: Male 1!,7 inch es; female 2 !,7 inches.
OF THE ten million fish fancier in the United States, a large portion are Guppy
breeders. Guppics outn umber pets of all other descriptions. How many th ousands of
tropical fish fans started with this lillie fish, perhaps abandoned it for something larger
and gaudier, tried all sorts of tropieals, both eold water and marine fishes, but returned to
their first love, finding it otfered more than any other in interest, in beauty, in the
friendships that were formed with other breeders-but principally for th e fascination
that the Guppy holds for the fancier!
Within thc ger m plasm of the Guppy there are greater potentialities for the creating,
through ejection, of exotic beauty than in a ny other species of plant or anima l life
kept by man as a hobby. The Guppy 's mutations are so great in number and the
variety is so amazing that every fish fancier can have his own uniqu e strai n, different
in some respect from that raised by any other person.
The first Guppy breeder, if thrir writing is any criterion of their ideas, held th at
it was just about impossible to establish a strain . Interestingly enough, the Guppy stands
inbreeding so well tbat, by this process, it is possiblc to create strains or varieties which
breed true for color and form.
Another error which was bequeathed to us was tbat all the fine traits came from
the mal e (and were mostly governed by the genes on the sex-chromo orne) and
440 Family POEeiLIIDAE
that females were all the same-drab, uniform, olive-gray with their liny scales bordered
with black. Now, modern research has corrected these ideas. Sex hormones used on
males and female Guppies have made the males assume more female forms and the
females become more like males, with the result lbat treated females show many of
the 10veJier characteristics of males. So we know these traits are sex-limited and not
sex-linked.
It has been found that the swordtail characteristic is inherited by male and female ;
that several colors- gold, blond and albino-also come from both; that females may be
bred with gold tails, black tails, or tails of mixed or speckled colors; and that when
such colors become fixed, the female, too, becomes an ohject of great beauty.
One of the secrets of raising outstanding Guppies is to sex the fry before they are old
enough to breed. The color and gonopodium develop well before that time. If you keep
only half a dozen un bred females and breed them to a carefully chosen male before he
becomes too old, and continue with this process generation after generation, you can
have Guppies equal to the best. But one week of carelessness when you fail to recognize
an inferior male, thus allowing him to breed to all the females , can undo all your pre-
vious work.
One service has been known to impregnate a female with enough sperm to fertilize
eight batches of eggs, so those sperm must have lived in their spermatophores for
eight months or more. If a mistake is made, however, it does not mean that the female
is entirely ruined for, if she is mated immediately after she gives birth, the fresher
sperm seems to gain the ascendancy and fertilizes most or alJ of the eggs. One cannot
feel certain of the paternity however, and it is better to be safe than sorry.
Another fact, and one which accounts for so many inferior males, is that the
most natural-most like the wild-male is the one which usually becomes the father.
The finest males with long and valued fins are not able to compete exually with the
small males unencumbered by long, wide tails and fins.
One way to forge ahead faster with Guppies is to keep an eager and watchful eye
for oddities among the females. Mutations occurring in their germ plasm, as evidenced
through the physical character istics, are apt to put you further ahead, if you select
them and inbreed, ratber than find mutations in the males.
Guppies are tropical fish. They breed best at 75- 80 ° F ., and only vegetate at
lower temperatures. When the female is ready to breed, she assumes a slightly oblique
angle in the water. When she is ready to spawn, twenty-eight days later, she may
either swim up and down at the side of the tank or give no notice and have her brood .
The slightest disturbance may cause her to eat the newly-born fry . So will hunger.
The fry therefore need adequate protection. Traps or plants serve well. Most experienced
breeders rely on one kind of plant-thick groves of them-and at the same time feed the
female so heavily that she has but little desire for fry.
Anyone attempting to raise albino Guppies will find tbat the albino fry seem
to be more tempting than any food offered. Fry from golds may not be touched . We
once put ten newborn albino and two gold fry all together in a IO-gallon tank and
placed a pregnant albino female in the same tank to have her young. In a few minutes
only one of the albinos was left but botb golds were there. These two fry, which appear
so si mil ar to us, yet are identifiable by tbe prominent eyes of the gold and the in-
conspicuous eyes of the albinos after birth, must appear quite different to the adult
fish . It is also possible that the greater vigor and betler eyesight of the gold babies
increases their ability to evade adu lts. Albino Guppies are the most difficult of all to raise,
but they can be raised with proper diligence. We have raised thirty from one spawning.
Jt is worth all th e trouble because it is difficult to find greater beauty in any Guppy.
They arc easy to feed, eating almost anything, but they do appreciate a varied diet.
Forcing growth by frequent feedings in the first few weeks helps ra ise finer Guppies.
While the species will do well in any normal water, they do better, as previously
mentioned, in water containing 0.75 per cent common salt.
MALE AND FEMALE

GUPP IES
(Drall'lI fr()In Life)
J. Veiltail 6. Albino , Scarf Tai l

2. Bella Tail 7. Common Wild Type
3. . cissor Tail IL Go ld (Fe male)
4. Gold, Double Swordtail 9. Poinled Tail (Fema le)
5. Leopard, Bottom Sword J O. Common Wild , Sword Tail
,. -
MALE GUPPIES
(Drawl! from Life)
I. Lyrelai l 5. Albino. Bottom Sword

2. Goldtail 6. Cofertail
3. Gold. Top Sword 7. Round Black Rimtail
4. Gold, BOllom Sword 8. Superba
Humpback Limia-Limia nigrofasciata
Nat ive to Ha iti. Length: Ma les 2 inches; fe ma les 2~ inches.
THIS stocky little fish gets its name from the strange development in the male. As
he matures his body grows deeper and a hump appears on the back in front of the
dorsal fin . The fish is olive-green with a metallic sheen , and there are vertical bars
adorning the ide, the number varying from eight to twelve. The fins are hyaline and
some specimens show dark spots on them. When the hump develops on the male his
sides how a metallic, brassy sheen and his belly and gonopodium turn black. A good
specimen is very attractive. The female lacks most of the color and is not noticeably
humpbacked.
The Humpback breed readily in aquaria and eats oft algae and other vegetable
matter as well as live food. 11 is peaceful and active.
Fam ily POECILIIDAE 445
The Mollies
All Species Native to southern United States or Mexico.
THE FOURTH most popular group of live-bearers comprises fishe s called Mollies by
the fancicr. Technically, they are known as Mollien esia. The commonest species arc:
laripif(na, veli/era, ,~p"enops, and lariplIllcfafa. Among these are color variations and
hyb rids which make them a most interesting family, with plenty of variety.
All the Mollies camc originally from th at gcneral scction of tbe United State and
Mexico which borders the Gulf of Mexico, some from more restricted areas than
others. Their appearance and breeding habits are similar. So are their tastes for food.
All live well in confinement though, like the Swordtails, th ey are inclined to jump out of
th e tank. In outdoor pools they have been known to shoot out of the water and clear
the baek of a man bending over. Yet in small aqua ri a one would never suspect such
actions for, on the whole, MolJies are quite refi ned, docile fishes, mi xing well with other
species. Males constantly pursue the female which keeps the species active most of the
time. When courting femalcs or sparri ng with other males, tbe male Molly holds his
sai lfin erect, but at other times it reclines along his back.
Mollies are fond of algae but not all species of it. They are constantly seen nibbling
at the almost (to us) invisible green coating on the plant leaves. So, it is expedient for
the fancier to provide good lighti ng. Many fa nciers scra pe algae from other tank
glasses and feed the scrapings to their Mollies. In their natural habitat, Mollies Jive
under strong sun and can tolerate plenty of light; that is, all but the albino varieties
wbose v ision is affected when the illumination is too strong. Mollies have been found
to flourish best in slightly salty water. (An albino Latipinna is pictured above.)
446 Fam ily POECILIIDAE
Besides algae, the several species relish tender vegetable leaves chopped finely.
Lettuce is often used after it has been well washed. Other than that, complete prepared
fish foods and li ve food (which is useful for all live-bearers) make MoDies happy and
prolific.
Most owners find that frequent feeding pays. Some give small amou nts of food four
times a day but no one need be a slave to his fish. If it is inconve nient, they can get
along with two feedings a day a nd algae in the interim.
Breeding presents few difficulties. Like all live-bearers, pregnant females had best be
handled as little as possible. If it is possible, it is best to remove the male and leave the
female with plenty of hiding plants, permitting her to give birth in the tank she knows.
A chi.!1 may result in stillborn fry or an excited mother which eats her babies.
Each of the several species has its own marks of distinction which we shall con-
sider. MoJlies are found frequently in salt water. They benefit from the addition of salt
to the aquarium. Most Molly diseases can be cured by segregating them in a salt bath .
The strength of the solution is gradually increased over a period of days to a maximum
of 5 ounces of sea salt per gallon of water. The water should be diluted gradually once
the cure is complete.
LillIe genetic work has been done with Mollies. The possibilities arc there. We
find blacks in some species, albinos in some, great variation among several. possibilities
for hybridization but very little actua l segregation into varieties. Mollies bred in mall
inJoor tanks never seem to attain the sizes of the fish raised in larger pools, nor do
their dorsal fins become so dramatic. It is quite amazing that such should be the case
because even with food more abundant and every condit.ion except space providcd at
optimum, we seem unable to produce tbe large and beautiful specimen indoors. Most
species prosper best at temperatures bctween 70- 75 ° F.
Mollie Hy b rids and Varieties

Because fis hes of the several Molly species hybridize so readily and because tbe
hybrids are usually fertile, it is obvious that there is not too great a difference between
them . Today a number of gorgeous black strains are avaiJable and the offspring are
black in contrast to the shaded blacks of some of tbe species. T hese black fisb represent
a color variety known to scientists as melanj~/ic, th at is, being pigmented with black.
T he most highly prized are the black Sailfin Mollies. The dorsal of the male is large and
has an orange top ( hence the name Orange-Dorsa l Sailfin Molly). The sailfin does not
develop until the fish is at least nin e months old. T he females dorsal is normal, and the
you ng males look like ordinary Permablack MoJlies. We have bred thousands of these
you ng blacks and never have seen a fry with other than all black color. There are,
howeve r, strains that do produce shaded specimens. In some strains the young are born
gray or tum gray within a few days, the black appeari ng as they mature. in crosses with
albinos, the offspring were all natural gray wi th no black spots beyond the usual shading
of th e wild fo rm .
Because the fishes are native to salt or brackish waters, every third generation should
be raised in that medium .
The blacks, some of which may well be species hybrids, are called Ca rbon-black,
Midnight and Permablack. The latter have a'small dorsal, are small and born black.
Albino Mollies arc among the simplest of all albino fishes to raise. They have been
reported in M. latipinna and M . sphellops . We have raised thousands of them. A pair of
albinos never produces youn g of any other color. Breeding albinos is best done in a
white enamel basin whi ch makes it hard for th e parents to see tb e babies.
Black-eyed White Mollies arc only occasio nally seen. One appeared in a spawning of
M . lalipinnll and was most attractive. Bred to an albino, the thirty offspring were all the
native color of Olive-gray. The fish was bred to a black female whi eh lost her you ng
prematurely but they, too, were all native color. The male died before a new strain
could be established.
Mo/lienesia spiJenops or Sphenops are mottled in color. The male usually has an
orange or yellOW border to the tail. Occasionally breeders will "fix " an all black variety
of Sphenops, usuall y with a silver eye. These black Sphenops are much hardier tb an th e
black Mollies bred from M. latipinna and its hybrids. The Sphenops Molly may be
distinguis hed by the fact that the dorsal fi n begins posterior to or behind the start of tb e
Mollienesia sphenops
anal fin. Another variation of the Sphenops was the Liberty Molly which appeared in
the thirties. This silve r or blue fish had a brilliant red and black dorsal and red tail. It
wa difficult to breed true and is seldom seen. The Sphenops is one of the smaller Mollies
rarely exceeding two and a half to three inches.
The native Sailfin Molly (M. ialipinna) is distinguished from the Yucatan Sailfio
(M. ve lifera) chiefly by (he number of rays in the dorsal fin. The former has thirteen or
fourteen rays and the latter eighteen. Curiously enough, the small dorsal of the female
has as many ra ys as docs the largc dorsal of the male. Both species grow quite large-
four to five inches-a lthough aq uarium b ~ed specimens never reach that size.
Mol/ienesia lalipil1na
Merry Widow-Phallichthys amates
Native to Guatemala and Honduras. Length: Females 2 inches; males 1 inch.
DESPITE th e name, the male-as in so many small li ve-bea rers--of this attractive
spllc ies is th e more high ly colo red . Both males and fe males have gay oli vc bodies whi ch
become gold on the belly. The side give hack a grcen-b lue tin ge in a strong light. T here
is a dark st ripe along the rear of the body from the ventral fins to the base of the tail.
The male's dorsal fin has a black border wit hin whi ch is an ivory color, and a faint stripe
runs through the center. The female 's dorsal is almost tra nsparent. A black line may be
seen through the eye of both sexes, and tbe male shows dark bars up and down a long
the body.
They eat algae and fine dry food. Breeding is simpl e because large broods are born
which the parents, being vegetaria n, do not eat.
Platy- Xiphophorus maculatus and X. va riatus
N a tive to Mexico. Length: '* inches.
(AS A result of recent rec lassification , Plalypoeci/1Is has becn dropped as the genus and
grouped with Xiphophorus.)
It would bc difficult to find a more tractable, interesting or educational little fish
than thc Platy, unless it be thc Guppy. The Platy is easy to brecd in small tanks. It ap-
pears in a wide assortment of colors. The dcep red arc similar in color to tbose of Gold-
fish, for which the red Platies are sometimes mistaken by neophytes. The early Platies
usually had a dark-colored crcscent moon at the junction of tail and body which ac-
counts for the early name of moon{ish. The moon is now seen only rarely compared
with the other types of coloring.
10 X . macu /aILls, the colors are combinations of black, yellow, red and blue. We
find blues with a blue sheen, reds in dark and light shades, black tails and fins (wagtails) .
yellows, and variations such as red and black, greens, speckled and variegatcd. Many
specialists raise only a few varieties and keep them pure, so tbat dealers in purchasing
stock for resale can order by name and be reasonably sure of receiving uniform fishes
whicb breed truc.
There are two common species, both from Mexico, which are prized by fancier and
cientist alike. ]n Mcxico, one of the authors saw both species in the wild state and
marveled at how the many color oddities have been developed from so drab a fish
as maculalus. The enchanting colors of varialus would lead one to expect that a great
~umber ~f characteristics could possibly be developed as pure strains. Scientists study-
109 genetics have gone to great palOs to learn the mode of inheritance of the factors
into which the Platy has been divided. Each type breeds true and they arc the expression
of color variations or polymorphism.
Most of the work for our benefit has come from X. macula/us. There should be no
limit. to th e possibilities of variat ions where X. varia/us is concerned. Platy hybrids make
an interesting study in themselves.
Gold Wagta il Platy

Xiphophorus macu/atus
We hall first eon~ider the varieties of X . maclI/allls. I f yo u open an aquarium supply
catalogue and ob erve the colors to which specific names have been app lied, you may
realize how much has been done to utilize mutations in establishing purebred varieties.
The colored illustrations show several varieties of lI1aclI/allls and a wild variatus in
true color. But neither these nor the catalogues do justice to the possibilities within
the species for varietics on the basis of already fixed mutations. We must, therefore,
list orne of the separate characteristics and all you have to do to determine which fish
you would like to specia lize in- provided you have a creative turn of mind- is to asscm-
ble the characteristics in your dream fish . Each of thcse characteristics, or groups of
them, is inherited accordi ng to a known pattern. The possible body colors are red,
blue, yellow, green, black, Bleeding Heart, and variegated. The possible special mark-
ings are: moon on caudal peduncle, black tail and fins , colorless tail and fins, black
banded, red area through belly, red area on or below the dorsal, and spots.
Reds can be had all red, including the fins and tail; red bodied with colorless or
yellowish fins and tails; red bodied with black fins and tai ls; red with a black moon at
452 Family POEefUfDAE
base of tail ; red with an irregular band of black running lengthwise the body, with or
without black tails and fins . This is a total of six varieties not counting the red in the
var iegated fisb. Now multiply tbis by three becau e tbere are three distinct shades of
red, anyone of wbich can be combined with the above characteristics. There is a pale
red, a bright gleaming red and a deep blood red .
Red Wagtail Platy

We might go on with each of the colors but the possibilities are too obvious. Names
given by fanciers to cert ain combinations and which have apparently "stuck" are :
Wagtails to describe fish with black tai ls and fins (Red Wags and Go ld Wags arc varie-
ties) ; Golden Helmets, for black bodies and yellOW hoods ; Red Helmets, for black
bodies and red hoods; Gold Crescents, for gold with distinct black moon; Tuxedos, for
fish with a gold dorsal part of the body and wit h black ventral and black tail; Bleeding
Hearts, for light-colored fish wi th a red area above the belly.
Xiphophorus variatus
Thi species crosses with mactI/alLls easily and produces fertile hybrids. All of the
specimens taken from one area in Mexico may be much alike; those from another
region may differ. The colors are startlingly brilliant and pleasing. Reds and greens
or blues with shadings of yellow are characteristic of variatus. Some lots may have
vivid red dorsal fins and tails. Males of some lots may show black shading along the
margin of a yellow dorsal fin and have red tails. They often exh ibit clear crescent mooo .
The fema le is usually a plain gray fish.
Varia IllS has been bred in varieties such as red tail and yellOW tail strains. There is
also a Sunset variatus with an orange or yellOW bod y and ao orange dorsal fio and tail.
The female is yellow. A new type of varia/us- not yet named-is jet black, with a gold
head, a yellow dorsal, and an rorange tail. Good specimens are gorgeous. The female
ha the same body color but her fins are colorless.
Platies are quite hardy, thriving under a variety of water conditions. They will eat
almost anyth ing but require a good deal of vegetable matter in their diet. Ground oat-
meal-the old-fashioned, slow-cooking kind-is a good addition to the prepared dry
foods . Boil it stiff aod put a small lump io a dish 00 the bottom, or feed it un cooked as a
dry food.
Xiphophorus variatus
Swordtail- Xiphophoru5 helleri
Native to Mexico. length: Up to 5 inches.
MOST c losely related species to the Platy ( they are in th e same genus), the Swordtail
will hybridize with it readily. The breeding habi ts, food habits and liv ing ha bits of the
Swordta il are mu ch like those of the Platy. The chief differences are tho e of ap pea r-
ance-the males having a long po inted "sword," which is an extension of the lower rays
of the tail, and a greater speed and tendency to jump, which cause considerable loss
to amateu rs unlll experience teaches the breeder that the tank must be well covered.
The males tend to be pugnacious among themselves and have a proclivity to eat their
yo ung. The Swordta il grows twenty-five to fifty per cent larger than the Platy. The
Swordtai l are more carnivorous than the Platies, preferring a larger percentage of live
food in their diet.
The Swordt."1i l colors are placed in the native fish somewhat in zones with a green
overcast and a green word, but native fishes are seldom seen as fanciers have developed
from this species many varieties which breed true. Geneticists have studied its heredity.
The hybrid varieties eldom have as long a sword as th at of the wild original. Shipments
of helleri ometimes come through with quite inferior swords, and considerably smaller
in size (for mature fisbes) than the wild type. Most of tbe color varieties show a clear
black outline to thc sword; some only have black on tbe bottom ; and a few bave no
black at all. Another oddity in the Swordtail is tbat, of the ten or twelve var ieties, not
one is co mp letely devoid of the red line which runs the entire length of the body, from
the eye to the tail. Even albino Swordtails show this marking.
H ere a re the names of varietics given to them by breeders. Today th e fishe s are
listed und er these practicall y standard names in fish commercc ;
Green: This i the neares t to the nalural color. Back, hcad and lail are grecn. Spikc
black bordcrcd. Yellow or orange and red stripes, and often black, run length-
wise the body. Belly shades to blue-green.
Brick R ed: Quite similar to th e green variety-body a brick color and with a sword
all ye llow or black with border.
Go/d: A ye llow fish with red streaks. Sword without black border; it may have
a red border.
Red: Solid red except for sword edged in black or yellow.
Red-eyed R ed: Same as red except eyes are ruby instead of black.
R ed Wag: Solid red with black fins and sword.
R ed Tuxedo: Red back on upper part of body; black on sword and ventra l part.
Green T uxedo: Green on upper part of body; black on sword and ventral part.
A Ibillo: White with pink eycs (red line persists).
Crescell t: As in the case with Plat ies, some helleri have a distinct moon at the junction
of tail and body. It may be combin ed Wi lh any of the above except the albi no.
Some fish have a pai r of dots instead of a crescent.
Swordtails are easy to sex-well before their earliest fertility-beca use as they ap-
proach puberty the male' sword and gonopodium develop rapidly. There is little excuse
fo r mismating si nce the sexes can be segregated so early. Females have large spawn-
ings, producing from twe nt y-five to two hundred and fifty young.
Most fanciers find Sword tails uncommonl y hard y and fascinating fish with which
to wo rk or to Lise to grace the community tank.
Besides the hd/eri species, another X . montezumae has been described, but com-
pared with X. /J el/eri, the virtues of the form cr are inferior a nd it has never becom e a
favorite.
Black Swordtail
Famify GASTEROSTEIDAE 457
Four-Spined Stickleback-Ape/tes quadracus
Native from New Brun swick to Virginia . Length : 2~ inches.
THIS fish will live in fresh, brackish, or salt water. In color it is a brownish-olive
to green-brown, and the ventral fin is red. The male is darker than the female.
The aquarium for this species should bave so me salt in the water. This fish
spawns in late spring or early summer. It bui lds nests like others of the Sticklebacks
which are anchored among the plants in the aquarium like a bird's nest. Fifteen to
twenty cggs arc deposited and hatch in about six days at a temperature of 70° F.
They are bardy fish ant! can survive for four years in captivity. Remark s about
the Three-Spined Stickleback apply equally to this specie .
458 Family GASTEROSTEIDAE
Three-Spined Stickleback-Gasterosteus aculeatus
Native to both Europe and America. Length: 3 to 4 inches.
THE Three-Spined Stickleback lives in hrackish water among weeds. It is a green

and silver fish, with iridescent bars. During breeding the male's throat and tomach
bccome brilliant red . with hlue and green above.
The male constructs a nest of weeds and debris, cements it together, and leavcs
an opening for th e fema les to enter and deposit the eggs. They cat only live food, and
the male are pugnacious. The life span is about one year.
This fish takes its name from the three spikes which are carried just forward of the
dorsal tin. These spikes can he held rigidly erect, making the Stickleback-like th e
Porcupine-too prickly to swa llow. There is no reason to believe that these spines are
ever used offensively, although the two ventral spines may be used for attack.
Family ATHERINIDAE 459
Queensland Rainbow- Melanotaenia mccullochi
Native to Australia . Length : 2!t2 inches .
A HIGHLY colored, striped fi sh of a nice size, m ail e r than M . niRrol'ls a nd much

li velier. A blue sheen reflects from this gray-green bea uty. Seven red-brown stripes
run a long its side from th e head to th e tai l, which is a brilli ant red. The eyes are la rge a nd
allractive. A bright red diamond spot decorates the g ill cove r. Th e belly too is red , and
at th e junct ion of tail a nd bod y the re is a noticeabl e da rk brown triangle. But the
color a pplies o nl y to adults , for you ng fi sh a re dra b by comparison. Th e pectoral a nd
pelvic fin s a rc dull red : the a ndl fin red.
Unless seen togeth er it is diffi c ult to dete rmine the sex but, in general, the fem ale
is la rger a nd not quit e so intensely colored . K e pt in a gro up by them selve in a heavi ly
planted aq ua rium th ey wi ll breed read il y. Kee p th em well fed and they will not eat the
eggs or young. Th rives 00 dry food a nd is ve ry peaceful.
460 Family ATHERINIDAE
Australian Rainbow- Me/anotaenia nigrans
Native to Australia and New Guinea. Le ng th : 4 inches.
FOR tbe newcomer to the tropical fish hobby who wants to find an easily bred,
easily cared for fis h, the Australian Rainbow is IT. The you ng or eggs arc in little
dange r of bcing ca ten and in a few months an aquarium will be full of grow ing
Rainbow . They thrive in o utdoor tanks in the summertime and can withstand quite a
low temperature.
The fish is beautiful, more colorful even than the Queensl and R a inbow which it
resembles. T he general body color is olive-green with a silver belly. It is tbe red and
yellow longitudinal stripes and the iridesce nce the sca les reflect which make it appealing.
One sees gOld, blue, violet and green. The fin s, too, are colorful-in yellow shades
with red dots and a black margin . The fi sh has a tenden cy to clamp its fin much of the
time in contrast to mccullochi which keeps the fin s spread. Males are smaller and more
colorful. The female is larger, heav ier and not quite so colorful; and, unfortunately,
small specimens of both sexes do not show much coloring.
This fish thrives on dry food, although it also appreciates a little variety in its diet.
Family ANABANTIDAE 461
Anabantid Fishes
HA VE you ever visited a store where fishes are sold and seen shelves filled
with small globe aquaria, perhaps four or five inches in diameter, each con-
taining a red, blue, green or whit Betta? Have you thought, "How cruel to
keep such a large fish in so small a space !" You need not, for the fish is an
Anabantid. This class of fishes is equipped with an alternate method of ob-
taining oxygen. They have the usual gi ll equipment but, in addition , have
an organ in the head known as a "labyrinth." This amazing structure is, in
a way, the equivalent of a lung. It has capillaries with thin walls so that the
blood can come into close contact with the air. The fi sh rise to the surface
and take in air which passes into the labyrinth . As the labyrinth takes in
fresh air. stale air is expelled through the gill covers. The labyrinth is not
present in newly born young; it develops when they are about ten days old.
For a long time, aquarists thought that the labyrinth fishes breathed in this
man ner only. Then students placed some of the fis hes in bottles filled with
water and corked tightly. The prisoners li ved for twelve hours using their
gi lls to oxygenate their blood. Not all Anabantids, however, can breath e
under water. If a Climbing Perch, for example, is held under water, it drowns.
At any rate, it i ' not harmful to the Bettas to keep them in small jars, for
they can and do use their labyrinth apparatu ', and thus suffer no hardship.
Another feature which many of the species of laby rinth fishes have in
common is their odd means of reproduction. They build bubble nests, en-
veloping the eggs in small air bubbl es, which they deposit at the surface of
the water. It is usually the male who attends to this housekeeping chore. The
start of nest-building is an indication that the male is ready for breeding.
The swollen body of the female is an indication that she is ready.
It is fascinating to watch the process by which the eggs are fertilized.
Whereas males of most of the egg-laying species spray milt over the eggs
soon after they are laid , the labyrinth fi hes accomplish the feat in another
way. The following description of Betta breeding is typical of Anabantid be-
havior:
The male, after co urtship during which he displays all hi s finery to the
fullest, swims under the prepared nest where the female soon joins him . He
rolls his body about hers in what appears to be an embrace. She starts to lay
eggs and he sprays milt over them as they slowly fall downward. Before the
first egg has dropped six inches through the water below the pair, the last
egg will usually have been laid. The male unrolls and swims slowly down-
ward, gathering the eggs in rus mouth. He swims quiCkly upward and blows
them into his bubble nest. By that time both male and female are ready for
another embrace, and over and over again this process is repeated until
there are no more eggs to be laid. The female may have as few as a hundred
462 Family ANABANTIDAE
and as many or more than a thousand. One of the authors counted 969 from
one medium- ized female Betta. The female "passes out" after each embrace.
Breeding bubble-nest builders is simple provided that certain rather rigid
speciEcations are fulfilled. Your success will depend on your knowledge of
these specifications. First of all, do not keep more than one pair of the fish
in the breeding tank. Second, do not place the male in the female's aguarium
until you are reasonably sure she is well filled with eggs. Third, watch tbe
male's actions when you put him in the tank and if he becomes too pugna-
cious Or insistent, remove him and try him again a few days later. His first
action will be to build a nest. When that is partially completed, he will expect
the female to come to his embrace. 1f he courts her and she does not
respond, he may become infuriated and harm ber. Fourtb, remove tbe female
as soon as the spawning is finisbed , but remember that it may go on for
severa l bours. Toward the end, the embraees result in fewer and fewer eggs.
Finally there will be one, two or none at all. As SOon as spawning is over,
the male will stay arouod the nest for a short time and then turn upon the
female with what appear to be pent-up wrath. He may tear all her fins off,
and she will not fight back. 1t is best to have several dense plant clumps in
the ag uarium which can serve a~ a refuge for her. Fifth. jot down the time
the eggs were laid. The male will spend his time until the eggs hatch in-
creasing the size of the bubble ne t. Some labyrinth fishes will pile the bubbles
to the height of three-eights of ao inch and the nest may spread out over
five inches in width. In two days the eggs will hatch . You will see the mi-
nuscu le fish with yolk saes plainly visible, hanging vertically and occasionally
sliding downward through the water and wiggling upward. The male, treat-
ing them as he did the eggs, blows them back among the bubbles. For three
days the father tends the nurse ry . At the end of that time you will see the
little fry all living in the water just below the surface-their yolk sacs ab-
sorbed. The nest receives no more of the male's attention and it slow ly dis-
appears in three more days.
The fry school , with tbe father Betta herding, protecting and defending
them. They grow rapidly if proper food is available. 1t is advisable to watch
the male. As soon as the fry eem well able to fend for them elves, he may
start eating them, so remove him well before that time. In fact, as oon as
the fry school, there is no further need for protection from the male parent.
Be sure to feed the fry properly . They cannot take adult food . The smallest
infusoria and diatoms are best. And how they grow if well fed! An infusoria
drip is one of the best methods of feeding. To its absence, pour green infusoria
culture into the tank. It may even pay to leave a few dry lettuce leaves de-
caying in the tank. It will be two weeks before the fry are large enough to
eat Micro-Worms, small sifted Daphnia, newly hatched Brine Shrimp. As sooo
as you find they can eat these tidbits, supply them abundantly.
Last of all, as soon as you begin to see fighting among the males, remove
them to individual homes. Males of some strains attack one another earlier
than those of otbers. Betta males may have to be separated by the time they
are three months old.
Because of the large number of young in a brood, it is best to use at
least a IS-gallon tank for breeding. The water depth should be about 6 inches.
Neither pH nor water hardness seems to be particularly important. The water
should be old and well conditioned. Water of this type wiJl usually support a
vigorous growth of microorganisms which will help serve as a first food.
It is difficult to generalize about distinguishing the sexes when young.
Unless the female is filled with roe, the body shapes are u 'ually quite , imilar.
Only the adult male Betta has the long gorgeous fins , and not all males de-
velop long tins. In some specimens the fins remain short and resemble those
of the female. Most Anabantids prefer a high, even temperature in the neigh-
borhood of 80 ° F. Research records point up the critical importance of the
correct temperature in the breeding of Bettas. Records were kept of the num -
ber of nests which were built when the fish were kept at various temperatures.
Here they are:
Temperature
No. of Nests Built o 0 0 2 7 29 4 1
At 80 ° F . males could breed every two or three days. At 60 ° F . males
had n sperm . Females kept at 80 0 F. bred every seven days. Females kept
at 70 ° F . only bred every twenty-one days.
Climbing Perch-Anabas testudineus
Na tive to India, Indo-China, Philippines . Length: 5 inches.
ONE of the most unusual of all aquarium fishe for those interested in novelties.
As sold in aquarium stores, specimens are usually three or four inches long and in
tanks they rarely exceed five inches. The fi h comes in a variety of shades of color,
depending on the place of origin. Thcse colors range from olive-green through brown,
with a light-green or silver belly. The dorsal fins are brown ; the pectorals orange. The
black spot on the gill cover fades with age. Eyes are golden yellow. Sexing is difficult
unless one can watch the actions of the fish and judge by the behavior.
This fish is easy to keep and cats almost any food enjoyed by other fishes. It
especially likes worms and is large enou gh to eat small garden worms whole.
This is a fish which can move over land and likes to get out of the water. Keeping
the aq uarium covered is essential. Placing an inclined board in the tank wit h part of it
out of the water permits the Perch to hunch its way upward. It spreads its gill covers and
rocks sideway, digging short spines into the board and tbus moving along.
This species does not build a bubble nest but lays eggs which float. The fry stay
at tbe surface, inverted , for a day and then turn over, slowly absorbing the yolk sacs.
The parents ignore the eggs.
Tbis is a gluttonous fish and requires a great deal of feeding. It is not safe with
smaller fishes.
Betta-Betta sp/endens
Native to Siam. Length: Approximately 2!-2 inches.
THE FAMOUS Siamese Fighting Fish is probably the most fla . y, showy and exotic
species hred in captivity. The G uppy, with its grea ter variety of sparklin g colors, may
surra s the Betta for beauty, but the Guppy is smaller and therefore its beauty is
less conspic uous.
Thc Betta, replacing tbe Paraeli e F ish, has done wond ers for the fish hobby.
The Paradise Fish has been bred in America since 1876 ; th e Bett a only si nce 1927-
a n almost insta ntan eous hi t from that year on. Frank Buck and Dr. Hugh M. Smith
were th e first to " Bring 'em back ali ve." T hey both imported th em in the sa me
yea r, altho ugh separa tely. lis breeders are num bered in the hundreds of thousa nds.
Special Bella tanks arc made to please the fa ncy of Bella breeders and exhibit ors.
In the past , if not so much today, Bettas have been fought and considerable
mon ey bet on th em. In th e la nd of their nativi ty- Siam- the fish has been bred for
the jast century and selec ted, along the lines of game cocks, for their pugnaciousness
and fight ing ab ilit y. They are useful in nature in co ntrolling mosq uitoes. One adult
Betta it is estimated can eat 10 to 15,000 larvae a year.
While some Siamese were selecti ng Bettas for fighting propensity, others were also
segregating the mutations and breeding these for color and fin size. Tbis selection
has been carried forward until a full y fi nn ed male of tbe finest type carries such
hu ge adornments a to seem almost incredible in size of fins a nd brightness of colors.
Goldfish are often of a bea utiful red, but their red is pa llid in comparison with that
of the Betta. There are no fishes in aU the fish family whose blues are as vivid or greens
as bright. Despite tbe desire to fight, a single male will do well in a community lank,
generally ignoring the other species, although Bettas will attack Dwarf Gouramies.
Betta breeding hn been descrihed at the beginning of this section. The males
take many months to develop to their top beauty. Some are old at eighteen montbs
and some may continue to grow until they are twenty months old. After two year of
age, BeHas are not of much value as breeders, although they may live to he four
years of age. Males sturt to fight eacb other at tbe approach of sexual maturity.
Generally those which will be best at maturity are best when half-grown, although
there are exceptions. Betta tanks, with the gla s partitions, make excellent growing
quarters. These males will continue to show their fins and act aggressive (0 male on
the other side of the partition until tbe glass becomes covered with algae, ome Betta
breeders use sanded glass partitions which are translucent but not transparent. Because
of the time required to keep these males, they are quite expensive fish while the
females, which can be raised together, are relatively inexpeo ive.
1n starting the Bella hobby, it pays to be fully as careful in chOOSing tbe female
as the male, because half of the heredity of the next generation will he hers.
When you have Bettas to sell, be sure to emphasize their age, Many breeders
carry lots of sixteen-month-old Bettas of inferior quality to dealers. You may have
some at eight months of age, just as good, 11 you do not make the dealer realize
that at ixteen months yours will far outclass tbe other man's, YOll wiU get less than
yours are worth ,
Do not try to sex Bettas too early. The age of puberty varies with tbe rapidity
of growth and there are many late developers. In many lots of "females" sold to
fish stores, there are numbers of males, And occasionally a female put into a com-
munity tank with another male turns out to be a poor male whicb cuts the fine male
into ribbons, When tbis happens, the damage is often blamed on a fish of some other
species,
The usual Betta colors are deep blue, often called "cornflower blue," light blue,
lavender, red, Cambodia (red fins on a cream-colored body), green, and mixtures of
colors such as red and blue, or -red, blue and green.
Giant or Striped Gourami- Colisa fasciata
Native to India. Le ngth : Approxima te ly 4 inch es.
THIS Indian fish-which seldom grows over four inches long when aquarium-raised
-has some odd reproductive characteristics which make him somewhat different
from his relative. He is a sloppy nest·builder and seems to just sq uirt some bubbles
towa rd the surface and let it go at that. The nest is not well defined and the eggs do
not drop aDd have to be picked up. They flo at up themselves, being lighter tban
water.
The male a lso takes mouthfuls of sand from tbe bottom and blows it out in fin e
bubbles, which he then swim through . These bubbles rise to the surface bUI do not
become part of his nest.
ln color this fish resembles a washed-oul, coar e looking Dwar f GO~lrami.
Thick-Lipped Gourami-Colisa labiosa
Nativ e to Burma . Le ngth : Approximate ly 3 inches.
SOMEWHAT Ic~s colorful than other members of the genu~, lahiosa is nevertheless
wonh owning. Actual ly the lips do not appear to be particularly th ick. It is a fairly
timid fish but becomes tamer with time . Breeding is typica l of bubblc-nest builders.
The ma le builds the nest. During the embrace, both partners turn upside down and
the eggs float lip.
The general color is brown, but the fish becomes almost black during the breeding
season . At th is time it i very attractive. Ordinarily, it might be said to look like a du ll
Dwarf Gourami. The male has brighter colors with longer and more pointed dorsal
and anal fins.
Dwarf Gourami-Colisa lalia
Nat ive to India. Length: Approximately 2 inches.
TH IS little gem is one of thl.! delig ht of aqu a rium owners. It shades of red on a
pink body $tand out a mong the inhabitants o f a ny community tank , and kept alone
it ma kes a beautiful sight. 1t is small in size a nd admirably suited to be a resident of a
communit) aquarium. The male can be distin guish ed from the fem ale by his bri lli a nt
colors and his reddish-orange feelers or barbels.
The female helps build the bubble nest and both parents chop off bit of plants
which they place among the bubble . Th e breeding ta nk should th erefore contain
fioe floating pla nts. Th c eggs, whi c h a rc li ghter than water, float up as th e pa ir
embrace upside down under th e nest. The male guards th e nest alone.
Some aquarists have found the spec ies to be shy. Dwarf Gouramies make excell ent
pets, especially those raised in home aquari a. They come to the front to be fed a nd
act peacea bly except when ma ting, at which tim e the male may become quite vio lent
toward the female. Some males wi ll sq uirt water two or three inche out of the ta nk
at food that passes w ithin range. They prefer a lot of shade 111 th e aquarium.
They will thrive on either dry or live food.
Kissing Gourami-He/ostoma temminclci
Native to Malay, Java, Borneo. length : Up to 12 inches.
SOM E aquarists who own large tanks find this cun oslty an interesting addition. Al-
though it grows tluite large, it rarely bothers even th e sm,d lest fishes. It may !lot her
flat-sided fishes like Angels or Discus by sucki ng on th eir sides. AI 'o it is best kept
in groups of four or more. When pairs are kept t ge the r, one tends to bully the other.
The Kissing Gouramis have thick lips and when not cating "kiss" and oftcn remain
with lips together for long period. You may find a single one kissing the glass- eithcr
kissing its image or eating algae. T he general impression is one of a rather largc,
coarse fish, leaving much to be desired .
The light amber eggs float untended at the top of the aquarium amo ng floating
plants. No nest is built and no care given. This species permits its young to develop
unharmed. Sometimes a hungry pair will ea t the eggs, but th ey will not eat the
you ng. A pair may staT! breeding by the timc th ey are four inches long if the tempera-
ture and food condit ions are right, but the larger ones breed best, omctimes spawnin g
two thousand eggs. In large tanks, the Kissers have been known to reach a length of
twclve inches. They have a dislike for live food and must be trained to eat it if it is
to be used in their diet. The addition of raw oatmeal (ground fine or cooked) to
their diet helps keep them in good condition.
As it is difficult to scx th em, they are best kept in groups by themselves, allowi ng
natural pairing wben breeding time comes. They are also \ ery sensitive to cold. A chill
often causes them to waste slowl y away. Their tank sbould be covered to keep tbe air
above the water, as well as the water itself, warm.
The fish in the illu lrat ioq are aetual ly the sa me color. The apparent difference is
due to lighting.
Mocropodus chinens;s
Native to 'ndia, Cey'on ancl Southeast Asia . Length: Up to 2!-2 inches.
M . CHI NENSIS is a round -ta iled species of Paradise Fish, but, except th at it is slightly
smaller, it has nothing to recommend it over the M . opercl.Ilari. . You may see it for
sale occasionall y. The males are much less highly colored.
M . Cl.Ipan us day i is another even less intensely colored and less attracti vc member of
th e genus. The tail is spea r shaped.
Paradise Fish-Macropodus opercularis
Native to Asia and Afri(a. Size: Approximately 3 in(hes.
THIS was the first tropical aquarium fish to capture the fancy and interest of the
public. It made its initial appearance in Paris. It auld be kept in the cool water of
Goldfish aquaria and still live. Paradise will withstand a low of 45 10 50 degrees F.
However, because Ihe males attacked the fins of the beautiful Goldfish they were
kept with it was found that the two species are incompatible. When Ihis truly tropical
species was kept at higher temperatures, it was found these interesting newcomers
would reproduce and do so in a manner which added something new and interesting
for aquarium keepers. There was a short-lived rage for Paradise Fish, but it soon gave
way. Today one sees few of the Macropodus in the fish slores.
One explanation of its diminution in numbers and the loss of its popularity is that
it is LOa easy to breed, too simple to keep, too catholic in its choice of environments,
too easily raised in ou tdoor ponds. Breeding is typical of the bubble-nest builders as
described al Ihe beginning of Ihis Chapter. Occasionally the female helps guard the
nest. In short, despite its beauty, it was too common, therefore too cheap. But of all
the aquarium egg-laying fishes, it is the most nearly ideal for beginners to breed. Jt
is definitely not safe to keep tbe Paradise Fish witb smaller fishes .
Paradise Fish are beautiful, decorative objects. The male is far more attractive
tban the fema le. The dar a1 and anal fins of the male are much longer and more
pointed. When unexcited, the male has a brownish cast to its body over which dark
vertical bands are laid. Howe er, with stimulation, the male rapidly changes bis color.
The ide becomes vertically striped with red, blue and purple bands; about twelve in
number. The marginal edges of the dorsal and anal fins may become purplisb; the long
ventral bluish at the base. A greenish-blue spot, edged in orange, adorns the gill cover.
In general, the same colors are seen on t.he fins as those which appear on the ides of
the male. The fema le, by contrast, is drab. Although they appear sluggish and slow
moving, they are terrific jumpers. Keep them well covered.
Although there are several pecies of Macropodlls, few mutations have been
obscrved in the Paradise Fish, and for that reason there is much less chance of
breeding varieties. Only the white-a true albino-has so far been bred as a distinct
variety. The albino is similar in habits to the regular variety but it is not quite so
pugnacious. The vertical bars are pink and the eyes are red .
This fish breeds in typical bubble-nest builder style. It eats anything.
Chocolate Gourami- Sphaerichthys osphromenoides
One species is said to be native to Sumatra and Malaya .

The other is said to be from Borneo . length : 3 inches .
IN MANY ways this lovely little fi sh is an eni gma . There are reports that it is a
mouth breeder. that it is a bubhle- nest builder: that it is hardy, th at it is delicate ;
th at it prefers alk a lin e water, and th at it prefe rs ac id water. Il is possible, even
probable, th at there a re two spec ies whi ch may breed differentl y.
The authors' ex perience with the h ocolate Gourami would ind icate tbat at least
one of the species-if there are two species-is a hubble-nest huilder. although it
does not breed readil y. It prefers soft, slightl y ac id water and wi ll eat almost any
fin e food , either dry or live. It is a gentl e, slow movin g fish which is best kept only
with other small ge ntle fi shes.
The hoeolate Gourami prefers a ralher high temperature, above 78 ° F. , and it
does not ta ke kindly to the changing of it water. it is ex trem ely susceptible to
velvet disease, a nd tbi s is hard to det ect aga inst the gOlden-brown scales of the fish.
Pearl Gourami-Tr;chogaster leer;
Nativ e to Siam , Sumatra . Le ng th: Approximately 4 inch es.
THE Pearl Gourami gets its popular name from the tiny pearl-like spots which dot
its body, not from a general whiteness. The ground color is olive which becomes
opalescent in a strong light. The mosaic pattern (it is also called the Mosaic Gourami)
which COvers the body ami fins is dark. Thc throat and belly are white, except during
breeding when those of the males become deep red. There is a dark line from the
snout to the tail. The dorsal and anal fins of the male are much longer and more
pointed than the female·s.
At any time the colors of both sexes will add loveliness to any aquarium, and
few more gentle, quiet fis hes are to be found. In spitc of its quie tness tbough , this
fish is a terrific jumper.
Pearl Gouramies are easily raised if a pair is left by themselves. The male is
mueh gentler to the female than the ma les of the other Anabantid species usually
are, and neither parent is too inclined to eat the yo ung. Often both parent co"'perate ·
in building and guarding the nest.
Three-Spot and Blue Gourami-Trichogaster trichopterus
Native to Sumatra . Length: Approximately 5 inches.
THE Blue Gourami is identical with the Three-Spot except for its color which is a beauti-
fu ll y delicate pale blue. The male has longer and more pOinted a nal and dorsal fins
than the female-a feature that aids in sexing. It is a typical bubble-nest builder,
frequently breeding in communit y tanks. It is a good consumer of hydra. Full grown
specimens are not to be trusted with small fishe s.
The color of the Three-Spot is a gun-meta] gray.
Family CHANNIDAE 477
Snake Head-Channa asiatica
Native to Southern China . Length : 8 inches .
SOME call it the Walking Fish. It is strictly a novelty, which should be kept alone
or brcd in tanks-never in community aquaria. It is a fighter and eats fish of con-
siderable size- and a jumper, which means the aquarium must be kept covered. Few
fishes havc thc huge appetite of the Snake Head. Anyone troubled with an over-
abundance of snails will find a Snake Head useful, provided he first removes the other
fish from the tank.
This fi h eats any fish food . Earthworms make the simplest meal because they are
so easy to collect and store.
The color is attractive; the body being a green-gray which fades to light gray on
the belly. The side has a zig-zag pattern of silver dots, and these dots also decorate the
long dorsal and anal fins close 10 the bod y. Where the tail joins the body there is a con-
spicuous black dot surrounded by a circle of light dots.
Adults can sta nd a temperature of 50° F. but the young are killed by it. To sex
them-t he sexes seem almost identical-try pairs together. Males will fight; a male
and female live peacea bly. The large eggs float, grouping together, but there is no .
bubble nest. The male protects the eggs and fry so the female must be removed . Look
for the eggs to hatch in three days and the fry to be free-swimming in four more.
Then the male should be removed. These fry will be three inches long in four months.
478 Family CENTRARCHIDAE
Black-Banded Sunfish- Mesogonistius chaetodon
Native from Mar yland to N ew Jersey. Length: 3 to 4 inches .
AT ONE time this fish wa called "the roor man 's Angel Fish ." At that time the im-
ported Angel Fish were expensive and thi American Sunfish plentiful. Now the Black-
Banded Sunfish is protected by law and. since our stock is imported from Germany
where it is bred , it has become quite expensive.
Tbis fish is pearl-gray , witb an almost crystalline body which is vertically striped
with six to eight black bands. The ventral fins are black and orange. They do better in
a tank by themselves, and, as in nature they are found in the pine barrens, they must
have very acid water. In alkaline water they soon "fold up."
Breeding is typical of the native Sunfi, hes. The eggs are laid in a shallow depression,
which has been prepared by ttJe male, on the bottom. Once the eggs are laid. the male
drives tbe female away and sbe should be removed. He guards the eggs and cares for
the young until tbey are free-swimming. The young are very tiny and require the
finest foods. Breed freely in the average aquarium.
Family CHANDIDAE 479
Glass Fish-Chanda la/a (formerly Ambassis la/a)
Native to India and the East Coast of Africa . Length : Approximately I Y2 inches .
AS THE popular name suggests, th is fish bas an al most transparent body, whic h has an
over-all yell owish cast to it. The fins a re edged in blue. The male is mu ch more colorful.
L ike Kypl oplem ,I' hicirrhu.I'. the vi tal o rga ns of the C. lala are visible in the peritoneum
ncar th e bead and just below the swim bl adder.
While the G lass F ish wi ll take dry food, it req uires a good deal of li ve or fresh food
if it is to thrive.
The Glass Fish ca n be bred in cap ti vity, but th e chances agai nst the fry maturi ng
are grea t. During spaw nin g, th e male and fe m ale a sum e a side-by-side position , the
female later turning upside down and di scha rging the eggs o nto the leaves of plants in
tbe aqu arium , At a temperature of approx imateIy 80- 82 ° F., th e fry hatch in eight
hours. T he greatest difficult y with raising th e fry co mes in tryin g to obtain sufficiently
small infusoria fo r them to ea t.
Being from brack ish waters, the e fi sh thri ve and appear more brilliantly colored
in a medium of half sea and b alf fresb water. This is one of the few fishes which will cat
Gammarus.
480 Family NANDIDAE
Badis Badis-Badis badis
Notive to Indio. length: Approximately 2% inches.
THE Badis Badis is perhaps the last word in changeabili ty of color with in a spt:cies. It
can have a body color of pink, of golden-brown, or of reddish-blue. The sides are
adorned with variously colored scales whi ch give the over-all impression of a checker-
board or a chain-like pattern. The ana l, ventral , pectoral and caudal fin s are inclined to
be hyaline from their center section out ; the body sections of the fins are pink in general
colo r. When ready to breed, Badis turn a very dark blue-black.
The fish of this species usually spawn upside down under a rod. overhang or in a
flowerpot placed on its side in the aquarium as an egg repository. At a temperature
of 80° F. the eggs wi ll hatch in about forty-eight hours. The fry are guarded by the
male. The stomach of the male is concave, that of tbe female convex.
This species will eat live food only.
Family NANDIDAE 481
Leaf Fish-Monocirrhus polyacanthus
Native to the Amazon and the Guianas. length: Approximately 2~ inches.
A MOST peculiar species of fish which moves ahout seda tely and postures at various
angles. The general body color is that of a brown lea f, though due to an abi li ty of the
fish to change color (possibly as a means of protection) the shade of brown does not
remain constant.. The eyes are difficult to distinguish ; the fin s have tooth-like edge; and
the lower jaw possesses a beard-like appendage. All of these aid in giving the fish the
appearance of a leaf.
Spawning is somewhat in the manner of the Cich lids, although the ma le does not
labor nearly as hard with the eggs and the fry as do the males of the ichlid genera . The
fry, when starting to mature, acquire white spots which look surprisingly like ich
( ichth yophtbirus) . However, it is possibly a part of the mechanism of protection as is
the abi lity to change color.
The fish will not touch anything but live food of a large size but it eats that in what
seems to be tremendous quantities. In captivity, the adults scorn Daphnia and worms.
They require Guppys and other small fishes of which they eat a fantastic quantity. They
drift towards their prey and when clo e enough actually suck it in. One particular
peculiarity in behavior might be mentioned. The fish has a penchant for opening-
actua lly it is more like unfolding- its mouth in a way that gives the appearance of a
tremendous yawn. Apart from this startlin g habit, the cond uct of the fish is fairly re-
strained.
482 Family TOXOTIDAE
Archer Fish- Toxotes ;aculator
Native to East Indies. Length: 5 inches.
ALL of the fishes in this family obtain some of their food by shooting it. Since they enjoy
insects. the fish pokes it nose out of the waler and squirts a little water at any insect near
enough to be struck and then eats the bug when it drops. The roof of the fish's mouth
has a groove in the palate so that by placing the tongue against it a sort of rifle barrel is
formed. A series of drops can be fi red by using the tongue. The fi h can shoot drop., with
amazing accuracy five or six feet. It is fascinating to watch young fish.
The fish can swim forward or backward and move its eyes in any but a downward
direction. It prefers salty water. It eats any live food but likes 10 shoot its own. Flies,
which in summer may be collected for it in fl y traps. are relished.
The fish might even be purchased for its heauty as well as its abi lit y. It is olive or
gray-olive, and some are lighter-almost golden. Six black bars cross the body. The
fins follow the body color and are edged with black. Never bred.
Family MONODACTYLIDAE . 483
Singapore Angel-Monodactylus argenteus
Native ta Africa , India, and Ma laya . Length : 4 inches.
TH IS is one of the loveliest of aquarium fishes. It is almost as ta ll as it is long and thin

through the body, although not as thin as lin Angel Fish. The body is silver and reflects
metallic purple in a good light. The dorsal and ana l fins arc covered in part by scales.
The fins , including the tail , are a beautiful yellow which contra t wi th tb e silver body
color and the shades of black in the two vert ica l bands, one of which runs from tbe
forehead through the huge eye, the other acro s the side, partly crossing the gill cover.
Older specimens are pugn acious. Most aquari 'ts buy young fish when they are about
two inches long and wa tch them grow mpitl ly. Although quite hardy, ihey do D{lt like
sudden water changes. When something is wrong, tbe coloration becomes dark in
patches. When th e fish turns and stays dark , it is ncar death. The Singapore Angel sel-
dom shows symptoms of ordinary diseases, and tbe treatment for most of th eir ai lments
consists of grad ually changing them over to sea water during a period of three to four
days and raising the temperature to 85 ° F. If sea water is not avai lable, use aquarium
sa lt, adding Ih ounce of salt to a ga llon of water eacb day for five days. The chan ge
back to fresh water after recovery should be gradual also. In nature this fish is found in
fresh, brackish, and salt water.
Argenleus eats anything but prefers live food. Never bred and no sex distinctions
known.
484 Family SeA TOPHAGIDAE
Spotted Scat-Scatophagus argus
Nativ e to the 'East Indies. Le ngth , 6 inches.
ALTHOUGH there arc many cats distributed over a wide geographica l area, S . argus
is the one common ly seen. It is a roundish , fat fish wh ich lives without harming other
fishes but tri es to keep them away from food . ]t may fight with otbers of its own
variety. Argus varies in color. Some a re bra sy; some gray, gray-green, pink. Round
black spots whic h tend to be laid down in vertica l rows cover th e body. Its anterior
dorsal fin is usually brown-blue and the posterior is yellow. S. ru.brijons which has red
markings on the dorsal and upper body is probably just a color variation.
If you buy some, keep th em in brackish water. Scats prefer a mixed diet and
devour plants. All of the floating plan ts fro m a 15-gallon aq uarium were eaten in a week
by two Scats. Beca use they cal foods so Jow in calories, they must eat a lot. They have
never been bred and no sex distinction is known.
Family SCATOPHAGIDAE 485
You may see other Scats for sale: the Tiger Scat, s. orna/us, or s. /e/racan/ilus or
Selen%ca mul/ifascia/a or S. papuensis. Each differs from the other in form and color
bu t all have simi lar characteristics.
Se len% ca papuensis
Native to New Guinea and the East Indies . Length: 6 inches.
486 Family CICHLIDAE
The Cichlids
CICHLIDS as a group are the largest fishes commonly kept in aquaria. In

addition they are often pugnacious. It is a tribute to their interesting be-
havior and "intelligence" that they conti nuall y capture the fancy of the
aquarist. There are a few dwarf varieties which are relatively peaceful, or,
at least, the damage they can do is limited by their size. In addition to all
this, most of the larger Cicblids uproot plant and dig holes. Hardly an at-
tractive characteristic! But this is only a partial picture; and the rest of the
picture is more interesting. If a Cich lid is savage, it is because it is under the
urge of an instinct stronger than any other-the urge to reproduce. If a
Cichlid uproots plant and piles the gravel in mounds, it is in the prepara-
tion of a breeding site and in the care of its young and not senseless ·avagery .
(There are a few more peaceful members of the fami ly, such as the Angel
Fish, which make relatively good community inhabitants.)
Another interesting feature of the Cichlids is the way they change color
and pattern. The markings of the young differ from those of the adults . In
addition , both adu lts and young have a number of distinctive patterns and
markings which they can assume and di card at will like a chameleon. This
is done by expanding or contracting the pigment in different color cells
(chromatophores) wh ich cover the body and fins. These chroma tophores
are variable, and by dispersing the pigment in some while concentrating it
in others, the fish can change its markings and colors. These color changes
are an indication of the fi sh's feelings. Hunger, fright , sexual stimulation,
etc. , are all marked by distinctive color patterns. As might be expected, the
fervor of mating stimulates the brightest colors .
Breeding
Young Cichlids, unlike the adults, get along very well in schools. In a
large aquarium, they swim together, follow each other about, and. to a large
extent, assume tbe same coloration.
As they mature, they begin to elect territories. A fish will select a site
at the bottom which it begin to clear. It drives all other fishes away. Gradually
its patterns and markings change to adult coloration . The male is the most
aggressive in selecting and defending a home area or territory; but unmated
females, at times, will also choose a territory to occupy and defend. The size
of the area depends primarily on the strength and vigor of the fish. By bluff
and fighting the Cichlid defends and enlarge its territory. It is this attempt
to defend a mating territory that has given the Cicblid such a bad name for
fighting.
When condition are improper for mating adult Cichlids fight very little
Family CICHLIDAE 487
and will school in the same way a the young. This occurs when they are
frightened, and when there is too much CO 2 or too little oxygen in the
water and when the temperature is too low. If many Cichlids are crowded into
a large tank, there is also much less likelihood of fighting.
In a large tank, which is not too crowded, each male will set up a
separate territory. They seem to have well-defined boundaries. When one
fish intrudes in a strange territory it is immediately and vigorou ly chased
away; but pursuit frequently stops at the boundary, as though the pursuer
had run into a glass wall. If the intruder is a ripe female , she will neither fight
nor flee, but, by her actions, signal her acquiescence. The male responds by
courting her. It i at this time that the display is most vivid, frequently ending
in a lip-locking wrestling contest. If the pair is well matched, no harm is
done and mating proceeds. The danger comes when the two fish are not
equally ready. Then courtship turns into fighting , and one of the pair, usually
the female, is likely to be killed.
Cautious breeders prefer to introduce the fish to each other through a
partition, usually of glass. When the partitioned male and female show a
desire to reach each other through the partition and when they swim back
and forth alongside each other constantly, it is time to remove the partition.
Prolonging the separation when the pair is ripe may result in the female
laying the eggs without the male. Such eggs are, of course, infertile and
will never hatch.
In one case on record, a partition of plastic screening was used . The pair
was so anxious to have the partition removed that the female laid her eggs
on the plastic mesh partition. The male fertilized the eggs from tbe opposite
side. When the babies hatched, they swam back and forth through the parti-
tion, while both parents cared for them.
Males that have been isolated too long frequently become savage. It is
best to put a mirror with such a male and give him a chance to work off
some of this excess energy before pairing him.
The larger Cichlids require a tank of at least 15-gallon capacity. The
bottom slate can be left bare, or with an incb of gravel and a few flat.
light-colored rocks. The pair will clean a few areas until they are satisfied
with a particular site. This is cleaned thoroughly and vigorously with their
mouths. The eggs may be laid on any fiat surface. The slate bottom, a flat
rock, a flowerpot, or the glass sides of the tank or even the underside of a
rock under which the parents have tunneled-all these have been used as
sites. The eggs are seldom laid on soft surfaces, such as sand or gravel. Except
for Angel Fish and Discus, eggs are not laid on leaves.
Shortly before spawning, the blunt ovipositor of the female and the more
pointed sperm-carrying tube of the male protrude. These tubes are quite
small-about lh 2 of an inch in length. The female slowly swims over the
nesting site. The ovipositor is dragged over the prepared area. The eggs
are deposited at intervals in small numbers.
® Dr. C. Breder, Jr. , ZooJogica
Evidently the ovipositor is very sensitive. It can feel dirt and avoid it.
It can also feel the other eggs and avoid them. As few as 50 or as many as
2,000 eggs may be laid, yet it is rare to find one touching another. The male
follows behind the female and fertilizes the eggs. Egg-laying may take one
to four hours. The average is two and a half bours. Eggs are seldom laid in a
bright area, and never .in darkness. The average time of egg-laying was
found by one scientist to be 1: 30 P.M.
The male and female take turns fanning and guarding the eggs. The
fanning serves the double purpose of providing oxygen for the developing
embryos and preventing dirt from settling 011 them .
1nfertile eggs turn cotton white and not infrequently they also have white
threads of fun gi radiating from them . These are usually eaten by the parents.
The infertile eggs do not adhere as strongly as do the fertile ones. The
current caused by the vigorous fanning sometimes sweeps them up and
they are then ea ten. 1t is also possible to remove the parents and hatch the
eggs by putting an air stone alongside the eggs. People who do this may
raise more babies, but they miss all the fun.
The eggs hatch in two to three days at a temperature of 75 ° F. The fry
look like a squirming mass of jelly. With egg yolk attached , they can hardly
swim . The parents pick them up in their mouth s, roll them around and expel
them. The reason for thi s is not known; but it appears to be a method of clean-
ing the yo ung. During thi. stage, the parents frequently move their offspring.
Prior to and during spawning the male is dominant, but once the eggs are
laid the female frequently takes charge. When other fishes are present both
parents carefully guard the yo ung. Anything approaching the nest whether
fish or human is attacked. The parent are utterly fearless at this time.
When the parents are alone in the aquarium , the female may be much less
tolera nt of the male. She also does most of the aerating. The fish that is not
fanning swims arou nd tbe territory looking for food and preparing pits; but
it always has an eye on the boundary for intruders.
The young are carried in tbe parents' mouths from place to place. While
absorbing the egg yolk , the baby must be on its back . There are two adhesive
orga ns on its head, so wherever the parent drops it, the baby st icks--certa inly
a convenient arrangement. The fry constantly wriggle creat ing a current
which considerably helps to aerate and clean them . The parent are the
ac me of watchfulness. When moving the babies one parent goes while the
other is comin g. That way each site is always watched by a parent. At four
to five days of age the young are free-swimming. They are kept in a school ,
and led aro und the tank. One parent leads while the other searches for
stragglers. These are picked up and carried back to the school. At night they
"bed down." in one of the pits; and the parents sleep with them .
When free-swimming. the young are quite large. It is not necessary to feed
infusoria. Brine Shrimp, sifted Daphnia and Micro-Worms are excellent
first foods. Growth is rapid on a heavy diet. The parents, of course, must be
kept fed at all times. The parents may be removed once the young are
free-swimming, but it is not unusual for the young to remain peacefully witb
the parents for a number of weeks after that. They usually get along well
together until the spawning urge re-asserts itself in the parents.
Cichlids u ually mate for life. There are occasional quarrels between a
paired male and female. What causes thi is not always known. Often the
loss of the eggs or young will trigger an argument. Under those conditions,
in the confines of an aquarium, it is not unusual for one to kill the other.
Such fights are more likely to occur among young breeders than among
two fi hes which have been paired for some time. It is possible to re-mate
Cichlids where one of a pair is lost. There is seldom any difficulty if both
male and female are equally ready. Nor are Cichlids strictly monogamous.
When kept in large groups, it is not unusual for a male to mate with two,
three or even four females in succession. This is not because they mistake
one female for another; there is ample evidence that these fish recognize
individuals and even show preferences when given a choice of mates.
CichUds also recognize their own young from the young of other species
by their color and behavior. This apparently takes practice however. Cicblids
with their first broods may accept babies belonging to other spec ies, including
even baby Guppies.
Cichlids are big eaters. To stay in good condition they require large
amounts of substantial food . Earthworms, cut to size, are excellent. Chopped
fresh foods such as liver, crab meat, clam, shrimp. etc., are' II good. If dry
food is fed it must be of the coarsest size.
Cichlids are among the aquarium Methuselahs, living as long as ten
years. Old specimens develop a humpback and coar e scales. Given a tank
of their own, a well-mated pair of Cichlids will go on spawning, regularly, year
after year. 1f the eggs are removed the pair may spawn as often as every two
weeks. If allowed to rear the young they will spawn every four to six weeks.
This is better than female Guppies for raising live food.
Blue Acara-Aequidens latifrons
Native to Columbia. Lengt,",: Approximately 6 inches .
THIS species is pale yellow or brown with three to four vertical bars on its body. Each
scale has metallic blue spots forming horizontal lines which probably accounts for its
popular name, the Blue Acara. The operculum is blue-green, accented with bright green
dots and lines. The dorsal fin , edged in brilliant red, is brown to red with rows of blue-
green spots. The anal fin is hrownish with rows of light-colored dots and a dark edging.
T he dorsal and anal fin s of the male are much longer and more pointed. Breeds very
free ly in the aquarium in typical C icblid fashion.
Keyhole Fish-Aequidens maroni
Native to Venezuela . l e ngth : ApprolCimately 4 inches.
THE Keyhole Fi h is unusually peaceful for a Cich lid . It is shy and scares easily. The
body color is tan . A broad band extends from the front of the dorsa l fin, through the
eye, onto tbe operculum . There is a dark spot against a light background on the upper
part of the bod y, just below the back part of the dorsal fin. This is connected to the
operculum by a dark stripe. The fins are green ish-yellow. The dorsal a nd caudal fins
are edged with white. The soft dorsal and ana l fins have light green spots on them . The
dorsal is longer a nd mOre pointed in the male. They are bard to breed as tbey are so
easily frightened and eal eggs and young.
Brown Acara-Aequidens portalegrensis
Native to Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia. Length : Approximately 4 Y.2 inches.
MATURE fish of this species, unlikc thc uniform dark green color of the young, are
ye llowish-green to brown, suffused with light blue. There is a broad horizontal stripe
that i~ particul arly evident during the breeding season. This extends from the eye to the
base of the caudal fin where it ends in a black spot that is surrounded by a yellowish-green
rim. Vertical bars on the side are evident below the horizontal stripe. The dorsal fin is
grayish ; the anal and caudal fins are light brown to green with li ght and dark bars
arranged obliquely. The sexes are colored alike, differing in the longer and more
pointed dorsal and anal fins of the male. Breeds freely in the aquarium in typical
Cichlid fashion.
Agass iz's Cichlid- Ap;stogramma agassiz;
Native to the Amazon 8asin. Length : Approximately 3 inches.
THE GENERAL body color of this dwarf Cichlid is olive-yellow to tan. The po. terior
section of the back is a light purple, shadi ng to a deep purple towards the head. The
scales glitter with a bluish-green caSt. A brown stripe extends from the eye to the caudal
fin. Two stripes start from the eye-one to the mouth, the other to, and across, th e
operculum. The belly is rose-colored. T he head, as well as the body, has a generous
sprinkling of tiny blue spots. The dorsal and anal fins are dark violet at their base, shad-
ing to blue. The spine part of the dor al is edged with orange. The caudal and pelvic fins
are light blue, tbe former edged with orange. The greatest beauty and most distinctive
feature of this fish is the broad, spear-shaped tail of th e male.
The fe male is much smaller than the m ale and her caudal fin is round , whereas all
the fins of the male are pointed and longer than those of th e female. The female guards
the eggs and nest alone.
Butterfly Dwarf Cichlid-Apistogramma ramirez;
Native to Venezuela . Le ngth , Approximately 2~ inches.
ONE of tbe most beautiful of tbe dwarf Cich lids, tbe A. ramirezi bas a body color of
blue with a suggestion of lavender interspersed with sapphire spots. F ive or six dark
bands ex tend from the dorsal fin to the late ral line. A black band also passes through the
eye over the operculum. The snout i orange; the operculum is streaked with vibrant
blue. The sadd le-shaped dorsal fin is edged with orange. The cauda l, anal and pectoral
fins arc blue witb lavender-colored dots. The pectorals are semi-transparent. The for-
ward spikes of the male's dorsa l are elongated and are much thicker.
Their breeding habits follow the usual pattern of Cichlids except that the f-.:male
forms the depression in the sand near the object on which she expects to deposit her
eggs. Some fema les use the depression or bed to hold the eggs but the majority use an
upright object. The color of the fema le at breeding time is rosy around the ventral
region. Both parents usually care for the eggs and young.
Velvet or Peacock-Eye Cichlid- Astronotus ocellatus
Native to tropical South America . Length : Approximately 70 inches.
UNFORTUNATELY this tropica l reaches such a size that it cannot be kept in any-
thing but speciaJ aquaria. The Velvet C ichlid is quite a jumper, too, and its disposition
is nasty.
An outstanding feature of this fish is the striking tail base of the male. When
young the body is beige to olive-brown on which is superimposed a series of irregular
yellow stripes and blotches which give the fish a marbled effect. These brigh t yellow
stripes fade as the fish matures. A few brilliant red spots are scattered over the body, the
most conspicuous being the black "eye" spot on a coppery-red background located on
the caudal peduncle. The fins are generally jet black .
In addition to its color, the fish is attractive in its habit of gliding gracefully, rather
than swimming, through the water. Though it breed readil y in captivity and in the
usual Cichlid fashion few of the fry are ever raised to maturity. It has a gluttonous
appetite and loves crushed snai l and earthworms.
Jack Dempsey- Cichlasoma biocellatum
Native to Guatemala . Length: A pproximately 8 inch es.
FROM its popular name, one might rightly guess that this is a pugnacious fish, willing
to spar with any of the inhab itants of an aq uarium . It va ri es in body color from a
light brown or green to dark brown or black. Vertical bars on its sidc. numbering six
or more, become quite evident when the fish is excited. A horizo nta l stripe, starting at
the eye, extends th e length of th e bod y to a black spot at th e root of th e caudal fin-
the spot appearing and di ap pearin g at various times. The lower lip of this fish is blue and
th e operculum is spotted by the same color. The scales are m arked wi th green spots
and the bell y and throa t of the male have a decided red sheen. The dorsal, anal and
caudal fins are spotted with blue and outlined in red.
Breed ing behavior is typical.
Chocolate Cichlid- Cic:hlasoma coryphaenoides
Na tive to the Amazon Bas;n. Length: 8 ;n ch ~ .
A DARK colored C ichlid , which can change its shade quickly. Aquarists may use it to
entertai n friends by turning on th e ligh t after the fish has been in tbe dark. Quite peaceful
for a C iehlid , except with its own kind.
T he normal color is dark brown but the belly is vio let. Darke r bars run across its
side. It has three irregul ar la rge spots: one on the gi ll cove r, a second in abollt the middl e
of th e side, and a third at th e end of the body. Four bright spots dot th e base of th e long
dorsa ! fin at regu lar intervals and a band of the same shade runs backward and upward
from th e eye. The effect is of marbling. The dorsal fin 's entire rim is red. The tai l shows
two li ght -colo red bars with dark borde rs. Seldom bred .
Flag Cichlid-Cichlasoma festivum
Native to Amazon 8asin. Length: 4 inches.
COLLECTORS of Angel Fish report finding these o-called "guardians" swimming in

wide circles about the schools of Angels. The reason for this behavior is not known,
unless these fish arc waiting for a chance to bitc rather than guard the Angels.
Once seen, it wiU not be forgotten, if for no other reason than for the most distinc-
tive black stripe which runs from the tip of the nose through the eye, aod diagonally
upward and backward until terminating in the tip of the long dorsal fin . Black vertical
parallel bands run against a si lvcr background . There is a black "eye" surrounded by a
silver ring on the botly at the tail junction. some of this ring showing on the tail. The
extensions on the ventral fins arc longer than thosc on most Cichlids.
As the fish ages, thc colors becomc less distinct. Better to buy mall specimens as
they grow quite rapidly. They are sometimes mean rascals and should not be kept with
small fishes .
Firemouth- C;chlasoma meek;
Native to Yucatan . Le ng th: Appro ximately 5 inches.
THE Firernouth is greenish-blue in color. The side of the fish has five dark vertical
bars which connect with a black horizontal bar that extends from the operculum to the
root of the caudal fin. Thc lower part of the operculum ha a dark green spot on a light
background. During breeding season, the mouth is a brilliant red, the color extending
along the belly to the caudal fin. The dorsal fin is edged in blue-green to red ; the anal in
black. The tips of the fins are a shiny blue-green. The pelvic fins are reddish at the base
and yellow towards the edges.
The Firemouth is an excellent beginner's fish to spawn. Pugnacious, but not as bad
as the Jack Dempsey, the Firemouth, spawning when three to four inches long, had
best be kept alone-one pair to a tank. Males arc larger and more colorful than fema les,
as well as being longer and having more pointed anal and dorsal fins.
The Firemouth eggs are deposited on rocks or other flat surfaces. Like some of the
other Ciehlids. they are inclined to move the newly-hatched fry from one location to
another. The fry wi ll school with the parents, but the latter should be removed at a time
when the young are able to take care of themselves.
Convict Fish-Cichlasoma severum
Native to the Amazon Basin, Guianas. Length: Approximately 9 inches.
THE BODY is generally green in color, although it can vary from a yellowish-brown
to blue-black. Adu lt fish display two vertical bars on their sides, the numerous vertical
bars seen in the younger fish disappearing with maturity. Unscrupulous dealers have
been known to sell baby Convicts as haby Discus which they resemble. One bar crosses
the caudal peduncle; the other just in front of it connects with a large so-called
"peacock" spot on thc soft dorsal fin. Two stripes also cross the head. The soft dorsal
is olive-green ; the spine dorsal, black. The ana) fin is reddish-brown; the cauda l fin
yellowish-green. The pelvic fins are dark red, tending to brown or black with a tipping
of yellow. A somewhat timid Cichlid, it does not breed freely.
Checkerboard Cichlid-Crenicara maculata
Native to the Amazon 80sin. Length: 2~ inches.
A DWARF Cichlid of strikingly uniform design. A silvery body is marked with a row
of seven black circular marks along the middle of the back, yet not extending into the
dorsal fin . Five more similar black spots decorate its side in an even row. At the hase
of the tail there is an oval black mark. The tail has concentric rows of pale orange dots,
many more in the male than in the female. The male's pelvic fins are very long and the
point almost reaches to the tail. Orange dots also appear in dorsal and anal fin~. The
dorsal is bordered with red and white.
Like most Cichlids it prefers li ve food. It is fairly delicate, but is peaceful and may
be kept with other fishes. Seldom bred.
Orange Chrom ide- Etrop /us macu/atus
Native to Madras, Malabar, Ceylon . Le ngth : Up to 3 inches .
THE Orange Chromide is one of the peaceful Cichlids. The color has an orange-like
sheen (black in breeding season) which is suggested in it popular name. The back may
be almost black, th e belly shading from il light orange to silver. The side carries a large
black spot in the middle, freq uently accompanied by two sma llcr spo ts on eit her side of
the main spot. The dorsal and ana l fins are gOlden-hrow n, edged in brown or hlack and
dotted with red spots. The ca ud al .fin is orange ; (he pelvic a lmost black. Bright red dots
line the side of the body and turn blue during the hreeding season.
The sexes are difficult to distinguish, but in ge neral the male is larger and more
vividly colored than the female .
Ora ngc C hromides arc good lank hrceders, but do not breed as freely as the Fire-
mouth . They will Tcproduce in a 5- to 10-gallon tank. Eggs are deposited on Tocks and
the fry transferred to a rathcr deep, neat depression in the gravel. Occasio nally Cbrom-
ides will burrow und er a rock and lay their eggs on its underside. Both parents
nurture the fry during their early days so neither of the adult fish sbould be removed
until tbe young arc well "on their own."
Red-Finned Cichlid- Geophagus brazi/iensis
Native to Brazil. Length: 6 inches and more.
ONE of th e largest Cic hlids kept in aq uaria and one which grows more strikin g with
age. The two and three inch sizes, whi eh a re mor.: suit ab le for commu nity tanks, are not
nearly as attrac live. It likes brackish water.
The hody is olive of several shades with a large dark spot in the ce nter just above
the midlin e and another less prominent spot behind th e gi ll cover. The entirc body
scintillates with glistening highlights of blu -green. The fin s arc orange and the do rsa l
is edged with a dull red. An odd feature is the moth er-o f-pearl spo tting on the gill
covers, givi ng rise to the name, Mother-of-Pearl Fish, by whi ch it is a lso known. The
tall do rsal fin runs two-third s the len gth of the body. When you o bserve yo ung
fi sh do not be confused by the dark vertical stripes th ey show. These lines or ba rs fade
with age. Difficult to sex.
The name Geo phagus mea ns "earth eater." 1n an aqu arium thi s fish keeps picking
up mo uthfuls of grave l. Some of it is spat out and some sprayed out throug h the gills.
Demon Fish-Geophagus ;urupari
Native to Guiana and Brazil. Length : J0 inches .
ANOTHER la rge C ichli d which needs plenty of roo m. th e D emon Fish gets its name
from its appearance. The Jo ng sno ut , whi ch ca uses th e large eyes to appea r to be se t
far back on th e body, would lead one to believe th at it is well equipped for rooting. Yet
it is one of th e least destru ct ive fis hes in the aq ua rium . and seldom injures the pl ants.
It keeps working the g ravel ove r by picking it up and sprayin g it out through the mouth
a nd gills.
Within thi s one species there is co nsiderahle color var iation . An average male fish
has a n olive-b rown back had ing down the sides to a light ye ll ow belly. A dark str ipe
runs alo ng the side to the end o f the body. This is crossed by light verti cal stripes. Running
from th e mouth backward o n the checks and snout are several shin y par allel lines, the
last endin g just below th e eyc. The body is speckled with cight to ten parallel rows of
dots. G ill covers show bright blue spots. Only o ne fin is colored : the tall dorsal, and th at
h as diago nal rows of dark and glistenin g spots and maintains its height for th e enti.re
length. This fish is a mo uth -breede , both sexe ca rryi ng the young. DitIicult to ex.
Egyptian Mouthbreeder-Hap/ochromis mu/tico/or
Native to the Nile Delta. Length: Appro ximately 2 11 inches.
ALTHOUGH this fish has an appetite that is almost piggish and is nasty in community
tanks. it is an excellent fish for beginners. Jt is hard y and has interesting breeding habits
which it displays with lillie encouragement. In color it is olive-brown to green, the
sides havi ng vert ical and horizon tal stripes which are inclined to fade and th en reappear.
The back and sides, when in the proper light, reflect colors of metallic green, gold,
copper, blue, purple or vio let. The dorsal fin of the mal e has bands of light green and
ye llow outlining it, a nd the base shows a row of brilliant green spots. The anal fin has
tbe same color pattern but is not as pronollnced in its vividness. In breeding season
this fin has a red tip. The female's ventral region i ye llow and the fins are almost
transparent. The fish become very dark when ready to breed.
One of th e nice features of the Egyptian is that it will breed in a small tank. We
have see n a pair rep roduce in a 3-gallon aquarium. Be sure to have plenty of plants.
The male fans out a depression in the sa nd about as wide as the fish is long. The fe-
male swims over to it and joins the male . They circle the nes t while touching each other's
ides with their mouths. As the female circles, she lays a few eggs which are fertilized by
th e male. On the next trip around th e depression, the female picks up th e eggs and the
pOlich behin d her chin becomes enlarged. After spawning is finished , th e fema le has so
many eggs in her mouth th at she cannot close it.
When the female leaves the bed and swi ms under the surface plants, it is time to
remove the male. The female eats nothing for two or three weeks. You may see the eggs
and the fry he ld in her mouth . At time , the fe male moves her jaws in a chewing motion.
When the fry first swim out of their cavernous protection, they stay close to the
mother, and if anything unu sual occurs seek her mouth in which to hide. At night the
fry enter the mouth of the female and remain there until dawn. As they grow older
the fry become more independent and the mother must gather them up to protect them.
By the time the young are.so large that tbey cannot all fit into her mouth (five to seven
days) , the mother must be removed or sbe may eat the fry. Do not replace her with the
male until she has had a chance to recuperate.
Jewel Fish- Hemichromis bimaculatus
Native to the Nile and Congo . Length: Approximately 4 inches .
THE EXCEE DJNGL Y pugnacio us H . billlQCuialLls is olive in color, shading to yellow

on th e und erside of the bod y. The side has a few horizontal stripes and a few faint vert ical
oars, as well as a dark blue line crossi ng the eye. Three dark spots on the dor al fin.
ca ud al base and operculum complete the coloring.
C urio usly eno ugh, at breeding time the fish shows a wealth of color. The lower part
of (he body changes to a rich, velvety red ; th e upper part takes on a reddish cast. The
body and operculum have a generous sprinkling of met allic-blue spots whi ch probably
acco unt for the popul ar name of the fish. The dorsa l fin is spri nkled with blue and
white spots, edged with a crimson band lined with pale blue. Ca ud al an d anal fin s are
light purple with blue and crimson spots. The fins are, in gcneral, black-edged. At breed-
ing time it is one of thc most go rgeous of all the aq uarium fi shes.
Wh en breed ing no aqua rium fi sh is more ferocious or vigi lant than th e parent of
this species. Aquarium-raised Jewels are usually old enough to breed at seven months.
Breeding poses no problem for (he aqu ar ist if the male is watched, as occasionalJy
a male is inclined to carry aggressiveness to th e poi nt of destroying the female after
spawning i fini shed. Generally, the male and female get along rather peaceably.
Specific breeding habits of the Jewel Fish conform to the general pattern of Cichlids.
Nannacara-Nannacara anomala
Nativ e to British Guiana . Length : A pproxima tely 2Y.? inches; female I Y.? inches.
THIS fish has a back of olive-brown, sometimes spotted with black on the anterior
part. The side is an olive-green with a golden line. Eaeh sea le possesses a triangular
brown dot. The operculum and cheeks are marked with green lines. The dorsal fin is
olive-brown with li ghter markings- a brown to orange edge in front and deep orange
edge in back. The caudal and anal fins are orange ; the anal has a few dark pots. During
periods of excitement, horizontal st ripes ap pear on the sides of the fish.
An ideal community dwarf Cichlid . Breeds free ly and the female guards the nest.
Pelmatochromis kribensis
Native to West Africa. Length: 3 inches.
THIS is one of the Cichlids which appears destined to achieve a lasting popularity in
the aquarium . It is medium in size, fairly peaceful and is capable of showing a coloration
which at its best rivals that of the highly colored marine fishes . Like most Cichlids it
will eat coarsc dry foods , but prefcrs livc or fresh food. Unfortunately it docs not breed
too freely in th e aquari um and the ones which have bred have not raised large spawns.
They arc partial to a little sa lt in their water.
Breeding is in typical Cich lid fashion. The eggs are usually laid on the underside of
a smooth surface, such as the inside of a flowerpot. or a rock which .they may tunnel
under. The eggs hatch in two or three days, but it is another four to five days before the
young arc free-swimming. Temperature should be 80 to 82 ° P. , pH slightly acid (a lmost
neutral) aod the waler fairly soft. The female does rna t of the work of caring for the
eggs, but both g uard and care for the yo un g. Once the yo un g a re free-swimming they
may be fed newly-hatched Srine Shrimp, either live or frozen, Micro-Worms, or any
other food of approximately the sa me size. It is unnecessary to feed the sm allest foods.
When you ng or out of condition the fish is very plain in color. At other times it
sparkles with an over-aJI purple line. The upper portion of the body is dark. The
stomach is lighter with a rosy hue 'which is particularly intense near the mid-section.
The dorsal fin varies from yellow below to an orange-red border. There are electric
blue and red markings which flash on the gill covers. The upper half of the male's ca udal
is orange to red. There are several dark spots on the tail. The ventra Is are blue and
orange, and the anal has jewel markings. The female is heavier and rounder; her fins
are less colorful.
Peima/ochromis /a el/ia/Lls
Peil1lCl/ociJromis lCI{'ni(J(u.~ is very si milar in appearance, habi ts, and requirement.

There is more blue in /ael/iaws; more red and orange in kribel1.1'is. An easy way to dis-
tinguish them when adult is by the tail marking~ . There are two or three dots on the
tail of krihensis; four to six dots on the tail of la enia/LiS. There are as yet no reports of
laeniallir breeding here, although it has been done in Germany. Breeding is similar 10
P. kribensis.
Ange l Fish- Pterophyllum sealare, P. eimeke i, P. altum
Native to South America. Length: 4 to 6 inches.
THES three almost identical members of the Cichlid family, when kept with their own
kind , are gentle and well-behaved. There are two species offered for sale-sea/are alld
eimekei. P. 0 1111 111 has seldom if eve r been imported. The first two have been interbred
so that today it is almo. t impossible to distinguish between them.
T he fish has a deep body, one so latera lly compressed that it is discoid (d isc-like).
It is si lver and black in color, wi th anal and dorsal fins extending far below and above
the general body line.
As members of a com munity aquarium, large Angels are a risk, as their taste for
fry (rarely th eir own) and smaller fishes, advocates th ei r being kept in isolated tanks.
With fishes too large to be eaten, Angels make satisfactory community members.
One diffi culty will be encountered by the fi sh fancier in th e matter of breeding this
species. D espite a considerable num ber of suggestions, one is almost un able to sex the
Angel Fish, but if you' watch their actions they will show tbeir respective sexes by
pairing. It is better either to put a number of fish of the species together in a large aqua r-
ium and let tbem pair themselves when they reach maturity, or purcbase a succes fully
mated pa ir from a breeder. Angels should be about one to one and a half years of age
for breeding; witb forced growth tbey may breed at eight months. Although they mate
for life there is no diffi.culty in rematching them sbould one of the pair be 10 t.
Tbe eggs are laid on a vertical or inclined surface. Before tbe female lays, she
will clean tbe plant lcaves or a smooth -surfaced object that you may have placed in
the tank as a repository for the eggs. Some experts use a sheet of glass, placing it at an
angle to the bottom of the tank. Others u e a lamp chimney, a slate, or a flat stone.
Tbe optimum breeding temperature of tbe fish is about 80 0 F. There is a definite
preference for acid water. Live food, Daphnia, White Worm a nd the like are im-
portant as food in preparation for spawning. The male fertilizes the female 's deposit of
a pproximalely a few hundred eggs. The eggs arc then fanned by the male and female
until hatching time-generally two to threc days.
Some fifty hours after th e eggs have been laid the fry may start to appear, hanging
in strings. The parents usually take the newly-hatched fry and transport them to leaves
of plants where they deposit th e tiny ad hesive creatures. For everal days the par-
ents may transfer the fry from leaf to leaf. By the time a week has passed, the fry
swim freely and feed, th eir yolk sacs having been absorbed. When first swimming,
the fry look like ordinary fish and do not assume the shape of tbe parents until
later. At this stage, tbe fry require screened Daphnia, Cyclops or newly-hatched Brine
Shrimp.
Commercial breeders, knowing that this fish will deposit the eggs on a smooth sur-
face, often place a piece of sla te in the tank. After the eggs are laid on the slate, it is
transferred to an incubating-breeding tank where a stream of fine air bubbles is di-
rected to move upward past the eggs. This accompl ishes the same thing as the parents'
fanning the incubating eggs. The water is tinted slightly with methylene blue to help
prevent fungus from attacking the eggs.
In recent years a Black Angel Fish and a Black Lace Angel have been developed .
Both are extraordinarily beautiful fish.
Discus or Pompadour Fish- Symphysodon discus
Native to the A mazon Region. Length: A ppro ximately 10 to 12 inches.
OFTEN called the " mon arch of the trop ical fishes," the Pompadour Fish, n ted for its
frequent a nd rapid changes in color, ha a disc-like body with dorsal and ana l fins
running parallel to th e shape of the bac k and body.
Its general color varies from orange to deep brownish-red or deep blue-green . The
side has a total of eig ht vertical bars, the first of which extends from the nape, through
th e eye, to the throat, and the last crosses th e base of the caudal fin . The head a nd
operculum have wavy lines of gray or gree n markings. The dorsal fin is colored green
with violet shadings at its base and suggestions of orange near th e outer marg in. The
anal fin is deep red, upon which are impo ed irregul ar linear markin gs of gray to green .
The caud al fin is transparent. In co mmon with most C iehlids it ca n change its color,
sometim es with almost lightning rapidity. The anal fin of the male is sharper and more
pointed.
This peaceful fish requires a long time to reach full size and maturit y, judging from
the time it takes the fry to develop (after initial growth ) into adult specimens. The fi sh
is delicate, and once it becomes sick, it frequ ently dies. ( ee in Chapter on diseases
"Discus Disease.") Changing 25 per cent of their water once a week helps keep them
in good health. One indication of their condition is their position. H ealthy Discus keep
their heads slightly down. Di cus in poor condition tip thei r heads up.
Unfortunately this fish very rarely breeds in capt ivity, thou gb when it does its
manner is similar to that of the Angel Fish. Its breed ing differs fro m the Angel Fish in
that tbose who have separated the eggs from th e parents have had no success. Tbe
young seem to find some nourishment on the body of th e parent as they constantly pick
at it. Botb parents fan and care for the eggs, but tbe fe male usually does most of the
work of caring for the youn g once tbey are free-swimming.
The fish is difficult to feed as a result of its restricted tastes in food . Most Discus
will eat only live food although many will ea t frozen Brine Shrimp. They require
soft water and a temperature above 70 ° F. A very peaceful fish, it will not even ea t
babies. Light for the Discus should come from the top. It has an avers ion to side
lighting.
Black-Chinned Mouthbreeder-Tilapia macrocephala
Native to coast of We st Africa. Length : Approximately 6 to 7 inches.
UN LIKE th e gy pti a n spec ies. the ma le of thi s mouth-b reeder carries th e fertilized
eggs in hi s mouth until they hatch into fry. As thc fish is found in brack ish water, it is
adv isable to prov id e th e aqU <lr ium wit h o ne part sea water to fiv e parts fre sh water to
insure the fishcs' thri vin g. The spec ies is too large for most hom e aquaria. but may be
kept when th ere is suffi cient space. Once thc yo un g leave the malc's mouth thcy do
not return for refuge.
The general co lor is brown which sha des to yell ow or white on the belly. The chin
a nd throa t are spottcd with black . In the yo un ger fi sh of thi s species, five to six indistin ct
vertica l bars on the s ide of the bod y a ncl a horizo nta l stripe from thc operculum to the
ca ud a l peduncle m ay be seen . Th e dorsa l and caudal fins are spotted wi th red a nd edged
with red or hl ack. The cen ter of the o pe rculum of the male is ye llOW; th at of th e
fema le is du ll pink.
Uaru a mph iacanthoides
Native to the Amazon Basin and the Guianas. Length: Up to 12 inches.
THIS fish has infrequent ly heen imported. It is included here because its unu sual and
attractive appearance makcs it likcly that it will bc importcd again. It has been bred in
Germany although not in America. It breed ' in typical Cichlid fashion but prefers to
deposit its eggs in caves. It is definitcly not an amateur's fish. Although fairl y delicate,
if properly kept it can reach a large size.
ven for Ciehlids, the young of which usuall y differ in markings from the parents.
the Val'u is outstanding. The young vary in color from vcry dark blue-black to gray and
to yellow. At abo ut four months of age thcy are very attractive, with shi ning li ght
spots on a dark background and a red eye. Ad ult arc bright Shin y green with a wedge
shaped blue-black mark along the side, starti ng just behind the pectorals and ending in
a point ncar the tail. There is a dark spot just behind the eye and another at the upper
edge of the ca uda l peduncle. The eye is large, prominent and bright red. The dorsal
and ana l fins arc dark blue to blue-green.
Family GOBIIDAE 517
Bumble Bee Fish-Srachygobius xanthozona
Native to Malay Peninsula . Length: Approxim ately '* inches.

THE GENERAL color of thi fi sh is a mixture of alternating bands of dark brown and
light gold . All the fins , with the exception of the caudal, are dark with the ends of the
rays tipped in white. The black markings on the center band, like smudge, are more
pronounced in the males.
Though this species rarely breed in captivity, tbere are times when it can be in-
duced to do so. The fish shou ld be conditioned on Brine Shrimp and earthworms.
Curiously enough, they spawn upside down ; and the fema le applie strings of eggs to the
upper side of an object placed in the tank to receive the deposit. The male fertilizes the
eggs while passing over them . Spawn hatch in abou t five to six days at a temperature of
75 ° F., the male fanning the eggs during thi incubation period . Fry thrive on infusoria
after the egg Sac has been absorbed. Bumble Bees can seldom be induced to take dry
food.
These fi h spend most of their time on the bottom of the tank. Although tbey
swallow small fishes, they seldom bother those larger than themselves.
518 Family PERIOPHTHALMIDAE
Th e Mud Skippers
Native to A l rica, India, Mala ya . Length: Up to 8 inch es.
THIS small famil y of fishes contains the most interesting of all aquarium creatures.
Persons seeing one of its members for the fir t time invariabl y ask, "What is it?" "ls it a
frog or a fish or a bybrid of thc two ?" It is a true fish with gills, and can Jive for long
periods out of tbe water or in wet sa nd or mud .
In color, the Mud Skipper is olive-brown with light blue markings. A distinctive
feature is the two dill'erentl y shaped and differently colored dorsal fin s. The forward
dorsal is triangular, tall and pointed in front with eac h fin ray conspicuous. Near the
body this fin is blue. A broad white stripe horders th e blue and this in turn is bordered
witb black whicb edges tbe fin. The rear dorsal is gray with a da rk blue stripe edged
with white on both sides runnin g the entire lengt h. This fin is rectangular. The anal fin
a nd tail are colored .lik e the body.
These fishes can move over land by hunchin g along on the "arm -fins." To keep
them, provide a large aq uar ium with orne land a nd some salty water which should be
about one-third to one-half as stron g as sea water.
Mud Skippers of the genus Bo/eophlhalmus need mud in which to bury them-
selves; those of genus Periophfhalmu.I' will climb on rocks, wood . or anything else to
get out of tbe water. The aqu arium must be covered and damp at all times with a
temperat ure between 75 and 80 ° F.
Mud Skippers should be kept singly because they almost alwa ys fi ght with each
other. In nature their diet consists of insects and small fishes. In an aquarium they will
take Meal Worms, earthworms, and balls of Tubifieids and White Worms. They will
take the food more readily from a flat rock than from tb e water.
Family MASTACEMBELIDAE 519
Spiny Eel-Macrognathus acu/eatus
Native to Africa and Asia. Le ngth : 7 to 9 inche s.
T HI S is not an ee l. It loo ks like an eel aod has a rem arka bly sma ll head and sm all mouth
in its elo nga ted sno ut fo r so large a botl y. It is nocturnal. But fo r all th at it is useful be-
ca use it tunn els th rough th e gravel ae ratin g it but neve r disl dging or uproo ting
plants. Any T ubifi eids which enter tbe gravel are ea ten. It is harmless to fi shes and it
is one of the best scave ngers and p ro moters of good health in an aquar ium of which
we know.
Tn color the S piny Eel is brown-g reen wi th a ye llow bell y. 1t is mottled or m arbled
on th e back somewh at like ce n ain snakes. On its long body a re two do rsa l fin s. The
ca uda l fin has dark ba rring.
Beca use th e fish is so often hidden, ho bbyists may neglect it, but it must be fed like
any oth er fi sh a nd it ca ts a lot o f fo od, whi ch sho uld be any kind of small worms o r
cho pped ea rth worm s.
There are several pecies of M astaeembelids, but acuiealus is the onJy one we have
handled .
520 Family ACHIRIOAE
Fresh-Water Flounder- TrineC'tes moC'ulotus
Native to American Atlantic seab oard fro m Cape Cod so uth. Length: 2 to 6 inches.
AQUARIUM stores frequently offer flat fishes . Soles and Flounders arc two types of
fl atfish which are sometim es confused . The yo ung fresh-water Flounder is a relative of
the mari ne Sole. It lives in fresb or brackish water and, while it will live a long while in
fresh water, it prefers brackish. It is a peaceful oddity.
In the home aquarium it is a novelt y, lying on one side whieh in this ease seems to be
its belly. The upper side is dark brown, the lower is white or brownish wbite. All along
both edges of the body are fin s which the fish undul ates to propel itself, in contrast to
the usual method by which fishes swim. The eyes are both on one side of the head. It is
not very active, frequentl y burying itself in the gravel.
The e Flounders, when only partly grown, spend all of their time on the bottom wait-
ing for easily obtained food. Sometimes tbey will swim up and stick to the aquarium's
side. Peculiarly enough, they can stick to the glass either belly out or belly in and so
tightly that it is difficult to di slodge them. They will eat chopped earthworms, Tubificids,
White Worms and chopped clams.
Family TETRAODONTIDAE 521
Green Puffer-Te traodon fluviatilis
Native to India and Malay Archipelago. Length: 6 inches.
ANYONE acquainted wi th sa l! water fishing knows what Blowfish are, but few realize
there arc species li vi ng in tropical fresh wa ter , which can be readily adapted to aquaria.
All belong to the Family Tetraodontidae. These small fresh-water 1)uffers are found in
warm watcrs around the globe. They differ in m ark ing , but the shape of all is similar,
and they all probably have simi lar habi ts and requirements. They alJ appreciate some
salt in the water. None is particularly hardy in captivity. No sex distinctions are known ,
although they have infrequently bred in captivity. The Green Puffer is the commonest
in aquaria.
The body is light green except fo r a white belly. Black pot aga inst the green pro-
ducc a polka dot effeet. The fins are yellow toned. 1t is extremcly active a nd must not be
left with other pecies. 1t has strong jaws and bites pieces from other fishes. The jaws
can a nd do crush snails which it relishes. The fish scems to have a beak but this is due to
the fused front teeth, two above a nd two below. Toward its own kind the fish is aggres-
sive but it seldom injures th em .
Its rema rkable a bility to blow itself up like a balloon when frightened is its chief
clai m to fame. The skin becomes horny a nd hard, a defense against enemies which ,
while they mi ght swalJow the small fish, could not negoti ate the baJloon. Wh en lifted out
of the water it blows itself up by audibly gulping air. After a short period of inflation, if
the fish is pl aced on the water it floats on the su rface belly up until it return s to norm al
a nd can again swim.
Those who have kept these fi hes with most succes tell us they feed snails as the
principal diet. We, too, have had best success with this food, pius earthworms and
White Worms. We also find that the fish thrives in brackish water.
522 Family TETRAODONTIDAE
Tetraodon cutcutia
Native to Orissa , Bengal and Assam, India . Length: 3~ inches.
MUCH smaller than th e preced ing fish , thi s one is olive-green, darker on the back and
lighter on tlie belly. Lighter outlines circle dark gree n spots on th e back. A dark eye-
like spot urrounded by a li ght edge is prominent on the side below the dorsa l fin. The
fins are gray-g reen : tb e tail tipped with red. The ~k jn is slimy and tough.
New African fishes
NOW that the keeping of small marine aquaria has run through its latest
cycle of popularity, fish fanciers in the New York area are all talking about
the new African fresh-water fishes that are being imported in considerable
numbers. Many of these have never before been seen alive in this country,
and they have professional ichthyologists as well as hobbyists agog.
Although its lakes, streams and swamps teem with more different kinds of
fishes than those of any other continent except South America, Africa has
always pretty much lived up to the name of Dark Continent as far as the
tropical fish fancy is concerned. This is because few collectors have ever
operated in Africa. One of the difficulties has been transportation, but now
that regular commercial flights carrying air freight from StanleyviUe to New
York have been established. that particular obstacle seems no longer of im-
portance. Whether there is an African fi h that will develop into a collector's
stand -by, like the Red Rasbora or the Neon Tetra remains to be seen, but the
sheer variety of species to choose from would seem to make this a good possi-
bility. Even if such a species never turns up, however, there are enough beau-
tiful, unusual and downright amazing African fresh-water fishes to make it
worth-while to capture and ship them in commercial quantities for at least
some time to come.
The African fishes currently available hail from the Belgian ongo. At
least three New York firms are regularly receiving speciinens from the region:
Roosevelt Aquarium and General Aquatic Supply of Brooklyn and Suburban
Tropical of East Orange, New Jersey. The Congo is, of course, one ()f the
great river systems of the world, and only the Amazon pros esses a larger
number of fish species. Some of the mo t peculiar of all fresh-water fishes in-
habit its varied waters. Quite a few of these have been represented in the ship-
ments that have already been received, and we have high hopes that others
will be forthcoming.
Books have been written about the fishes of the Congo-to say nothing
about those that remain to be written-and all we can do is touch on a few
of the high spots, so to speak, mentioning the types of fishes now being im-
ported, especially those suitable for the small standing aquarium.
Cyprinids and Characins

As might be expected, the Congo contains innumerable Cyprinids Chara-
cins and Catfishes. For example, there are more Barbs in Africa than any-
where else, and the Congo has its share. Relatively few have been incl uded
among the new imports, however. The two or three species that we have een
have not been striking in any way, and even the new Labeos have not caught
our fancy. Surely there must exist some of these fishes that rival their Far
Eastern relatives in sprightliness and color-perhaps Barilius christyi or Bar-
bus candens if they can be brought in. One most interesting Barb that we
have little hope of seeing in commercial shipments is the Blind Barb, in-
habiting several caves in the Bas Congo. This species has been placed under
government protection and can only be collected with a special permit.
The Characins imported so far have proved much more attractive. Out-
standing are three belonging to the genus Distichodus. These are sometimes
placed in a different family , tbe Citharinidae, but to all intents and purpo es
they are still Characins-just as are the Hatchet Fishes, the Silver Dollars and
other groups that have also been separated from the Family Characidae by
some specialists in fish classiiication . Two close relatives of Distichodus have
been more or Jess regular inhabitants of home aquaria-because they breed in
captivity, namely Nannaelhiops unitaeniatus and Neolebias ansorgei. Prac-
tically nothing is known about the reproductive habits of the various Dislicho-
Distichodus sexjasciatus
New African Fishes 525
DiHichudll.\· iusosso
dus, but th at they would be worth breeding, there is no question . D. affinis is

silvery white with bright red fins; D . sex/asciatus wears various shades of pink
and reddish gold set off by six or seven dark vertical bars; while D. lusosso
gets our vote as one of the loveliest of fresh-water fi shes. Its coloring is not un-
like that of the species just mentioned, but in addition each one of it small
scales stand s out as if fashioned of burnished bronze. It may be that the
Lussoso gets too big to breed in the usual sized aquarium, since specimens a
foot and a half long have been reported. The other two species reach lengths
of six to eight inches. A fourth species of Distichodus, probably fasciolatus,
has also appeared, but it lacks the brighl color of its congeners.
Other noteworthy Characins now being imported include one or two kinds
of Ales-tes and the well known Feather-tail, Phenacogrammus interruptus (see
the Aquarium Journal for M ay 195J ) .
Catfishes
So great is the variety of Congolese Catfishes that it is hard to know where
to begin. There are six different families conlaining, by rough estimate, one
hundred and fifty to two hundred species. One of these, the Electric Catfish,
Malapterurus electricus, is peculiar enough to warranl a family of its own .
Although tbis species attains a length of more than three feet and a weight of
more than 40 pounds, the sp cimens available are mere babie. of perhaps two
to three inches. Nevertheless, they can produce enough electricity to make
your hand tingle, and they are hardy and omnivorous in captivity. Their only
drawbacks are that they are secretive and prefer the dark and that they cannot
be kept with other fishes , not even their own kind. A few species of Clarias
(Family Clariidae) have been coming through , but these gluttonous, bottom
stirrer-uppers make poor community fishes . For novelty, however, their elon-
gate relative, Channallabes apus, is interesting ince it shows just how eel-like
a Catfish can get to be. Other new Catfishes include members of the Family
Bagridae that are not unlike their relatives from other continent , as well as
the Family Amphiliidae, a strictly African group some of whose members
superficially resemble the tropical American armored Catfishes of the genus
Pll ellaco{:rammLis illtern/ptus
L oricario, to which they are not at al l closely related. Still others, like the
African Dwarf Glass atfish, Eutropiellus debouwi, are placed in the Family
Schilbeidae, but most of these get too large for the average tank.
Most numerous of all the Catfishes in the Congo are those of the Family
Mochocidae. According to Dr. Max Poll, foremost authority on Congolese
fishes, about 50 different species of Synodontis inhabit the Belgian Congo.
Aquarists call these Upside-Down Ca tfishes because the species best known
to them , Synodontis nigriventris, spends as much time swimming belly-up as
it does in the more ordinary position. But of all the species-and there may
be as many as one hundred of them- we know of only six that have been
reported as wimming u _side down. Perhap the South African name of
Squeaker would be more appropriate, although the individuals we have
handled did not produce any noise when removed from water, either because
EUlropiel/u.f deba!/IVi
they were too small or becau e uch behavior is not their wont. Between a
half dozen and a dozen different species have appeared in New York within
the past few months, among them three of the handsomest of any Catfishes
Synodonlis ange/icus
that we have ever seen: Synodontis angelic us. S. {lavitaeniatus and S. acan-
thomias. In behavior, these fishes vaguely resemble Corydoras. but we can-
not vouch for their perfect di position. We recently put a couple of S. angelicus
in a tank with two larger and well-established S. nofatus; in a day or so the
latter looked as if they bad been through a war.
Synodonlis f/avilaenialus
Synodontis acanlhomias
Cichlids and Air-breathers
West Africa is famous for its exquisite Cypdnodonts, such as Aphyosemion,
Epiplatys and A plocheilichthys. Few of these have been coming through, how-
ever. Aquarists may nevertheless stilJ be hopeful that some striking new ex-
ample will be forthcoming because the Congo has a large array of species,
the great majority of which have yet to grace an aquarium . The Cichlids have
been better represented, mostly by the smalJer types like Nannochromis nu-
diceps and two or three kinds of Steatocranus. There have also been a few
Tilapia and Haplochromis-what species only the specialist could tell. These
comprise but an infinitesimal fraction of the Cichlid fauna of the Belgian
ongo, which boasts of more than fifty genera and several hundred species
belonging to the Family ichlidae. Here is a tremendous untapped source of
possible home aquarium favorites, as Dr. George S. Myers has pointed out
(see the Aquarium Journal for September 1952, p. 171) .
Nannochromis fludiceps
The air-breathing spiny-finned fishes are represented in the Congo by

nearly a score of so-called Climbing Perch and one or two Snakeheads. Our
guess is that about a half dozen of the former have been received by the
New York dealers, while one Snakehead regularly accompanie them. At
least two of the Climbing Perch are remarkably attractive-much more so than
A naba.l' oxyrhynchlls
A nabas ansorgi
the usual run of the e fishes . They are Anabas oxyrhynchus and a somewhat
elongate form, with dark but rainbow-hued fins which may be A nabas nan us.
Another A nab as now being imported is A. ansorgi. The Snakehead is the
handsome Ophicephalus obscurus, which might also be called .Snakeskin bc-
Ophicephalus obscLlru~'
Luciocephalus pulcher
cause the bold yet subtle pattern of various shades of brown on its back and
sides is reminiscent of a python's coloration. Luciocephalus pulcher is another
rare Snakehead. The African Anabas are generally quite peaceful fish ; not
so the Snakehead, which can only be safely kept with fishes considerably
larger than itself.
Piscine Oddities
Up to now we have considered just the "standard" groups of aquarium
fishes ; the oddest of the new imports have yet to be mentioned. One of them
Tetradon schoutedeni
i Phractolaemus ansorgei, a fish so strange that it occupies a family by itself.

Others include all three of the fresh-water Puffers that inhabit the Congo, a
couple of the Spiny Eels (Mastacembellids) and five or six of the eight species
of Lobefins (Polyfperus) that are recognized from that region . Better known,
but nevertheless welcome, are the small Lungfishes ( Protopterus), the fresh-
water Butterfly Fish (Pantodon) and the African Knife-Fish (Xenomystus)
that are being shipped here.
PoLypterus species
Of all the strange fish now coming to us from Africa, the Mormyrids are
the weirdest. There must be nearly a hundred of these recorded from the
Gnathonemus species
Belgian Congo, the majority of all the species known. With their oddly shaped
heads and bodies, their peculiar mouths-some of which seem to lack a lower
jaw entirely or bear a worm-like extension of that tructure or are located at
the end of a long, downwardly curved snout-as well as their fins tbat look
as if they had been hastily stuck on by someone not acquainted with the
niceties of fish architecture, the Mormyrids appear to be caricatures rather than
real fish. Their behavior matches their appearance; they frequently act quite
mad. It's a purposeful madness, of course, but to us the fish a lways look as
if they were going to jump o ut of their skin s. so great is the nervo us energy
th ey di splay. Just what the significance of this is. we have only an inkling,
for hardly anything is known a bout the Mormyrids' way of life. It was only a
few yea rs ago that the first information on their breeding habits came to light.
Two of tbese odd fishes are illustrated.
As a matter of fact, we known very little about the natural hi story of any
Congolese ii. hes. With all the specie that are now availab le for the first time,
the observan t aq uarist is in a position to make valuable contri butions not only
to his hobby but to the . cience of ichthyo logy as well.
Gnalhonemus peters;
Index
A bramiles microcephaills, 282 Algae, 78- 80, 150-54

A call1hodoras SpiIlOJ'issil11us, 389 allum, PlerophyllUIn , 511
acalllholl/ias, Synodolllis, 527- 28 Alesles, 529
Acalllhuphlhall11l1s kllhlii, 368 al1lales , Pha/lichlh ys, 449
semicin ' Iu~' , 368 Amazon swo rd plant, 90, 91, 92
Acara, blue, 49 1 A mbassis la/a, 479
brown, 493 Amhulia, ,101 - 02
Achiridae, 520 Amoeba. 155
Achl'omycin, 23 1 amphiacanlhoides, Uaru, 5 16
Acriflavine, 230- 3 1 Amphiliidae, 526
(lellieallls, Gasleruslells, 458 Ampullarias. 266
MacroRllalhlll', 5 19 Anabantidac, 461 - 76
(1(,11 CIIS , Coryduras, 376, 379 A lIabas, 533 - 35
Aeqllidl'll,I' lal i/ro lls, 491 allSorgi, 534
marOlll, 492 Allabas Il'SIUdinl'u.l', 464
porta legre 'I ~' is, 493 Anacharis, 80, 102- 03
Aerators, 32-33, 5 1- 52 dwarf, 11 2
a{(inis, Dislichodu.I', 524 Aneus, blue, 376
Gambllsia, var. Anesthetics, 233- 34
affillis, 437 Angel, Singapore, 483
GCll11husia, var. Angel fi h, 20, 188,499. 5 11 - 12
holbrooki, 437 angeliclIs, Synodonlis, 527- 28
African dwarf glass catfish, 526- 27 anneelellS. Pro loplerus, 275- 76
knife fish , 277, 536 Annelida , 178- 85
lungfish, 275- 76 anoma ta, Nannacara, 508
tetra, 319, 524 anol11aius, NannO.l'IOmIlS, 320
Agassiz's cichlid, 494 A noprichlhys jordani, 131 - 32, 283
agassizi, A pislogramma, 494 A nUSlol111.1S anus/om liS . 284
Air-breathers, 529- 31 ansorgei, Neolebias, 524
Air stone, 33, 39, 49-50 Phraelolaemus, 536
Albino guppies, 441 Antibiotics, 23 I
Albinos, 137 Apelles quadraCLls, 457
alboiin eatus, Brachydanio, 350 Aphids, 222
albonubes, Tanicillhys, 367 Aphyocharax rubripinnis, 285
536 Index
A phyocypris pooni. 367 argus. Scatophagus , 484
Aphyosemion. 529 Armored catfish, 377
Gustra/e, 402, 405 arnoldi, Copeina, 287
bivittatul11 , 406 OLOcinchus, 391
coerulellm . 407 Arnold's catfish, 391
cognotum. 408 Arowana, rainbow, 278
gardneri, 409 arredi, Hypopomus, 333
sjoestedti. 410 A rtemia, 166- 72
splendopleuris, 4/1 Arthropoda, J 58-78
A pistogrommo ag(l,~sizi, 494 A rtocorixa a/temata, 220-21
ramirezi, 495 asiatica, Channa, 477
Ap/ocheilichthy,\,. 529 Astrollo/us ocel/atus, 496
IIlC1c/,ophtha/lIlu.I', 412 Athcrinidae, 459- 60
Aplocheilus blocki. 413 atracalldatlls, G ephyrocharax, 296
linea/us, 414 atratu/us, Rhinicth y.l', 365
panchax, 415 all/"(ltus, Poeci/obrycon. 323
Apolloge/oll crisp liS. 9] Aureomycin , 23 1
fenes/ ralis, 92, 93 allreum, My/ossoma. 3 J 7
IIlIdlllalUm. 9 1- 92, 93 allstra/e, Aphyosemioll, 402, 405
uil'ocells, 92- 93 Australian rainbow, 460
apus, Chanllal/ahes. 526
Aquaria, 4, 9, 14- 20, 25- 26, 57- 58, 61,
62, 64- 69. 70- 72, 76, 81 - 83, Back swimmers, 22 J
199- 200 Bacopa amplexi('(Iu/i,~, 104
acccssory equipment, 58- 62 Ba(li.~ bad is, 480
see Feed rings; Food guards; Bagridae, 526
Nets; cissor; Thermometcrs; Banana plant , 97
T ngs; Worm feeders Banded fundulus, 406
air surface, 14- 15,73 knife fish, 332
cement, 16, J 7, 66 Barb, 280, 334-47
cleaning, 64. 76- 77 black ruby , 34 1
cleaning equipment, 53- 57 blind,5 24
see Dip tubes; Filler stem hrushes; cherry, 347
Scrapers' Siphons; Steel wool clown, 338
gravel, 64, 65 Cuming's, 337
maintenance, I I. 12, 32-40, 50- 51, rosy, 336
200 Schubert's, 343
see Aerators; Air stone; Fi lters; spanner, 340
Pumps Sumatra, 345
materials and equipment, 22- 29, 63 T , 340
see Heaters; Rcfleciors; Thermo- ticto, 346
stats tiger, 339, 342
population balance, 72- 73, 82 Barbm candens, 524
stand, 63, 64 conch on illS, 336
see also Tanks cumingi, 337
Archer fish, 482 everetti, 338
arCllalU.I', Corydoras, 380 hexazonfJ, 339
argenteus, MOl1otlactylu.l', 483 lateristriga, 340
Argentine pearl fish, 417 nigrofasciatus, 341
Argulus, 218 oligolepis, 342
Index 537
Barbus (Continu ed) Brach ydanio, 348-5 2
schuberli, 343 albolineatus, 350
semifascio/alus, 343 nigrojasciastl/s , 35 1
sloliczkantl s, 344 rerio, 348, 352
sumatranu,\', 20, 345 Brachygohius xanlhozona, 517
telraZOlla , 20, 123 , 345 Brass tetra, 304
ticlO, 346 braziliensis, G eophaf,l Ll,\', 504
li/leya, 347 Breed ing. J 20. 24 1-45
Bari/ius chrislyi, 524 a oaba ntid s, 46 1- 63
he/izanus, Be/on e,wx, 436 a nge l fi sh, 5 I 1- 12
bel/olli, Cy no/ei1ia.l', 4 17 barbs, 334-35
Belonesox belizanu.l', 436 bet las, 46 1- 63
Betta, J 46, 26 1, 461 - 63, 465- 66 Brachydanio. 34!l- 49
Bella .I'p/ellde/lS, 465- 66 characins. 280- 81
bicirrilo.l'urn , Ost eor;/o.\',1'11 III , 278 c ichlids, 486- 90
i1icirrhus, Kryptopteru.l', 399 corydoras, 3tl5- !l6
bie~/or: Lobeo, 356 Egyptian mouthhreeders, 506
bi/asciatlls, H yp he,uohryeoll, 304 ga mbusias, 429- 35
hil11(lcu latus, H elllichrollli,\', 507 guppies, 439- 4 1
hioc(' /lalll/11 , Cichiasoma, 497 killifishes, 402- 04
Bitte rling, 366 moll ies, 446- 47
iJiI'ittatum. A phyo,\'e lllioll , 406 see a/so F lorida ha tc heri es; H a rvest-
Black-ba nd ed Icporinus, 3 15 ing; Shi pping
sunfish, 478 Breedi ng tra ps, 43 1-32
Black-chinned mouthbreede r, 5 15 Bri Ji iant rashora, 359
Black- lin e tetra, 3 14 Brine shrimp , 166 72 . 190. 193
Black- nosed d ace, 365 Bri ne shrimp nauplii , 166, 190- 91
Blac k-spotted catfish, 384 Brochis cOel'/i/ells, 376
Black ruby, 34 1 Bronze ca tfi sh. 379
sha rk , 357 tetra, 304
tetra , 297 Brown acara, 493
Bladde rwort , I I 1- 12 Bryozoa, 222
Blind barb, 524 Bubble-nest bui lding. 374, 46 1- 62
cavc fi sh, 13 1- 32, 283 hllchholzi. Palltodoll, 279
characin, 283 Bullies, 238
b/ocki. Ap/ochei/lI s, 413 Bumble bee fi h, 5 17
Bloodfio, 285 Butterfly dwarf cichlid , 495
Bloodworm, 175, 178- 79, 191 - 92 Buttern y fi sh , 279, 532
Blowfish , 521
Bluc acara, 491
aneus, 376 Cabomba t'Gl'Oliniana, 101 - 02
gourami, 476 Ca llicht hy id ae, 374, 376- 88
gul aris, 407 Cal/ichth ys cal/ichth ys, 377
pa ochax , 4 15 col/isms, H y p/7essobryco/l , 305
Bo/eophlhalmus, 5 18 Cal/ilriche he/erophylla, 11 2
Bosmina longirostrts. 160 pa/ustris, 112
Bolio hymenophysa, 369 cal/o/epis, Copeilla. 288
macracalltha. 370 COil dens, Barblls, 524
modesla, 371 caropo , Gymnotus. 130. 332
Slrigalus, 372 Carbon dioxide , 15,30,114- 15
538 Index
Carbonic acid gas. 30 Chi/odus puncla!Us, 286
Cardamine Iyrata. 103- 04 chinensis, Macropoc/us, 471
Cardinal fish, 307 Chironomus, 175
cardina/is, H y phes.l'obrycof1, 307 Chocolate cichlid, 498
CarnegieI/o mar/hoe, 293 - 94 gourami, 474
strigata, 294 Chondrococcus co/umn(Jris, 212-13
Carp, rainbow. 366 Ch lorella, J 52-53
tooth. 402 Ch lorine, 69, 120- 21
Catfish , 74. 130, 374- 99, 524. 525- 28 Chlorophyll, 78, 151
African dwarf glass, 526- 27 Chromatophores, 137
armorcd, 377 Chromide, orange, 503
Arnold's. 39 1 Chromosomes, 250- 52, 255
black-spotted, 384 Chrosol11US erylhrogwill'r, 353
bronze, 379 chrysophekadioll , Laheo, 357
croaking, 389 christyi, Bari/iuJ, 524
electric, 394, 525- 26 Cichiasollla bioce//alllJII, 497
elegant, 381 coryphaenoides. 498
glass, 399 jeslil'um, 499
leopard, 383 meeki, 500
peppered, 385- 86 seve rum. 501
pigmy, 382 Cich lid, 54, 133
smooth, 397 Agassiz·s. 494
spotted, 387 bUllerfly dwarf, 495
sucker-mouth, 20, 80, 392 checkerboard. 502
talking, 374, 389 chocolate, 498
upside-down, 395, 526 flag, 499
Cave fish, blind. 283 peacock-eye, 496
Cellophane plant, 93 red-finned , 504
Centrarchidae, 478 velvet, 496
Ceralophylilim dem erSlI111 , 107 Cichlidae, 486-516, 529-3 1
Ceralopteris thaliclroidl'S, 99- 100 Citharinidae, 524
cllaelodoll , Mesogonislius, 478 Cl<ldocera, J 60
Chanda la/a, 221, 479 Clams, fresh-water, 264
Channa oJia/ica, 477 la ra, 378
ChaJ1f1a//abes apus, 526 C/arias, 526
Channidae, 477 lazera, 378
Chaoborus, 174- 75 l<lriidae, 526
chaperi, £piplalys, 418 Classification, 269- 74
Chaper's panchax , 418 Climbing perch, 464, 529- 30
haracidae, 2 0-33 1 Clillostomu/I'I /J'Iarginalum, 209
Characin, 280- 8 J, 524- 25 Clown barb, 338
blind, 283 loach,370
flying, 293- 95 Cobitidac, 368- 373
swordtail, 290 coeruleum, Aphyosemion, 407
haracin hook, 281 coeruleus, Brochis, 376
Checkerboard cichlid, 502 cognatum, Aphyosemion, 408
Cherry barb, 347 Colisa fascia/a, 467
Chi/odon, 2Il- 12, 227 /abiosa , 468
Chi/odollella lalia, 469
see Chi/odoll Color, 137, 237-38, 486
Index 539
Color inheritance, 260- 62 Cyprinidae, 334- 67
conchonius, Barbus, 336 Cyprinids. 524
Congo, 523- 34 Cyprinodontidac, 401 - 28
Convict fish, 501 Cyprinodonts, 529
Coolie loach , 368
Copeina, 287
Cope ina arnoldi, 287 Dace, red- bellied, 353
callo/epis, 288 black-nosed, 365
gU ITa/a , 289 Daclylogyrus, 2 10- 1 I, 227
Copeina, red-spotted, 289 Danio, giant, 354
Co pper in trea tment of disease , 224- 28 Danio mala baric LI S, 354
Corallines, I j 2 Danio. pearl, 350
Cordalis cornll/a, 220 spoued, 351
Corydoras, 379-88, 528 zeb ra, 352
{le /l eus, 376, 379 D aphni a, 79, 80, 144. 145, 146, 151 ,
arc ua/IIS, 380 153,159-64, 19 1
eiegal/!i, 381 Daphnia longispina, 160-6 1
l1{/s/a/u~' , 382 magna, 16 1
juli, 383 pulex, 16 1
lIl ellll/i.Hius, 384 deiJllulI'i, Ell/ropiellll,\', 526- 27
palearus, 385-86 Defense, mea ns of, 141 - 42
pUl/cta/IIS, 387 Demon fish , 505
rahallli, 388 D erm ogel/ys pllsillllS, 400
Corynopol/w rii.W'i, 290 Dil'lI1ic/lylis "iridescl'ns l'irilll'.I'C1'lIs, 264
coryp haenoides, Cichiaso llla, 498 Dip tubes, 54- 56
CO,I'lia, 2 11 - 12 Disa ppearing fi sh, 81
Cree ping C harlie, 105 Disc us, 5 13- I 4
Crc!ll icara lI1aculaw , 502 Disc us disease, 2 10
Croak ing catfish , 389 discus, Sy l1lphysodoll , 5 13- 14
Crow n fun gus, 2 14 Disease
C ry plocory ne beckel/ii, 94 isolation, 204
ciliala , 94- 95 overdosing, 2(}4
cordala , 94 symptoms, 203-4
griffi lhii, 94 trea tment, 204, 226- 28, 229- 33
haerlelialla, 94-95 .1'('(' also Acriflavine; Anesthelies;
lon gica llda, 94-95 Antibiotics; Co pper; Drugs;

nev illii, 94 Euthanasia; Formalin dip;
C rystal wort, 1 10, 1 1 1 Hi lchhikers; H yd roge n perox-
C/enobrycol/ .I'pilurus, 291 ide; Mercuroch rome; Potas-
C uban killie, 416 si um permanga nate; Salt ; Steri-
Cubanichlhys cuhellsis, 4 16 li zalion
cubensis, C ubanichlh ys, 416 Disi nfectin g fish, 233
cumingi, Barbus, 33 7 Di.~lich odus, 524- 25
Cuming's barb, 337 affinis, 524
c upanus da yi, Macropodus, 471 fasciola/us, 525
cu/cu/jca, T etraodoll , 522 /ussoso, 525
Cych loc/Jae/a, 208 sexfascialus, 524-25
Cyclops, 158- 59, 191 Diving beetle, 220
cylilldraceus, Rivulus, 426 Dobson fly, 220
Cynolebias bellolT i, 417 do[ichoptera, Xenocara, 393
540 Index
Doradidae, 389 Euflavine, 230
Dropsy and bloat , 214- 15 Euglena, 158
Drosophila, 177- 78 Eut hanasia, 234
Drugs, 204- 0 5 , 224 , 231 , 233- 34 EU lropiellus debauwi, 526-27
Duckweed, 79, 110. I II EUlropiliS ni/oliells, 396
Dwarf anach a ris, 112 everetti, BarbLlS, 338
cichlid. butterfly, 495 Exodoll paradoxLls, 292
glass catfish, African, 526- 27
gourami . 469
lily. Madagascar. 96--97 Fairy shrimp, 172-73
panch ax. 4 13 Fanwort, 101 - 02
pike. 436 jm'ciala, Colisa, 467
DY.I'/ICU,\' marginico/li.l', 220 jascialus, Leporinl.ls, 315
N emachillls, 373
fascio/mus , Dislic/wdus, 525
Earthworm . 179- 80 Epip/(I(y.l', 419
Echillodorus intermedius, 90 Fear psychology, 223
martii, 91 Feather-tai l, 525
radicans, 90- 9 J Feed rings, 59- 60
ran geri, 90- 91 Feeding, 31 - 32, 60- 61, 145
lenellll.l', 89, 91 baby fish, 434
Egg-layers, 24 L-42, 243 dry food s, 73- 75
Egyptian mouthbreeder, 506 in hatcheries, 244- 45
Eichornia crassipC's, 108 festil'lIln , Cichlasol'lla, 499
eimekei. Pterophyllum , 51 I Filter stem brushes, 57
eilllhoveni, Rasbol'a , 359 Filters, 32- 33, 34, 41-49, 51 - 52
Electric catfish, 394, 525- 26 Fin rays, 136
electricus, ualapterul'us, 394 , 525- 26 Fin rot, 215
Electric light bug, 220 Fins, 136. 140- 41
e[egans. CorydorllS, 381 Firemouth, 500
Elegant catfish , 3111 Fish louse, 21 B
rasbora, 360 Fiag ciehlid, 499
Eleocharis aciclliuris , 99 Flag-tailed tetra, 326
Elephant ear, 90 Flame tetra, 308
Elodea calladensis, 102 flammeus , Hyp!tessobrycolI, 308
Encltyrrael.ls albidus, 180- 83 Flatworms, 217
Enemies of fish , 220- 2) /lUI'iloenialus, SY)lodol1liJ', 527- 28
Epa/zeorhynchos callopteru.I', 355 Florida dwarf anacharis, 11 2
Epibionts, 201 F lorida hatcheries, 3, 10, 242--45
Epip/tanes senra, 186-87 Flounder, freSh-water, 520
Epiplalys, 529 F lukes, 210- 11
chaperi, 418 F luorine, 120
fascio/atus, 419 f/uviaIUis, Terraodoll, 521
macrosligma, 420 Flying characin, 293- 95
sexjasciallls, 421 fox, 355
Equilibrium, 128- 29 Food, 147- 48, 192- 94, 196
eryr/trogasrer, Chro,l'omus, 353 canned, 194
erYlhrozonus, Hernigrammus, 298 dried, 196- 97
Elrop/us macu/alus, 503 - dry material, 145- 46, 149
Eubrallchipus verna/is, 172 frozen, 189- 92
Index 541
F ood (Co ntinu ed) G lass catfish, 399
li ve, 150, 189, 232 Afri can dwarf, 526- 27
masticati on, 150 G lass fi h, 22 1, 479
prepared, 196- 98 G lassworms. 174- 75
screening, 197- 98 G lochid ia, 264
types, J 88, 192- 96 Glow light tetra, 193, 298
water co ntent, 145-46, 148 Gna lh onem us , 533- 34
see also Feeding; Overfeeding; Un- pelersi, 534
derfeed ing Go biidae, 5 17
Food guards, 61 Goldfish, 8, 9, 141
Food suppl y, II , 12 Go ldfi sh globes, 19- 20
Form alin dip, 230 Go urami , blue. 476
fo rmosa, H elerandr ia, 43 1. 438 chocolate, 474
foss ilis , H e lerOpn l' uSII'S, 398 dwarf, 469
Fo ur-spined stickleback, 457 gian t. 467
Foxtail, 106- 07 kissing, 470
Fragrant lad ies tresses, 97 pearl. 475
Fredericia alIJa, 180 striped. 467
agilis, 180 thi ck-lipped, 468
par va, 180 th ree-spot, 476
Fruit fli es, 177- 78 gracilis , H yph essobry con . 298
F undulus, band ed, 406 Pimelodella, 397
red, 4 10 G ree n puffer, 52 1
F ungus, 213 rivu lus, 426
, rindall wo rm , 183
G ru bworm, 209, 2 16
Gamhusia, affini.l' affinis , 437 gualemalensis, R oeboides, 327
affini.l' holhrooki, 437 G ul ari . blue, 407
Ga mhusia, Holb rook's, 437 G uppy, 121 - 22, 133, 146, ISO, 188,
spotted black, 437 439-43
Ga mbusinos, 429- 35 albi nos, 44 1
Ga mmari dae, 164- 66 inherited characteristics, 259- 61
Ga mmarus, 22 1 mutations, 254
G l1m marus fascia tu s. 164, 165 , 166 gUll ala , Co peill(J, 289
gardn eri, A ph yose mio n . 409 G y mnocorylll lJ lI s lem elzi, 297
G asleropelecus le vis , 293 Gymn otid ae, 332- 33
G asterosteidae, 457- 58 GYIIIIlO IUS carapo, ] 30, 332
G aslerosleus aculea lu s, 458 G y rodacly lus, 2 10- 1] , 227
Genes, 250- 52, 255, 260- 6 1
G eoplJagus brazi/iensis. 504
jurupari, 505 Hair grass, 99
G ephy rocharax alracaudalus, 296 H alf bea k, 400
Germ plasm, 248- 55 , 260- 6 1 H aplochro mis, 529
Ger man shipping cans, 3 mullic%r, 506
Germ any, 9- 10 Har lequin rasbo ra, 362
Ghost shrimp, 265 H arvesting, 245
Giant danio, 354 /!{ISlaIIlS, Cory doras, 382
gourami, 467 Hatch eries, 9- ] 0
water bug, 220 see al.w Breeding; F lorida hatcheries
Gills, 1 J, ]41 Hatchet fish, 293- 95
542 Index
Head-and-tail-light fish, 300 Hyphessobrycon bijasciafus (Collfinued)
Head-standing fish, 286 pu/ehripinnis, 312
Hearing, 127- 28 rosaceus, 313
Heaters, 26-28 scholzei, 314
Heliotropism, 25 serpae, 305
Hellgrammites, 220 Hypopomus artedi, 333
H elostonw tel7lmincki, 470 Hypostom,lIs pJecostolllllS, 20, 80, 392,
H emichromis bimacu/atus, 507 393
Hemigrall1l1llls erythrozol1us, 298 hypsauchen, Metynnis, 3 I 6
tlanllS, 299
ocellifer, 300
pulcher, 301 lch, 72, 205- 07, 310
rhodos/omlls, 302 Jchthyophthiriasis, 205- 06
utre)'i, 309 Ich/hyophfhirius nlllltifi/iis, 205- 06
Hemirhamphidae, 400 Importing, 246-47
Heredity, 250- 60, 439-40 lnbrceding, 254-55
acquired characteristics, 253 innesi, HyphessobrycolI , 20 , 215 , 310- 11
Mendel's law, 251 - 53 Jnscctu, J 73- 7!!
mutations, 253- 54 insects, flying , 178
theories, 253 in.l'igni.l', Prochilodus, 326
see also Color; Inbreeding ; Linkage int erruptLls, Phenacogral11171l1s, 525
Herringbone rivulus, 427 isoe/es iacLIJtris, 98
Heterandria formosa, 431 , 438 /11alillvemiun(/ , 98- 99
Hetemllthera zosterifolia , 106
heterol11orpha, Rasbora , 227- 28, 361
H e /erop" eust es fossilis, 398 Jack Dcmpsey, 497
heterorhabdus, Hyphessol>r)' col'l, 309 jaeLllator, Tu xOIes, 482
Hexamita , 210 Jars, 19- 20, 72
hexaZOlla, Barbu , 339 jl1vunicu,\' Oryz ia.l', 422
Hitchhikers, 201 Jewel fish , 507
Holbrook's gambusia , 437 jordani, A nuptichthys, 131 - 32 , 283
Hormones, 256- 59, 260 ju/i, Corydorrt.l', 383
Hornwort, 107- 08 Junior Amazon sworu plant, 90
Humpback limia , 444 jllrupari, G eophagus, 505
Hyalella, 166 Jumping fish, 81
HyalleJa knickerbockeri, 166
Hyda/ina oren/a, 186- 87
Hydra, 218- 20 kal/opterus, Epalzeorhynehos, 355
H ydri/la l'utieilla/a, 103 Keyhole fish , 492
Hydrogen peroxide, 231 - 32 Kissing gourami , 470
Hydrophilus obtusa/us, 220 Killic, Cuban, 416
Hygrophila polysperma, J 05- 06 pike, 436
hymenophysa, Botia, 369 Killifishcs, 401 - 04
Hyphessobrycon bijaseiatlls, 304 Knife fish, 130
callis/ull', 305 African, 277, 532
cardinalis, 307 banded, 332
{lammeus , 308 spotted, 333
gracilis, 298 kribensis, Peilllafochromis, 509- 10
heterorhabdus, 309 Kryptopterus bicirrhus, 399
innesi, 20,215,310- 11 kuh/ii, A cal1t17ophthall1lus, 368
Index 543
Labeo, 524 Ludwigia allerni/olia, 105
Labeo bicolor, 356 mllilerii, 105
chrysophe kadion, 357 pa /uslris, 105
labiosa, Colisa, 468 Lumhricidac, J 79
Lace-lea f plant, Madagascar, 92, 93 LUl1lhricillus ri valis, 180
lala , A mhassis, 479 Lungfish, 532
C handa, 22 1, 479 Africa n, 275- 76
lalia , Co lisa, 469 lu sso.l'o, Disli hot/us, 525
Lamp-eye, 4 12 LYl17 nalllhemll1l1 nYl17p/rlleoules. 97
Lantern eye, 422 Lyre-tail panchax, 402, 405
Latera llinc perception, 13 1- 32 LY.I'imachia 17I~11l1l1ll1Qria . 105
laleri,flriga, Barbus, 340
lali/rol1s, Aeqllidens, 491
lalipes, Oryzias, 423 macc ul/oc/ri. M elano laenia, 459
la lipinl1a. Molliellesia , 445, 447 III(/CnI CWH /W. Bo li(/ , 370
ialipull clala. M o lftenesia, 445 m Qcrocephala, Tilapia, 5 15
/a zera , Clarias, 378 Macrognalhlls aCL/ leUIII S, 5 19
Leaf fish, 481 l11acroplllhO/I1lIl S, A p locheilichlh ys. 4 12
L el> isf es I'cf iclIlcllll S, 439 Macropodus ch inensis, 471
Leeches, 216- 17 CU P(/Il IIS dayi. 47 1
leeri, Tric/roga.l' ler, 475 apercu/uris, 9, 472- 73
L ellllla lIIinor, 11 I /11 IIcro.\·li{:lI7a , £pip larys. 420
Lemon tetra, 3 I 2 1I10clI /a((/. Crl'llicII/'a, 502
Leopard catfish, 383 R(lshora , 362
Lepidosirenidae, 275- 76 maculalllS. £Iroplu.l', 503
Lcporinus, black-ba nded , 3 15 Thor(/('ocllllrax, 294
L eporillus jascia fll s . 3 15 Tri ll £'C I(',I' , 520
Lelhocems al1leri('al7ll.l', 220 Xiphophoru .~, 450- 52
lev is, Casleropelecus. 293 Mad agasca r dwarf lily, 96- 97
Light, 20- 26, 74, 79 lace- leaf plant, 92. 93
see also H eliotropism ; Phot sy n- /11alaharic lIs. D allio, 354
thesis; Plant s; Reflector M nlapteruridae. 394
Lim ia, humpbilck, 444 Ma/apll'rtlmS eleclriclIs, 394, 525- 3 1
Limia nigrojasciala . 444 Marcilia quoe/ri/oli(l, 95 - 96
Limnodrilus, 184 32 1
m(lr g il7 l1 ll1S, N(l11 1l 0SI(JlIlIIS ,
Lill1l1ophila sessilif/ora , 101 -02 maroni, A eqll idells. 492
Limpets, 22 1 marl/tal', Cal'llefliel/a. 293- 94
Lineatus, 4 I 4 M astacemhelidae, 5 19, 532
linealus, A plochci/us, 414 M as tacc mbell ids, 532
Linkage, 255- 56 Meal worms, 176-77
Linnaeus' classifica tion, 270 Mcdaka, 423
Live food treatm en t, 232 m ee k;, Cichlasoma, 500
Live-bea rers, 10, 24 1, 243, 430- 33 m elallislius, Corye/oras, 384
Loaeb, clown , 370 M e/clIlolaenia m(/ccul/oclli, 459
coolie, 368 lIigrclIls, 460
Lobefin , 536 Me mory, 134- 35
Lo ngevity, 132-33 Mercurochrome, 230
Loricaria, 526 Merry widow, 449
Loricariidae, 390- 93 J..1esencily lracus heulll eri, 18 1
Luciocephalus pulcher, 531 M £'sogonislius chae loe/Oll, 478
544 Index
Metric system equiva lents, 235 Nannostomlls anoma/us, 320
Melynnis hy psau chen, 316 marginatus, 32 1
roosevelli, 3 17 Iri/ascialus, 322
Miami fish farming. 244 nan us, H emigrammlls, 299
Micro-worms, 183-84 IIalt erei, Serrasalmus, 328- 29
microcephalus, A bramiles, 282 Nemachillls fascia lu s, 373
Microsagittaria, 89, 91 Neo lehias ansorgei, 524
M icro,l'poridiosis, 2 15 Neon, 416
Milfoil, )07 see Cuba n kitlie
Mochokidae, 395, 526 Neon disease, 2 15
modesla, BOlia, 371 Neon tetra, 20, 2 15, 298, 307, 3 10- Jl
Moenkhallsia oJi[;o leplls, 318 Nets, 62. 82, 161
Moil/a iJrachiala , 160 Newts, 264
Mol/ien esia , 445 nigra/'l.\', Melanotaenia, 460
latipin na, 445 l1igri, X el1omyslu s, 277
lalipllnctata, 445 11 igriven Iris, Sy nodonlis, 395, 526
sphenops, 445 nigrofuscialo, Limia , 444
lIeli/era, 445 nigrO/OJ'Ciaftls, Barbus, 34J
Mollies, 80, 445-48 Brachydanio, 35 J
Molly, albino, 447 nilolicllS, EUlropia.!', 396
sa ilfin, 446, 448 N ilella flex ilis, 109
Moneywort. 105 Nomenclature, 270
Monocirrhus po/yacanthus, 481 nOlalUS , Synodo llli.l', 528
Monodactylidae, 483 NO loll ec:to, 22 1
Monodacty/us argenteus. 483 Notopteridae, 277
Monogenea , 210 nudiceps, Nannochrol71i,f , 529
MormyridS. 532- 34 Nuphar sagiflue/olia, 95
Mosquito fis h, 431. 438 Nymphaea micran /lta, 96- 97
Mosquito larvae, J 73-74. 192
Moss animals, 222
MOllth fungus, 2 12- 13 obLiqu a, Thayeria, 330
MOllthbreeder, black-chinned, 5 15 OiJSCLIruS, Ophicephalus, 530- 3 1
Egyptian, 506 ocellattls, ASlrOfl otus, 496
Moving "loaded " females, 434- 35 ocellifer, H em igraml11 l1s, 300
Mud skipper, 125. 518 Octopus plant, 98- 99
Mud-spawners, 403- 04 Oddities, 5, 532- 34
Mud treatment, 232 Oligochaeta, 179
lIIull;('olor, H ap/ochromis, 506 oligolepis, Barhus, 342
Mussels, fresh -water, 264- 65 Moenkhausia, 318
M y /ellS schomhurgk i, 317 Oodinium, 227-28
Mylos,l'Oma aureum, 3 17 opercu laris, Ma cropodLls, 9, 472- 73
Myriophyllum verlicil/alum , 106 Operculum, 136
Ophice/phalus o bsctlrLls, 530- 3 1
Orange chromide, 503
Naias microdon, 108- 09 Orange-dorsal sailfin molly, 446
Nandidae, 480-8 J Ordonata. 220
Nannacara, 508 Organs, internal, 139, 141
Nanna cara anomala . 508 Oryzias javanictls, 422
Naunaethiops lInilaenialus, 3 19, 524 latipes, 423
Nannochromis nudiceps, 529 osphromenoides, Sphal.'richlhys, 474
Index 545
Osteochilus vittatus, 358 Pigmy ca tfish, 382
Osteoglossidae, 278 Pike, dwarf, 436
Osteoglossum bicirrhossul1l, 278 Pike kill ie, 436
Otocinclus arnoldi, 391 Pimelodella gracilis, 397
Overfeeding, 32, 74, 146, J 92, 20 J - 03 Pimclodidae, 396-97
Oxygen, 30-31, 32, 114 Piranha, 280, 316, 328-29
piraya , Serrasalmlls, 329
Planaria, 217
Pachy panchax, play/airi, 424 Planorbis corne LIS, 266
Pain , 129 Plant lice, 222
Palaemonetes exilipes , 265 Plant-spawners, 402-03
palearus, Corydoras, 385-86 Plants, 14, 67-68
pallchax , A ploch eilus, 415 bunch. 100- J07
Panchax, blue, 4J 5 lioating, 107- J 2
Chaper's, 418 reproduction, 87
dwarf, 413 rooted, 86-100
lyre-tail, 402 selecting, 85-86
Playfair.'s, 424 uses, 83-85
six-banded, 421 see also Heliotropism ; Photosy n-
striped, 419 thesis
Pan todoll , 532 Plants and light, 21 - 22, 25. 83, 151 - 52
bllChho/~i, 279 Platinum tetra, 296
PanlOdontidae, 279 Platy, 450- 52
Paradise fish, 9, 465, 472- 73 Platyfish. 203. 261 - 62
paradoxLI.I', Exodon, 292 Platypoecilus, 450
Paramecium , 156- 57 see Xiphophorus
pauciper/orara, Rashora, 363 play/airi, Pachy pancllllx, 424
Peacock-eye cichlid, 496 Playfair's panch ax, 424
Pearl danio , 350 plecoslomus, Hy postonw .~, 20. 80. 392
Pearl fish, Argentine, 417 Plistophora hy ph essohrycollis. 215
Pearl gourami, 475 Plumatella, 222
PelmalOchromis kribensis, 509-10 PoeciliiJae, 429- 56
laenialus, 510 Poeciloi1rycol1 auratus, 323
Penagre llus silusia, J 83-84 ul1i/asciatus, 324
Pencil fish, 323 Poison, 223
red-tailed, 324 polyacallthus, Monocirrhlls . 48 1
Penguin fish, 330, 33 1 PolypterllS, 532
Penicillin, 231 Pompadour fish , 5 13- 14
Peppered catfish, 385- 86 pooni, A ph yocypris, 367
Perch, climbing. 464, 533- 34
portalegrensis, Aequidens, 493
Perez tetra, 305
Potassium permanganale, 80, 229-30
Periophthalmidae, 5 18
PreservlDg specimcns, 234- 35
PeriophThalmus, 125, 518
Pristella riddlei, 325
peruensis, Pteroloabias, 425
petersi, GnaThoflemLls, 534 Prochilodus insignis. 326
Pha/lichthys amates, 449 Protopterus, 536
Pheflacogrammus inTerruptus, 525 {Innectens, 275-76
Photosynthesis, 2 1-22,83, 115, 151 - 52 Protozoa, 154-56
Phractolaemus CllIsorgei, 536 Pseudemys scripta troo.Hi, 263
Pictures, 237- 38 Pteroloabias peruellsis, 425
546 Index
P/crophyllum allum, 511 Ra.l'hora /rilinea/a , 364
eimekei, 511 Ras bora, yellow, 360
sca/are, 20, 511 - 12 Red -bellied dace, 353
PufTer, 536 Red eye tetra, 318
Congolese, 532 Red-finned eiehlid, 504
green, 52l Red fundulus , 410
pu/ciler, Hell'ligraml1llls, 301 rasbora, 361
Luciocep//(//lIs, 531 rivulus, 428
pu/chripillllis, H y phe,uohrycoll , 3 L3 Red-s potteJ copeina, 289
Pumps, 32, 39-41 Red-striped rasbora, 363
air tubing. 51 Red-tailed pencil fish, 324
air vulves, 50- 51 shark, 356
platforms, 59 Reflectors, 22- 26, 58
type , 33- 40,50- 51 and heat, 26
PUIlC/(I/II,I' , Chi/odll.l', 286 see a/so Light
Corydol'as, 3S7 Reproduction, 249- 51, 255, 429-30,
Pun/il/,r, 335 461 -62
see Barb see Chromosomes' Egg-layers;
pusilltls, Dermogenys , 400 Genes; Germ plasm ; Heredity;
Live-bearers
rerio , Bracilydullio, 348, 352
quadraclls, A p('//es, 457

Respirat ion , II, 12
re/icII/alLls, L,,/Ji.l'tes, 439
Quarantine, 72, 200
Rhillil'lhys (/Iralll/I/S, 365
Queensland rainbow, 459
Rhodeu,l' seriCeLlS-(II1WI'IIS, 366
Quillwort. 98
rhodostol7luS , Hel11igramllllls , 302
Riccia flllitclI/s, III
Riekcts, 2 16
rahau/i, Corydoro.l', 388 ridd/ei, Pr;s/el!lI, 325
Radar, 130- 3 J rii,l ci, Corynopol//a, 290
Rainbow Arowana, 278 Rh'u/us cylilldracel/,f , 426
carp, 366 Rivulus, green, 426
Rambow, Australian , 460 herrin gbo ne, 427
Queensland, 459 red,428
ra 111 ir('Z), A pis/og l'oll'll11a, 495 Rivu/us strif(lllll,I', 427
Ramsborn smails, 202, 266 urophtha/II1I1.1', 428
Ral/CI/m Clmericana, 220 Roeboides gua l elllll/ellsis, 327
Rasbora, brilliant, 359 rooseve /ti, Me/Yllnis, 3 17
Rashora ein/hove ni, 359
rO,I'OCeU,f, H ypheJ'sobr ycon, 3 13
e/egans, 360
Rosy barb, 336
Rasbora, elegant, 360
tetra, 313
barlequin, 362
Rotatoria
Rashora heleromorpha, 227- 28, 361
macu/ala, 362
see Rotifers
pau ciper!oro/(l, 363
Rotifers, 185-88, 191
Rasbora, red, 361 ruhripinni.l', A phyocharax, 285
red-striped, 363 Rumed sword plant, 9'1
scissortail, 364 Rummy-nose tetra, 193, 302
Rasbora tetra, 301 Runts, 239
Rusbora, three-lioe, 364 Rust, 207
Index 547
Sagittaria, 85 Siphons, 53- 54
Sagilfaria g igan/ea , 88-89 Six-banded panchax, 421
guayanensis, 90 si oes/ed/i, A phyosemion, 4 10
na/ans, 89 Skeleton, J 36, 138
sublila/a, 89 Sleep, 129- 30
Saillin moll y, 446, 448 Smell and taste, 128
Salt, 10, 69, 230 Smooth catfish, 397
Salvinia,79, 110- 11 Snails, 188-89, 265- 66
Salvinia ml/ans, I 10 Snakehead ,477,529- 3 1
sancllle-inariae, Thayeria , 33 1 Sodium amy tal, 233
Sapro/egnia, 2 J 3-14 Sounds made by fish, J 32
sea/are, P/erophy llllm , 20, 5 11 - 12 Spanner barb, 340
Scat, spotted, 484 Spatterdock, 95
Scatophngidae, 484-8 5 Splwerich/hy,l' (J.I'p hromel1oidl'.I', 474
ca/ophagu,I' arglls, 484 Sphenops, 447
Schilbeidae, 526 Sphellops, Mol/ielll!.I'ia. 445, 447
scho/zei, Hyphe.l'sobryeoll, 3 J 4 ,fpi/1/1'/IJ, CTenohrycol/, 291
schomh llrgk i , My/ells , 3 17 Spillosi.vsiIll IlS. A ('(1l11 hodor(/.I'. 389
scho ll/edelli, Te/raodoll , 532 Spiny eel. 5 19, 532
Schubert's barb, 343 Spiral//hes ador(//(/, 97- 98
Scissors, planting, 59 Spirogyra, 78
Seissortail rasbora, 364 Spiros/ollll/lrI , 2 I 7- 18
Scrapers, 56 spiendell.l', 1Jc-l/a. 465- 66
secllris, ThoraeocllClra.A, 295 sp /l'lIdop/ellri.l'. A [I"yo'\(' l)1iol1. 411
.I'emicinc/us, Aean/hoph/hall1w s, 368 Spotted black ga01busia, 437
semi/agio /a/lls. Barhll.\'. 343 catfis h, 387
semiwl'll ial us, H emiodlls. 303 danio, 35 1
Senses, 124 32 knife fish, 333
sericeus-a/l1ams, Rh ode Lis. 366 scat, 484
.I'erp{le, H yph essohryeoll. 305 sa lamander, 264
Serrasallllll.I' 11(/l/erei, 328-29 Spring starwort, 112
piraya, 329 Squeaker, 526
sevemm. Cichlasonw. 50 I tarworl, spring, J 12
Sex, 240-41, 256 S/ea/oerallll.l', 529
sex/ascia/lls, Disliellodu,I'. 524- 25 Steel wool, 56
Epip/{I/ys , 421 .\'Icl/a/lIs, 7'IIorcJ('ocllllrax, 295
Shark, black, 357 Sterilization 232
red-tailed, 356 Stickleback, four-spincd, 457
Shipments, receiving, 71 - 72 thrce-spincd, 458
Shipping, 3, 4, 233, 245 ,I' loliezkallll ,l', Barhus, 344
Shrimp, boiled, 192- 93 Stonewort, ) 09
fre sh-water, 21 1 ,f /rigel/a, Camegiel/a, 294
ghost, 265 s/riga /lI ,f, 801i(/. 372
Siamese fighting fish , 26 1, 465 Ril'llills. 427
Sigbt, J 24- 27 Striped gouram i, 467
Siluridae, 398- 99 panchax, 4 ) 9
Silver doll ar fish, 3 J 6-17 tetra, 309
Silver tetra, 291 Sucker-mouth catfish, 20, 80, 392
Silver tip tetra, 299 Sumatra barb, 345
Singapore angel, 483 Suma/ranus, barbus. 20, 345
548 Index
Sunfish, black-banded, 478 Tetra (ColI/il'lued)
Swim bladder, 137-40 lemon , 312
Swimming, 140-4 1 n eon, 20, 2 15, 298, 307, 3 10- 11
Sword plant, 90- 9 1 Perez, 305
Amazon , 90, 9 1, 92 platinum , 296
Jun ior Amazon, 90 rasbora, 30 I
Swordtail , 133- 34,454- 56 red eye, 3 18
albino,455 rosy, 3 13
brick red , 455 rummy-nose, 193, 302
Swordtail characin, 290 siJver, 291
Swordtail, crescent, 455 siJver tip, 299
green, 455 striped, 309
green tuxedo , 455 ye llow, 304
red, 455 Te tra minor, 305
Ted-eyed red, 455 Tetra von rio, 308
red wag, 455 Tetraodon cutcutia, 522
red tuxedo, 455 fh" 'iati{i,I' , 521
Symphysodon discLls, 5 J 3- 14 schol.lledeni, 532
SynodO lllis acalllholllias, 527 - 28 Tetraodontidac, 52 1, 5~2
(/Iwe/i,Lts , 527 - 28 tetru ZOIlO, Barblls. 20. 12 3. 345
f/allilaeniallls, 527-28 Thayeria ohliqu{/, 330
nigriven lris, 395, 526 sanclae-mari(/(,. 33 1
IIOlaIUS, 528 Thermometer , 62
Thermostats, 29
T hick- lipped gourami, 468
Tables of measurement, 234- 35 Three-line rasbo ra , 304
Tadpoles, 264 Three-spined 't ickleback, 45R
w el/ialus , PelmaIOl'hromis , 5 10 Three-s pot gourami, 476
Tail rot, 215 Thor{lcocharax /1'I(/CUlaflls, 294
Tampa fis h farmi ng, 243 ,I'ecuri,l', 295
Taflichthys albolUlbe.l', 367 sle llatus, 295
Tanks, 14 Ticto barb, 346
constru ctio n anti repair, 16- 17 l ielo, BOI"bIl S, 346
cover, 25- 26 Tiger barb, 339, 342
size, 17- 19 Tilapia. 529
types, 15-16 f/1acrocepha/a, 515
T barb, 340 fill eya. EOI'hus, 347
tem mincki, H elostoma, 470 Tolerance to change, 12
Temperatu re, 10, 12, 26- 27, 30, 229 Tolera nce to copper, 228
terne tzi , Gymnocorymhl.l.l', 297 Tongs, planting, 58
Terramycin, 231 Toot h ca rps, 402
tesl!,ldineus, A nubas , 464 Toxo tes jaculalor , 482
Tetra, African, 319, 524 Toxotidae, 482
black, 297 Training, 133
black-line, 3 I 4 Trichodina, 208-09
brass, 304 Trichoga.fler leeri, 475
bronze, 304 Irichoplerus. 476
Rag-tailed, 326 tric/7opferus. TricllOga,w er. 476
flame, 308 Irijascia lus, Nannostomus, 322
glow li ght, 193, 298 trilinea ta , Rasboru, 364
Index 549
TrineCles macu/alus, 520 Water (Con/illued)
Trochelm inth e , 185-86 gases, 30- 32, 114-1 5
Trypaflavine, 230 green, 79- 80, J 14, 232
Tuberculosis, 2J 5 hardness, 118- 20
Tubifex worms, 184-85 metals disso lved in , 122-23
Tubifieids pH, 69, J 15- 18, 122, 123, 226
see Tubifex worms salt, 10,69, 121- 22
Tumors, 2 15, 262 slick, 80- 81
Turtles, 263-64 see a/so Ca rbon dioxid e . C hlorine;
Fluorine; Temperature
Water boatm an , 220- 2 1
Vanl a/llphiacal1rhoide.~, 5 16 Water bug, giant, 220
u/reyi. H ell7ig rammll s. 309 Water hyac inth, 108
Underfeeding, 203 Water lil y, 96, 97
Underwater clover, 95- 96 Water orchid, 97- 98
unirueniarus, Nunnaerliiops. 3 19, 528 Water scavenge r, 220
Upside-down catfish, 395, 530 Wat er scorpions, 220
urophrhail1llls. Ril'U/IiS. 428
Water sprite, 86, 99- 100
V rricu /aria minor, III
W ater ti gers, 220
vu lgaris, I II
Water twirl , J 03
White worms, J 80- 83
Va llisneri a, 85, 87- 8R, 89-90 Wonder seed , 85
va riaru s, Xipho ph or us. 450- 52 Worm feeders , 60
ve li/era, Mo/iielle.l·ia. 445 , 44li
Velvet, 207-08, 227 28
Velvet cichlid , 496 X anrho zor/a, 8rachygo hiu.l'. 5 I 7
vi((ar/.l s, Osreochi/us. 358 X I'noC'a ra tio/ichoprera , 39:1
Von rio, tetra, 308 Xe ll Ol1lysrU.l', 277, 536
nigri, 277
Xiphophof'l/s , 133- 34
Walking fish, 477 helleri, 454- 56
Whit e cloud mountain fish , 367 macula/us, 450- 52
W ashington g rass, 102 l1lo nrezumae, 456
Waste matter, J 1, 12, 3 1- 32 varia/LIS, 450- 52
Water, 10-12, 15,30,65- 66.69- 70, SO,
11 3- 15, 120- 21
aeration amI filtration, ) 1- 32 Yell ow ieh, 207
aging, 69- 70, 120 Yellow rasbora, 360
Changing, 77 tetra, 304
chemical balance, 10- 12, 11 3-14 Yucatan sailtin moll y, 448
cloudy, 70, 80
composition, 30
conditioning, 70, 12 1 Zebra dania, 228, 348, 352
CENTRAL IJl8T1TUTi1t-o (,fl.
OF '1IHIRln ED~~TIO", BOMBAY.
LI'rary.
FOnD 1\1- ..
DATE DUE

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THE COMPLETE GUIDE

farl Schneider and Dr. Leon f. Whitney

THOMAS NELSON &. SONS

Copyright, 1957, by Earl Schneider a nd Leon F . Whitney

A Little About th e Organization of This Book

Selecting an Aquarium-Types Available

Tank Construction and Repair

Sizes of Tanks Available

Choosing the Proper Tank Size

Goldfish Globes, Jam Ja rs, Etc.

Light and the Fishes

Light and Plants

Artiliciallight and Daylight

A Comparison of Fluorescent and Incandescent Lighting

The Amount of Light Required

A welJ-lighted and welJ-arranged aquarium.

circumstances would justify the use of both an incandescent and a fluores-

Covering the Tan k

Rellector and Heat

(Left) An old-fashioned aquar ium heater

Why Aeration and Filtration Are Necessary

The Difference Between a Pump, a Filter and an Aerator

Water Pump Filters

A vibrator pump with volume adjustme nt and an on-ofT switch.

Diaphragm pumps have been placed on the market for as little as

The Cylinder Pump

A double-cylinder piston pump capable of almost doubling the output

Care of the Pump

A handy hypodermic-type pump oiler.

A pressure gauge and oil and dust filter. By adjusting

(Above) A spring-check valve for cylinder pumps which

cleaning agent is carbon tetrachloride. Apply a little carbon tetrachloride

Pump Loca tion

length of Pump Service

Types of Air Pump Filters

A n outside filter with filter material

A homemade bottom filter.

Various air stones and extension tubes.

A two-way valve and a three-way valve.

In connecting a weak pump, such as a small vibrator pump, to a filter

The correct method of connecting a cylinder pump to a battery of tanks.

Necessity for Artificial Filtration and Aeration

GOOD aquarium housekeeping is one important way to success with the

A plastic "ta ke-apart" dip tube.

Power Dip Tubes

A power dip tube.

A combination aquarium ga dget for scrap-

Planting tongs and planting scissors.

Several types of feeding devices.

A combination feeding ring and worm feeder.

Materials and Equipment

Filling the Aquarium

Aerator, Filter and Heater

A beautifully planted and lighted aquarium.

The Aquarium Beautiful

The proper method of planting.

Final Filling Procedure

Receiving Fish Shipments

The Number 01 Fish in the Aquarium

Feeding the Fish

PROPER maintenance of an aquarium is usually not too difficult. Once es-

Slick on the Water

Selecting Plants for an Aquarium