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Since the flow is symmetric about 0=0, df/40 =0 at 0=0; and since the fluid velocity
is zero at 0 =+1xx, it follows that f=0 at O=+1x
b. The components of the equation of motion given in Eqs. B.6-4 and 5,
appropriately simplified are
pda JP 2udf p= 2 A sE A de? and +72 ge
c. When the first equation is differentiated with respect to O and the second with
respect to r and the two results subtracted we get Eq. 3B.8-1.
d? = +4f=C,
A particular integral is fp, = +C,, and the complementary function is (according to Eq.
C.1-3) fc =C,cos20+Csin20 . The complete solution is then the sum of these two
functions.
e. The integration constants are determined from the boundary conditions. Itis
found that C¿ = 0, and that 4C, =C,. Then from
w= Wpj'" orde = Web
0, f49=-2WpC, |”, “cos? 040 =-WpC,x
we get C, =-w/Wpzx and the velocity distribution is given by Eq. 3B.8-2.
in (b) we can get
f. From the velocity distribution and the equations obtained
3-20
= a El dz cos 0 - sin? 0)
and hence
2 . P= E los 9 — sin? 9) +F(0) (*)
Furthermore
gP 2u df (52) 2w > E A p= “E 307 de or 2 JW cos” 0 +G(r)
Here F and G are arbitrary functions of their arguments. The second expression for
the modified pressure can be rewritten as
P= E o eos 0 +(1-sin? 0) +G(r)
= | e, eos 0 -— sin” 0) +H(r) (*)
By comparing the two (*) expressions for the modified pressure, we see that they
are the same except for the functions F and H. Since the first is a function of 0 alone
and the second a function of r alone, they must both be equal to a constant, which
we call P... This is the value of the modified pressure at r =0o.
2. The total normal stress exerted on the wall at 0O= 1/2 is
(when one uses the result of Example 3.1-1)
Tooly=aja = (0 + Too )o..,,,= (P — 28M)...
2U4w TW pr?
2U4w =P. + - pgh = p.. +
h. From Eq. B.1-11
321
%o,| 41912), 2%, erl9=r/2 ori r) ro0 9=aJ2
• -u 0 -( - pr c2cos Osin o)
The first term is zero since v,¿/r=f since v, =0 was one of the postulates. The second
term is zero, as can be seen by using Eq. 3B.8- 2, and the fact that cosf=0. This is
agreement with the result in Problem 3B.7(g).
1. Since the z-component of the velocity is zero, we can
expand the velocity vector in either the cylindrical coordinate system or the
Cartesian system thus
=0
0=11/2
v=9,0, +50, =5,0, +0,0,
Since UV¿ = 0 was one of the postulates, when we take the dot product of this
equation with IÉ,, we get the x-component of the velocity
33
cosoí g=-= 2wx 2wx
=(9.-9.)= =- =- 0 =(8,:5,)=0,c056 TW pr TW pr? aWwp(x” yy
Similarly for the y-component of the velocity
_ O. E 0y =(8,:8,)=0,sin0 ==, cos OsinO Mort _ 2wx%y aWo(x +y?)
These results are in agreement with Eqs. 3B.7-2 and 3.
3-22 3B.9 Slow transverse flow around a cylinder a. At the cylinder surface we get by
using Eq. B.1-11
Cuv,, cos O . Pl,.x =P. — PgRsin8 %,,| ul 2 1o) +1: _ Cuo,.sin0 Pr=R ir) ro00)_, R
Also from Example 3.1-1 we know that 7,,|,_, =0.
b. If n is the outwardly directed unit normal vector for the cylinder, then the force
per unit area acting on the surface is —[n- 1]
evaluated at the surface. But n =8,, so that the x-component of the force per unit area
at every point is
(5, -[8, -2))|_. =-(5, -[5, -(p3 +7))) The pressure and stress terms are evaluated thus
(using Eq. A.6-13): (5, 8, -po))
(8, -[5, -7)) FR (5, -[8, :(1-:+8,5 ¿7,0 +-==))) =-(5, -54)T,0 La > Tre bx sin O
r=R
= pl. cos O
r=R A
+=R => (5, -5,p)
r=R
These expressions lead to Eq. 3B.9-5. Cc. The total force on a length L of the cylinder
is then
F, = E oo a cos0 + 7,g|,_, sin 0)Rd0dz
2 . 7 =kLfo |. 00504 LOS y ooRsin cos 0 + En o
Cuo.. 27 RL R ) [40 =21Cuo,,L
The first and third integrals in the next-to-last line are zero since the integrands are
odd.
3-23 3B.10 Radial flow between parallel disks 4. The continuity equation is, for v, =1,
(r,z) , from Eq. B.4-2
10
, NO )=0 fromwhich ro, =Q(2)
The equation of motion is obtained from Eq. B.6-4
p do, _ dr, (+2 tr0,))+ o, a ar Planear q?
b. When the results for the equation of continuity in (a) are used in the equation
of motion, we get Eq. 3B.10-1.
c. With the creeping flow assumption, Eq. 3B.10-1 gives
¡TP de | dr dep a = 77 from which ra =B and u4=>=B since the left side is a function
of r alone and the right side a function of z alone, and therefore both sides must be
equal to a constant, B. When the pressure equation is integrated from r, to r,, we get
7 dr = a whence p= 2%
nt NÑ In(r,/r,)
d. When this result is substituted into the f equation we get
de P, -P, : P,-P, 2 +=-—1—2 fromwhich p=- a OZ + Cs dz2 pin(r,/r,) pin(r,/r,) 2"
The integration constants are obtained from applying two boundary conditions. We
could require that f=0 at z=z+b, and thereby determine the integration constants.
Another method is to recognize that the flow is symmetric about z = 0, and use as
one of the boundary conditions dp/dz=0 atz = 0. Either method will give C, = 0, and
then C, is easily obtained. The final result is
3-24 rl) |
Division by r then gives Eq. 3B.10-3. e. The mass rate of flow at any cylindrical
surface in the
system must be the same. Select the surface at r =r, and obtain
_ (27 qtb — . (P, -P,) w= |, ¿POL dzr,d0=2xpb-2- 2n Inf, al sh e uE
The integral gives 2/3, so that Eq. 3B.10-4 is obtained.
315 3B.11 Radial flow between two coaxial cylinders a. From Eq. B.4-2 we get for
this flow, with v,(r),
¿gr Wo.) =0 whence V,= E where C is a constant r dr ) r
Atr=R, v,(R)=C/R so that C= Rv, (R).
b. The relations in Eq. 3B.11-1 follow immediately from Eqs. B.6-4, 5, and 6 for the
velocity profile v, (r) in (a).
C. Integration from r to R gives
R 1 1 =4000[he= 7)
This gives, making use of the meaning of C obtained in (a)
P(R)-P(r)= pc)
2 7) PR) = ARO ++) > so 1-(5) |
d. The only nonzero components are (from Eqs. B.1-8 to 13)
du 1 v 1 “m Par po “os pr, HE
3-2b 3B.12 Pressure distribution in incompressible fluids
• The equation of motion method to get the pressure distribution is correct. On
the other hand, the second method gives nonsense, as one can see from Fig. 3.5-
1. For an incompressible fluid (the vertical straight line), specifying the density
does not give any information about the pressure.
3-21 3B.13 Flow of a fluid through a sudden contraction a. For an incompressible
fluid, Eq. 3.5-12 becomes
3o(03 —03)+(p, —p,)+pg(h,—h,)=0 or Fp(v -v7)+(P,-P,)=0
If "1” is the large tube and "2" the small one, then the fluid velocity in
"2" must be greater than in "1." Then the modified pressure in "2"
must be less than that in "1." Thus the modified pressure decreases as
the fluid moves from the large cross-section region to the small
cross-section region, in agreement with experimental observations. b. For an ideal
gas, Eq. 3.5-12 becomes |
The pressure and elevation terms may no longer be combined. If the elevation does
not change, the pressure decreases as the fluid moves
into the contracted part of the tube.
3-23 3B.14 Torricelli's equation for efflux from a tank From Eq. 3.5-12 we get
1 (Den 0) (Pa — Par) + 3(0—h)=0 Here it has been assumed that the velocity at the
surface is virtually zero, that the pressure is atmospheric at both "1" and "2", and
that the datum plane for the height is at the exit tube. When the above equation is
solved for the efflux velocity we get Torricelli's equation.
329 3B.15 Shape of free surface in tangential annular flow a. The velocity
distribution is given by Eq. 3.6-32, and the equations corresponding to Eqs. 3.6-38
and 39 are:
a] Eon
Integration of these equations gives (see Eqs. 3.6-40, 41, and 42)
QKRYT (RY ] 10 e) 5) Atar + 5) -pgz +C
Now let p=P,i, atr=R and z=Zp, where zz is the height of the liquid at the outer-
cylinder surface. Then we can write at r =R and Z2= Zr
2 Pan =3 E al [-1-4InR+1]- pgzg +C
which is the equation that determines C. When we subtract the last equation from
the equation for p, we get
OxkRV( 1 0 Punt LE (-¿5=4meí s E) or dy? dn
in which n=y/B, p= v,/|(P, -P,)8”/uL], and A=Bv,p/u. This equation has to be solved
with the no-slip condition at n=0,1. We write the solution as the sum of a
complementary function and a particular integral. The equation for the
complementary function is
dep d ] C
a - AE =0 withsolution d¿= qe + Ca
• By inspection, the particular integral is fp, = N/A. Application of the boundary
conditions then gives the constants of integration. The final solution is then
(with A = Bv,p/u)
An _ P,-P,)B? Ay/B _ po yes 1 or y, Po-P1)B" 1 Y. 2 A 1 A e” —1 HL ALB e*-1
b. The mass rate of flow in the x-direction is then
P,-P, BW w= [e Fpodyda= EA
E 1 2)
HL A
2 A e*-1
c By making a Taylor-series expansion about A = 0, from (a) we get $ = 3(n- n?)
+0(4). When A > 0, this result can be shown to
be equivalent to Eq. 2B.3-2. Similarly, A Taylor-series expansion about A= 0 yields
from the result in (b)
Y =(3123) [(P,-P,)wB*0o/uL] A2 A e-1
3-32
a|
11, 1 ] (2. A (144+142+314%4--)-1
111 1 1 ==| --—+
Al2 A ar] 1 1_1,1-34+54% AIÉ2 A A =+0(4)
But the "B” in this problem is twice the "B" of problem 2B.3. If we switch to the "B"
of Problem 2B.3, it is found that the answers agree exactly.
d. For the coordinate system here, we select as the dimensionless quantities
y D; DU Y=*=; V = 55; 4=-—= y TR PJ Ja
Then the differential equation and boundary conditions are
dv div . ay Hz with V(+1)=0
The solution is then the sum of a complementary function and a particular integral
(as before in (c))
| y= gr c+ a a
• Application of the boundary conditions then leads to
-e* +cosha + Y sinha asinha
V=
Then the average value of this over the cross-section of flow is
3-39 +1
(y)= _ VAY _ 15 7(-e0 + cosha + Y sinh a)4Y _ —(1/a)sinha + cosha “ay 2. - asinha Ml
asinh a
Then we can form the ratio given in Eq. 3B.16-3:
V__e*” —Ysinha-cosha (V) (Ya)sinha-—cosha
• Asa check on this we can go directly from Eqs. 3B.16-1 and 2 to Eq. 3B.16-3.
From the first two equations we get
y evP.-1
0, 0 peri Alle? 1y Bet” -1)] (0,) w/WB A B[(A -2)(e* -1)+24]
Next, we make the connections between the notations in the two different
approaches: |
y=2Z+b; B=2b; A=20u (the "y" of part (c) is called "z" here, and ¿=2/b). Then
Do a[e?" CS 1)]
(0,) bla - 10? - 1) + 2a]
(2-1 (E+1)-2(e%e% 1) (0% er lg+1)-2(0% —e7) (Y0)|(a -1)(0? -1)+ 2a| o (1/0)[(a
-1)(e% —e7* )+ 2007" |
_ ¿(es -e72)+ (02 +0%)-20% _ ¿sinh a; + cosh a — e
o (1/04) oe” per ) - (es =g E )] cosh a: — (1/0:)sinh a
3-34 3C.1 Parallel-disk compression viscometer
4. The equation of continuity of Eq. B.4-2 for incompressible fluids, taking into
account the symmetry about the z-axis is just Eq. 3C.1-6. The equation of
motion in Eq. 3C.1-7 comes from Eq. B.6-4 ignoring the hydrostatic pressure,
the inertial force terms, and omitting the terms that are small.
b. Equation 3C.1-7 can be integrated with respect to z to give
y, PP) + C,2+C, 214 dr
The constant C, is found to be zero from the boundary condition in | Eq. 3C.1-8, and
C, is found from Eq. 3C.1-9. c. Integrating of Eq. 3C.1-6 with respect to z from O to H
H10 1 dp A | o 22 r nar H)Jaí z- 5 do,
Performing the integrations then gives
H? 1 dr 2). | QA 214 D, 12u rdrl dr
d. Integration of the equation in (c) then yields
12p0, r? p=- qa q? C,Inr+C,
The integration constant C, must be zero, since the pressure is finite
at the center of the disks, and C, is determined from Eq. 3C.1-10. Equation 3C.1-13 is
thus obtained. e. The force on the upper plate is then
27 ¿RIOR 2 3D, F(t)= £ 5 Sl 3) purao- ao ET - E dE
The integral is 1/4, and this leads to the result in Eq. 3C.1-14.
335 f. In this situation, the radius of the glob of liquid R(t) and the instantaneous
disk separation H(t) are related to the sample volume
Vby V = x[R(t)]' H(t). Then the force acting on the upper disk is
2 pr) 3 uo [RE], fr ? E(t)= 5 6 AE ES burao
3xuo)[R(' 3uov? HP 2H
3. If, in Eq. 3C.1-14 we replace v, by - dH/dt, we then have
an ordinary, separable differential equation for H(t). Integration gives
fjat=- 1 E Sh JH y whence
1.1 4Pot
[HO Hi UR 3C.2 Normal stresses at solid surfaces for compressible fluids
First write the equation of continuity for a compressible fluid as
o 1 mp =-(V-v)-(v-Ve)
The normal stress on a surface perpendicular to the z-axis is
AN Tal... = (21 Hu £Xv-")]
2=0
dv e 222 22 299200) +00—0) 2109920)
=($u+ xl Hip)
z=0
z=0
The terms containing v drop out by the no-slip condition at the surface, and their
derivatives with respect to x and y drop out on the surface as explained in Example
3.1-1. This result shows that the normal stresses at surfaces are zero for
compressible flow if the flow is at steady state.
231 3C.3 Deformation of a fluid line
• The curve at any time tis 0(r,t) = v,/r)t, which in tangential annular flow is (from
Eq. 3.6-32)
00 jas and 390 ARTO a, (/x)"-1 (/x)"-1
The differential element of length along the curve is given by 2 2 anal, ARI (OL) (dl
=(dr) +(rd0) =(dr)"| 14 25 (xy -1)
The total length of the curve is then A(R/r) (2INY
er = RJ 1, JN ag ((1x) -1) ((1x) -1) Es
To get a rough, order-of-magnitude estimate assume that N is large
and then the "1" can be neglected and the integral performed _analytically
l= [dl =,
_ATNK
l a RT (limit of large N)
3-38 3C.4 Alternative methods of solving the Couette viscometer problem by use of
angular momentum concepts
a. By making an angular momentum balance (actually the z- component of the
angular momentum balance) over an annular region of thickness Ar and height
L we obtain
(27rL)- (r7,, ) - (270(r + Ar)L) (7, ) =0
r+Ar
Dividing through by 27LAr and rearranging we get
(1?7,,)
2 == T ) r+Ar roí
L=0 Ar
whence
d (177,9)=0
the second form resulting from taking the limit as Ar > 0. Then using Eq. B.1-11 for
the stress-tensor component, we have
Lio dr drir whence
From this Eq 3.6-20 follows.
b. Here we start with Eq. 3.4-1, which simplifies to the following for the symmetric
stress tensor |
[V-(rxrF"|=0
The z-component of this equation is
331 pap tecryi)=0 or To(rtexa,,)=0
• Where, in cylindrical coordinates, r=9,r+08,z. We now work out the cross
product, which is
[xv], = DD Es (8,7 +8,2), 0, =E 91 Ty +E ¿gy (0) 7, io]
Hence the equation of change for angular momentum simplifies to
LE a] =- 0
and the development proceeds further as in (4). 3C.5 Two-phase interfacial
boundary conditions
4. This result follows at once from Eq. 3C.5-1, when the viscous-stress-tensor
terms are omitted.
b. To get the right side of Eq. 3C.5-3, it is evident that Eq.
3C.5-1 had to be multiplied by 1/p'v; . The interfacial-tension term in Eq. 3C.5-3 is
then
la lla R, R,)|Llop" R, R,)|Ll0o5p"
The terms involving the viscous stress tensor are
A
pol
po pi lala pl pr A A
And finally, the pressure terms are converted to modified pressure terms plus terms
involving the gravitational acceleration
a? Po +p"g(1—h,) _ p" Po a] el g(n—ho)Jo' -p”)
1,,2 1,,2 pu p dy
desd (8 EAN
We see that the Reynolds numbers for the two phases, the Weber number (Eq. 3.7-
12), aí nd the Froude number (Eq. 3.7-11) appear as well as the density ratios for the
two phases.
3-4) 3D.1 Derivation of the equation of motion from Newton's second law of motion
4. Equation 3D.1-1 is the statement that the time rate-of- change of momentum is
equal to the sum of the surface forces and the gravity forces acting on a small
blob of fluid.
When the Leibniz formula (Eq. A.5-5) is applied to the left side of Eq. 3D.1-1, we get
A fovav= | Epa + J(ovlw-njas= | O ovdV + S[n- pvv]as
At 7) vs) O S(t) O = J 2 ovdv + f[v -pvv]daV (using Eq. A.5-3) vs) 9 Vi)
The term containing the stress tensor in Eq. 3D.1-1 can also be rewritten as a
volume integral using Eq. A.5-3 to give
d —pvdV =- |[V-pvvldV — TrldV + |pgdV 7, ot A Jer] y
Since the choice of the blob volume was arbitrary, all the volume integral operations
may be removed, and we obtain the equation of motion of Eq. 3.2-9.
b. If the blob is fixed, then we can write a momentum balance over the blob as
follows:
2 5 ovav=-|[n-pvv]as- f[n-x]aS + [pgdv dt; $ Ss V
This states that the rate of increase of momentum within the fixed volume equals the
rate of increase because of convective transport, the rate of increase because of
molecular momentum transport, and the force acting on the system by gravity. The
time derivative can be taken inside, since the volume is fixed, and the surface
integrals can be converted to volume integrals. The result is an equation . containing
only volume integrals over the fixed volume:
o ¡PvaV = -S[V-pvv]av - [[V Ja V + [ pgav y 0 Vv V V
342 Since the volume was chosen arbitrarily, the volume integrals can be removed,
and, once again, the result in Eq. 3.2-9 is obtained.
3-45 3D.2 The equation of change for vorticity
Method 1: Start with the Navier-Stokes equation in the D/Dt-form, but
rearranged thus:
Sp lv vo]-Zvp + Wv +8
ot =-Viy? +[vx[Vxv]]- Vp+ Www +g8
Next we take the curl and introduce the vorticity w =[V x v]
O [vw x[vxw]]+ vV2w
ot
or
[Y wv]-[V-v0]+ vV?w
Then using Eq. A.4-24 and the fact that (V -v)=0 for incompressible fluids and (V
-w)=0 always (since the divergence of a curl is always
zero, we get Eq. 3D.2-1.
Method II: Start now with the Navier-Stokes equation in 0/0t-form
== -[V-wv]-5Vp+ vv?y +8
Take the curl of this equation and introduce the vorticity to get
ee -[V x[V -vv]]+ vv?w
ot
or
e - [e:(Vv -Vv]]-[v-Vw]+ vw Details of the manipulations involved in this last step are
given here
using the abbreviated notation of SA.9 with the Einstein summation convention:
-[v «lv wil = Ej 0/(9/0/0,) =—E¡x 0/(0,9/0, —U,9/0,) but 9,0, =0 Es E (9, 0,)(9,0,)+
+(0,9,90,)| = Ey (0, -D) Ja, 0, )- (0,9, (8:90, )
=[e:[Vw-Vw)), -[v-V[V xv)
in which e€ = 222e,,,,0,,0,0, is a third-order tensor.
3-45 3D.3 Alternate form of the equation of motion
Take the divergence of the equation of motion for an incompressible fluid in the
form of Eq. 3.2-9, but with the stress- tensor term written in terms of the viscosity
and the Laplacian of the velocity. This gives
0-1 w0)- hw
O= —(Vv:(Vv)* ) - 5
Then use the definitions in Eq. 3D.3-2 to get Eq. 3D.3-1.
3-4b