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3A.1 Torque required to turn a friction bearing.

Equation 3.6-31 describes the torque required to turn an outer cylinder at an


angular velocity (2,. The corresponding expression for the torque required to turn
an inner rotating cylinder at an angular velocity $2; is given by a formally similar
expression,
y n? T, = 47r40¿R?L (; )
= E? derivable in like manner from the corresponding velocity profile in Eq. 3.6-32.
The specifications for this problem (converted into SI units via Appendix F) are:
1.000 1.002
1? 0.996012 ——— = 249. ( 2 5) 0.003988 O
p = (200 cp)(107* kg/m:s/cp = 0.200 kg/m-s 92; = (200 rpm)(1 min/60 s)(27
radians/revolution) = 207/3 radians/s R? = (1in2)(1 m/39.37 in)? = 0.000645 m?
L = 2 in = 2/39.37 m = 0.0508 m
p = (50 lb, /ft)(0.45359 kg/Ibm(39.370/12 ft/m) = 800.9 kg/m?
K
l
= 0.998004; k? = 0.996012
Hence, the required torque is
T, = (47)(0.200 kg/m-s)(207 /3radians/s)(0.000645m?)(0.0508 m)(249.8) = 0.431
kg-m?/s? = 0.32 ft-lbs
and the power required is
P =T.,0; = (0.32 Ibs-ft)(207/3 s7*)(3600 s/hr)(5.0505 x 107” hp-hr/lbf-ft) = 0.012 hp
In these calculations we have tacitly assumed the flow to be stable and laminar. To
test this assumption, we formulate a transition criterion based on the critical
angular velocity expression given under Fig. 3.6-2:
-OR2(1— e )3/2 Re:= Q;pR*(1— k) p
Insertion of numerical values for the present system gives
< about 41.3 for k = 1.
_ (207 /3 radians/s)(800.9 kg/m*)(0.000645 m?)(1 — 0.998004)3/2 o (0.200
kg/m-s
This Re value is well below the transition value of 41.3 for this geometry; therefore,
the foregoing predictions of T, and P are realistic.
Re = 0.0048
3-| 3A.2 Friction loss in bearings.
The power expended to overcome the bearing friction is
2 _ 2 pp2 de P=T,0; = 410 ¡RL (; =)
in which L is the total bearing length of 2 x 20 x 1 = 40 ft for the two shafts. The
specifications for this problem (converted to SI units via Appendix F) are:
so 16 —164+2x0.005
Nr? 0.998751 6 = a) = oo1z49 O
p = (5000 cp)(107* kg/m-s/cp) = 5 kg/m:s 0; = (50/60 rev/s)(27 radians/rev) =
51/3 radians/s R? = (8/39.37 m)? = 0.04129 m?
L= 40 ft =(40 x 12/39.37 m) = 12.2 m
= 0.999375; k? = 0.998751
With these values, the calculated power requirement is
P=(41(5 kg/m:s/(57/3 rad/s)?(0.04129 x 12.2 m3)(799.6) = 6.938 x 10% kg-m?/s?
This result is then expressed in horsepower by use of Table F.3-3:
P = (6.938 x 10” kg-m?/s*)(3.7251 x 107 hp-hr-[kg:m? /82]72)(3600 s/hr) = 930 hp
:
Thus, the fraction of the available power that is lost in bearing friction is 930/
(4000+ 4000) = 0.116. 3A.3 Effect of altitude on air pressure.
For a stationary atmosphere (i.e., no wind currents), the vertical component of the
equation of motion gives
dp d The air is treated as an ideal gas, A (RT
with M = 29, and with temperature in “R given by T(z) = 530 — 0.0032
at elevation z ft above Lake Superior. The pressure pa at 22 = 2023 — 602 = 1421 ft
above lake level is to be calculated, given that p, = 750 mm Hg at 2 =0.
The foregoing equations give
dinp — My dz R(530— 0.0032)
Integration gives
M 1421 dz In(p2/p1) = Ej 0
530 — 0.0032 My 1 21421 = 29 In[530 — 0.003 2 0003 a. . _ My 525.737 7 0.003R |
530
Insertion of numerical values in lb,»-ft-s units gives
(29 lbn /Ib-mol)(32.17 ft/s?) (0.003 R/1t)(4.9686 x 10% 1b,,-16? /s?-Ib-mol-R) = —
0.0505
In(p2/p1) = In [525.737/over530]
Hence, p2 = p1 exp(—0.0505) = 750 x 0.9507 = 713 mm Hg
Since the fractional change in P is small, one gets a good approximation (and a
quicker solution) by neglecting it. That method gives p2 = 712 mm Hg. 3A.4
Viscosity determnation with a rotating-cylinder viscometer.
Here it is desirable to use a sufficiently high torque that the precision of viscosity
determinations is limited mainly by that of the measurement of angular velocity. A
torque of 10% dyn-cm, corresponding to a torque uncertainty of 1%, appears
reasonable if the resulting Reynolds number is in the stable laminar range.
The geometric specifications of the viscometer are:
R = 2.25 cm; KR = 2.00 cm - R=2.00/2.25 = 0.888889; k? =0.790123 1 — 1?
=0.209877, (HR)? = 4.00 cm? L=4cm; R? = 5.0625 cm?
The angular velocity corresponding to this torque value is:
_T(1-x?%) (10% g:cm”/s*)(0.209877)
do = 4ru(«RY?L 4r(0.57 g/cm-s)(4 cm?)(4 cm)
= 18.3 radians/s
The Reynolds number at this condition is:
_Q,R?p (18.3)(5.0625)(1.29) TS 0.57
Re
= 210
Accordng to Fig. 3.6-2, this Re value is well within the stable laminar range; there-
fore, a torque of 10% dyn-cm is acceptable. 3A.5 Fabrication of a parabolic mirror.
Equation 3.6-44 gives the shape of the free surface as
¿20 = (2) 0 = 29 r
The required derivatives of this function at the axis of rotation are
dz dz 0 de =U and dy? = NN
Setting the desired focal length equal to half the radius of curvature of the mirror
surface at r = 0, and using Eq. 3A.5-1, we obtain
_1 2 f= 9/0
Thus, the required angular velocity to produce a mirror with focal length f = 100 cm
at standard terrestrial gravity 1s
9 n=, 2 2f
_ [980.665 cm/s* Y (2)(100 cm) = 2.214 radians/s
which corresponds to 600/27 = 21.1 revolutions per minute.
6 3A.6 Scale-up of an agitated tank.
The specifications for the operation in the large tank (Tank 1) are Ny = 120 rpm; pa
= 13.5 cp; p1= 0.9 g/cm*
and the tank is to be operated with an uncovered liquid surface.
To allow direct prediction of the operation of Tank 1 from experiments in the
smaller system (Tank IT), the systems must be geometrically similar and must run at
the same values of Re and Fr. To meet the latter requirement, Eqs. 3.7-40,41 must be
satisfied.
Equation 3.7-41 requires DuNíí = DiNf
when, as usual, the gravitational fields for the two systems are equal. Then the
model must operate at
Nu = Nivy Di/Dy = 12010 = 380 rpm and Eq. 3.7-40 requires (Pay (Muy vy = Y Di Ni,
= (13.5/0.9)1(0.1)(V10) = 0.474 cp From Table 1.1-1, we see that this value of 11
corresponds closely to the value for
liquid water at 60C. Thus, the model should opeerate at 380 rpm, with liquid water
at very nearly 60*C. 3A.7 Air entrainment in a draining tank.
As this system is too complex for analytic treatment, we use dimensional analy- sis.
We must establish operating conditions such that both systems satisfy the same
dimensionless differential equations and boundary conditions. This means that the
large and small systems must be geometrically similar, and that the Froude and
Reynolds numbers must be respectively the same for each.
Choose D (tank diameter) as characteristic length, “and (4Q/7.D?) as charac- teristic
velocity, where Q is the volumetric draw-off rate. Then
16Q?
40p e= 2D5g
7 =Dy and Fr =
Subscripts L and S will be used to identify quantities associated with the large and
small tanks, respectively. We take the gravitational field y to be the same for both.
Then the requirement of equal Reynolds numbers gives
8) 69-92) (Ea <a
and the requirement of equal Froude numbers gives
D (52) = (0.02277)/ = 0.080
Dz e Hence, Ds = (0.080)(60 ft) = 4.8 ft Qs = (0.080)"/?(800 gal/min) = 1.46 gal/min
Therefore:
a. The model tank should be 4.8 ft in diameter.
b. Its draw-off tube should be 0.080 ft in diameter and 0.080 ft high.
c. Its draw-off tube should have its axis 0.32 ft from the wall of the tank.
Furthermore, if water at 68F (20*C) is withdrawn from the model tank at 1.46
gal/min, air entrainment will begin when the liquid level is (4.8/60) of the level
at which entrainment would begin in the large tank at its withdrawal rate of 800
gal/min.
377 3B.1 Flow between concentric cylinders and spheres 4. The derivation proceeds
as in Example 3.6-3 up to Eq. 3.6- 26, which we choose to rewrite as
2 % =D, + DE) Y Y
The boundary conditions are that v¿(kR)=Q,kR and v¿(R)= Q,R.
Putting these boundary conditions into the above equation for the angular velocity
gives
Q,=D,+D, and Q, =D, +D, K
These equations can be solved for the integration constants
(Q, 1x*| JQ, 1 pl 112 x]_0x*-0, ol ye] : 1] x?-1 1 1 1 k? 1 Q| |? 0, D, - Ll Q,| [xk Q,|_x*(0,-
Q,) 241 Y? 1 1 > k?-1 ' 1 1 k?
Hence the solution to the differential equation is
% (9, -Q) (9, ee) ro 1-xk? 1-k? Ur
The z-components of the torques on the outer and inner cylinders are
Lp27 díí(v T, = E (=7,0R),_, Rd0dz = 271LR? ur e) L (xRy 1-1
= AR Ry 2) =-4ruL(Q, -Q,)
Lp2x 2 d (7 T, => SS (+7, KR) kRd0dz= 27L(xR) EM
kRY
2
= HnuL(Q, ae '
b. In Example 3.6-5 it is shown how to get Eq. 3.6-53 for the velocity distribution.
The boundary conditions are : v,¿(xkR)=xRQ, sin9 and
U¿(R) = RO, sin 0. Equation 3.6-53 can be written in the form
0 3 rsinoí Tr
The constants can be obtained according to the method of (a) and the final
expression is
Da Loa), en rsinO0 1-k? 1-k? r
The torques at the outer and inner cylinders are then T, =p, (- 7, lo (Rsin 0)R? sin
0d0dp
O] (Rsin 0)R? sin 04044 r=R
r (ee) 1-k?
-87u(Q, - Q,)
(xr)
To fx, )__.,(«Rsin0(xRY sin 0044 =+8u(Q, - Q 3 3B.2 Laminar flow in a triangular duct
a. Itis clear that the boundary conditions that v, =0 at y=H
and at y=+V3x. Therefore the no-slip boundary conditions are satisfied. Next it has
to be shown that the equation of motion
dx? + Ie ]
is satisfied. Substituting the solution into the second-derivative terms, we get
P-P, 0? 0? 22 Hx* + H al Es 4ULH 3 «2er y - y? -3Hx*? + Hy )
_ P, P, AH (E Joy 6H - 6y+2H)
and this just exactly cancels the pressure-difference term. b. To get the mass rate of
flow we integrate over half the cross-section and multiply by 2:
P,-P w= 2 Aly - H)(3x? - y? Jaxdy
P,-P, IAE 29 0 AULA e (y - H)(x? - y .x) dy a 7 a (P,-?P, -) El /3(P, -P,)H* A lover PO A 3
LH 20 180uL
The average velocity is then the volume rate of flow (w/p), divided by the cross-
sectional area H?//3 so that
(o )= (Po -P,)H? * 60uL
3-)0 The maximum velocity will be at the tube center, or at x= 0 and y = y =2H/3, so
that
_(P,-P,)H* — 2
Ue max —_ 27 uL 9 (0,) 3B.3 Laminar flow in a square duct 4. The boundary
conditions at x=+B and y=+B are seen to
be satisfied by direct substitution into Eq. 3B.3-1. Next we have to see whether the
differential equation
o (Po al E , e
L dx? dy
is satisfied. Substituting the derivatives from Eq. 3B.3-1 into this differential
equation gives
era aflora (3) (3))
Hence the differential equation is not satisfied. b, The expression for the mass flow
rate from Eq. 3B.3-1 is given by 4 times the flow rate for one quadrant:
=4.V0 e (E E (Y) tay
A (P, — ,)B" 5 1- E?) Jas] (P,-P,)B%,, 2 0.444(P, -P,)B*po 0) SI TS
20 3B.4 Creeping flow between two concentric spheres a. From Eq. B.4-3, there is
only surviving term on the left side
1 rsin0 00
— (rv, sin0)=0 whence v¿sinO=u(r)
b. From Eq. B.6-8 (omitting the left side for creeping flow) the only surviving
terms are
q 1%, 1 ee) or o 14P, 1 Arz) r d0 +A r? dr dr ge? r?sin0 dr dr
c. When the equation in (b) is multiplied by rsin 6, the left side is a function of 0
alone, and the right side contains only r. This means that both sides must be
equal to some constant, which we call B. This gives Eqs. 3B.4-2 and 3.
Integration of the pressure equation proceeds as follows:
1( 77 — 1 far=[= 48 Or Pp, Pp =p 202 (78). pp ot3€ Py ¿ sin0 tanje tanhe
From this we get the constant B
P)-P, PP, Incot? he 2Incotle
Next we integrate the velocity equation
ar —)- an or u= Ls c,) dr dr Y 2pIR r 2
where we have selected the constants of integration in such as way that they will be
dimensionless: C, =-x and C, =-x-1 (from the
no-slip condition at the walls). When this solution is combined with the expression
for B we get:
Sl)
3-13 which leads to Eq. 3B.4-5. d. The mass rate of flow must be the same through
any cross-
section. It is easiest to get w at 0=31 where v, =u(r)/sin0=
u(r)/sint a =u(r):
w= (000), , raí rdo = 2R?pf_uEdE
4uIncot¿e ¿ P,-P,)R : =21IR?p- (P,-P)R 1 xk)” (see Eq. 3B.4-6)
. 4ulncotie 6
3-14 -3B.5 Parallel-disk viscometer a. The equation of continuity (Eq. B.6- 5) just
gives 0 = 0. Equation B.6-5 gives for the 09-component of the equation of motion
d(109 dv O= = e Or 7: r dr pio .))* dz b. When the postulated form for the tangential
component of the velocity is inserted into this, we get simply d?f/dz? = 0, which has
to be solved with the boundary conditions that f(0)=0 and f(B)=0, which are just
statements of the no-slip conditions on the wetted
surfaces of the disks. It is easily shown that f =z/B. and therefore that v, = Orz/B.
c. The z-component of the torque exerted on the fluid by the upper rotating disk is
7." [Kor.r), raí rde=25| (Se Y
We can now do the r-integration and solve for the viscosity to get the desired
formula, 4 =2BT,/TQR?.
Qp(R_3 rar 27 el, r”dr
3B.6 Circulating flow in an annulus
a. Neglect of curvature gives for the z-component of the . equation of motion
de. do, or do, _de a "ar PR
O=-
The left side is a function of r alone and the right side is a function of z alone, so that
both sides must equal a constant. Therefore
d?o, dr?
2 =(C' with boundary conditions v,(kR)=v, and v,(R)=0
Use the dimensionless variables p =v,/W, and E=r/R; instead of the
latter, it is more convenient to use ¿=(6- k)/(1- k) in this part of the problem. Then
2 > qa” 2C, with boundary conditions ¿(0)=1 and p(1)=0 Integration of this equation
gives $=C1*+C,EÉ +C,
The boundary conditions give C¿ =1 and C, —(1+C;) so that
p=C,E* -(14+C,)£+1
The mass-balance condition f oí díí=0 gives C, = 3, and the velocity distribution is
p=3£?*-46+1
b. We use exactly the same procedure when the thin-slit ap-
proximation is not made, but the algebraic manipulations :are messier. The equation
to be solved is
ra) E dr dr) dz
with the same no-slip boundary conditions as before. Use the same
dimensionless variables as in (a) and find that the solution has the form
$ =C,E?+C,InE+C,
The three constants of integration are determined from the no-slip boundary
conditions p(xk)=1 and p(1)=0, along with the mass-
conservation condition £ ” f ¿oí eí deí d0 =0. The results are
(1-12) -(1+1?)in(Yx) + (1-x?)-(1+x?)I0(1x)
C=-C, __1-[2x"/(1- ln), o 1?
With these expressions for the integration constants, Eq. 3B.6-2 follows.
31) 3B.7 Momentum fluxes for creeping flow into a slot -
4. Inside the slot, the nonzero component of pvv is
000 (al
Outside the slot, the nonzero component of pvv are
| pr | = o E 2w io _ 2w x*y? Am) AA amo) AY pv,v = Pv,v =P 2w E xy yx Tr Wo (1? + y?
y
b.Atx=-a,y=0
or [22 Y =z rWp) a?
This quantity is positive as we would expect, since positive x-momentum is being
transported in the x-direction. C. AÉ t x=-—a, y-+a.
This is negative, since at the point in question the y-momentum is negative and
being transported in the x-direction.
d. The total flow of kinetic energy in the slot is (if we use n= y / B):
W p+B 2 . _ B 3 _ [, [Gov v,dydz=2WIÉ, dora 08 q 15W 5) [man
' 3 _- 16 gw] 3w 35 - 14BWp
The total flow of kinetic energy across the plane at x = -a is
318 w ee z 00 $ fo Epv” )v,dydz => pw["(? + vs )v dy
3 2w + q? a” y? 24pW| =— + 22 ES LL. (a+yyY (a? + y?y ?
A A 768 TWp
a?
The integrals appearing here can be found in integral tables. We conclude that the
total flow of kinetic energy across the plane at x = -a 1s not the same as that in the
slit. As a—=> co, the flow of kinetic energy tends
toward zero, since the fluid velocity tends to zero as x —>—+oo, This emphasizes
that kinetic energy is not conserved.
€. Eq. 3B.7-1 clearly satisfies the equation of continuity, since
for incompressible flow (do, /dx)+ (o, / dy) +(du,/0z)=0. When the derivatives are
calculated from Eqs. 3B.7-2, 3, and 4, it is found that
these expressions also satisfy the incompressible equation of continuity as well.
f. From Eqs. 3B.7-2 and B.1-1 we get
do, 2w 3x? 4x* mw Ex = 72H dl. UaW 2412 (r2+u2 Y Wo? y=0 p ax +y ) (x +y ) 4,20
do, 2w 3x? 4x* Ex TAM 2 ] 2,102? (12,2 Y =0 X l:=0 TWp (x +y ) (x +y ) a
The second of these is an illustration of Example 3.1-1.
-9. From Eqs. 3B.7-2, 3B.7-3, and B.1-4, we get, after evaluating the derivatives
3-19 3B.8 Velocity distribution for creeping flow toward a slot a. For the given
postulates, the equation of continuity gives
19
+0 — (ro, )= 0 from which it follows that v, = 1 f(0)
r

Since the flow is symmetric about 0=0, df/40 =0 at 0=0; and since the fluid velocity
is zero at 0 =+1xx, it follows that f=0 at O=+1x
b. The components of the equation of motion given in Eqs. B.6-4 and 5,
appropriately simplified are
pda JP 2udf p= 2 A sE A de? and +72 ge
c. When the first equation is differentiated with respect to O and the second with
respect to r and the two results subtracted we get Eq. 3B.8-1.

d. The equation in Eq. 3B.8-1 can be integrated once to get

d? = +4f=C,
A particular integral is fp, = +C,, and the complementary function is (according to Eq.
C.1-3) fc =C,cos20+Csin20 . The complete solution is then the sum of these two
functions.
e. The integration constants are determined from the boundary conditions. Itis
found that C¿ = 0, and that 4C, =C,. Then from
w= Wpj'" orde = Web
0, f49=-2WpC, |”, “cos? 040 =-WpC,x
we get C, =-w/Wpzx and the velocity distribution is given by Eq. 3B.8-2.
in (b) we can get
f. From the velocity distribution and the equations obtained
3-20
= a El dz cos 0 - sin? 0)
and hence
2 . P= E los 9 — sin? 9) +F(0) (*)
Furthermore
gP 2u df (52) 2w > E A p= “E 307 de or 2 JW cos” 0 +G(r)
Here F and G are arbitrary functions of their arguments. The second expression for
the modified pressure can be rewritten as
P= E o eos 0 +(1-sin? 0) +G(r)
= | e, eos 0 -— sin” 0) +H(r) (*)
By comparing the two (*) expressions for the modified pressure, we see that they
are the same except for the functions F and H. Since the first is a function of 0 alone
and the second a function of r alone, they must both be equal to a constant, which
we call P... This is the value of the modified pressure at r =0o.
2. The total normal stress exerted on the wall at 0O= 1/2 is
(when one uses the result of Example 3.1-1)
Tooly=aja = (0 + Too )o..,,,= (P — 28M)...
2U4w TW pr?
2U4w =P. + - pgh = p.. +
h. From Eq. B.1-11
321
%o,| 41912), 2%, erl9=r/2 ori r) ro0 9=aJ2
• -u 0 -( - pr c2cos Osin o)
The first term is zero since v,¿/r=f since v, =0 was one of the postulates. The second
term is zero, as can be seen by using Eq. 3B.8- 2, and the fact that cosf=0. This is
agreement with the result in Problem 3B.7(g).
1. Since the z-component of the velocity is zero, we can
expand the velocity vector in either the cylindrical coordinate system or the
Cartesian system thus
=0
0=11/2
v=9,0, +50, =5,0, +0,0,
Since UV¿ = 0 was one of the postulates, when we take the dot product of this
equation with IÉ,, we get the x-component of the velocity
33
cosoí g=-= 2wx 2wx
=(9.-9.)= =- =- 0 =(8,:5,)=0,c056 TW pr TW pr? aWwp(x” yy
Similarly for the y-component of the velocity
_ O. E 0y =(8,:8,)=0,sin0 ==, cos OsinO Mort _ 2wx%y aWo(x +y?)
These results are in agreement with Eqs. 3B.7-2 and 3.
3-22 3B.9 Slow transverse flow around a cylinder a. At the cylinder surface we get by
using Eq. B.1-11
Cuv,, cos O . Pl,.x =P. — PgRsin8 %,,| ul 2 1o) +1: _ Cuo,.sin0 Pr=R ir) ro00)_, R
Also from Example 3.1-1 we know that 7,,|,_, =0.
b. If n is the outwardly directed unit normal vector for the cylinder, then the force
per unit area acting on the surface is —[n- 1]
evaluated at the surface. But n =8,, so that the x-component of the force per unit area
at every point is
(5, -[8, -2))|_. =-(5, -[5, -(p3 +7))) The pressure and stress terms are evaluated thus
(using Eq. A.6-13): (5, 8, -po))
(8, -[5, -7)) FR (5, -[8, :(1-:+8,5 ¿7,0 +-==))) =-(5, -54)T,0 La > Tre bx sin O
r=R
= pl. cos O
r=R A
+=R => (5, -5,p)
r=R
These expressions lead to Eq. 3B.9-5. Cc. The total force on a length L of the cylinder
is then
F, = E oo a cos0 + 7,g|,_, sin 0)Rd0dz
2 . 7 =kLfo |. 00504 LOS y ooRsin cos 0 + En o
Cuo.. 27 RL R ) [40 =21Cuo,,L
The first and third integrals in the next-to-last line are zero since the integrands are
odd.
3-23 3B.10 Radial flow between parallel disks 4. The continuity equation is, for v, =1,
(r,z) , from Eq. B.4-2
10
, NO )=0 fromwhich ro, =Q(2)
The equation of motion is obtained from Eq. B.6-4
p do, _ dr, (+2 tr0,))+ o, a ar Planear q?
b. When the results for the equation of continuity in (a) are used in the equation
of motion, we get Eq. 3B.10-1.
c. With the creeping flow assumption, Eq. 3B.10-1 gives
¡TP de | dr dep a = 77 from which ra =B and u4=>=B since the left side is a function
of r alone and the right side a function of z alone, and therefore both sides must be
equal to a constant, B. When the pressure equation is integrated from r, to r,, we get
7 dr = a whence p= 2%
nt NÑ In(r,/r,)
d. When this result is substituted into the f equation we get
de P, -P, : P,-P, 2 +=-—1—2 fromwhich p=- a OZ + Cs dz2 pin(r,/r,) pin(r,/r,) 2"
The integration constants are obtained from applying two boundary conditions. We
could require that f=0 at z=z+b, and thereby determine the integration constants.
Another method is to recognize that the flow is symmetric about z = 0, and use as
one of the boundary conditions dp/dz=0 atz = 0. Either method will give C, = 0, and
then C, is easily obtained. The final result is
3-24 rl) |
Division by r then gives Eq. 3B.10-3. e. The mass rate of flow at any cylindrical
surface in the
system must be the same. Select the surface at r =r, and obtain
_ (27 qtb — . (P, -P,) w= |, ¿POL dzr,d0=2xpb-2- 2n Inf, al sh e uE
The integral gives 2/3, so that Eq. 3B.10-4 is obtained.
315 3B.11 Radial flow between two coaxial cylinders a. From Eq. B.4-2 we get for
this flow, with v,(r),
¿gr Wo.) =0 whence V,= E where C is a constant r dr ) r
Atr=R, v,(R)=C/R so that C= Rv, (R).
b. The relations in Eq. 3B.11-1 follow immediately from Eqs. B.6-4, 5, and 6 for the
velocity profile v, (r) in (a).
C. Integration from r to R gives
R 1 1 =4000[he= 7)
This gives, making use of the meaning of C obtained in (a)
P(R)-P(r)= pc)
2 7) PR) = ARO ++) > so 1-(5) |
d. The only nonzero components are (from Eqs. B.1-8 to 13)
du 1 v 1 “m Par po “os pr, HE
3-2b 3B.12 Pressure distribution in incompressible fluids
• The equation of motion method to get the pressure distribution is correct. On
the other hand, the second method gives nonsense, as one can see from Fig. 3.5-
1. For an incompressible fluid (the vertical straight line), specifying the density
does not give any information about the pressure.
3-21 3B.13 Flow of a fluid through a sudden contraction a. For an incompressible
fluid, Eq. 3.5-12 becomes
3o(03 —03)+(p, —p,)+pg(h,—h,)=0 or Fp(v -v7)+(P,-P,)=0
If "1” is the large tube and "2" the small one, then the fluid velocity in
"2" must be greater than in "1." Then the modified pressure in "2"
must be less than that in "1." Thus the modified pressure decreases as
the fluid moves from the large cross-section region to the small
cross-section region, in agreement with experimental observations. b. For an ideal
gas, Eq. 3.5-12 becomes |
The pressure and elevation terms may no longer be combined. If the elevation does
not change, the pressure decreases as the fluid moves
into the contracted part of the tube.
3-23 3B.14 Torricelli's equation for efflux from a tank From Eq. 3.5-12 we get
1 (Den 0) (Pa — Par) + 3(0—h)=0 Here it has been assumed that the velocity at the
surface is virtually zero, that the pressure is atmospheric at both "1" and "2", and
that the datum plane for the height is at the exit tube. When the above equation is
solved for the efflux velocity we get Torricelli's equation.
329 3B.15 Shape of free surface in tangential annular flow a. The velocity
distribution is given by Eq. 3.6-32, and the equations corresponding to Eqs. 3.6-38
and 39 are:
a] Eon
Integration of these equations gives (see Eqs. 3.6-40, 41, and 42)
QKRYT (RY ] 10 e) 5) Atar + 5) -pgz +C
Now let p=P,i, atr=R and z=Zp, where zz is the height of the liquid at the outer-
cylinder surface. Then we can write at r =R and Z2= Zr
2 Pan =3 E al [-1-4InR+1]- pgzg +C
which is the equation that determines C. When we subtract the last equation from
the equation for p, we get
OxkRV( 1 0 Punt LE (-¿5=4meí s E) or dy? dn
in which n=y/B, p= v,/|(P, -P,)8”/uL], and A=Bv,p/u. This equation has to be solved
with the no-slip condition at n=0,1. We write the solution as the sum of a
complementary function and a particular integral. The equation for the
complementary function is
dep d ] C
a - AE =0 withsolution d¿= qe + Ca
• By inspection, the particular integral is fp, = N/A. Application of the boundary
conditions then gives the constants of integration. The final solution is then
(with A = Bv,p/u)
An _ P,-P,)B? Ay/B _ po yes 1 or y, Po-P1)B" 1 Y. 2 A 1 A e” —1 HL ALB e*-1
b. The mass rate of flow in the x-direction is then
P,-P, BW w= [e Fpodyda= EA
E 1 2)
HL A
2 A e*-1
c By making a Taylor-series expansion about A = 0, from (a) we get $ = 3(n- n?)
+0(4). When A > 0, this result can be shown to
be equivalent to Eq. 2B.3-2. Similarly, A Taylor-series expansion about A= 0 yields
from the result in (b)
Y =(3123) [(P,-P,)wB*0o/uL] A2 A e-1
3-32
a|
11, 1 ] (2. A (144+142+314%4--)-1
111 1 1 ==| --—+
Al2 A ar] 1 1_1,1-34+54% AIÉ2 A A =+0(4)
But the "B” in this problem is twice the "B" of problem 2B.3. If we switch to the "B"
of Problem 2B.3, it is found that the answers agree exactly.
d. For the coordinate system here, we select as the dimensionless quantities
y D; DU Y=*=; V = 55; 4=-—= y TR PJ Ja
Then the differential equation and boundary conditions are
dv div . ay Hz with V(+1)=0
The solution is then the sum of a complementary function and a particular integral
(as before in (c))
| y= gr c+ a a
• Application of the boundary conditions then leads to
-e* +cosha + Y sinha asinha
V=
Then the average value of this over the cross-section of flow is
3-39 +1
(y)= _ VAY _ 15 7(-e0 + cosha + Y sinh a)4Y _ —(1/a)sinha + cosha “ay 2. - asinha Ml
asinh a
Then we can form the ratio given in Eq. 3B.16-3:
V__e*” —Ysinha-cosha (V) (Ya)sinha-—cosha
• Asa check on this we can go directly from Eqs. 3B.16-1 and 2 to Eq. 3B.16-3.
From the first two equations we get
y evP.-1
0, 0 peri Alle? 1y Bet” -1)] (0,) w/WB A B[(A -2)(e* -1)+24]
Next, we make the connections between the notations in the two different
approaches: |
y=2Z+b; B=2b; A=20u (the "y" of part (c) is called "z" here, and ¿=2/b). Then
Do a[e?" CS 1)]
(0,) bla - 10? - 1) + 2a]
(2-1 (E+1)-2(e%e% 1) (0% er lg+1)-2(0% —e7) (Y0)|(a -1)(0? -1)+ 2a| o (1/0)[(a
-1)(e% —e7* )+ 2007" |
_ ¿(es -e72)+ (02 +0%)-20% _ ¿sinh a; + cosh a — e
o (1/04) oe” per ) - (es =g E )] cosh a: — (1/0:)sinh a
3-34 3C.1 Parallel-disk compression viscometer
4. The equation of continuity of Eq. B.4-2 for incompressible fluids, taking into
account the symmetry about the z-axis is just Eq. 3C.1-6. The equation of
motion in Eq. 3C.1-7 comes from Eq. B.6-4 ignoring the hydrostatic pressure,
the inertial force terms, and omitting the terms that are small.
b. Equation 3C.1-7 can be integrated with respect to z to give
y, PP) + C,2+C, 214 dr
The constant C, is found to be zero from the boundary condition in | Eq. 3C.1-8, and
C, is found from Eq. 3C.1-9. c. Integrating of Eq. 3C.1-6 with respect to z from O to H
H10 1 dp A | o 22 r nar H)Jaí z- 5 do,
Performing the integrations then gives
H? 1 dr 2). | QA 214 D, 12u rdrl dr
d. Integration of the equation in (c) then yields
12p0, r? p=- qa q? C,Inr+C,
The integration constant C, must be zero, since the pressure is finite
at the center of the disks, and C, is determined from Eq. 3C.1-10. Equation 3C.1-13 is
thus obtained. e. The force on the upper plate is then
27 ¿RIOR 2 3D, F(t)= £ 5 Sl 3) purao- ao ET - E dE
The integral is 1/4, and this leads to the result in Eq. 3C.1-14.
335 f. In this situation, the radius of the glob of liquid R(t) and the instantaneous
disk separation H(t) are related to the sample volume
Vby V = x[R(t)]' H(t). Then the force acting on the upper disk is
2 pr) 3 uo [RE], fr ? E(t)= 5 6 AE ES burao
3xuo)[R(' 3uov? HP 2H
3. If, in Eq. 3C.1-14 we replace v, by - dH/dt, we then have
an ordinary, separable differential equation for H(t). Integration gives
fjat=- 1 E Sh JH y whence
1.1 4Pot
[HO Hi UR 3C.2 Normal stresses at solid surfaces for compressible fluids
First write the equation of continuity for a compressible fluid as
o 1 mp =-(V-v)-(v-Ve)
The normal stress on a surface perpendicular to the z-axis is
AN Tal... = (21 Hu £Xv-")]
2=0
dv e 222 22 299200) +00—0) 2109920)
=($u+ xl Hip)
z=0
z=0
The terms containing v drop out by the no-slip condition at the surface, and their
derivatives with respect to x and y drop out on the surface as explained in Example
3.1-1. This result shows that the normal stresses at surfaces are zero for
compressible flow if the flow is at steady state.
231 3C.3 Deformation of a fluid line
• The curve at any time tis 0(r,t) = v,/r)t, which in tangential annular flow is (from
Eq. 3.6-32)
00 jas and 390 ARTO a, (/x)"-1 (/x)"-1
The differential element of length along the curve is given by 2 2 anal, ARI (OL) (dl
=(dr) +(rd0) =(dr)"| 14 25 (xy -1)
The total length of the curve is then A(R/r) (2INY
er = RJ 1, JN ag ((1x) -1) ((1x) -1) Es
To get a rough, order-of-magnitude estimate assume that N is large
and then the "1" can be neglected and the integral performed _analytically
l= [dl =,
_ATNK
l a RT (limit of large N)
3-38 3C.4 Alternative methods of solving the Couette viscometer problem by use of
angular momentum concepts
a. By making an angular momentum balance (actually the z- component of the
angular momentum balance) over an annular region of thickness Ar and height
L we obtain
(27rL)- (r7,, ) - (270(r + Ar)L) (7, ) =0
r+Ar
Dividing through by 27LAr and rearranging we get
(1?7,,)
2 == T ) r+Ar roí
L=0 Ar
whence
d (177,9)=0
the second form resulting from taking the limit as Ar > 0. Then using Eq. B.1-11 for
the stress-tensor component, we have
Lio dr drir whence
From this Eq 3.6-20 follows.
b. Here we start with Eq. 3.4-1, which simplifies to the following for the symmetric
stress tensor |
[V-(rxrF"|=0
The z-component of this equation is
331 pap tecryi)=0 or To(rtexa,,)=0
• Where, in cylindrical coordinates, r=9,r+08,z. We now work out the cross
product, which is
[xv], = DD Es (8,7 +8,2), 0, =E 91 Ty +E ¿gy (0) 7, io]
Hence the equation of change for angular momentum simplifies to
LE a] =- 0
and the development proceeds further as in (4). 3C.5 Two-phase interfacial
boundary conditions
4. This result follows at once from Eq. 3C.5-1, when the viscous-stress-tensor
terms are omitted.
b. To get the right side of Eq. 3C.5-3, it is evident that Eq.
3C.5-1 had to be multiplied by 1/p'v; . The interfacial-tension term in Eq. 3C.5-3 is
then
la lla R, R,)|Llop" R, R,)|Ll0o5p"
The terms involving the viscous stress tensor are
A
pol
po pi lala pl pr A A
And finally, the pressure terms are converted to modified pressure terms plus terms
involving the gravitational acceleration
a? Po +p"g(1—h,) _ p" Po a] el g(n—ho)Jo' -p”)
1,,2 1,,2 pu p dy
desd (8 EAN
We see that the Reynolds numbers for the two phases, the Weber number (Eq. 3.7-
12), aí nd the Froude number (Eq. 3.7-11) appear as well as the density ratios for the
two phases.
3-4) 3D.1 Derivation of the equation of motion from Newton's second law of motion
4. Equation 3D.1-1 is the statement that the time rate-of- change of momentum is
equal to the sum of the surface forces and the gravity forces acting on a small
blob of fluid.
When the Leibniz formula (Eq. A.5-5) is applied to the left side of Eq. 3D.1-1, we get
A fovav= | Epa + J(ovlw-njas= | O ovdV + S[n- pvv]as
At 7) vs) O S(t) O = J 2 ovdv + f[v -pvv]daV (using Eq. A.5-3) vs) 9 Vi)
The term containing the stress tensor in Eq. 3D.1-1 can also be rewritten as a
volume integral using Eq. A.5-3 to give
d —pvdV =- |[V-pvvldV — TrldV + |pgdV 7, ot A Jer] y
Since the choice of the blob volume was arbitrary, all the volume integral operations
may be removed, and we obtain the equation of motion of Eq. 3.2-9.
b. If the blob is fixed, then we can write a momentum balance over the blob as
follows:
2 5 ovav=-|[n-pvv]as- f[n-x]aS + [pgdv dt; $ Ss V
This states that the rate of increase of momentum within the fixed volume equals the
rate of increase because of convective transport, the rate of increase because of
molecular momentum transport, and the force acting on the system by gravity. The
time derivative can be taken inside, since the volume is fixed, and the surface
integrals can be converted to volume integrals. The result is an equation . containing
only volume integrals over the fixed volume:
o ¡PvaV = -S[V-pvv]av - [[V Ja V + [ pgav y 0 Vv V V
342 Since the volume was chosen arbitrarily, the volume integrals can be removed,
and, once again, the result in Eq. 3.2-9 is obtained.
3-45 3D.2 The equation of change for vorticity
Method 1: Start with the Navier-Stokes equation in the D/Dt-form, but
rearranged thus:
Sp lv vo]-Zvp + Wv +8
ot =-Viy? +[vx[Vxv]]- Vp+ Www +g8
Next we take the curl and introduce the vorticity w =[V x v]
O [vw x[vxw]]+ vV2w
ot
or
[Y wv]-[V-v0]+ vV?w
Then using Eq. A.4-24 and the fact that (V -v)=0 for incompressible fluids and (V
-w)=0 always (since the divergence of a curl is always
zero, we get Eq. 3D.2-1.
Method II: Start now with the Navier-Stokes equation in 0/0t-form
== -[V-wv]-5Vp+ vv?y +8
Take the curl of this equation and introduce the vorticity to get
ee -[V x[V -vv]]+ vv?w
ot
or
e - [e:(Vv -Vv]]-[v-Vw]+ vw Details of the manipulations involved in this last step are
given here
using the abbreviated notation of SA.9 with the Einstein summation convention:
-[v «lv wil = Ej 0/(9/0/0,) =—E¡x 0/(0,9/0, —U,9/0,) but 9,0, =0 Es E (9, 0,)(9,0,)+
+(0,9,90,)| = Ey (0, -D) Ja, 0, )- (0,9, (8:90, )
=[e:[Vw-Vw)), -[v-V[V xv)
in which e€ = 222e,,,,0,,0,0, is a third-order tensor.
3-45 3D.3 Alternate form of the equation of motion
Take the divergence of the equation of motion for an incompressible fluid in the
form of Eq. 3.2-9, but with the stress- tensor term written in terms of the viscosity
and the Laplacian of the velocity. This gives
0-1 w0)- hw
O= —(Vv:(Vv)* ) - 5
Then use the definitions in Eq. 3D.3-2 to get Eq. 3D.3-1.
3-4b

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