Guide For Ex Post and Intermediate Evaluationpdf

WRITING
AND
PRESENTING Tom
H
SCIENTIFIC
Anstey
PAPERS
And
AND
Aly
TECHNICAL
M
REPORTS Shady
WRITING AND PRESENTING
SCIENTIFIC PAPERS
AND
TECHNICAL REPORTS
Tom H ANSTEY
and
AIy M SHADY
Anstey, T H
Writing and presenting scientific papers and technical reports
Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 0-9697970-0-1
1. Technical writingCHandbooks, manuals, etc 2, Communication in

science CHandbooks, manuals, etc. 3. Communication of technical informationCHandbooks,
manuals, etc. I. Shady, A M (Aly M) II. Title.
T11.A67 1995 808’.0665 C95-900211-1
C) Copyright T H Anstey, 1994

12 Warbonnet Drive
Nepean, ON, K2E 5M2
Canada
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, vocal record,
or otherwise (except brief passages for purpose of review) without the prior permission of the
senior author.
Second printing April, 1994

Third printing, September, 1994
Fourth printing, March, 1995
Printed by: Belcor Printing

Nepean, ON, K2H 8G3
Canada
from photoready copy.

Acknowledgements
Several colleagues have helped in the preparation and review of this guide.
Arthur A Guitard, Marvin E Jensen, Arthur R McElroy, Francis Mellor, Tibor
Rajhathy and Marvin Weintraub, scientists and managers of science, all
with years of experience in writing and reviewing scientific and technical
papers, were constructively critical. Mary Schwass, an outstanding
facilitator of Athink tanks@, Patrick Cummins, a teacher of English, and
Walter Nicholaichuk, the editor of an internationally recognized scientific
and engineering journal, provided us with valuable suggestions and
encouragement. Our sincere thanks also go to L Wynne Anstey for her
contribution to the preparation of the manuscript and her keen eyes in
proof reading.
iii
Acronyms and Abbreviations
abbr abbreviation
AM or am ante meridian, before noon
CD-ROM compact disk, read only memory
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
comp comparative
DOS disk operating system
esp especially
etc et cetera
ICID International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage
ie that is to say
ISBN International Standard Book Number
MS manuscript
para paragraph
PC personal computer
pers person
PERT Program Evaluation and Review Technique
pl plural
PM or pm post meridian, after noon
poss possessive
pp past participle
pp pages
prfx prefix
pt past tense
SE standard error
SI Systeme Internationale
sing singular
US United States of America
var variation
iv
TABLE of CONTENTS
Acknowledgements iii
Acronyms and Abbreviations iv
Introduction vii
What is Research? viii
Who are Scientists? ix
Chapter 1: Planning and Conducting Research I
a. Define the Problem and Set Your Objectives 1
b. Gather Background Information 2
Abstracting Journals and Their Use 3
How to use Data Bases 5
Other Sources of Information 6
c. Formulate an Hypothesis 6
d. Run a Pilot Experiment 6
e. Plan an Experiment 6
f. Conduct an Experiment 8
g. Record Results 8
h. Analyse Results 9
i. Draw Conclusions 10
j. Summary 10
Chapter 2: Writing Your Paper on Scientific Research 11
a. Assemble Data 12
b. Prepare Tables and Illustrations 13
c. Organize a Literature Review 14
d. Organize the Text 18
e. Select a Medium for Publication 19
f. Write Your Paper 19
g. Choose a Title 21
h. Prepare the Abstract 22
i. Review and Edit Your Manuscript 22
j. Prepare the Paper for Publication 23
k. What to Expect Next 24
I. Summary 24
Chapter 3: Writing and Publishing Your Technical Report 26

a. Report Outline 27
b. Report Details 27
c. Write Your Report 31
d. Check Your Manuscript 31
e. Select a Printing Company 32
f. Decide on a Layout 33
g. Reading Proof 33
h. Receiving the Bulletin 33
i. Summary 34
v
Chapter 4: Presenting Your Results to an Audience 36
1. An Oral Presentation 36
a. Introduction 36
b. Review of Literature 36
c. Experimental Methods 36
d. Results and Discussion 36
e. Tables and Illustrations 37
f. Rewrite your Paper 38
g. Prepare for Questions 38
h. Practice your Delivery 39
t. At the Meeting 39
2. A Poster Presentation 42
Summary 44
Chapter 5: Reviewing Papers for Other Scientists 45
a. What You will be Asked to do 45
b. Kinds of Helpful Comments 45
c. Editorial Symbols 47
d. Summary 48
Further Reading 50
References 53
Appendices 55
I Eight Hundred Troublesome Words 56
II Commonly Used Latin Terms and their Meaning 67
Ill Tenses of Some Irregular Verbs 69
IV Units of Measure 72
V Mathematical Equations and the Greek Alphabet 80
Index 83
vi
INTRODUCTION
This guide is directed to scientists and engineers who have good technical
training but little experience in reporting their research or investigations. It is
mostly concerned with meeting standards that are acceptable to institutions and
scientific journals.
We recognize three basic principles you should observe and practice if you wish to
improve your writing skills:
$ Read carefully, well-written books (fiction, non-fiction and technical). They will
give you inspiration and a variety of ideas on style, form and the proper use of
words and expressions.
$ Seek the advice of experienced writers to review and comment on your work.
They can provide useful help and save you time and embarrassment.
$ Practice writing continually. It is the only way to sharpen your skills, develop
your own style and reach a reasonable level of competence.
Activate these three principles simultaneously and practice them for as long as
you wish to write.
Others have written on one or more of our topics and from these authors we have
drawn selectively. A few titles are given on the final pages for your further
reading. Probably you will find more. Consult as many as you can.
For many years both of us have helped scientists and engineers prepare their
manuscripts for publication, reviewed manuscripts for various journals and
listened to countless papers given at scientific conferences, workshops and other
forms of oral presentation. When we give advice on a one-to-one basis we are
restricted in the number of people we can help. Even then, the value of this help
is limited to the capacity of the recipient’s memory or the skill with which he is
able to take notes. Our search for written instructions yielded many books that
partly satisfied our needs but often were far too technical or in too great detail.
For these reasons we concluded that writers need a concise manual which they
can have on their desk and to which they can make reference with relative ease.
We have prepared this book to assist you if you are writing for the first time.
Experienced writers may find some short cuts and useful simplifications to speed
their work. Once you build your skills you will find that you require more
sophisticated or specialized references. Many publishers of textbooks, scientific
journals and some large organizations have their own manuals for style and
writing guidelines - a few titles are listed under Further Reading. They are
valuable sources of information.
Good, orderly writing is required by many people. Scientists, engineers, and
professionals of all kinds are required to put into writing a great many of their
thoughts, plans and reports. They are often asked to articulate various policies
and positions. Under these circumstances they face the same problems and need
the same skills as those writing scientific papers or academic textbooks.
vii
INTRODUCTION
You will have noted from the Table of Contents that we stress the reporting rather
than the execution of research and investigation. However, do not ignore Chapter
1 because in it are suggestions to refresh your memory on how to gather your
background information, so essential to preparing good reports, and a few notes
on doing your research. In addition, we believe you will find the various
appendices valuable because in them we have drawn together information not
usually found within one volume.
No work is complete or perfect until it is fully tested. We therefore would be
pleased if you would send your comments and suggestions to the senior author.
Since we do not claim perfection, any shortcomings, errors of commission or
errors of omission are ours alone.
What is Research?
Research includes a whole spectrum of activities. They vary from scientific
research designed to discover new principles within a discipline to investigations
using known principles. Much research is a mix of basic and applied research.
Most involves experimentation and is directed to solving problems. Many
solutions have immediate practical application, others indicate direction for
further research. All such activities are research.
Throughout this guide, wherever the term research is used it also refers to
investigation because research is taken to mean Asystematic investigation into
and study of materials and sources in order to establish facts and reach new
conclusions@ (Allen, 1984). A research project usually consists of several
experiments and therefore we frequently discuss experiments.
Scientific research requires creativity and must bring real and original
contributions to light. Gillespie (1963) points out that professional practice is
concerned with the application of available knowledge. It may involve
investigation, the accumulation of new data, and/or the adaptation and
interpretation of known principles to new situations. Advances are often made by
technologists as well as by scientists even though a technologist may not be able
to explain fully the background theory involved. Ruttan (1986) believes it to be
appropriate to consider science-oriented research and technology-oriented
research as two parallel but interacting paths each feeding on and supporting the
other. Research requires planning, conducting, analysing and reporting such
activities and often brings together the results of several experiments. If all are
done properly the results are valid.
It can be seen that there is a blending of art and science when conducting
research and investigation. It is hoped that our short guide will assist you to
blend the science and art of reporting your research.
viii
Introduction
Who are Scientists?

Hans Selye (1964) lists a number of questions you need to answer positively
if you would become a good scientist. Here they are:
Am I enthusiastic?
Can I persevere?
Do I have imagination, intuition and independence of thought?
Is my memory reasonably good?
Am I logical in my thinking?
Am 1 honest with myself? With others?
Do I have the technical skills for my chosen discipline?
Am I compatible with others?
If you answer yes to most of these questions then, with hard work, you may
become a good productive scientist and should consider a career in research. If
more answers are no than yes, think again and possibly choose some other
vocation. Nevertheless, scientists are as varied in their attitudes and work habits
as any other group. They have one trait in common, however -curiosity. Like a
detective, you will continually ask questions - questions about
your chosen field and questions about related subjects. You will be interested in
all disciplines because you can never predict what may provide a solution to a
problem.
You will have a further trait - the desire to share. Those who keep their
discoveries to themselves will likely contribute little to science. In sharing, of
course, you will subject your ideas and discoveries to peer review. Some look
upon such comments as criticism. Do not consider them so. Your peers are as
anxious to advance knowledge as are you. If your theories are credible, your
research well planned and executed and your conclusions logical you will
welcome peer review for confirmation of your work. Should you have erred, you
will want to be among the first to know.
Peer review may be through individual contact, through scientific and technical
meetings or through the scientific press. All three methods are useful - each has
its place. This guide, the combined experience of others, will help you with the
second and third methods. As with all skills, writing papers and orally presenting
your findings requires practice.
ix
CHAPTER 1
PLANNING AND CONDUCTING RESEARCH
You must plan your research with care and conduct it with skill if your reports of it are to be
read and appreciated by other scientists. Because much will depend upon your scientific
discipline and the subject matter with which you are working, we give only a general outline,
not details, of how to plan and conduct y our research. There are, however, a few principles, all
of which you will find useful. Consider them. Add others as you gain experience.
(a) Define the Problem and Set Your Objectives
You are an expert in your chosen vocation therefore you will be aware of problems needing
solution through scientific research. Beveridge (1980) notes that the problem may be an
obvious practical one in the field of agriculture, forestry or engineering, or it may be a
theoretical one arising from your dissatisfaction with a prevailing theory. Whichever the case,
the more care you take in posing a significant question, the greater the likelihood of your
finding a meaningful answer. Use well defined words in framing your question -ambiguous
words with several meanings will result in an ambiguous question. Precise conclusions can
only be drawn from precise questions.
You are also a member of an organization that is financing or arranging the financing for your
research. Therefore do not expect to have a completely free hand in deciding what problems
you will attempt to solve. Your organization will undoubtedly prioritize fields of research
based upon many criteria - some financial, some political and many scientific. The time you
take learning of these priorities will be well spent. Try to fully understand them as they
change - which they will.
In defining a problem, first make a short statement of the situation, perhaps in the form of a
question. Carefully word the statement using simple language in one or a few short
sentences:
When dropped from a height, how does a cat land? or If not restrained, in which direction does
water flow?
Depending upon the philosophy of the research organization with which you are working, the
solution to the problem may or may not have a direct practical application.
We often use brain-storming techniques at this stage to accelerate the process

of defining problems. To do so, simply:
• write down all your ideas in whatever order they occur to you;
• continue to search for the key words that describe the problem. Check your dictionary and
thesaurus for the accurate meaning of each word. Make sure that the words you select
reflect your ideas;
• write each word or phrase on a piece of paper, card or sticker;
1
Chapter I: Planning and Conducting Research
• arrange the words and phrases in a logical order, sequence or cluster. Make certain that
words and phrases of related meaning, function or logic (before, after, below, above or
around) are placed together;
• attempt to use the words and phrases in longer statements or complete sentences;
• condense this collection into one or two sentences that define the problem;
• check this definition with your colleagues. If they cannot understand what you have
written then there is something wrong with your statement. Try again. The clarity of the
statement is essential. Remember, to know your problem is half way to the solution.
A practical consideration in selecting the problem is to avoid one so large that the solution is
beyond your capabilities or resources. It is easy to become overly ambitious at the start and
then finish with disappointment by failing to meet your goals.
The statement of the problem will lead to a definition of the objective(s) and thence to the
solution. Here again, you can use the brain-storming technique to set your objectives. The
objectives will have a bearing on the type of data and the way in which you obtain them. The
knowledge and experience you have in your discipline is the only base from which to start.
The importance of defining the scope and targets of your work at an early stage is an essential
ingredient to proper planning.
Remember, the statement of the problem and objectives are fixed neither in time nor in space.
They should be reviewed regularly and be up-dated or revised as needed. However, if you
think through your statements realistically from the beginning you will probably find that
little change will be required later. If, on the other hand, your initial statements are poor, you
will be frustrated later with constant change, delays and wasted effort. All is part of the risk of
doing research.
(b) Gather Background Information
In this section we discuss the various ways in which you will search the scientific and
technical literature of your particular discipline in order to prepare your bibliography. From
this bibliography you will draw key papers that you will later use for the “Literature Cited” or
“References” of your published paper or report.
A bibliography, in the context we use it here, means a list of books and papers on a subject in
which you have a particular interest. (If you consult your dictionary you will find that
bibliography also has a much wider meaning that is of no concern to us at this time.)
Before you start any investigation you must find out what other research or investigations
have been reported in order that you will not repeat previous work (unless, for some good
reason, you decide to repeat the work of someone else). To determine what others have
learned you will prepare a bibliography to which you will continually make additions as more
findings are published.
You must keep accurate records of the papers you consult in the following form:
2
Chapter I: Planning and Conducting Research
Author(s), year of publication, title of paper, name of journal, volume number, page number(s)
and, in brackets, the source of your information.
Summarize the objectives, methods and principal findings of each paper together with your
own statement of the contribution made by the research. Arrange your notes in some logical
order. When you write your literature review keep it simple and to the point. You will then
find it easier to make reference to it when you discuss results. If you have a computer with a
word processor, use it to make your notes. If not, use a 5 x 8 in. (125 x 200 mm) card (see
Figure 1.1) for each reference and make a brief summary of the paper using both sides of each
card when necessary. You may wish to place an identifying mark on those cards listing papers
of particular interest to you. If you have a library at your place of work, use it. Ask the librarian
for help in making a literature search particularly if you are not familiar with indexes,
abstracting journals or computer-aided database searches with key words. Examine recent
text books for leads. Search abstracting journals for current reviews on your subject. Follow
up on the primary references in the reviews and examine some of the secondary references
(papers cited by authors of the primary references).
Detailed below is how you can “search the literature” by using appropriate abstracting
journals and/or computer-aided searches.
Abstracting Journals and Their Use
You should find publications (journals) in the library of your institution that classify and
abstract (make summaries) of published papers in each discipline. These journals are
expensive and therefore you will not subscribe to them yourself and, indeed, your library may
be able to afford only a few of those that are available. You are probably familiar with the
abstracting journals in your own discipline. If not, here are the names and addresses of a few
that may be of use to you:
Chemical Abstracts Biological and Agricultural Index

P0 Box 3012 The H W Wilson Co
Columbus, Ohio 958-964 University Ave
USA 43210 New York City, NY, USA
Fluid Abstracts: Civil Engineering CAB lnternational

Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd Wallingford, Oxon
Regency House OXIO 8DE
34 Duke Street United Kingdom
Norwich, NR3 3AP, UK
3
Chapter 1: Planning and Conducting Research
Abstracting journals are issued frequently - some weekly, others monthly and a few each
quarter (three months). Usually they are cumulative, that is, the information contained in
each issue also includes the information in the previous issue(s) of that year. At the end of
each year the complete volume is printed.
You may use an abstracting journal in at least two different ways because the
information is arranged by subject matter as well as by author. When you find
papers in which you are interested do not neglect to record on one of your index
cards the source of your information as well, of course, as the pertinent
information about the paper. The short but clear summary of the paper with a note
to yourself on why you think the paper is important to your research is essential
also.
4
Teixeira, Jose Luis and Luis Santos Pereira, 1992, ISAREG, An Irrigation Scheduling
Simulation Model.
ICID Bull, v41, no2, 29-48. (from reprint)
Defines optimum irrigation scheduling using meteorological, soils, irrigation options

and crop data. When operating ISAREG, a user can introduce possible variations in data
input and then select for maximum yields, optimum schedules, rigid schedules or
optimum irrigation dates. Use in paper on modelling.
Figure 1.1 The type of record you will keep on a bibliography card.
(About half actual size.)
How to Use Databases

Now that personal computers (PCs) are available to most organizations you will want to use
one to assist in your library search. If your library offers a computer search facility, use it.
There are several different systems available and therefore we will describe them in general
terms.
One method is to use CD-ROMs (compact disk, read only memory) which gives you the
capacity to quickly search millions of pieces of information stored on a metallic disk the size
of a 5.25 inch computer floppy disk. In addition to searching authors, titles and subjects you
may also search for key words, which is extremely useful.
Each CD contains up to 660 megabytes (660 million bytes) which is equal to about 330,000
typewritten pages. To use this technology you need a standard DOS (disk operating system)
computer with appropriate program software and the capability to read CD-ROMs. Such a
system is fairly expensive and therefore you will find it in institutional libraries.
A good source of information for CD-ROMs is:

SilverPlatter CD-ROM
100 River Ridge Drive
Norwood, MA
USA 02062-5026
or
10 Barley Mow Passage
Chiswick, London
England, W4 4PH
Abstracting services (see above for some addresses) also issue disks containing their updated
data.
5
Other Sources of Information
There are two other ways of gathering information. One is to ask questions of your colleagues
and of several practitioners in your field of interest. Keep good records of the questions you
ask as well as their answers. You must keep these records in your log book. A log book is a
bound book (NOT LOOSE LEAF) with numbered pages. Sometimes each page is dated but this
is not always desirable because some days you will have more entries than on other days.
The other method is by direct observation of the problem, be it water erosion or a poor wheat
crop. Again, keep complete notes and observe the problem under as many conditions as
possible.
(C) Formulate an Hypothesis

Sometimes you will ask a question (How does water flow?) but more often you will make a
statement (an hypothesis) and then attempt to disprove it (Water flows up hill.) The way a
problem is stated always affects the way in which you conduct your research. In general, you
should state your hypothesis using short sentences and simple, straight-forward language.
Choose an hypothesis based on its relationship to the problem, its clarity and its ease of
testing. You may need to review the literature in greater depth after you formulate your
hypothesis.
The first hypothesis will probably not be the one you finally select. Devise several. Examine
each carefully and list their advantages and difficulties. Finally choose the hypothesis with
which you feel the most comfortable.
(d) Run a Pilot Experiment

If you find you need to use equipment or techniques with which you are not familiar, before
you plan your experiment repeat part or all of some other scientist’s experiment that used the
equipment or technique. You may not need as many treatments (variables) or as many
replications as that reported in the literature, but do use at least two treatments (perhaps a
check and one treatment that gave a measurable result) and also repeat your experiment at
least three times (three replications). You will then have used your equipment or performed
the technique at least six times.
If, after a statistical analysis, you obtain the same results as reported in the paper you are
following, you will feel confident to proceed and plan your own experiment. If you obtain
different results, consult some of your colleagues or correspond with the author of the
example paper. Repeat the experiment after making appropriate adjustments to your
equipment or techniques. Only after you are able to repeat the chosen experiment should you
proceed to plan your own experiment.
(e) Plan an Experiment

In many, but not all experiments, you will have several treatments. All will be identical except
for one to several factors that you will vary. In the experiment in which you wished to
determine which way water flows (see page 1) you may vary the angle of incline, the direction
of incline, the volume of water and the dimensions of the flume or pipe. You will decide in
what order you may test each variable (randomization) and how many times you will make
each test (replication).
6
The best and often the most elegant research is not necessarily very complex. Complex
experiments, which try to answer many questions, often become so complicated that the
answers are of doubtful value. Therefore it is best to make your experiments as simple as
possible. This does not mean you should avoid using appropriate equipment and experimental
designs but use the simplest that will meet the needs of the experiment.
When you plan your experiment do so from the beginning to the end, answering the following
questions, not necessarily in the order shown:
• What experimental designs can I use?
• What materials and equipment will I need?
• How will I measure the results?
• Will the design permit a valid statistical analysis?
• What is the time-frame within which I can conduct the experiment?
• What are the physical and financial resources available? Will they meet my needs?
• What will be the form of the tabulated results?
• How can I handle qualitative (descriptive) results?
If you are not familiar with experimental design and analysis talk to your colleagues who are.
Also obtain one or two text books on experimental design (see Pearce et at (1988) and the
section on Further Reading, page 63, for suggestions). Analyse and study them.
Consult with your field or laboratory staff to verify that the work proposed can be carried out
with the amount of help and time available. Be realistic in making your assessment.
You must write down your complete plan outlining:

• the activities you will carry out;
• the schedule for each activity and the total plan;
• the resources of manpower, equipment, material, land, laboratory, and/or greenhouse

space you will need;
• a budget which will include the capital cost of equipment, operating costs (supplies and
materials) and salaries and wages;
• major mile-stones in the conduct of your work which will identify things such as the
completion of field work, of laboratory work, of statistical analysis, of writing and
publishing your work and of making the results of your research available to those
practitioners who will be able to use them; and
• a description of the various outputs such as tables of data, texts, papers, reports, oral
presentations, models, or prototypes.
7
The techniques of project planning can be useful tools in helping you to develop good plans.
Check with your library for suitable references on project planning.
There are several computer programs at various levels of complexity that you can use on your
personal computer to prepare plans and monitor the progress of your work. Most such
programs use some form of the critical path method and program evaluation and review
techniques (PERT) developed in the 1950’s and I 960’s to which the authors of the programs
have added modern resource management and graphic capabilities.
(f) Conduct an Experiment
Do not underestimate the time it will take you to lay out, conduct, observe, record and
analyse the results of each experiment within your research project.
Depending upon the type of research you are doing, you may or may not need the help of
technicians. If you do need their help, under no circumstance should you leave the conduct
of your experiments to them. You yourself must be there when each experiment is started. Do
not just watch, be part of the working crew and you will then “get the feel” of the operation.
You must frequently observe its progress. You must be there during critical operations. You
must supervise the recording of results. You must ‘get your hands dirty’. It is vital that you
recognize and appreciate the unexpected. Only by being on site will you observe things you
did not anticipate. Often the unexpected leads to new understanding and discoveries. Be
sure to document them even if they appear to be irrelevant.
You may find that, after taking some measurements or observing some systems, it is prudent
to change the plan in order to fully solve the problem. Do not change without good cause, but
if change is necessary make it, recording all the circumstances.
Be prepared for failure either part way through or at the end of an experiment -failure because
of weather, equipment breakdown or some unexpected catastrophe beyond your control.
Failure of an experiment is different from negative results. An experiment fails when you
obtain no results. With a successful experiment you expect either positive or negative results -
results that support or refute your hypothesis.
(g) Record Results
Be meticulous in keeping records. Without them you may just as well not have done the
experiment. You must:
• accurately record each event as it happens, certainly on the day it happens;
• not leave your record keeping longer than a day because your memory will play tricks on
you;
• not transcribe your records because each time you copy numbers or words you increase
the possibility of mistakes;
8
• verify the scale on which you take your weights or other measurements and either take the
readings yourself or assign someone in whom you have complete confidence to do so;
• try to have the scale automatically record the measure on some electronic device;
• scan the print-out for anomalies and, when possible, re-measure the questionable item. If
not possible, note the conditions under which the measurement was made and take them
into consideration when you analyse the data; and you must
• be certain to record exactly what happened.
If you record measured results by hand, do so in the order in which they were taken and in a
bound, hard-covered field notebook with pre-numbered pages, even though you may be in a
laboratory. Record your results in pencil (ink will smudge when wet), and, should you make
an error, strike out the mistake with a single line (do not erase) and record the correct
reading. Do not attempt to re-order the data when you are recording them. If you do, the
chances of making errors through assigning a result to the wrong treatment or an incorrect
replication is greatly increased. You will have no way of detecting or correcting the error. Sort
the treatments and replications later, making certain you keep the original data. Be keenly
aware of places where errors can occur and take preventative action.
Even though you may be the only one who reads your notebook it is important that your notes
are quite clear so that five or ten years later you will understand exactly what you meant.
(h) Analyse Results
When you planned your experiment you did so with the intention of analysing your data in a
particular way. Make a preliminary analysis to verify that your data meet the criteria of the
statistical methods you have chosen. If not, a transformation into logarithms or arcs may be
required. Now carefully examine the data:
• are any missing?
• do the data look reasonable?
• are there outlyers, that is data that are much too large or too small?
Should you suspect that there is a problem, consult with a knowledgeable colleague before
going any further. If you have none with whom you can talk, consult a statistics text book (see
Further Reading, pages 63-4) or write to someone in whom you have confidence. Contact a
former professor, perhaps, or someone whom you have met at a conference and believe to be
knowledgeable. Do not be afraid of asking questions. Most scientists are pleased to help.
When you have completed the analyses of your data using one or more standard statistical
tools, look at the results very carefully.
9
• Do you fully understand the ways in which you analysed the data? (This is particularly
important if you used a statistical analysis computer program. Just because the program
“worked” does not mean that the method was appropriate for the experimental design you
used.)
• Do the answers look reasonable? Are the results what you expected?
• If not, do you have any reason to doubt the accuracy of your arithmetic?
Again, consult with a colleague for an outside opinion. Do you need to repeat some of your
experiments?
(i) Draw Conclusions
Your conclusions may be short or long, but write them in your note book -whether one
sentence or several paragraphs. You may need to separate the conclusions - the first part
being those about which you are certain and the second part about those that are speculative
and require more research to confirm or reject. You will then have a basis for further research
projects which is quite normal - research usually poses more questions than it answers!
Write using short crisp sentences and words. Be certain there is no ambiguity in your writing.
Some of your conclusions may be speculative, which is quite understandable, but say so if
they are.
(j) Summary
In this chapter you have been given a short introduction to conducting a scientific
experiment, which also includes what is sometimes called investigation. You may have
learned some or all of these things in your university education. If so, that is good. If not, you
will want to consult further on the topics discussed here. Talk to some of your peers who are
experienced research scientists and examine some of the suggestions for further reading at
the end of this guide.
10
CHAPTER 2
WRITING YOUR PAPER ON SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
A scientific experiment is not complete until it has been published because only then is the
new information of any use to others. If you do not commit your methods and results to paper
with subsequent publication you have wasted your time and money - usually the money of
others. Day (1979) and Stapleton (1987) expand on this theme.
The first thing you will do after you decide to report your research is select a journal or other
mode of publication (see section (e) in this chapter on selecting a journal). If you select a
journal, consult a recent issue and carefully read the Notes to Authors that are usually on the
first or last pages of each issue or each volume. Also examine several papers in one or two
issues, particularly those similar to the one you propose to write. Follow their style, the
construction of their tables and figures and the way in which authors have handled
references. These papers have been accepted by the editors, usually after some revision.
Should you select some other mode of publishing your research such as a bulletin or
technical report (see Chapter 3), consult with those in your institution responsible for
publishing. Determine the editorial policy of your institution before you start to write, and
follow it.
Rarely is it necessary for you to report the detailed results of your experiments or
investigations. Consider for instance hourly temperature data for 20 locations over five years.
The number of measurements would be 24 hours x 365 days x 20 locations x 5 years + (24
hours x 20 locations) = 876,480 (the added 480 measurements are for the extra day in one
leap year in the series, although, of course, there could be two leap years). The important
information in these data might be the mean daily maximum and minimum temperatures for
each year, the mean yearly maximum and minimum and since hourly temperatures were
recorded, some statistic such as the yearly maximum or average number of consecutive hours
with temperatures above or below a given critical temperature. Thus, instead of presenting
nearly 900 thousand unanalysed pieces of information, a table with about 80 numbers
(probably with their standard errors) would be much more meaningful to your readers (see
Table 2.1, page 16, for an example). Exceptions may include contracted research for which the
client requests detailed data or data from your studies that may be used in legal action.
However you would probably report these data in a bulletin or technical report.
If you have carefully planned and executed your experiment by following the suggestions in
Chapter 1 you should have little trouble writing your paper. You will find that many of the
steps are already taken. However, do take great care in your writing. Edit your manuscript
several times. Ask one or more colleagues to read and criticize it, then after leaving it for a few
days, re-read and prepare it for publication. The objective of writing a scientific paper or a
technical report is for the reader to gain information and not for you to show others the
complexity of your work.
The following steps are not necessarily in the order you will prepare your paper. Indeed, some
steps may be repeated several times as more information becomes available. However, if you
start with the following order, you will assure yourself that everything you need to do will be
done.
11
Chapter 2: Writing Your Paper on Scientific Research
(a) Assemble Data
You will probably have conducted several experiments before you feel you have sufficient new
information to publish a scientific paper. It is rare that a convincing paper can be prepared
using data from a single experiment. You must therefore select data from those experiments
that best illustrate the results of your research, being careful to include a full range and not
just those data which conform to your expectations.
When you prepare a table present the means of data with the same number of significant digits
as your original data. If, for instance, you have a set of scales that measure only to 0.1 g, but
the arithmetic means of your weights work out to a number with five decimal places, you must
round the decimal fraction to the same number of decimal places as your data, that is to one
decimal place, rounding x.x5 to an even number (or odd number, whichever you decide to
use) ie 1.25 will be 1.2 and 1.35 will be 1.4. Using any more digits is false accuracy. There
are, however, additional considerations (see Pearce et a! (1988) pp 19-20). The number of
significant digits in your data should be such that precision allows for at least 20 (and better
30) possible values. For instance, if your data lie from 11 to 35 there are 25 possible values, or
if they lie from 1.11 to 3.55 there are 245 possible values. Thus, in the first example you will
not need to include any decimal points but in the second example you should round the data
to one decimal point (two significant digits) which will again provide you with 25 possible
values.
When you are calculating statistics on your data, the number of significant digits will vary
according to the statistic you are calculating. Use the following summary as your guide:
Statistic Number of Significant Digits

Deviations and residuals Two more than your data
Sums of squares, mean squares Twice the number in your data
and summation terms plus two
Treatment means The number in your data
Standard errors The number in your data plus one
Error mean squares At least four significant digits
F values Two decimal places unless F is large
If you use mathematical equations (see Appendix V for more details) number them
consecutively to the right of each equation for ease of reference as in the following example:
f=ma (1)
where:
f = force in N
m = mass in kg
a = acceleration in m/s2
Make certain that all symbols in each equation are adequately defined in a table following the
equation.
Arrange your data in several different ways from which you will select those presentations
that provide the greatest information in the clearest form for your
12
readers. Do not hesitate to discard complicated formats. Select the simplest and most
straightforward. Again, seek comments from your colleagues.
(b) Prepare Tables and Illustrations
You must give a great deal of thought to the preparation of your tables and graphs. Usually you
will:
• present essential data as means of several measurements or even of several experiments;
• indicate the confidence you place in each mean by providing standard errors or other
appropriate statistics; and you will
• assure yourself that your data are arranged in such an order that the main comparisons
are clear.
Within each column (or row, as applicable) of a table you must have common units of
measurement and present all data with the same degree of accuracy ie the same number of
significant digits. If you were unable to obtain a certain datum, enter it as a dash (-) or as not
available (na). If one or more of your datum is zero then enter it as 0 adding as many decimal
places as in the rest of your data
Table 2.1 Average hourly maximum and minimum daily air temperatures (0C)
with their standard errors and ranges at twenty locations.
Mean Daily Range

Location Maximum SE Minimum SE High Low
One 19.2 3.21 5.0 4.13 32.2 -20.1
Two 18.4 3.62 6.2 3.82 35.9 -19.3
Three 15.3 2.84 6.0 2.14 30.2 -22.6
-
-
-
Eighteen 10.4 1.74 2.4 2.81 19.9 -3.7
Nineteen 11.5 1.92 2.7 2.62 19.6 -10.6
Twe nty 9.8 1.46 2.1 3.24 16.8 -6.8
Note the following points about the construction of Table 2.1:
• the table number and title are at the top of the table;
• because the unit of measurement is the same for each column it (0C) is placed with the
title. If columns (or rows) have different units of measurement (such as length, weight,
and/or temperature) place the unit at the top of each column (or at the left hand side of
each row) just under the title of the column (or row);
• each measurement within a column (or row) is reported with the same degree of accuracy,
in this case to one decimal point and two for the SE;
• standard errors (SE) are reported to one more significant digit than the means; and
13
• all data are arranged such that the decimal points are vertically aligned.
In addition, also:
• place footnotes and remarks at the bottom of the table identifying them with
a unique symbol such as an * or superscript letter or number;
• if the table or any part of it is quoted from another author, say so as a reference following
the title of the table.
When you present your data as graphs, line drawings, maps, or photographs, that is as a figure
rather than a table:
• place the figure number and caption at the bottom of the figure and, if the data have been
taken from the work of someone else, make a suitable acknowledgement;
• in constructing line drawings use clear solid lines of black ink or equivalent quality and
be certain that photographs are of high contrast printed on glossy paper; and
• be certain that all symbols and units of measurement are identified.
Consider carefully if a table or if a graph best presents the results - do not use both table and
graph for the same data. Construct each table or graph in two or three different ways, analyse
the clarity of each, then choose the one most easily interpreted.
Each table, graph and illustration must be able to stand alone, that is, the title, the headings
and any foot notes must be clear enough for a reader to understand the information without
any reference to the text of your paper. You must also refer to and discuss each table, but
without repeating the data. Do not include information in a table, graph or illustration that
you do not intend to discuss in your text unless it is important in supporting your
conclusions.
(c) Organize a Literature Review
You will have reviewed the literature before you started your research because you wanted to
build on what was already known. You will have continued to scan related new publications
during the progress of your research. The type of literature review you prepare will depend in
part upon the requirements of the journal in which you plan to publish. In all cases, however,
be very selective in the papers you choose, making certain each is pertinent to the
presentation of your research. Do not include unnecessary references. Usually omit those
papers cited by the most recent authors to which you have already made reference.
Organize your References alphabetically by senior (first) author listing each authors single-
author papers first in chronological order, then those in which the author is senior author
with others. Arranging your references in alphabetical order is usually simple but some
names may lead to confusion. Check several papers in the journal to which you are
submitting your paper and follow its style.
14
Stapleton (1987) has an excellent guide on this subject in his appendix. Always give the full
reference (all authors and title) in exactly the same form as in the paper to which you are
making reference - never use et at or an ampersand (&) in the references unless they actually
appear in the title of the paper to which you are making reference. Should you refer to two or
more papers published in the same year by an author list them as 1993a, 1993b and 1993c.
Assure yourself (check at least twice) that all papers you include in the References are in fact
cited in the body of the text and that all citations in the text are in the References. Use the
format suggested in Chapter 1 (b) making certain that a reader is able to find the paper in any
good technical library. If you refer to a paper in other than the language in which it was
written, give the original language in brackets at the end of the reference, provided this
conforms to the style of the journal in which you plan to publish.
Cite the papers in the body of your text as Author (year) using family name and no initials
(unless there are two or more authors with common family names who published in the same
year). With two-author papers give both family names (no initials) and year; with three or more
authors use Senior author et at (year).
Some journals require that citations in the text be by reference number within brackets such
as (4) or as Author (4). Numbering your references presents problems in writing because you
will never be certain that you have included all the references you wish to use before you
start writing or that you will in fact use all the references you have included in your list of
references. When a journal insists you number your references, use letters instead of
numbers while preparing your manuscript (they probably will not be in alphabetical order)
until you have it in final form. Then convert the letters to numbers in both the list of
references (which you will have ordered alphabetically) and the citations in the body of the
text.
You should cite references from different sources in slightly different ways. Here are some
guides:
Journal Article: author(s), year of publication, title of paper, standard abbreviation of the
journal name, volume number, issue number if any, and page number from start to the end of
the article.
Textbook: author(s), year of publication, title, volume number, edition number, name, city
and country of publisher, the International Standard Book Number (ISBN), number of pages or
the specific pages to which reference is made.
Chapter in a book: author(s) of the chapter, c hapter title, followed by In author (or editor) of the
book, book title, year of publication, edition number, name, city and country of publisher,
ISBN, page number of start and end of chapter.
Proceedings of a Conference: author(s), title as in journal articles followed by the editor of the
proceedings, title, date and place of conference, year published, name, city and country of
publisher, ISBN if available.
Technical reports or limited circulation material: author(s), year and title as in Journal
articles, followed by the specifics of the report, who prepared it for what organization, where to
obtain it: name, address of the source and any identifiers such as publication or catalog
number.
15
General magazine or newspaper: author if known, or the magazine name if unknown, year,
title, page number(s), date of publishing and address of the magazine.
Foreign References: References originally published in languages other than English may be
used and quoted in the same manner as shown above. The title and other information may be
translated but give the language of the original work. Use an accepted standard
transliteration system for foreign names.
Miscellaneous: patents, theses, manufacturers’ manuals and catalogues. Place these

citations in the body of the text or as a footnote.
Be consistent with punctuation. A typical system is shown below. Note the use of commas,
periods, hyphens, capitalization and order:
Author’s last name followed by a comma, first name or initials followed by a comma, second
author’s first name or initials and last name followed by a comma, third author and other co-
authors using the same system as with the second author and the last author preceded by
“and” and followed by a comma. The year followed by a period. The title followed by a period.
The source of the publication and address, if applicable, separated by commas and ending
with a period. The author’s name and title of the paper must be quoted in exactly the same
form as the published paper.
The following examples show various fictitious references to illustrate the style and the
application of the rules.
(1) Smart, A.M., 1999. Scientific writing for the twenty first century. 350pp. The science and
engineering series volume XIX. Modern Publishing Organization, New Heaven, 19-
211080, U.F.R. (ISBN 80-10-21-0002).
(2) Smith, John F., Robert M. Jackson and J.W. Phillips, 1999. The elements of better writings.
J Sci Writing, 4(2):250-259.
Note: 4 is the number of the volume,
(2) is the number of the issue, and
250-259 are the page numbers from the start to end of the article.
(3) Smith, J.F., 1998. The art of scientific writing. pp 2001. Diamond Publishing Co., Central
City, 1001010 U.F.R. (ISBN 0-00-000-111).
(4) Smythe, R.B., 1998. Publish or perish. The Free Scientist Magazine, 23 July, 1998. New
City, U.F.R.
(5) Smzimksi, P.S.M., 1997. Writing QF software user manual, version 500. January, 1997.
Major Software International. Electronic Town Road, Computerville, 2000 001, U.F.R.
(6) Sun, Wenxian, 1998. Guidelines for the north western three states. Bulletin No. 2605,
Ministry of Development, Centraltown, North Eastern States Publishing House, 150 pp.
(In a foreign language.)
(7) Svinicki, Michleno, 1989. The art of writing in a foreign language - for scientists.
M.A. Thesis, University of Good Writing. Advanced Town, Sunny State, U.F.R.
(8) Swartz, G. and T.B. Sure, 1997. True writing in the era of illiteracy. In J.R. Small
and R.B. Bull (Editors). Proceedings of the international conference on Good writing
at the end of the 20th Century. 3 Jan, 1997, New City. Society for Good Writers. ISBN
0-000-001.
16
(9) Szchartzburg, J. 1999. Engineers can write well. Life Today Magazine. pp
67-68, 18 Jan, 1999. Old Orchard Town, Flowers State, 11-2002,
N.F.C.
(10) Templinton. M.H., 1995. An automatic paper writer. U.F. patent number 73-10-20-
290544, U.F. Patent Office, Capital Town, U.F.R.
(11) U.F.R. Department of Writing, 1996. Manual for bureaucratic writing. Bulletin No.
15, The Mumbling Technical Services, January, 1996. Government Publishing
House. Capital City, 20001-1001, U.F.R.
(12) Wahdanx, A.A., 1993. Taking the fuss out of reading and writing by mature
scientists. The 3O~ anniversary Keynote Lecture of the Graduate Society. 2 Oct,
1993. Somewhere Institute of Learning. Second Town, Desert Frying State, U.F.R.
(13) Yantimex, J.P., 1995. Electronic textbooks. Multimedia Development Corporation.
Sun City, Neponesia 21-00122. (Available only on diskette for use with computers.)
(14) Zaman, A.Y.M., 1997. Read before you write. A video tape presentation for self
tutoring. Catalog No. 500-350, Academic Video Inc., TV City, North West State,
U.F.R.
When you find it necessary to cite a personal communication (ie when you do not have a
published reference) do so within your text as:
Smith (1995, personal communication)

or:
Smith (1955)a
___________________________
(a) Personal communication.
(The second example uses a footnote. If you provide copy that will be typeset, place the line
and the note on the lines immediately below the reference as we have shown. If, on the other
hand, you are going to supply camera ready copy, place the line and the footnote at the bottom
of the page. Some word processors handle this for you.)
Many journals do not accept footnotes as shown in the second example. Also, you should
avoid using personal communications because they are of little or no use to a reader who is
unable to check them.
17
(d) Organize the Text
There are several ways in which you may organize the text of your paper. Be guided by the
Notes to Authors in the journal you have chosen. Here are two possible arrangements:
Title Title
Abstract Abstract
Introduction Introduction
Materials and Methods Topic I
Results Topic II
Topic III
Discussion Discussion
Conclusions Conclusions
Acknowledgements Acknowledgements
References References
Tables and Figures Tables and Figures
The left-hand plan is suitable for a single investigation in which you have used the same
materials and methods throughout. A discussion may immediately follow each result in which
case a single section, Results and Discussion, may avoid unnecessary repetition.
The right-hand plan is suitable for a wide variety of descriptive papers. It is also the better plan
if you are reporting on a group of related studies, each made with different materials and/or
methods. In this case you will start each topic with a section on Materials and Methods
followed by the Results.
Please remember that neither of these plans is absolute - they may be combined or modified in
various ways to meet your needs. Probably the simplest outline for very short papers might
contain only two sections: Introduction for the objectives, main results and discussion and
Experimental giving the details of the methods and results.
Now you have the main headings of your report you will make more detailed plans for each
section. If you have a computer and word processor, use it. Under each of the main headings
insert sub-headings under which you will give the topic for each paragraph. Note the
literature you will cite, the way in which you will deal with statistical analysis, the tables of
data and the figures and illustrations you will use. You may wish to print each of several
different plans or you may wish to save them as separate files in your computer.
If you do not have a word processor, use a separate sheet of paper for each of the main
headings and then arrange your subheadings accordingly. Use a soft pencil, not ink, because
the first plan you make will certainly not be your final plan. Some authors prefer to use a card
for each sub-heading providing themselves with the opportunity of arranging the cards in
different orders until they find the most suitable. Analyse each plan and leave the one you
choose for a day or two before selecting a final version.
Anderson and Thistle (1947) emphasize that the guiding principle in planning and writing
scientific papers is that “the reader’s viewpoint must be continually kept in mind. ... (It) is not
that the writer should be able to get information into the paper, but that the reader should be
able to get the information out (of the paper).”
18
(e) Select a Medium for Publication
At about this time in writing your paper (or even earlier) you should know where you will be
publishing because it will affect your style and layout. In deciding upon a journal consider:
• does the journal accept papers in your discipline?
• what journal will provide the best readership for your subject?
• do you want international exposure?
• do you have a time requirement for publication? (Some journals publish promptly, others
have a long delay.)
• what is the reputation of the journal among your peers?
• do you always publish in the same journal? (Many scientists find it useful to publish in
different journals thus increasing their exposure. However, papers you publish on a single
subject are best published in the same journal.)
• does your institution have a preference for publication?
You may have other considerations in choosing a journal. For instance, many journals levy
page charges. Is your institution prepared to pay these charges? Choose your journal with care
because you must never submit your paper to more than one journal at the same time.
(f) Write Your Paper
Now that you have the tables and illustrations drafted and the detailed plan before you, you
are ready to start writing. If you feel most comfortable starting part way through the paper (say
with the Material and Methods or with the Results) do so. Sometimes the introduction is best left
until the main parts of the paper are complete because in i t you outline what you are going to
say. Allot sufficient time to complete the writing of at least one section each time you write. It
will not be polished, but it should be coherent. In several sessions complete the whole paper
with Title, Abstract and References before you start to edit and rewrite any part of the draft.
One of the basic principles in good writing is good organization. This applies equally to the
paper as a whole, to each section within the paper, to each paragraph within a section and to
each sentence within a paragraph. As a rule, proceed from the general to the specific.
Do not say:
Alfalfa is one of the best nitrogen fixing legumes. All legumes fix nitrogen.
But rather say:

All legumes fix nitrogen. Alfalfa is one of the best.
19
To apply this principle in writing give a broad outline and reasons for your research before
giving the specific reasons; state the principles under which your experiments were
conducted before describing their details; present the means (averages) of your measurements
before giving individual measurements; and state your broad conclusions before giving
specific conclusions.
Other principles you should follow are to:
• assume that you know more about your subject than most of your readers;
• start with the known then move to the unknown;
• proceed in chronological order when giving methods;
• give symptoms in their order of importance;
• describe effects in ascending or descending order of magnitude; and
• list phenomena in order of frequency of occurrence.
Although the main task is to complete your paper without concerning yourself too much with
the details of writing, the better you write in the first place, the easier you and others will find
the review and editing process. Here are some other guides to follow:
• use either the Oxford or the Webster Dictionary but not a mixture (the choice may depend
upon the journal in which you publish);
• write in short concise sentences recognizing that many readers may not be using their
mother tongue;
• give measurements using Systeme International (SI) units of which the metric system of
weights and measures is a subset. If other units are preferable, clearly indicate their
relationship to the appropriate SI unit(s);
• in tables and figures assure that there is uniform arithmetic accuracy (the same number of
significant digits) within (but not necessarily between) elements;
• write numbers and ordinals (first, second, etc) from zero to nine as words
and use digits for:
- numbers of 10 and greater,
- all measurements, and in
- tables and figures;
• avoid using a number as the first word of a sentence, but, if unavoidable, write out the
number regardless of its size;
• do not use a period (.) with an abbreviation or following initials unless a period is
required for clarity;
• do not pluralize abbreviations (5 m not 5 ms for five metres);
20
• be concise, by avoiding in and with phrases such as:

In the case of
With respect to
and never use jargon such as:
At this point in time because Now means exactly the same thing, and The great majority
of for Most;
• write in the active voice rather than in the passive voice:

write: The storm made the water of the lake turbid.
do not write: The water of the lake was made turbid by the storm.
However, see Stapleton (1987) for an exception. He points out that when the subject of a
sentence is yourself, and you are writing in the scientific style, you may often omit the
subject of the sentence and use the passive voice. For example:
in the active voice write: We wrote this manual to...

but in the passive voice write: This manual was written to...
Note that in the passive voice the subject We has been omitted but is clearly understood.
(g) Choose a Title
You probably have been thinking about a title for your paper from the time you first
decided to write it. If your first title:
• is short (not longer than 12 words),
• identifies the subject and key words,
• indicates the purpose, and
• contains no abbreviations, chemical formulae or proprietary names,
then you have made a good beginning (see Figure 2.1). Try to write several other versions of
the same title and choose the best. Remember, many people will read only the title, therefore it
is important that it contain as much information as possible with brevity - some journals
restrict the length of titles. Finally, the title should have some of the key words that
abstracting services will use.
21
An 18 word title:
A study of the effects of prolonged low temperature on the winter
survival of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L).
A 7 word title:
Survival of perennial ryegrass under low temperature.
Figure 2.1 A poor and a satisfactory title.
(h) Prepare the Abstract
In the abstract you must tell the value of your paper. You probably should write it when you
have finished the first draft. Make certain that each statement in the abstract agrees with
statements made in the paper but do not repeat the exact wording of your paper. There are five
points you should include:
• the reason for doing the research,
• the objectives of the research,
• a brief description of the methods you used,
• a summary of the key results, and
• the main conclusions of your research.
Write the abstract in a single paragraph without meaningless words and be quite specific.
Never refer to the bibliography, tables or figures in the abstract because, as with tables and
figures, you must write the abstract such that it is clear, concise and self explanatory.
Equations, formulae and acronyms are not appropriate to include in the abstract but if you
use common names do include the scientific names, full chemical names and/or soil types.
Do not repeat the scientific names in the body of the paper because the abstract is always
printed with the full paper. On the other hand, an abstract is often printed without the rest of
the paper.
(i) Review and Edit Your Manuscript
Now you have the first draft, either as a hand written manuscript or as a file on a word
processor. Have it printed double spaced (perhaps even triple spaced) with wide margins - no
less than 5 cm on each side. When double spaced, have from 25 to 30 lines per page. Using
this standard provides you and your reviewers with ample room for suggested changes.
While your paper is being printed or typed, re-read sections (b), (c) and (f) in this Chapter. Also
re-read the Notes to Authors in the journal in which you plan to publish in order to refresh
your memory on the standards and style.
22
You should now read your complete paper without making any changes. Does it:
• convey the message you expected?
• clearly state the problem, outline the methods, and present the results?
• draw logical conclusions?
• make a contribution to the scientific or engineering literature?
If the answer to any of these questions is No then consider how you need to change your paper
to meet these criteria. If you are satisfied, carry on with your review and editing.
Determine if the plan of your paper could be improved by re-arranging some paragraphs or
sections. When you are satisfied with the plan, read the paper word by word making certain
each sentence conveys the meaning you intended. Can the same thought be expressed in
fewer words? With shorter words? If so, change them.
Have the paper re-printed and then ask at least two colleagues to review it. One colleague
should be as familiar with the subject as possible and the other should be in a different, but
related, discipline. Choose colleagues who have experience in writing and publishing
scientific or engineering papers. If this is not possible, ask your reviewers to familiarize
themselves with the Notes to Authors in the journal. Give each reviewer his own copy of your
paper, do not circulate a single copy. In consultation with the reviewers, set a reasonable
deadline for them to return your paper.
When you receive the reviews remember that each reviewer is trying to help you improve your
paper. Do not take their suggestions as negative criticism. Place all the reviews in front of you
and check each, line by line, incorporating the suggestions you accept on your master copy. If
you are in doubt about some suggestions, discuss them with the appropriate reviewer. After
your paper is re-typed (or the changes made through a word processor) re-print and re-read it
carefully to make certain the logic is correct, that it is error free and meets all the
requirements of the journal you have chosen. Ask one of your reviewers to check the final
manuscript.
(j) Prepare the Paper for Publication

You should now have your manuscript properly typed (double spaced on line-and page-
numbered paper with appropriate margins) in the number of copies required by the journal.
Make certain the tables and figures have proper captions, are self explanatory (that is, will
‘stand alone’) and meet the requirements of the journal. The figures must be original (never
photocopies), well drawn and the photographs good quality black and white high contrast
prints.
Some journals request authors to submit their papers in an electronic form ie on a computer
diskette, as well as hard copy. This means you will need to have a computer and a word
processing program available. Make certain that either you or the person who prepares your
manuscript understands the format needed by the journal.
Your institute will probably wish to submit the paper to the journal. Usually your director will
ask to see the paper before it is sent and will want to know if there are
page charges. Always follow the wishes of your institution in this regard.
23
(k) What to Expect Next
If you are a single author or if you have co-authors and you are the senior author, the
publisher will deal directly with you because you will have written the paper. After several
weeks, and perhaps even months, you will receive a review notice from the journal. It may
include a copy of your paper marked with editorial hieroglyphics (see page 60 for some
examples) but more probably with a general comment about the paper followed by a series of
recommended changes referring to page and line numbers.
The first section will tell you if your paper has been accepted, accepted with minor changes,
accepted subject to a general re-write, or rejected - probably with a reason such as “This
journal does not accept papers on such and such a subject.” or “The reviewers are not
convinced of the validity of the reported research. It needs more investigation.”
After you have studied the review you may decide to:
• accept the comments of the reviewers, make the suggested changes and re-submit the
paper;
• submit your paper to another journal; or
• you may decide not to publish.
Unless there is very good reason, the first option is the one you should follow. If you are
inclined to follow one of the other two options, consult with several senior colleagues
(including your director) before you finally decide on your action. Remember, journal
reviewers do their reviews at the expense of their own research. They are rarely, if ever, paid.
They try to be helpful while assuring that the scientific standards of the journal for which they
are reviewing are maintained.
After you have made the necessary adjustments to your paper, re-read and check it carefully
and return it to the journal. It is best to give this matter top priority even if it requires that you
work well into the night. Get it done!
Following a further delay of probably a month or two (perhaps longer, depending upon how
often the journal is published) you will receive page proofs for checking. There may be
editorial marks on these proofs. Check the tables and references very carefully against your
manuscript and note the intent of the editorial markings. Should you not agree, say so, and
give your reasons for not agreeing. Follow the instructions exactly as given so there will be no
misunderstanding between you and the publishers. Return the p roofs within the deadline.
Most journals offer authors a limited number of free reprints. Should you wish more, now is
the time to place your order.
Summary
This chapter guides you in preparing your data, tables and illustrations for publication. It
helps you organize the review of literature and the outline, guides you in writing and
reviewing your paper, then suggests how it may be prepared for publication. Should you
choose to follow these suggestions you will find the task relatively simple and satisfying.
24
25
CHAPTER 3
WRITING AND PUBLISHING YOUR TECHNICAL REPORT
If you have investigated a problem by applying known principles (see the Introduction) the
report of it may not meet the publication requirements of a scientific journal - it may not add
to the knowledge of a subject or confirm or challenge an accepted principle. In this case you
will need something other than a refereed journal for publication. Your institution will want
you to record your work and this is when a report or bulletin is useful. If your institute has an
editor (or others who have a responsibility for publications) then much of what we say here
may be handled by them. If not, you may be charged with guiding your manuscript through to
its final publication. In either case, this chapter will help you with some of the problems
encountered when only a printer, not a publisher, is involved.
There are several types of reports. Some describe an organization or service to clients, others
report results of various kinds of investigations or studies. Here we will deal only with the
latter, of which there are three types:
The first type reports, in general terms, the results of a series of investigations and it is used to
inform the public or a broad spectrum of clients about the subject. Usually you will show only
samples of data, means or some other appropriate statistics. Graphs and figures illustrate the
type of results you obtained.
The second type is much more specific. It is used as a technical manual aimed at a small,
specialized readership. It reports specific results and may have extensive tables from which a
reader may calibrate his equipment or judge the effectiveness of a system. In this case, means
or other statistics are of limited use, the actual data are required.
The third type is a technical report on a particular study, the scope of which is predetermined
by the client such as:
• market or opinion surveys,
• feasibility studies,
• policy issues,
• public inquiries, or
• managerial, legal or financial reviews.
These may require a variety in the mix of text, data and illustrations. In most cases you
will include appendices or supplementary volumes complete in themselves that contain
information supporting your main report.
When you have decided which type of bulletin or report you will prepare, start to write
following the guide outlined in Chapter 2. You probably will need to modify some of the
suggestions, particularly those dealing with tables, if you prepare the second type of report, a
manual or technical bulletin. For this reason we suggest a possible outline in the next few
pages. You may not need to use all of the headings - or you may need to add one or two others
depending upon the type of work you are reporting. Here is the outline:
26
Chapter 3: Writing and Publishing Your Technical Report
(a) Report Outline
1. Cover page
2. Inside cover
3. Copyright page
4. Letter of transmittal
5. Executive summary/abstract
6. Foreword
7. Preface
8. Acknowledgement
9. List of contributors
10. List of abbreviations and acronyms
11. Table of contents
12. List of tables
13. List of figures, illustrations and maps
14. The report:
(a) Introduction
(b) Subject: data, analysis
(c) Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
(d) Follow-up (further work)
(e) List of people consulted
(f) List of references cited
(g) Index
(h) Annexes
(b) Report Details

We suggest you include the following in the report:
(1) The Cover gives the first impression of the report. The quality of paper, the printing
and information are key elements. It should normally contain:
• a title of 12 words or fewer describing the contents and volume number;

• the author(s) and their affiliation;
• the name of the organization preparing the report;
• the person or organization for whom the report is prepared;
• the date of printing; and
• any logo, illustration, graphics or art work pertaining to the subject.
(2) The Inside Cover or Title Page (a right hand page which you will consider as page i, but
unnumbered) should contain the same information as the cover. In addition you should
include, when applicable, the series number, the contract number and security
classification.
27
(3) The Copyright Page is usually printed on the back of the inside cover. The information
is used for reference, library and cataloguing. It contains:
• the report title or a short version of it;

• author(s);
• year of publication;
• a copyright statement;
• cataloguing information such as key words and ISBN;
• any disclaimer and/or credit; and
• the publisher’s name and complete address.
(4) A letter of Transmittal or Authorization is a concise statement signed by you and

addressed to the person who requested the report. It outlines the scope of the report, its
terms of reference and to what degree the report satisfies the terms and conditions. Give
the status of the report: preliminary, draft, final, revised or reprint, and give any limitation
of its use and application. Number the first page of this letter, a right hand page, in lower
case Roman numeral such as iii.
(5) The Executive Summary or Abstract is a comprehensive but concise summary of the
report which shows the salient features of each chapter and presents the conclusions and
recommendations. In the summary you should give the final outcome, not the detailed
argument, data or analysis. The abstract should contain enough rationale to justify the
conclusions you draw and permit managers, executives or busy clients to make
appropriate decisions, completely aware of their ramifications. Alternatively, you may
prepare an informative abstract of less than 100 words providing the essential findings and
content of the report. You should include a list of relevant key words necessary for
classification in a database. You must restrict the information provided in the abstract to
that contained in the report with no speculation or expansion on the report.
(6) A Foreword is optional. Normally it is written by someone other than the author(s) who is
familiar with the work and will give credence to the report. It is usually complimentary but
does not add substance.
(7) The Preface is where you give the reasons for writing the report, how the data were
obtained and how the report is organized. It will probably refer to contracts, requests or
other action that initiated the work. It may include some historical background and
annotated references. The Preface should draw attention to the areas of greatest
importance. You should not speculate when writing the Preface.
In addition, the preface should outline the limitations and conditions under which the
report may be used and interpreted.
(8) The Acknowledgements provide you with the opportunity to thank those who
substantially helped with the work. You should take extra care in compiling the names
and, if appropriate, proper titles of those who provided data or advice. You should cite their
general contributions. Consult with those you list to avoid any surprises.
28
(9) The List of Contributors names all the team members who helped with the investigation
or helped to write the report. In addition, include their positions and affiliation and where
possible their specific contribution. Naturally you do not include yourself.
(10) Abbreviations and Acronyms, although you will have defined each the first time used in
the text, readers often forget their meaning. Therefore you should compile a readily
available alphabetical list showing the acronyms and abbreviations with their full
meaning. You should also include new words or special meanings of common words. You
should add any unusual units of measurement and their equivalents in SI units.
(11) The Table of Contents lists the topics (Chapters, Sections) in the order presented. It
should also contain the preceding sections 4 to 10, with their pages numbered in lower
case Roman numerals. The main body of the report, organized in parts, sections or
chapters, will usually have their pages numbered with Arabic numerals starting with
number I as a right hand page. The table of contents should contain:
(i) a part, section or chapter number, its title as it appears in the main text and the page
number;
(ii) all the main headings, sub-headings and their page numbers;
(iii) a list of annexes, appendices or attachments showing numbers and titles as they
appear in the text together with their page numbers; and
(iv) the index with its page number.
You should provide adequate details in the table of contents to permit readers to quickly
locate specific points and assess the relevance of the report to their particular interest.
Carefully check the contents to ensure that they match the body of the report.
(12) In the List of Tables you will give number, caption and page number. A simple way to
number tables is to use the chapter number followed by a point (.) and the sequential
number of the table within the chapter.
(13) The List of Figures should include all figures, illustrations, diagrams, maps and
photographs used in the text. It will give the figure number and associated caption. You
may number figures in the same way you numbered tables.
(14) The Main Report is the most significant part of the work. It should be presented in a
logical order building up the argument and finishing with conclusions and
recommendations. This part may be organized in several chapters each dealing with
specific aspects of the subject. The following are typical examples:
(i) Chapter I - Introduction
Here you will present the historical and background information essential to setting the
stage for subsequent chapters. You may include:
• the origin of the work,
• the objectives, targets and scope of the work,
• historical notes on the work,
• a review of literature and summary of previous related work,
• geographical and statistical information, and
• techniques, materials and methods you used in the investigation.
29
(ii) Chapter II and following chapters
In these chapters you will include the data, analysis and the findings. You may use one
or more chapters for this purpose. They will contain:
• data in tabular or graphic form;

• analytical procedures, hypotheses and related mathematical equations, models
or similar techniques as applicable;
• presentation of the argument, its advantages and disadvantages showing
experience gained somewhere else;
• analysis of cause and effect;
• impact analysis (people, organization, environment, socioeconomic); and
• studies of alternatives when applicable.
(iii) The Final Chapter
In this last chapter you must never introduce new data. You will provide a complete
summary of the preceding chapters focussing on information of importance. You should
present your conclusions, numbered in some logical way (importance, order of
execution) or grouped with those requiring similar action listed together. Finally make
specific recommendations which will achieve the stated objectives.
(iv) Follow-up
You may put any follow-up work needed to complete the study i n a separate chapter if it
is significant. If not, include it with your recommendations.
(v) List of Persons Contacted
This list is important for the record and to give readers the opportunity of validating the
information and data. Take care to give the correct names and positions.
(vi) List of References
Carefully prepare the list of references to include all those (and only those) used in the
report. (See pages 18-22 for details.)
(vii) Index
If your report is longer than about 25 single spaced typed pages, prepare an alphabetical
listing of key words (subjects, geographic features, people) that appear in the report with
their page numbers. When appropriate, cross reference your index (list an item under
two or more related headings). This helps readers locate quickly subjects in which they
are interested.
30
(viii) Annexes
The annexes contain all supplementary data, information, detailed documentation,

graphical presentations, large size maps and illustrations referred to in the text. Each
annex must be properly numbered and labelled to reflect its content. A new title page
may be used for each annex. Furthermore, you may substitute appendix or attachment for
annex. They all mean the same thing.
The following five points, (c) through (g), are in an approximate chronological order. You will
find that you need to take action on several at about the same time or that you will not have
completed one point before starting a second. In other cases, you may need to return to
previous points which you thought were completed.
(c) Write Your Report
Now you have prepared the outline for your report you must write it. You need not start at the
beginning of the outline if you feel more comfortable starting part way through - indeed you
will not be able to list the table of contents, tables and figures until you have finished your
report. Therefore start with Chapter I or even Chapter II. Please re-read the sections in Chapter
2 of this guide that describe how you should assemble data (pages 14 and 15) and prepare
your tables and illustrations (pages 15 to 18). Then look at section (f) on pages 24 to 26 to
refresh your memory on tips for style of writing.
Section (i) of Chapter 2 on page 28 describes how you should edit and have your paper
reviewed by one or two colleagues. Follow the same procedure with your report. There are now
five more steps for you to take before the job of writing and publishing your own report is
complete. They are outlined in sections (d) through (h) below.
(d) Check Your Manuscript
Everything said in Chapter 2 about checking manuscripts applies equally here. In fact,
checking is more important because you may not have the benefit of outside peer reviews that
come with publication in a recognized scientific journal. Therefore you should make every
effort to seek the help of one or two external reviewers for your manuscript - one
knowledgeable of the subject, the other a specialist in a related discipline.
After your manuscript has been fully edited, be certain, and then double check that:
• there are no mistakes,
• the references are correct,
• statements in the text agree with the data in the tables, and that
• the captions for tables and figures properly describe the table or figure.
31
Once your manuscript goes to the printer for typesetting, changes become very expensive.
Avoid making them. Of course, if you provide camera-ready copy or copy on a computer
diskette, the printers should make no changes.
If you need to index your report there are a number of computer programs that can help you
with this tedium. They assist in choosing key words and automatically alphabetize them; they
find the key words in your manuscript showing them in context which allows you to choose or
discard each occurrence; they indicate page and line number for each key word; and they
produce a one, two or three column alphabetical file ready for you to add page numbers
against the key words once you have the page proofs. If you highlight on your manuscript the
key words you select, you will readily find the page for each when you have the page proofs.
These programs do not choose the key words - you must make the final decisions, but using
an indexing program relieves you of much drudgery. In addition, some word processing
automatically compile an index from words you have chosen and marked in the text. This is
only useful if you are providing photograph-ready copy, in which case you will know the
number of each page.
If your manuscript is not on a word processor you will need to index it by hand. Many authors
use 3 x 5 in (80 x 130 mm) filing cards, one for each key word. Keep them in alphabetical
order and add the page proof number on which each key word occurs. You will then assemble
the index from the stack of cards.
Prepare your tables and illustrations with equal care as though you were publishing in a
journal. Depending upon the policy of your institution, you may have the privilege of using
more illustrations than if you were publishing in a journal. Make certain that readers can
understand each table and figure with caption and without reference to the text.
(e) Select a Printing Company
When you have a reasonable idea of how long your manuscript is and, depending upon the
policy of your institution on awarding contracts, ask two or three printers to give you an
estimate of the cost of printing the required number of copies. You may need help from your
institute administrator in calling for these bids, indeed your administrator may insist his
office do it. Once you have selected a printing company there are a number of decisions to
take in consultation with the company.
• How does the printer want to receive your copy?

On a computer disk?
As camera-ready copy?
As typescript from which he will set type?
• You will need to decide on font types and sizes for the body of the text, forheadings, and for
titles and sub-titles.
• What will be the dimensions of the publication?
• What kind of paper will be used?

What kind of cover will be used?
How will it be bound?
32
At this point, or even before, you will have negotiated the costs with the selected printer. Be
certain you cover all the points and review them once more - size, quality of paper, number
and kind of illustrations, page proofs, binding, cover, number of copies and method of
delivery. It is relatively easy to make changes before a contract is signed - a different and
often difficult matter after it is signed.
(f) Decide on a Layout
You or your institute editor will need to consider the layout of the report. If it is simple you
may have little cutting and pasting. If it is complicated, it may be best to seek the help of a
professional to either do it for you or advise you of your options.
Figures, particularly photographs, are often cheapest to print if grouped and then reproduced
as a single photograph (gang shot). If you use colour photographs make certain you
understand the costs involved before you proceed. Remember that printed figures will be no
better in quality than the originals, therefore all illustrations must be of top quality if the
publication is to meet your high standards.
(g) Reading Proof
When you receive the page proofs, if the printer has set type, check each word on each page
and pay particular attention to the contents of each table and the references. If mistakes were
made in setting type, the printer will correct them without charge. Should you decide to make
changes on the page proofs that differ from the manuscript, then the printer will charge you.
If you provided computer disks with your manuscript and the printer sets type from your
disks, check each paragraph. However, check each word in a sampling of paragraphs which
will give you an indication of the accuracy of the printer’s system. If you find any errors, then
you will need to check each word, otherwise you should be safe in checking the first and last
words in each paragraph. Pay particular attention to tables, formulae and text within boxes -
these become corrupted surprisingly often.
If you supplied camera-ready copy you should need only to check each page to assure
yourself that none has been omitted, all are in correct order and none has been cropped (a
part cut off).
(h) Receiving the Report
When the printer delivers the finished reports to you, before you sign the bill of lading, count
the number of boxes to make certain the correct number have been delivered. Then sign the
bill of lading acknowledging you have received that number of boxes. As soon as possible,
preferably on the same day, open two or three boxes and count the number of copies in each
box. If you can trust the printer to have packed the boxes uniformly, calculate the total
number of copies delivered. Does it agree with your order? If not, immediately consult with
the printer. If you feel uncomfortable about the printer, then check the number of copies in all
boxes to assure yourself that the correct number of copies has been delivered.
33
Finally, examine several copies of the report. Have they been bound according to your
contract? Are any pages missing? Are any pages reversed? Are there other errors? Report any
errors to your printer immediately and negotiate a settlement - or have the administration
section of your institute do so.
(i) Summary
When you publish yourself you will probably find there is much more to learn than is given in
this short chapter. However, if you follow the suggestions on checking your manuscript and
dealing with the printer you will find the experience rewarding.
34
35
CHAPTER 4
PRESENTING YOUR RESULTS TO AN AUDIENCE
When you have the opportunity to attend a scientific meeting for the purpose of presenting the
results of your research you may be able to do so in one of two ways. You could give your
paper in front of a live audience or you could submit it as a poster for display. Here are some
suggestions.
1. An Oral Presentation
Usually you will have only 15 or 20 minutes to make your presentation. The time allotted will
also include time for the audience to ask questions or make comments. These questions and
comments may be very valuable to you. It is up to you to be sure that the audience
understands your paper and that it interests them. If you arouse interest you will be asked
questions. Make certain you leave time for questions. If you take all your allotted time to
deliver your paper, the chairman will call for the next speaker and leave no time for questions
of you.
There are nine things you must do in preparing and delivering your paper orally. Many of
them involve reducing the time you will use to give the paper. Others concern the way in
which you speak.
(a) Introduction
Prepare a short two or three sentence introduction explaining what you will present. You may
decide to read this introduction in order to gain confidence in presenting your paper but it is
best if you commit these opening sentences to memory. From then on you should be able to
speak from notes. Make every effort to avoid reading your paper.
(b) Review of Literature
Frequently you will be able to eliminate your review of literature. If the reason for having done
your research is to confirm or challenge that of others, then, of course, you must refer to their
paper(s). If you have used some new or unfamiliar methods, refer briefly to the appropriate
papers. Otherwise, two or three carefully chosen sentences about the literature should set the
stage for the rest of your paper.
(c) Experimental Methods
Frequently one or two sentences will suffice to tell the audience how you conducted your
experiment. You may combine this section with your literature review and refer to one or two
papers on methodology or you may briefly describe your methods, leaving it to the discussion
period for questions on details. If you used unfamiliar or newly developed methods you must
describe them in some detail. However, under no circumstance should you spend more than
a quarter of your allotted time describing the experimental methods.
(d) Results and Discussion
This is where you can exercise all your skills as an effective communicator. You want to hold
the attention of your audience by relating your important results in an interesting way and
always keep the time restrictions in the back of your mind.
36
Chapter 4: Presenting Your Results to an Audience
Consider which are the most important results, those that illustrate the main thesis of your
research. Which are the most interesting? The most significant to your audience? Of the
greatest practical importance? Plan to elaborate on your results as you present them even
though, in the original paper you have a separate section for discussion.
(e) Tables and Illustrations

If your results are subjective, that is, they are descriptive and you have used words in
presenting them, you may need only an oral presentation. Sometimes, however, subjective
information is most easily understood when in tabular or even graphic form. If your results
are objective, that is, they are expressed as numbers, you will probably have arranged them in
tables or in graphs. In either case, your tables probably contain too much information for oral
presentation if left in the same form as published.
When you are giving a paper orally you must present tables in some visual form by writing
them on a chalk board, having them on pieces of paper that you hang or on a flip chart, putting
your tables on transparencies for overhead projection, preparing 35 mm slides for projection
or projecting them from a computer. Whichever method you use, each table or chart must be
such that your audience can easily read and comprehend it in a few seconds. The cardinal
rule in preparing ‘visuals’ is that tables must contain no more than four rows of three
columns each, that is, will contain no more than 12 data. In addition, you will have a title as
well as labels for the rows and columns. (See Table 4.1 for an example of the type of table that
an audience can quickly understand.) Your printing on the chalk board or flip chart must be
large enough and bold enough for the audience in the back row to read each word and
number without difficulty. If there is a large audience, you will probably not be able to meet
this requirement unless you prepare your material on the chalk board or flip chart in advance.
Table 4.1 An example of a table that can be understood quickly by an audience

(data selected from Table 2.1, page 16)
Selected Mean Hourly Temperatures (o C) Range
Location Maximum Minimum (C degrees)
One 19.2 5.0 52.3
Two 18.2 6.2 52.2
Eighteen 10.4 2.4 23.6
Twenty 9.8 2.1 23.6
If you can present your data as a chart - pie diagram, bar chart or graph - the restrictions for
the amount of information on each c hart still apply: no more than 12 pieces of information in
each visual. With a pie diagram 12 is probably too many - six sectors would be better. You may
have up to 12 bars on a bar chart and you may have two lines each with six points, or three
lines each with four points on a graph. In fact, with a graph, provided it is clearly drawn and
the lines rarely cross, four lines each with six or even eight points can be readily understood
by your audience in a few seconds. Use colour in preparing your charts even if it is only white
on a blue background - this is easier on the eyes of your audience than black on a brilliant
white background.
37
Chapter 4: Presenting Your Results Orally
If you plan to project illustrations make certain that those you choose have excellent
definition and will project well in a room that is partially lit - either because the windows are
not completely screened or because all the lights have not been dimmed. Also, make certain
each illustration does in fact show the points you are making. Do not try to project too many
slides - one slide (or less) per minute of speaking is usually sufficient. Of course, there are
always exceptions. Some experienced speakers effectively use five or six slides per minute.
They do so by projecting them, sometimes simultaneously, from two or more projectors as a
background to their talk, never referring to any slide in particular. (Try this method when you
have complete confidence in your ability to speak in public.) Know what you want to say about
each slide and pace yourself to remain well within your time limit.
If you know there will be simultaneous translation at the meetings, arrange to have your
slides in English and in the other language(s). Most scientists can read Arabic numbers and
therefore if the table and chart headings are in a language they understand they will
appreciate your projections and you will hold their attention. Simultaneous translators do not
have time to translate the headings of tables.
(f) Rewrite your Paper
Now that you have d ecided what you will present you will need to decide how you will present
it. This means that you must reorganize and rewrite your presentation - never try to present a
paper orally from the text you may have prepared for publication, it will be too long and too
boring. The order of presentation will approximate the order of your written paper - no section
longer and most shorter. Again, prepare an outline and, depending upon your experience in
speaking and/or your competence with English, either write out your presentation exactly as
you will deliver it or make a list of headings to guide you in speaking at the meeting.
If you choose to write out your presentation make certain you have it in exactly the order in
which you will give it. When you have your text in its final form complete with indications as
to when slides or overheads will be changed (you will reread and edit it just as you did with
the original paper) have it printed double spaced and, depending upon the quality of your
eyesight, have the type enlarged in order that you may read it easily when held at arm’s
length, perhaps even under dimly lit conditions.
If, on the other hand, you are experienced in speaking in English, you may find you speak
more naturally from notes. Some speakers prefer to have their notes on small cards which they
hold in their hand. Others prefer to have them on slides for either overhead or 35 mm
projection. If you have equipment to project directly from a computer you may find this
convenient. However, be certain that you (or the equipment operator) are competent to do so
under pressure. Regardless of the physical way in which your notes are prepared, again, mark
the places where the overheads or slides will be changed.
(g) Prepare for Questions
Your objective is to present your paper in such a way that it attracts and holds the attention of
your audience. One way to judge the success of your presentation is by the number and type
of questions you are asked. Prepare yourself for them. Some of the kinds of questions will
probably concern:
• the experimental methods you used,
38
• the relation of your experiments to those of other scientists, and
• the interpretation and significance of your results and conclusions.
Discuss your paper with some colleagues, asking them to pose questions. This will give
you ideas on the type of questions you may be asked.
(h) Practice your Delivery
Give the speech to yourself - standing up and speaking slowly with a firm, loud voice. Imagine
you are speaking to those sitting in the back of the room. If you can, tape your speech and play
it back. Is your timing correct? Is each word audible and correctly pronounced? Does it
sound logical? Are there parts of the talk you could omit? Now, change your talk to improve it,
then give it again. Some people like to give their practice talk in front of a mirror. This helps
you learn to look at your audience - and think on your feet.
When you have your private practice sessions to your satisfaction, arrange to give your talk at
a staff meeting or to a small group of colleagues, some of whom may be those who have already
reviewed the published paper. Ask the chairman to time you. Ask the audience for criticisms -
and listen to them. If the criticisms are serious you may need to return to the beginning of
this chapter and modify some decisions already made. If the criticisms are minor, you will be
able to correct them before delivering the paper as planned. Also encourage your audience to
ask questions because it will help you prepare to answer similar ones at the formal
presentation.
(i) At the Meeting
Make certain you know where and at what time you are to deliver your paper. If possible, see
the room a few hours (or even the day) before you are to give your paper. These are some of the
things you should do:
• Try to meet with the chairperson before the meeting to learn of his thinking concerning
timing, questions and the way he plans to conduct the meeting.
• Check the lighting, the projection equipment and, if feasible, say a few words from the
speakers podium to get a ‘feel’ for the room.
• Do you need a microphone? Is there feed-back from the public address system?
• Can you see all the seats in the room?
• Is there a chalk board (if you need one)?

• How will you handle overheads and/or slides?
• Can you see the translators’ booths?
39
If you have slides or overhead transparencies, find the viewing room and arrange your slides
in a carousel for projection. View them through a projector to assure yourself that each slide is
the right way to, the proper way up (only one of the eight possible ways of inserting a slide is
correct) and in the planned order. It is essential to always mark the top right hand corner of
each slide to show the way in which it will go into the projector - when you look at the slide it
will appear upside down but the correct side must face you. Projectionists are not expected to
pre-view your slides. This is your own responsibility.
On the day of your meeting, arrive five or ten minutes before your session starts - even though
you may not be the first speaker. Introduce yourself to the chairman so he knows you are
present. Have an extra copy of your talk for the simultaneous translators and give it to them or
to the chairman for the translators. If you are not the first speaker, observe how strictly the
chairman keeps speakers to their time limit. If your presentation is toward the end of the
session think how you may be able to reduce the length of your paper without destroying its
content. Note how the chairman handles discussion following each paper. Is there some way
you can encourage questions on your subject?
When you are called upon to deliver your paper, do so in a firm, clear voice -and speak
slowly!! Remember, many in your audience may not have English as their mother tongue.
Some will rely on the accuracy of the translators. If English is not your mother tongue, the
translators may have difficulty with your pronunciation. If you slur your words and speak too
quickly the translators will make errors and not be able to translate at the speed you are
speaking. Look people in the centre of the room directly in their eyes - this will give most of
the audience the impression you are looking directly at them - and sometimes scan to the left
and right. Occasionally look into the translators’ booth to see if they are signaling you.
Respond to their signals.
Following your presentation, when asked a question or responding to a comment, do so

quickly. Ask the chair to repeat the question for the benefit of the audience. Then answer it
directly. Sometimes a single “Yes” or “No” is much more effective than a long, qualified
answer. Never repeat the contents of your talk or let yourself be drawn into an argument.
Should you sense an argument developing, ask the speaker to contact you for further
discussion following the meeting.
If you have copies of your paper to distribute never do so before you deliver it. If the audience
has your paper in advance many will read it while you are speaking. Under this circumstance
you will lose their attention and that of other members of the audience. As well, you will be
distracted by the noise of readers turning pages. Copies should be made available only after
the session is over (except, of course, to the simultaneous translators).
Here are some more tips to help you make a successful presentation.
• Be polite and courteous to the audience by:
- thanking the session chair for introducing you,
- addressing the c hair, the host, the distinguished guests, and the ladies and gentlemen
of the audience,
- thanking and acknowledging the organization that invited you,
- at the end of your presentation, again thanking the audience and making yourself
available to answer their questions and
- at the end of the question period thanking the chair, the audience and stepping
down.
40
• Be prepared for emergencies such as power failures or audio-visual malfunctions and

switch quickly to an alternate mode of presentation after a brief explanation to the
audience.
• Test carefully the microphone (NOT by tapping on it but by saying one or two words into it
such as: “Good afternoon” or “Can you all hear me?”) to ensure that the audience can hear
you. Make the necessary adjustments.
• If you are projecting illustrations make certain that all the audience has a clear view of the
screen and that the room lights are not interfering with the contrast of the projected
images.
• Always face the audience except when directly addressing the chair or the head table.
• If you encounter a mix-up in your presentation, eg, things are not in the order you
anticipated, apologize and proceed quickly to remedy the situation. Do not let the
audience wait until you figure out a complete solution.
• Unless you have explicitly asked the audience to interrupt your presentation with remarks
or questions, acknowledge the first question then immediately announce that you will
provide the answer at the end of the presentation. And remember to do so!
• Should you encounter hecklers or an unwieldy audience do not try to resolve the problem.
Let the chair settle the matter.
• Do not be a whiner. Do not excuse yourself for a poor presentation due to limited time,
materials or lack of resources. If you have not made your best effort or if you do not believe
in your subject, do not make your presentation.
• During the question period:

- if the chairperson does not repeat the question ask him to do so. This ensures that everyone
hears the question and it gives you a few seconds longer to formulate your answer,
- if you do not understand a question ask that it be repeated or rephrased,
- if a question is in several parts, indicate which part you are answering,
- acknowledge comments and do not engage in a dialogue with any one member of the
audience,
- try to accommodate as many questions as time permits, with the permission of the chair.
• Always respect the time limits prescribed by the chair. Never argue with the chair or any of
its rulings.
• When appropriate, try to make a bridge with the preceding presentation by briefly
mentioning linkages such as similarities, contrasts or differences.
• Add some humour to a dry technical presentation. It must be within the bounds of
acceptable behaviour with a concise, direct punch line.
• Always observe the KISS rule (Keep It Short and Sweet) and never digress from your topic.
41
2. A Poster Presentation
Posters are an appropriate and effective means to exchange ideas at scientific conferences or
seminars in a less formal way than by giving your paper orally. If you, as the author, indicate
on the poster when you will be available, you will frequently have valuable one-on-one
discussions with several interested scientists.
Conference organizing committees usually provide hard-board sheets of about 4 ft. by 8 ft. (1.2
m by 2.4 m) supported vertically on which authors mount their posters. In general all posters
at a conference are displayed in one designated area.
To present a poster requires the same process that you used for an oral presentation. You will
need to:
• complete your research,
• analyse your data,
• outline your presentation,
• write and carefully edit several paragraphs or even pages,
• prepare your poster,
• present your poster at a conference, and
• be prepared to answer questions.
The main difference is the method of presenting your paper. A poster provides a visual display
of the contents of your paper thus its attractiveness in design and layout as well as its clarity
of content are important if you wish to arouse and retain the interest of the audience. The
better the poster presentation the less you will need to explain its contents.
The information you receive advising you of a conference and calling for contributions of
papers will also indicate if posters are accepted. If they are, the size and type of poster will be
indicated. As an example of the type of information you will receive we have extracted from a
recent notice of the International Society of Soil Science as follows:
• select a few major ideas and prepare summary-type diagrams which emphasize your
interpretation, application, and/or conclusions;
• divide your poster into panels of a size that you can easily transport either rolled or flat,
each panel containing the main sections of your paper such as:
- abstract,
- introduction,
- experimental
- results and
- discussion.
42
Use charts, graphs, photographs as appropriate. Do not feel you must fill the whole area
available to you with information panels;
• you should make a small mock-up of your poster before you start to produce the final
product;
• provide a one-page summary of your poster as a hand-out for those interested. Be certain
to include the title of your poster, your name and mailing address;
• the title of your display, using exactly the same wording as given in the conference
program, should be prominent at the top of your poster. The letters should be large enough
that they can easily be read from a distance of 2 m;
• all other lettering (preferably NOT in capitals) should be at least 15 mm (5/8 in.) high in
bold typeface;
• avoid unnecessary details on charts, drawings and illustrations. Make lines at least 2 mm
thick and hand lettering 25 mm high;
• make your poster such that it can be understood by a reader without any help from you - it
should be self-explanatory; and finally you should
• have copies of the expanded text available and, if appropriate, a tablet of sketch paper and
marking pens so you can illustrate your points to an audience of one or more.
In Figure 4.1 we suggest one of hundreds of possible lay-outs for a poster presentation. If you
can use colour in some of your illustrations or graphs do so. Even though you may not have
an artist or draftsperson available, do your very best to make the poster attractive. You will
want to be proud to show it to your peers.
Author and affiliation

Title of presentation Introduction Experimental Text, table or figure
Presentation number
Abstract
Panoramic view of the research area Table Graph
Figure 4.1 One possible arrangement for a poster presentation.

43
Summary
Most scientists enjoy scientific conferences - we meet our peers, discuss our research and
have an opportunity to present the results of our work, often to an international audience.
This chapter has given you some hints on how to prepare your material and present it to a live
audience. Confidence and skill in speaking to an audience or preparing a poster for
presentation will come only with practice. Take every opportunity to do so.
44
CHAPTER 5
REVIEWING PAPERS FOR OTHER SCIENTISTS
From time to time you will be asked to review papers for other scientists, either by the
scientists themselves (just as you asked some of your colleagues to review your paper) or by a
journal. If the editor of a journal asks you to review a paper he will probably do so when you
have established yourself scientifically among your peers and have published several papers
in the journal for which he is editor. He must have confidence in your scientific ability and
your impartiality in making criticism. Here are some hints on how you should respond.
When you are asked to review a paper make certain you understand the type of review
expected - are you being asked to review the science and the presentation or are you being
asked to review only the science? Usually you will be asked to do both. Now you must decide
if you are technically competent to fulfil the request. Whoever asked you had confidence in
you - but you know best and, if you feel uncomfortable reviewing the science or the
presentation (the English), excuse yourself. Say what you do feel competent to review. If you
excuse yourself do so within two days of receiving the request.
Usually you will be given a time frame within which the review is to be completed. Can you
meet the deadline? If you agree to review the paper then you are also agreeing to meet the
deadline. If you cannot make the review on time, again say so immediately and return the
paper. Do not leave your refusal until the last day and then say you do not have time.
(a) What You will be Asked to do
The editor of a journal will send you a typescript copy of the paper to review and usually
enclose a sheet of instructions. He will ask you a series of questions concerning the paper,
the most important of which are:
• Is the subject of this paper suitable for our Journal?…
• Does the paper make a scientific contribution?…
• Or is this a general review paper?…
• Is the paper suitable for publication as presented?…
• with minor revision? ... with major revision? ... if re-written?…
If your answer to one of the last three questions is Yes then you will be asked to make
suggestions to the author on how he might improve his paper.
(b) Kinds of Helpful Comments

In reviewing a paper you should first make general comments about the science, the content
and the structure of the paper then give details. Sometimes you will be asked to make your
comments directly onto the manuscript but more often authors and editors prefer you to
comment on separate sheets of paper. (It is to simplify commenting that most journals require
typescript on line-numbered paper.)
45
Chapter 5: Reviewing Papers for Other Scientists
Each of your comments should be constructive. You are of little help to an author if you are
continually negative without providing any positive suggestions on how the author might
improve his paper. Your first comment should relate to a good point in the paper such as:
This is a good piece of research.

or:
You have made an excellent presentation of your research.
You could then say something like:

There are several papers to which you might have referred such as ... (then cite them). They
should be considered when you revise your manuscript.
Re-read the paper and determine if it meets the standards as set out by the journal. Use the
standards given in Chapter 3 if you feel the journal standards are not sufficient. Here are a
few specific questions you should ask yourself:
• Are the tables and figures carefully and logically constructed? Make suggestions on how
they can be improved.
• Does each table and figure have enough information in its caption and headings to allow
it to be understood without reference to the text?
• Are the tables and figures inserted in the text placed as closely as possible to their first
reference?
• Is each citation in the text included in the list of references?
• Is each reference cited in the text?
• Are the authors and papers properly identified in the references?
• Has the author planned the paper such that you can follow his logic?
• Can the conclusions be drawn logically from the data?
• Has the author used short words in clearly understood sentences?
• Be on the alert for plagiarism, repetition and frivolous information.
Although plagiarism is rare in scientific writings, occasionally an insecure scientist will copy
the work of someone else. This is why, should you have any concern, you must consult a few
of the cited papers to see if any has been copied. Reviewers cannot be held responsible for
finding all cases of plagiarism, but if you are at all suspicious, do some double checking. If
you find that the author has copied part or all of another paper, consult with your senior
colleagues as to a possible course of action. Alert the journal editor of your concern.
You may choose to make many of your detailed comments or minor changes in the form as
shown in Table 5.1. Using this table, enter the page, paragraph
46
Table 5.1 The type of table you might use when you make editorial comments.
Page Para Line For: Read:
and line numbers. Under For: put the text as written by the author. Include at least one word
before and one word after the word(s) you propose to change. Under Read: put your suggested
change, including the same before and after words.
For more extensive changes to the paper you will need additional space and you should
explain why you make the suggestions. Remember, however, that it is not your task to re-write
the paper. This the author should do.
(c) Editorial Symbols
When you review a paper you should use the same symbols that professional editors use. They
usually make their symbols in red pen. However, until you are quite confident about your
suggestions use a soft pencil and then, if you realize you have made an error, you can e asily
change the symbol. Editors who proof read galleys or page proofs do not have the advantage
you will have of reading double spaced type. With single spacing, editors must make all their
changes in the margin and indicate the place for the change with a caret (^).
In Figure 5.1 on the next page we show you some of the more common symbols used by proof
readers. They are widely recognized and you should use them rather than make up your own.
There are many additional symbols, some indicate the size of type and fonts used by printers.
You need not concern yourself with them in reviewing papers.
In the paragraph below is an example of how you might use some of the editorial symbols. Note
that each line is numbered and the text is double spaced. This is the way you will receive a
manuscript from a journal (and the way in which you should submit it - without the errors
shown in this paragraph). You will find the edited version in the three lines at the top of this
page.
47
Figure 5.1 Some of the more common editorial symbols.
(d) Summary
This final chapter gives you the major points to consider when you are asked to
review a paper from another author. Take the request seriously and as a vote of
confidence in your abilities. Other scientists have given of their time to review and
help you with your papers — now is your opportunity to help someone else.
On the following pages you will find titles of a few textbooks which deal with most
of the topics discussed in this guide. As you develop your research and your
writing skills consult some of the appropriate suggestions. Each provides many
more details than was possible in this short guide.
48
49
FURTHER READING
The objective of this book has been to introduce you to the subject of reporting your research.
We have kept it short intentionally so you can read and digest it easily. There are many others
who have written in greater detail or on portions of the subject. Here are a few titles for you to
consult as you plan, execute and report your research.
Science in General
Giere, Ronald N, 1979. Understanding Scientific Reasoning, Holt, Rienhart and Winston,
Toronto. 371 pp.
This paper-back textbook is now in its third edition. It starts with a few chapters on
scientific reasoning, discusses theories, simple statistical reasoning and finishes with
decision making. Each of the 14 chapters has a few exercise questions, the answers to
which are in an appendix. A basic book worth having.
Statistics
Cochran, William G and Gertrude M Cox, 1957. Experimental Designs, 2nd Ed, John Wiley &
Sons lnc, London, 611 pp.
Although over thirty years old, this remains one of the standard statistical text books,
particularly for those working in any field of agriculture or biological sciences.
Daniel, Cuthbert, 1976. Applications of Statistics to Industrial Experimentation, John Wiley &
Sons, Toronto, 294 pp.
A clearly written and well illustrated text book on the application of statistics to various
types of data similar to those with which you will be working. If you know little about the
use of statistics in planning and analyzing research projects try to find a copy. Consult
some of the literature cited in its bibliography.
Dyke, G V, 1988. Comparative Experiments with Field Crops, 2nd ed, Charles Griffin &
Company Ltd, 16 Pembridge Road, London W11 3HL, UK. 262 pp.
This textbook and its companion (see Pearce et al, 1988 in References) present good
introductions to laying out experiments and analysing the resulting data using statistical
methods. If you can afford to buy only one of these books the one by Pearce et al is probably
the better because it has exercises at the end of each chapter with suggested answers in an
Appendix.
Siegel, 5, 1956. Non parametric Statistics for the Behavioral Science. McGraw-Hill Book Co,
New York, Toronto, London. 312 pp.
The problems facing those who analyse data which are subjective rather than objective
are outlined and resolved in this excellent textbook. Siegel provides a good collection of
tests and relevant tables to examine the significance of differences.
Steel, R G D and J H Tome, 1960. Principles and Procedure of Statistics. McGraw-Hill Book
Co, New York, Toronto, London. 481 pp.
This is one of the classical text books on statistical methods and analysis. It is lavishly
illustrated with examples of how to apply particular designs and analyses. An excellent
reference to have on your desk if you can find a copy. It is now out of print.
50
FURTHER READING
Words and Phrases
Fowler, F G and H W, 1992. The Pocket Oxford Dictionary of Current English. 8th ed, Della
Thompson, editor, Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1074 pp.
You should always have available a recognized Oxford or Webster dictionary. Your
library will probably have the complete version of either or both. You need only a smaller
version which takes less desk space and is easier to use.
Fowler, Henry Watson, 1982. Dictionary of Modern English Usage, Oxford University Press,
London. 742 pp.
This dictionary is not as important to have on your desk as a standard dictionary.
Never-the-less it is useful because Fowler illustrates rules of grammar, often in a clever
and humorous way. Try to have a copy available.
Roget, Peter Mark, 1980. Roget’s Thesaurus of Synonyms and Antonyms. College Books,
London, NI. 199 pp.
Although you will not find accurate synonyms of technical words, Roget is useful for other
words. If you plan to do much writing you should have a copy on you book shelf. (Do not
forget that some computer word processing programs also give you synonyms and
antonyms.)
Ronberg, Gemt, 1989. Harrap’s English Grammar, Harrap Books Ltd, Edinburgh, New York,
Toronto. ISBN 0245-54746-0. 254 pp.
A concise, complete reference that you should have on your desk and which you should
consult frequently.
Reporting Your Research
Canada Secretary of State, 1987. The Canadian Style, A Guide to Writing and Editing,
Dundumn Press, Toronto. 256 pp.
This short, cross-referenced manual provides clear and concise examples of how to write
titles and use abbreviations, hyphens, capital and italic letters as well as many other
subjects of concern to authors. Although not directed to any particular discipline, you will
find it of great use in preparing your manuscript.
Conference of Biological Editors (CBE), 1983. Style manual, 5th edition, Council of Biology
Editors, 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, MD 20814. 344 pp.
Probably the most widely recognized standard for scientific writers. It includes detailed
information on preparing manuscripts and particular advice for each of several disciplines.
It should be on your desk.
Montagnes, Ian, 1991. Editing and publication: A training manual. International Rice Research
Institute, Manila, and International Development Research Centre, Ottawa. 429 pp.
You will find detailed information prepared especially for editors and publication officers.
Consult a library copy before you obtain your own.
51
FURTHER READING
Smith, Richard W, 1963. Technical Writing. College Outline Series, Barnes & Nobel Inc,
New York. 181 pp.
This is not a recent publication (some sections are out of date) but it does have many
excellent examples of good and poor writing. If your library has a copy, by all means spend
a few hours reading the first three chapters. It is now out of print.
Stapleton, Paul, 1987. Writing Research Papers: An Easy Guide for non-native-English Speakers.
Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, GPO Box 1571, Canberra, ACT
2601, Australia. Paperback. 92 pp.
One of the few books written specifically for those using English as their second language.
Stapleton worked in Indonesia where he lectured on writing research papers. You should
obtain a copy.
University of Chicago Press, 1982. The Chicago Manual of Style for Authors, Editors and
Copywriters, 13th ed. 1225 East 60th St, Chicago, IL 60637, 748 pp.
This encyclopedia of editorial practice should be on the desk of every editor and available
to all writers. It provides numerous examples of the correct use of words.
52
REFERENCES
Allen, R E (Editor), 1984. The Pocket Oxford Dictionary of Current English, 7th Ed,
Clarendon Press, Oxford, 894 pp.
Anderson, J Ansel and M W Thistle, 1947. On Writing Scientific Papers, Bul 1691, Can J
Res, NRC, Ottawa, 28 pp.
Anonymous, 1993. Poster Presentation for the 15th World Congress of Soil Science. Bull, lnt
Soc Soil Sc, v 84(2):7-9.
Beveridge, W I B, 1980. Seeds of Discovery, W W Norton & Company, lnc, New York, 130 pp.
Day, Robert A, 1983. How to Write and Publish a Scientific Paper, 2nd edition, 151 Press, 3501
Market St, Philadelphia, PA 19104. Paperback, 195 pp.
Gillespie, D T C, 1964 Research Management in the Commonwealth Scientific
andlndustrialResearch OrganizationAdministration, Public Admin, 42:11-31.
Pearce, S C, G M Clarke, G V Dyke, and R E Kempson. 1988. Manual of Crop Experimentation.
Charles Griffin & Company Limited, 16 Pembridge Road, London, WI I 3HL, UK, 358 pp.
Ruttan, V W, 1986. Agricultural Research Policy Issues. HortScience, I 8(6):809-8I 8.
Selye, Hans, 1964. From Dream to Discovery. On Being a Scientist. McGrawHill Book Co, New
York, Toronto, London. 419 pp.
Stapleton, Paul, 1987. Writing Research Papers: An Easy Guide for non-nativeEnglish Speakers.
1987. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, GPO Box 1571, Canberra,
ACT 2601, Australia. 92 pp.
53
54
APPENDICES
Good writing requires that you use and spell words correctly. If in doubt always c heck with
your dictionary, it will save you countless hours of revision later and will avoid disappointing
others when they review your paper.
To help you, we have compiled five appendices. Appendix I lists words from the Oxford
Dictionary which many people find confusing, misuse or misspell. Read them as frequently as
you can in order to acquire and retain the habit of using them properly. However, please
check your own dictionary for complete definitions. Appendix II includes frequently used
Latin and/or foreign terms that are difficult to find in collegiate editions of dictionaries.
Appendix Ill contains a list of irregularly conjugated verbs that you will use frequently.
Appendix IV will guide you through the maze of International Units of Measurement. Finally,
Appendix V lists many of the symbols used in mathematical equations and the Greek
alphabet.
Remember that most current word processing software includes a spell-check function which
helps in detecting and reducing spelling errors - but not the misuse of words.
Abbreviations we have used in the appendices are:

abbr - abbreviation poss - possessive
adj - adjective pp - past participle
adv - adverb prfx or - - prefix
comp - comparative pt - past tense
esp - especially sup - superlative
etc - etcetera sing - singular
ie - that is var - variant
pers - person US - United States of America
pl - plural & - (ampersand) and
You may identify parts of speech by the first word in a definition:
verbs - to
nouns - a, an, the
adjectives and adverbs stand alone.
When a word has two or more meanings, each meaning (frequently a different part of speech)
is given on a separate line preceded by a dash (-). . Cross references are not made when words
begin with the same letter.
55
APPENDIX
EIGHT HUNDRED TROUBLESOME WORDS
(Please refer to your dictionary for complete definitions.)
A affiliate - to attach, connect

affiliation - a connection
a- without, not, on, in, at, of, from aforementioned - the previously said afore said -
asym- - not the previously said
abeyance - temporarily unused agenda - a list of items for a meeting
absolute see obsolete agendas - p1 of agenda
accept - to receive willingly except - to exclude agendum - a liturgical detail (religious)
access - to approach, to admit excess - more aggravate - to make worse
than a limit
accomplish - to complete, to achieve achieve - irritate - to annoy
to attain by effort aggregate - a total
accurate - exactly true, precise precise - - broken stone
accurately expressed - to bring together desegregate - abolish racial
acknowledge - to admit as true separation disaggregate - Not an English word.
acknowledgement - an admission of aisle see easel
receipt align - to bring into line
across - from one side to the other side alignment - several items in line
- on the other side alkali - a base - as opposed to an acid
cross - the interception of a horizontal by vertical alkaline - an alkali substance
or of two diagonals alkalize - to become alkaline
adapt - to adjust, to modify alkaloid - a nitrogen containing base
adept - skilful allege - a statement without proof alledge - not an
adopt - to accept or to use English word
- take into one∗s family all ready - a state of readiness already - previously
addend - a number to be summed with all-round - versatile
another all round - in all respects
addendum - a thing added all together - a group as a whole altogether -
addenda - p1 of addendum completely
address - to speak to (an audience) allusion - an indirect reference
- the location of a person or thing addressee - delusion - a false belief
the person addressed illusion - an incorrect concept
advice - the counsel, a suggestion alluvium - a deposit of earth left by water
advise - to guide verbally alluvial - adj of alluvium
adviser - a person who gives advice advisory - along - onward, in company with
containing advice alongside - at or to the side
advocate - to speak in favour of although see though
- a person who speaks in favour of advocacy - alumnus - a former student of
a defense alumni - p1 of alumnus
aerate - to supply air ammonia - a strong alkali gas or liquid ammonium
aeration - the supply of air - the univalent radical NH4
aerator - a device to supply air among - use when more than two are involved
aerial - a wire to transmit or receive radio - surrounded by
waves amongst - var of among
affect - to act on, to influence between - use when only two are involved
effect - the result of action
- to accomplish
56
Appendix I: Troublesome Words
amount - a total in number, size or aggregate Atto- - a10”

number - the count avenge - to honourably retaliate for an
- the sum offence
- a digit revenge - to strike back in anger
analysis - a detailed examination avenue see venue average see media
analyses - p1 of analysis awake see wake
analyse - to examine in detail axis - a central line through something
analyze - US var of analyse axil - placed on, or around an axis
angle - the space between two meeting lines axes - p1 of axe, a tool to chop wood
angular - having sharp corners
aniso- see iso- B
announce - to make publicly known
annoyance - a nuisance bad - adj defective (of a thing)
annual - occurs once each year, lasts one year badly - adv defective (of an action)
biannual - occurs twice in one year bank see embankment
biennial - occurs every other year barrage - an artificial barrier in a river
perennial - lasting for many years dam - a river barrier forming a reservoir
annals - a chronological record of events weir - a river barrier to regulate flow
annular - marked with rings belief - a thing accepted as true
anomaly - a deviation from a rule believe - to accept as true
anonymous - having no name beneficial - something good
ante meridian (AM) - before noon beneficiary - the recipient of good
anxious - troubled in mind beside - at the side of, near
eager - intense desire besides - in addition to
any one - distinguishes one person from others in best - sup of good
a group better - comp of good
anyone - any person at all bitter - astringent, not sweet to taste
apparatus - a complex device bettor - a person who places a bet
instrument - a tool for delicate work between see among
archaeology - the study of history from relics bi-, tri- - pdk of two, three
archeology - US varof biannual see annual
archipelago - a group of islands biennial see annual
argue see urge big - of considerable size, intensity
arid - parched land large - big
dry - without moisture born - brought into being
arithmetic - the science of numbers borne-pp of to bear, to carry
mathematics - a study of quantity & form borrow - to acquire temporarily
as - to the same extent lend - to give temporarily
like - having the qualities of another ascertain - brackish - slightly salty (water)
to determine, to learn saline - salty
certain - reliable, sure brake - a device to stop motion
assay see essay break - to separate into pieces
assume - to accept as true brief see concise
presume - to suppose to be true
resume - to start again resume - a summary C
assure - to guarantee accuracy can - to be able to
ensure - to make certain may - to express a possibility
insure - to effect a compensation contract - to ask permission
57
capital - a city with the seat of government conspicuous - clearly obvious

- accumulated goods and assets clear - transparent, not clouded
capitol - a state legislative building continue - to maintain, keep up
career - one∗s course through life continuous - without interval or break
courier - a special messenger continually - often repeated
centi- - c=10-2 contiguous - next to, touching, in contact
certain see ascertain counsel - a piece of advice formally given council
change see exchange - an advisory body
channel - the deepest part of a waterway consul - an official representing a foreign state
canal - an artificial waterway cross see across
chapter - a main division of a book curriculum - a course of study
section - a part larger than a chapter curricula - p1 of curriculum
- a part of something
cite - to quote a passage
sight - the faculty of seeing D
site - the ground on which something stands
coarse - rough, or loose in texture dairy - a place for processing milk diary - a daily
course - an onward progression record of events
- a program of study dam see barrage
commend - to praise datum - a kown fact or thing
- to recommend data - known facts (p1)
command - to order deca- see mono
comment - a brief remark deci- - d=10-1
commitment - a dedication deduce - to draw a conclusion
committee - a group of people forspecial deduct - to subtract
action deka- - da=10t
compendium - a concise summary delusion see allusion
treatise - a detailed work desegregate see aggregate
treaties - p1 of treaty - a formal agreement device - a thing made for some purpose
between states devise - to plan or invent
complement - that which completes di- see mono-dialogue see epilogue
compliment - an expression of praise die - to cease to live
comprehensive - all inclusive - an engraved device for stamping
holistic - units organized as a whole dye - a substance used to change a colour
wholly - entirely, without limitation disburse - to pay out money or things
Holy - morally and spiritually excellent discover - to find new knowledge or things
comprise - to include, consist of invent - to create by thought
include - to reckon in as part of a whole discreet - careful in action or speech
compromise - to settle a dispute by concession discrete - separate, individually distinct
concise - brief, but complete of statement discus - a heavy disc to throw
brief - of short duration discuss - to consider in writing or speech
- a short statement diverge - to go in different directions
conclude - to bring to an end divert - to turn aside, deflect
- to deduce draw - to pull or cause to move
recommend - to advise a course of action - to produce an image
congruent - agreeing exactly drawer - one who draws
conscientious - governed by morals - a box-like storage
conscious - awake and aware drown see sink
dry see arid
58
E dialogue - a conversation between two or more

eager see anxious people
easel - a standing support for artist∗s canvas dialog - US var of dialogue
aisle - a passage between rows of seats prologue - an introduction or preface to
isle - a small island prelude - an opening piece (of music) erratum
eclipse - a loss of light - an error in printing or writing
- to overshadow errata - p1 of erratum
ellipse - a regular oval erratic - irregular in conduct or opinion escape
elliptical - on or in the form of an ellipse - to get free of or from
economic - pertaining to money scape - a long stem-like part
economics - the science of production and - a shaft of a column
distribution of wealth - a scene (land, sea, sky)
effluent - flowing out of especial - exceptional, special
- a thing that flows out of (water, sewage) special - of particular or peculiar kind
influx - flowing into especially - more than in other cases specially
electric - of, worked by or charged with - especially
electricity speciality - limited to one particular line or
electrical - of or concerned with electricity product
elude - to escape from, to avoid specialty - var of speciality
elusive - tending to slip away, escape essay - a short prose composition
elucidate - to throw light on, to clarify assay - a test especially of a metal or ore
lucid - expressing clearly everybody - every person
embankment - an earth or stone bank everyone - every person
levee - an embankment against a flood evolution see revolution
bank - the sloping ground on each side of a exa- - E=1018
river except see accept
- an establishment to handle money excess see access
emigrate - to leave one∗s own country exchange - to give one thing for another change
immigrate - to go and live in a foreign - to make different
country - a small unit of money
eminent - distinguished, notable, outstanding exclude - to shut or keep out
imminent - about to happen include - to reckon in, to contain
emphasis - a stress laid on words or their parts existence - a life
emphases - p/of emphasis existent - adj, alive
emphatically - forcibly expressive expense - a cost incurred
emphasize - to stress expensive - costing much, a high price
empower - to give authority to expletive - an oath or meaningless word
power - the ability and authority to act explicit - definitely stated
- a mechanical force extend - to lengthen in space or time
ensure see assure extent - the limit anything reaches
environ - encirccle
environment - one∗s surroundings, particularly
natural
environs - the nearby regions F
epilogue - the concluding part of a book or femto- - f = 10-15
speech fewer - comp of few, not many in number
monologue - the speaking of only one person less - camp of little, smaller quantity, size
final - at the end, coming last
finally - lastly,
59
finite - having a specific number implement see realize

infinite - boundless, endless imply - to indicate
fiscal - of finances infer - to deduce or to conclude
physical - of matter, material in - expressing inclusion or position
- the body not the mind into - expressing motion or direction
focus - the point at which rays meet - see also onto
- to concentate one∗s thoughts include see exclude and comprise
foci - p/of focus infinite see finite
focal - adj, such as in focal point influx see effluent
formally - in an authorized manner instrument see apparatus
formerly - in earlier times insure see assure
formula - a set of symbols irritate see aggravate
formulae - p1 of formula invent see discover
formulas - p/of formula inverse - to change position (of 2)
forty -40 invert - to turn upside down
reverse - to turn the other way around, to turn
forties - between 39 and 50 backwards
fourteen - 14 revert - to return to the former state
forum - a place for public meeting isle see easel
fora - p1 of forum iso--ptfx equal
forums - p1 of forum aniso- - prfx unequal
fulfil - to carry out (a task)
fulfill - US var kilo- - k103
fulfilment - the carrying out of
further - more distant in space or time
farther- varof further L
large see big
G-K last - after all others
latter - the second of 2 or the third of 3-recent
giga- - E = 109 late - after the due time
good, better, best - adj later – comp - of late
well, better, best - adv latest - sup of late,
grade - a degree in rank lay - to place on a surface horizontally
- to level a road lie - to be horizontal
gradient - the amount of slope in a road - an intentional false statement
guarantee see warranty learn - to gain knowledge
teach - to give systematic information
hecto- - h = 103 lend see borrow
hexa- see mono- less see fewer
holistic see comprehensive levee see embankment
hydraulics - the science of liquids especially liable - legally bound
under pressure libel - a published degrading statement
hydraulic- adj of hydrraulics label - a paper with information attached to an
hyper- - prfx over, above object
hypo- - prfx under, below, slightly likely - probable, reasonably expected
like see as
illusion see allusion lineal - in the direct line of descent or ascent linear
immigrate see emigrate - of or in lines
imminent see eminent
60
litre – 1000 cubic centimetres liter- US varof litre medium - the middle quantity or size
litter - refuse, esp paper mega- - M=106
local - pertaining to a limited area message - a communication sent by one person
locale - the scene of operations or events to another
lucid see elude massage - to rub muscles repeatedly
meter - a measuring device
M metre - a unit of length, m
magnitude - the largeness, size, importance micro- -u = 10-6
maintenance - the keeping of things in repair millennium - a period of 1,000 years
- assisting, supporting millennia or millenniums - p1 ofmillennium
maintain - to continue milli- - m=10-3 (Note: m also = metre)
- to keep in repair miner - a person who works in a mine
- to claim to be true minor - a person under mature age
manuscript - a composition written by hand or - lesser in size or importance
typed (abbr ms) minimum - the least amount possible
text - the main body of a book (not - lowest
appendices etc)
material - the matter from which things are made minimal - very small or slight
materiel - all materials and equipment mobile - characterized by easy free movement
mathematics see arithmetic movable - that which can be moved
matrix - a mould in which things are cast momentum - the energy within a moving
- a rectangular array of numbers body
matrices - p/ of matrix momentous - having great importance mono- -
maximum - the largest amount possible maximal one, alone, single
- adj greatest, highest bi-, di- - two
may see can tri- - three
mean - the sum of an array divided by the number tetra- - four
of numbers in the array quadri- - four
- to have as ones purpose quatro- - the size for a book or page
- not generous penta- - five
means - a resource hexa- - six
- third person sing of to mean septet- - seven
main - principal, most important (channel, cable, oct-, octa- - eight
etc) enea- - nine
meddle - to interfere deca- - ten
middle - at equal distance from the extremities monogram - a person∗s interwoven initials
media - p/of medium monograph - a treatise on one subject
- the public press, radio, television median monologue see epilogue
- the thing situated in the middle mode - the moral - concerned with goodness or badness
value of the variable occurring morale - the mental attitude of a person
most often morality - the degree of conforming to good
average - the usual amount principles
multi- see unit
- the mean must - to express obligation
- grape juice before fermentation
should - to express obligation with a
condition
61
N-O person to another
passed - pt of to pass
nano- - n = 10-9 past - gone by in time
now - at the present time penta- see mono-
nowadays - in these times people - everybody belonging to a nation, race,
number see amount community, group
peoples - everybody in general
oasis - a fertile spot with water in a desert oases persons - several individual people
- p1 of oasis per annum - by the year
oblige - to accomodate, per capita - for each person
- to compel percent - the number of parts in each 100 parts
obligate - to bind by promise or conscience percentage - the rate or proportion in a 100
obsolete - no longer used parts
absolute - complete, unrestricted per diem - by the day
occur - to come into being perennial - see annual
occurred - pt of to occur permit - to give consent
occurrence - an event - a written order
oct-, octa- see mono- permitted - pt of to permit
offer - to present (give) something permission - the consent given
offered - pt of to offer permissive - tolerant or liberal
omit - to leave out per se - by or in itself
omitted –pt - of omit personal - one∗s own
omission - a thing that is left out - private
omni-- see uni personable - pleasing in appearance,
onto - on to behaviour
into - expressing motion to or within optimum - personalize - to make one∗s own
the most favourable condition personify - to represent
- adj best or most favourable personnel - a group of employees perspective
optimal - adj best or most favourable - the art of drawing solid objects
option - a choice on a plane surface
prospective - expected to be or occur in the
P future
paddy - a field where rice is grown pertain -to belong to or to refer to
- rice before threshing pertinent - adj relative to the matter, to the
rice - a kind of grass, or seeds for food or for point
planting peta- -P = 10 15
pail - a bucket physic - the art of healing
pale - whitish or ashen physics - the science dealing with matter
- a pointed piece of wood physique - the body structure
panacea - a cure-all physical see fiscal
para- - beside, beyond pica- - P = 10-12
- protect, ward off pin - a pointed thin piece of wire
- abbr of paragraph -to fasten with a pin
parry - to ward off pen - an inked instrument for writing
paradigm - an example or pattern - an enclosure to hold animals
paradox - a seemingly absurd but really a pencil - a graphite instrument for writing
true statement plan - a method for doing things
pass - to move onward, to transfer from one - to arrange details for action
plane - a level surface
62
- a tool to make a level surface raise - to put or take into a higher position
plain - clear and easily understood rise - to come or go up, grow, project, swell
- a level tract of land rap see wrap
pneumatic - filled with air, working by air post ratio - the quantitative relationship between two
meridian (PM) - after noon similar magnitudes
potato - a starchy tuber used for food ration - an allowance of food or clothing
potatoes - p/of potato rational - endowed with reason
power see empower rationale - a logical basis
precede - to come or to go before realize - to be fully aware of
proceed - to go forward or further - to convert into fact
proceeds - the money from a sale implement - to put into effect
supersede - to take the place of - a tool, instrument, utensil (see also
precise see assume apparatus)
prelude see epilogue receipt - a written acknowledgement of receiving
presume see assume receive - to take or accept - something
prime - a natural number other than one that can recommend see conclude
be divided exactly only by itself and unity recruit - a beginner
- adj chief, most important - to enlist a person as a beginner recruitment
primary - earliest, original, first - the enlisting of beginners
primarily - in the first place, essentially regime - a method or system of government
principal - a person or thing first in rank principle regimen - a prescribed course of exercise,
- a fundamental truth way of life
programme - a plan of intended proceedings regiment - a permanent army unit
program - US var, a series of instructions - to organize into groups
to control the operation of a computer reimbursement - the repayment of a person∗s
- to prepare such a series expenses
programmed - pt of to program reiterate - to say again
programmer - a person who writes relentless - severe, harsh
programs for a computer reliable - dependable
prologue see epilogue reliant - trustworthy, confident
proof - a fact or convincing evidence prove - to remember - to keep in memory
demonstrate to be true remind - to bring to mind again
pseudo- - false, not real remote - far apart, far away
repeat - to say or do over again
repetition - the copy of a previous action
Q-R repetitive - recurring again and again
resource - an available supply that can be
quadro- see mono drawn upon
quatro- see mono- - a natural product
question - a sentence which seeks information recourse - a request for help when in trouble
questionable - of doubtful truth questionnaire resume see assume
- a formulated series of retroactive - in effect in a prior period
questions put to a number of people quite - retrospect - rethink about or refer to the past
completely, entirely, actually, totally revenge see avenge
quiet - with little or no sound or motion
quit - to give up, to abandon, to stop
63
reverse see inverse - a gelatinous material to glaze paper semantic

revert see inverse - of meaning in language
revolution - a forceful over-throw semantics - the study of the meaning of words
evolution - growth from the simple to the more sensible - reasonable, showing wisdom
complex sensitive - acutely affected by external things
- the evolving origin of species septet- see mono-
rhyme - the similar sounding word endings sequel - a thing that follows as a result
especially of poetic lines sequence - a set of things following one after the
rhythm - movement with measured, other
recurrent accents in poetry, music sequential - adj forming a sequence
rice see paddy sight see cite
right see write simulate - to imitate, to pretend
riparian - of or on a river bank simultaneous - occurring at the same time
rites see write sink - to fall or come slowly downwards
- a fixed basin with a water supply
S drown - to die by submersion in a liquid
salient - prominent, conspicuous think - to be of an opinion
- a bulge in a military line - to exercise the mind
saline see brackish sought - pt ot to seek
scan -to look at all parts - to search or inquire
- to look over quickly sit - to have the body bent at the hips and spine
scant - deficient, barely sufficient vertical
scape see escape set - to put, lay or stand in a certain position
scare - to have sudden fear - to apply one thing to another
scarce - not plentiful site see cite
scenario - an imagined sequence of future events son - a male child of parents
- a synopsis of a film or play sun - the star around which the earth rotates
scrap - a small piece of material solar - of or reckoned by the sun
- to discard as useless solarium - an enclosed room exposed to sunshine
- a fight or rough quarrel special see especial
scrape - to make something level, smooth or specially see especially
clean specimen - a sample for investigation or
scribe - an ancient copyist of manuscripts observation
- a pointed instrument for making marks specification - the detail of design and material
- to mark with a scribe stationary - not moving
subscribe - to pay regularly for membership or stationery - the paper writing materials used in
publication offices
secretary - a person employed to assist with statistic - a fact or item
correspondence statistics - the science of collecting and using
- a type of desk on which to write numerical facts
secretarial - things or action related to a strategy - a plan of action in business, war
secretary strategic - adj serving the purpose of a plan
secretariat - an administrative office or stratum (sub) - a layer of rock, atmosphere,
department people
section see chapter
seize - to take hold or possession of
size - the relative bigness of a thing
- to sort in sizes
64
strata (sub) - p1 of stratum too - in addition, to a greater extent

subside - to sink or settle to a lower level two -2
subsidize - to furnish with a regular tow - to pull along
allowance - fibres of flax or hemp ready to spin
substantial - of considerable importance or today - the present day, modern times
value tomorrow - the day after today, in the future
substantive - essential, independent, existing tonight - the evening or night of the present day
suffice - to be enough or adequate total - the whole quantity, complete, the sum
sufficient - adj adequate totality - entire, the aggregate of parts
supersede see precede totally - adj completely
symmetry - uniform structure transient - quickly passing away, fleeting transit
asymmetry - not uniform - the conveying of
synthesis - a combination of elements into a - passing through
whole translate - to express the sense of a word in
synthetic - artificial, unnatural another language
systematic - methodical, according to a system transliterate - to represent a word in
systemic - of the body system as a whole corresponding characters of another
language
T transmit - to pass on, to hand on
teach - see learn transmission - a device that passes on
tear - to pull apart with force power
- a drop of salty liquid from an eye treatise see compendium
tears - 3rd pers sing of to tear treaties see compendium
-pi of a tear tri- see mono-
tube - a long hollow cylinder
tenure - a holding, as of land tubing - a length of tube
- a term during which something is tubular - in the shape of a tube
held, such12 as an office
tera- - T = 10
tetra see mono-
text see manuscript U-V
their - pass of they, belonging to them unanimous - all of one mind
there - in or at or to that place anonymous - of unknown name or authorship
they’re - they are unequivocal - plain, unmistakable, without
think see sink question
though - despite the fact uni- - one, consisting of one
although - admitting or granting that omni- - totally, all
threw - pt of throw - to propel with force multi- - many
through - from the beginning to end up and coming - making good progress and likely
throughout - right through everywhere to succeed
time - the indefinite and continued existence ups and downs - the rises and falls, alternate
in the past, present and future good and bad
temporal - present time, now - of worldly as urge - to encourage, to plead earnestly
opposed to spiritual affairs argue - to intensely exchange views and
temporary - lasting for a limited time ideas
to - introducing a verb
- what is reached or approached
65
vacuum - a space entirely void of matter write - to mark on paper or other surface with
venue - an appointed meeting place symbols, letters
avenue - a road usually bordered by trees right - the just, the correct, the ruth
vice versa - the other way around - when facing north, the side of the body that
vis-a-vis - in relation to, opposite to is to the east
- to be correct
- to restore to proper position
W -Y rites - a religious or solemn observance
waist - the part of the human body below the ribs
and above the hips your - of or belonging to you
waste - superfluous, no longer serving a you∗ re - you are
purpose
- to use to no purpose
wake - to stop sleeping
awake - to rouse from sleep, to become active
warranty - an authority or justification
- a sellers undertaking to a buyer
guarantee - a formal promise or assurance
- to give one∗s promise
weight - the tendency for a body to fall to earth
- a measure of heaviness
- to hold down
weigh - to determine the mass (heaviness) of an
object
wait - to stay or remain
wade - to walk through water
wad - a lump of soft material
weir see barrage
well see good
whatever - anything at all
whatsoever - anything at all
whenever - every time that
whereas - in contrast or comparison with
whether - introducing the first or both
possibilities
wholly see comprehensive
whose - of or belonging to which person
who∗ s - who is
worth - - the value of something
worse - camp of bad
wrap - to envelop or to fold within material rap -
a sharp but slight blow
- to strike smartly
66
APPENDIX II
Commonly Used Latin Terms and their Meaning
addendum p1 -da - a thing added et tu, Brute - and you too, Brutus
ad finem - near the end ex aequo et bono - agreeable to what is
ad hoc - for this purpose good and right
- special excerptere - to extract
ad infinitum - to infinity, limitless exempli gratia (eg) - by way of
ad libitum (ad lib) - freely, as one example
pleases ex libris - from the library of
ad nauseam - to the degree of ex officio - because of office
disgust ex post facto -after the fact
ad valorum - in proportion to the extra muros - beyond the walls
value
ad vitam - for use only during a facile - easy
person∗s life
(legal) habeas corpus - a writ to produce a
person before a court of justice
aetatis suae - of his, her or its age alter hominis est errare - man makes
ego - another self, a double mistakes
anno Domini (AD) - the Christian
era ibidem (ibid) - in the same place
anno hegira (AH) - the Muslim id est (ie) - that is to say
era idem - the same
ante meridiem (AM) - before in camera - in secret, privately
noon in memoriam - in memory (of)
in perpetuum - forever, perpetually
baccalaureus artuim (BA) - in situ - in its original place
bachelor of arts in statu quo - in the present condition
baccalaureus scientiae (BSc) - inter alia - among other things
bachelor of science inter nos - between ourselves
bona fide(s) - in good faith, true in toto - in the whole, entirely
intramural - within the walls
causa sine qua non - a necessary intra vires - within the power of
condition in vitro - within glass, outside a living
caveat emptor - let the buyer b organism
beware in vivo - within a living organism
circa - about, around
corrigenda - things to be corrected Medicinal Doctor (MD) - medical
crux - a cross doctor
- a fundamental or vital point memento - a reminder, souvenir,
cum - with
cum grano salis - with a grain of memorial
salt modus operandi - a manner of
cum laude - with praise working
curriculum vitae - a short modus vivendi - a manner of living
biography
de facto - in fact, existing in fact nota bene (NB) - note well, take notice
de nihilo nihil fit - from nothing,
nothing is made pan passu - with equal pace, of the same
de novo - from the beginning speed
Deo volente - God willing, by per - by
God∗s will per annum - by the year
emeritus - retired but retained in an per capita - by the person, by heads
honorary position per diem - by the day
errare humanum est - to err is per interim - in the meantime
human
erratum - an error
et alii (et aI) - and others
et cetera (etc) - and other things, and
the rest
67
Commonly Used Latin Terms and their Meaning
per se - by him, her or its self

post meridien (PM) - after midday
post mortem - an autopsy
post scriptum (PS) - something written after NUMERALS
prima - first
prima fade - at first view
primus inter pares - first among equals Arabic Roman English
pro forma - as a matter of form Numerals Numerals Words
pro rata - pro rate, in proportion 1 I one
pro tempore (pro tem) - for the time being 2 Il two
proximo mense - in the next month 3 Ill three
4 IV four
quasi - (with noun) - resembling, not genuine 5 V five
- (with edj) - nearly, almost 6 VI six
7 VII seven
quid pro quo - something given in return for 8 VIII eight
something 9 IX nine
quod erat demonstrandum (QED) - which was 10 X ten
to be demonstrated 50 L fifty
quod erat faciendum (QEF) - that which was to 100 C hundred
be done 500 D five hundred
quod vide (qv) - which see 1000 M thousand
1000000 M million
requiescat in pace (RIP) - may he rest in peace
semper idem - always the same
sequens (seq) - the following
sic-thus - as stated
sine prole (sp) - without offspring
sine qua non - essential, that which is
indispensable
status quo - remain the same, without change
terra firma - solid ground, dry land
ubique – everywhere
ultima (ult) - last, furthest, final
ultra - extreme, beyond bounds
ultra vires - beyond legal authority
una voce - with one voice, unanimously
verbatim - in the exact words
versus (vs) - against
via - by way of
vice versa - conversely, the other way around
vide - see
vide et crede - see and believe
vide infra - see above
vide supra - see below
videlicet (viz) - that is to say, namely
video - to see
68
APPENDIX III
Tenses of Some Irregular Verbs
English verbs often change tense by changing their ending as follows:
present simple: I plant

past: I planted
past perfect: I have planted
As with many other languages, English has numerous exceptions to this method of changing tenses. We
have listed here a few of the more common verbs that are conjugated irregularly.
Present Simple Past Past Participle

arise arose arisen
bend bent bent
bet bet bet
blow blew blown
breed bred bred
broadcast broadcast broadcast
choose chose chosen
creep crept crept
draw drew drawn
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
but to fell a tree is regular:
fell felled felled
feed fed fed
flee fled fled
fly flew flown
forbid forbad(e) forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
forgive forgave forgiven
freeze froze frozen
69
Appendix Ill: Irregular Verbs

get got got
US gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hold held held
lay laid laid
(to place on a surface)
lead led led
lie (to rest) lay lain
lie lied lied
(to tell an untruth is regular)
light lit lit
mean meant meant
put put put
quit quit quit
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
shine (to gleam) shone shone
shine (to polish shined shined
is regular)
shoot shot shot
slide slid slid
70
Appendix Ill: Irregular Verbs
spend spent spent

spread spread spread
stick stuck stuck
stink stank stunk
sweep swept swept
teach taught taught

tear tore torn
think thought thought
wake woke woken

wear wore worn
weave wove woven
win won won
wind wound wound
withdraw withdrew withdrawn
write wrote written
There are many more irregular verbs all of which are listed by Ronberg, 1989, pp 205-9 (see
Further Reading, pp 63-6).
71
APPENDIX IV
Units of Measure
The international system of units which is abbreviated to SI (from Systeme Intemationale in French) is the
one we recommend you use. The metric system is a decimal-based system of weights and measures while SI
is broader and includes all physical quantities. You may use your National or other system provided you
supply a conversion table for all the units you use in your paper.
The SI system has six basic units from which others are derived. In addition, there are two supplementary
units. The symbols (they are not called abbreviations) for each are shown in Table IV.1 and some of the
common derivatives are listed in Table IV.2.
Table V.1 Basic and Supplementary SI Units
Quantity Name Symbol
length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
minute* mm
hour* h
day* d
year (annum)* a
electric current ampere A
luminous intensity candela cd
temperature, thermo
dynamic kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
plane angle radian* rad
solid angle steradian* sr
* supplementary units
BASIC AND SUPPLEMENTARY UNITS

metre This unit of length is 1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the radiation in a vacuum corresponding to the
(in)
unperturbed transition between the levels 2p10 and–10Sd5 of the krypton 86 atom, the orange-red line, It
corresponds to a wavelength of 6057.802 x 10 m or 605.7802 nanometre (nm).
72
Appendix IV: Units of Measure
kilogram (kg) The unit of mass is the weight of a particular cylinder of platinum iridium alloy called the
International Prototype Kilogram which is preserved in a vault at Sèvres, France, by the International
Bureau of Weights and Measures. Eventually the unit will be defined in terms of atomic mass and
may be renamed accordingly.
second (s) The ephemeris second, a unit of time, is 1/3,155,692,519,747 of the tropical year 1900, January,
0 day (d) and 12 hours (h) ephemeris time It is also defined as one 86,400th part of a mean solar d
there being 60 s in a minute (mm), 60 mm in 1 hr and 24 h in 1 d.
In SI the second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation corresponding to
the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium 133 atom.
Ampere (A) An electrical current of such magnitude that, when maintained in two straight parallel
conductors of infinite length, negligible circular cross section and placed 1 m apart in a vacuum, will
produce a force equal to 2 x 10-7 N/m.
Candela (cd) This unit of luminous intensity is2 such that the luminance of a full(black body) radiator at the
freezing point of platinum, is 60 cd/cm .
kelvin degree (K) The kelvin degree (a unit of temperature) is determined by the Carnot cycle with the
triple-point temperature of water and defined as 273.16K. Thus we often refer to -273.160C as
absolute zero.
radian (rad) A radian is a plane angle with its vertex at the centre of a circle and subtended by an arc equal
in length to the radius of the circle.
steradian (sr) This unit measures a solid angle with its vertex at the centre of a sphere and enclosing an area
of the spherical surface equal to that of a square with sides the length of the radius of the sphere.
DERIVED UNITS
farad (F) A farad is the capacitance of a capacitor between the plates of which there appears a difference of
potential of 1 V when it is charged by a quantity of electricity equal to one coulomb.
73
coulomb (C) One coulomb is the quantity of electricity transported in 1 s by a current of 1 A.
henry (H) A henry is the inductance of a closed circuit in which an electromotive force of one volt is
produced when the electric current in the circuit varies uniformly at a rate of 1 A/s.
volt (V) This unit of electronic potential difference and electromotive force is the difference in electric
potential between two points of a conducting wire carrying a constant current of 1 A when the power
dissipated between these points equals one watt.
ohm (0) An ohm is the electrical resistance between two points of a conductor when a constant difference of
potential of 1 V is applied to produce a current of 1 A and the conductor is not the source of an
electromotive force.
joule (J) One joule is the work done when the point of application of one Newton is displaced a distance
of 1 m in the direction of the force.
Newton (N) A newton is that force which, when applied to a body having a mass of 1 kg, accelerates it
1 m/s/s.
lumen (Im) A lumen is the luminous flux emitted in a solid angle of 1 sr by a uniform point source having
an intensity of 1 cd.
weber (Wb) A weber is the magnetic flux which, linking a circuit of one turn, produces in it an
electromotive force of 1 V as it is reduced to zero at a uniform rate in 1 s.
watt (W) A watt is the power which produces energy at the rate of 1 J/s.
74
Table IV.2. Common Derivatives of SI Units
Quantity Name Symbol Unit1
frequency hertz Hz s-1

force newton N kg.m/s2
pressure pascal Pa kg/m.s2
work joule J kg.m2/s2
power watt W kg.m2/s3
electricity, quantity coulomb C A.s
electric force volt V kg.m2/A.s3
electric resistance ohm Ω kg.m2/A2.s2
electric capacitance farad F A3.s4/kg.m2
electric inductance henry H kg.m2/A2.s2
magnetic flux weber Wb kg.m2/A.s2
magnetic flux density tesla T kg/A.s2
magnetomotive force ampere A A
luminous flux lumen lm cd.sr
illumination lux lx cd.sr/m2
1
Expressed in terms of Supplementary Units.
When you use these units of measurement be extremely careful that you do so properly. Here are some
important items for you to note:
(I) Lower and upper case letters are meaningful - do not change them because the case of each symbol is
part of the standardization. Symbols are always in lower case except those derived from proper names. With
these, use the first letter in upper case eg volt - V, weber - Wb but, when you write out the unit as a word
use all lower case. Do not substitute for any of the symbols.
(2) Do not place a period after a symbol (unless it is at the end of a sentence)
-it is not an abbreviation - nor may you add an s to make a symbol plural ie for metres use the symbol m not
ms, ms or M.
(3) Always place a space between the quantity and0 a symbol0 ie 5 g not05g, except when a symbol includes a
non-letter character as well as a letter. Hence 32 C not 32 C or 32 C.
(4) Temperature in Kelvin does not need the degree symbol (o), the letter K is sufficient.
75
(5) SI requires that both quantity and unit be written in full or both be as symbols ie five grams or 5 g, not
5 gram or five g. When no quantity is given then you must write out the unit in full.
(6) Area and volume must be expressed as powers of a symbol ie 6 m2 or 12 cm3

not 6 sqm or 12 cc. (Customary units are expressed as sq. and cu.
Frequently cfs is used as an abbreviation for cu. ft./s.)
(7) When a unit symbol is combined with a symbol for time you must separate the two with an oblique (I)
thus 5 km/h not 5 kmh or 5 kph and
:1000 r/min not 1000 rpm.
SI units are increased or decreased by a factor of 1000 or 103. Prefixes are used to denote the
numbers. These prefixes are based on Greek derivatives for numbers. Use only one prefix for a unit. The
prefixes are listed in Table lV.3.
Table lV.3 Prefixes for SI Units
Prefix Symbol Power Prefix Symbol Power
Exa E 1018 deci d 10-1-2

Peta P 1015 centi c 10-3
Tera T 1012 milli m 10-6
Giga G 1096 micro p 10-9
Mega M 103 nano n 10-12
Kilo k 102 pico p 10-15
Hecto h 10 femto f 10
Deca da 101 atto a 10-18
Conversion of Customary Units to SI Units:
Length
1 inch (in.) = 0.083333 foot (ft.) = 0.0254 metre (m)
1 ft. = 12 in. = 0.3048 m
I mile (mi.) = 5280 ft. = 1609.344 m
I m = 100 centimetres (cm) = 3.2808399 ft.
1 millimetre (mm) = 0.001 m = 0.03937008 in.
1 cm = 0.01 m = 0.39370079 in.
1 kilometre (km) = 1000 m = 0.621371 mile
1 angstrom (A) = 0.0001 micron = 1 x 10-8 cm
76
Area
1 square inch (sq. in.) = 6.4516 cm2
1 square foot (sq. ft.) = 144 sq. in.
= 0.09290304 m2
1 square yard (sq. yd) = 9 sq. ft.
= 0.8361273 m2
1 square mile (sq. mi.) = 2.589988 km2
1 acre (ac.) = 43560 sq. ft.2
= 4046.856 m
1 cm2 = 0.00001 m2
= 0.155003 sq in.
1m2 = 104 cm2
= 1550.003 sq in.
1 km2 = 106 m2
= 0.3861022
4 2
mi. 2
1 Hectare (ha) = 10 m
= 2.47105 ac.
Volume
1 cubic inch (cu. in.) = 16.38706 cm3
1 cu. ft. = 1728 cu in
= 28.31685 litre (l)
1 Imperial gallon (gal.) = 277.4193 cu in
= 4.5459 l
1 US gal. = 231 cu in
= 3.785412 l
1 Barrel (petroleum) = 42 US gal.
= 158.9873 l
I Bushel (US) (bu.) = 1.244456 cu ft
= 35.23808 l
1 millilitre (ml) = 0.001 l
= 0.06102374 cu in
1 cm3 = 1 ml
= 0.001 l
1m3 = 35.31467 cu ft
= 1000 l
1l = 1000 cm3
= 1000 ml
= 0.2641721 US gal.
1 ac.-ft. = 43560 cu ft
= 1233.4818 m3
77
Mass
1 ounce (oz.) = 28.3495 g
1 pound (lb.) = 16oz.
= 0.4535924 kg
1 Kilogram (kg) = 1000 g
= 2.2046226 lb.
1 gram (g) = 0.001 kg
= 0.03527396 oz.
1 tonne = 1000 kg = 2204.623 lb.
1 ton = 2000 lb. = 907.1848 kg
Density
1 oz./sq. in. = 0.0625 lb./cu in
= 1.729994 g/cm3
1 lb./in.3 = 16.02 oz/cu in
= 27.67991 g/cm3
1 lb./cu. ft. = 16.01847 kg/m3
1 lb/gal. (US) = 119.8284 kg/m3
1 g/cm3 = 1000 g/l
= 0.5780365 oz./sq in
1 kg/m3 = 0.06242795 lb./sq ft
= 0.001 g/cm3
Pressure
1 bar = 0.9869233 atmospheres (atm)
= 14.50377 lb./sq in
= 100,000 Pascals (Pa)
1 atm = 1.013250 bar
= 101325 .0 Pa
1 in. Hg = 25.4 mm Hg
= 0.4911541 lb./sq in
= 3386.388 Pa
1 lb./sq. in. = 0.06894757 bar
= 6894.757 Pa
1 Pa = 1 Newton (N)/m3
= 10 dynes/cm2
= 0.0001450377 lb./sq in
1 N/m2 = 1 Pa.
78
Energy
1 calorie (cal.) = 4.184 J
1 British Thermal Unit (BTU) = 1055.056 J
= 0.000393 horse power (hp.)
1 hp = 2684519 J
= 0.7456998 kWh
1J = 0.23900057 -7cal.
= 2.7777 x 10 kWh
Fluid Flow Rates

1 acre-feet/day (ac.-ft./d) = 43560 cu ft/d
= 0.50417 cu ft/s (cfs)
1 cfs = 1.98347 ac.-ft./d = 28.31605 l/s -6
1 US gal./d = 1.54722 x 10 cfs
= 28.31605 l/s
= 3.785306 l/d
1 US gl/min = 3.785306 l/min
= 0.06309 l/s
1 l/s = 0.0353153 cfs
= 86.40 m /d
1 m3/s = 1000 l/s
= 35.325 cfs
1 m3/d = 35.31467 cu ft/d
= 0.0004087 cfs
= 0.011574 l/s
Velocity
1 ft./s = 0.6818 mi./h
= 0.3048 m/s
1 mi./h = 1.466 ft./s
= 1.6093 km/h
1 m/s = 3.28083 ft./s
= 3.6 km/h
1 km/h = 0.621371 mi./h
= 0.277778 m/s
79
APPENDIX V
Mathematical Symbols
You will use mathematical signs, symbols and the Greek alphabet in writing technical papers and reports
especially when you include equations. Probably you are familiar with the notations which apply to your field.
If not, seek the help of those who are. The accurate use of notations must be adhered to otherwise confusion
and errors will reduce the value of your report. You will find that many of the standard mathematical
notations and symbols are available in current word processing software for personal computers.
We have found that some of the common problems experienced by writers when they use mathematical
symbols are:
(a) An excessive use of super- and sub-scripts which leads to errors in typing and typesetting.
(b) A frequent and unnecessary change of type face and font size resulting in similar errors. Furthermore, if
your manuscript is repeatedly photocopied, differences in type face tend to blur.
(c) Although Greek letters are mandatory in certain cases, you should keep their use to a minimum.
(d) You must define all symbols following each equation and indicate the units of measurement you used.
Number your equations sequentially at the right hand side of the page on the last line of each equation.
Example:
F = ma (1)
where f = force in N
m = mass in kg
a = acceleration in m/s2
Also you should list the notations, definitions and symbols alphabetically at the beginning or at the end of
your text.
Table V.1 gives some of the basic mathematical signs and symbols with their definitions. Table V.2 shows the
Greek alphabet you will probably use.
80
81
82
INDEX
Abbreviation(s), iv, 15, 20,51, 55, 72, 75, 76 design, 7, 10, 42, 50
abstract,3, 4, 18, 22, 27 deviation, 12
acknowledgement(s), iii, 56 dictionary, 1, 2, 20, 51, 53, 55
acronym(s), iv, 22, 29
active, see voice digit, significant, 1, 12, 13, 20, 83
ampere, 72, 73, 75 discussion, vi, 18, 37, 40, 42
DOS, iv, 5
analyse, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14, 18
analysis, statistical, 27, 28, 30 drawing, 14,43
annex, 27, 29, 31
appendix, 12, 15, 50, 56-82 edit, v, 11, 15, 19, 20, 22, 42
area, 42, 76, 77 energy, 74, 79
attachment, 29, 31 equation, v, 12, 80
average (see also mean), 11, 13, 20, 57 executive summary, see summary
experiment, v, 6, 7, 10, 20, 36
bibliography, 2, 3, 5, 7
book, log, 6, 84 F value, 12
brain-storming, 2 failure, 8
budget, 7 farad, 73, 75
bulletin, vii,17, 26 figure, 11, 14, 18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 26, 27, 29
31, 32, 33, 43, 46, 47, 48
candela, 72, 73 flow, 6, 57, 79
font, 32, 41, 80
caption, 14, 23, 29, 31, 32, 46 footnote, 14, 16, 17
catalogue, 16 force, 12, 65, 73, 75, 80
CD-ROM, iv, 5 foreward, 28
charges, page, 22, 23, 24, 32, 33, 47 frequency, 75
chart, see graph
citation, see reference graph, 13, 14, 26, 37, 43
comments, helpful, viii, ix, 13, 24, 45 Greek, vi, 55, 76, 80
computer, 2, 5, 10, 18, 63, 80, 86 guidelines, style, x
conclusion, ix, 1, 10, 18, 20, 23, 28
conference, see meeting henry, 74, 75
contents, see table of hertz, 75
contract, see research hypothesis, 6, 8
contributor, 27, 29 illustration, 13, 14, 18, 19, 24, 24, 26,31, 37
copyright, ii, 27, 28 index, 3, 27, 29, 30, 32, 83
coulomb, 73, 74, 75 ISBN, iv, 15
data, v, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 14, 18
joule, 74, 75
rounding, 12
journal, 3, 4, 11, 14, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21, 26, 32
83
database, 5 refereed, 26
density, 75, 78
PERT, 8
kelvin, 72, 73, 75 plagiarism, 46
key, see words plan, 1, 3, 6, 8, 18
kilogram, 72, 73, 78 points, decimal, see digits
policy, editorial, 11, 26, 32
Latin, 55, 67, 68 preface, 27, 28
layout, 19, 33 presentation, oral, 36
length, 13, 21, 40, 72, 76
poster, 42, 36, 43
letter of transmittal, see transmittal pressure, 78, 75
library, 15, 28
literature, 3, 6, 14, 18, 23, 36 principle(s), vii, 18, 19, 20, 63
printer, 26, 32, 33, 34, 47
review, see review, literature
printing, 27, 32, 37
log, see book
problem, 1, 2, 6, 8, 23
log book, see book proceedings, 15
lumen, 74, 75 proof, page, 24, 32, 33, 47
lux, 75
read, vii, 11, 23, 30, 33, 47
manual, 51, 86, 16, 26 publish, 19
mass, 78 publisher, 23
mean (see also average), 11, 13, 61, 70
measure(ment), 66, 72, 73 question, 1, 6, 36, 38, 42, 45, 46
meeting, scientific, 36, 38, 39, 40 radian, 72, 73
methods, experimental, 38, 50, 18, 36
metre, 72 randomization, 6
record, 8, 9
newton, 74, 78 refereed journal, see journal
number, 20
reference, 26
Arabic, 29, 38, 68
replication, 6, 9
figure, 14
report, 15, 26
Roman, 68, 28, 29
outline, 28, 31, 38, 42
reprint, 24, 28
objective, 1
research, viii, 1, 42, 50
ohm, 74
ordinal, 20 contract, 11
organization (see also plan), 19, 26 resource, 7, 8
result, 18, 22, 36, 40
outline, see plan review, 3, 22, 8, 45
overhead, 37, 38, 39, 40
literature, 2, 14, 18, 23, 38, 50
page charges, see charges reviewer, 22, 24, 31, 46
page proof, see proof
84
pascal, 75, 78 rounding data, see data and
passive voice, see voice digit, significant
patent, 16 schedule, 7
search, 3
second, 73
SI, 20, 29
significant, see digit
slide (transparency), 37, 38, 39, 40
speech, 39, 55
squares, sums of, 12
standard error, 12, 13
statistical, see analysis
statistics, 9, 12, 13, 26, 50
steradian, 73
style, x
summary, executive, 28
symbol(s), 75, 76, 80
Systeme lnternationale, see SI
table, 12, 13, 15, 20, 29, 43, 46

of contents, v, 27, 29
talk, 7, 9, 39
techniques, 8, 29
tesla, 75
theory, 1
title, 15, 21
transformation, 9
translator, 38, 39, 40
transmittal, letter of, 28
transparency, see slides
treatment, 6
variable, 6
velocity, 79
verb, 55, 65
voice, active, 21
passive, 21
volt, 74,75
volume, 74
85
watt, 74, 75
weber, 74, 75
words, I
key, 1, 2, 3, 5, 21, 27, 28, 32
86
About the Authors
Aly Shady was born in Egypt and educated at the University of Cairo. He did his post graduate studies in
Italy and at McGill University, Canada. During his 30 years of professional practice he has dealt with land and
water resource management, agricultural extension, research, teaching, consulting engineering and project
management. During the past 15 years he has concentrated on international development, particularly that
dealing with agriculture, irrigation and the conservation of water resources.
Mr Shady became acutely conscious of the problems facing those who write technical and scientific papers in
languages other than their mother tongue and those who have little or no training or guidance in technical
writing. Having himself faced the problem of writing in a foreign language - English - he has accumulated a
wealth of information on the subject.
Aly Shady is author of numerous publications varying from research papers, technical reports, textbooks and
popular articles. He is presently the Senior Advisor for Agriculture, Irrigation and Water Resources at the
Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) and vice-president (honoraire) of the International
Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID)
Tom Anstey was born and educated in Canada. He is a graduate of the University of British Columbia with
post graduate education at that university, the University of Minnesota and a postdoctoral Nuffield
Fellowship in Great Britain. He has had nearly 50 years∗ experience in bench and field research, in managing
and directing agricultural research stations and in managing international aid programs on behalf of the
Canada Department of Agriculture for CIDA.
Dr Anstey has published numerous scientific papers, technical reports and articles of general interest. He has
written the 100-year history of the Research Branch, Canada Department of Agriculture (One Hundred
Harvests), several manuals for computer software and has been the Associate Editor for the ICID scientific
journal The ICID Bulletin. He too is a vice-president (honoraire) of ICID and a past national president of the
Agricultural Institute of Canada. He continues to edit scientific and technical papers for ICID and CIDA.
( P.S. Tom passed away on May 2005 after a serious car accident )
87

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WRITING

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Technical writingCHandbooks, manuals, etc 2, Communication in

C) Copyright T H Anstey, 1994

Second printing April, 1994

Printed by: Belcor Printing

from photoready copy.

Chapter 3: Writing and Publishing Your Technical Report 26

Who are Scientists?

(a) Define the Problem and Set Your Objectives

We often use brain-storming techniques at this stage to accelerate the process

• write each word or phrase on a piece of paper, card or sticker;

(b) Gather Background Information

Abstracting Journals and Their Use

Chemical Abstracts Biological and Agricultural Index

Fluid Abstracts: Civil Engineering CAB lnternational

Defines optimum irrigation scheduling using meteorological, soils, irrigation options

How to Use Databases

A good source of information for CD-ROMs is:

Other Sources of Information

(C) Formulate an Hypothesis

(d) Run a Pilot Experiment

(e) Plan an Experiment

• What experimental designs can I use?

• What materials and equipment will I need?

• How will I measure the results?

• Will the design permit a valid statistical analysis?

• What is the time-frame within which I can conduct the experiment?

• What will be the form of the tabulated results?

• How can I handle qualitative (descriptive) results?

You must write down your complete plan outlining:

• the schedule for each activity and the total plan;

• the resources of manpower, equipment, material, land, laboratory, and/or greenhouse

(f) Conduct an Experiment

(g) Record Results

• accurately record each event as it happens, certainly on the day it happens;

• be certain to record exactly what happened.

(h) Analyse Results

• are any missing?

• do the data look reasonable?

(i) Draw Conclusions

(a) Assemble Data

Statistic Number of Significant Digits

(b) Prepare Tables and Illustrations

Mean Daily Range

• be certain that all symbols and units of measurement are identified.

(c) Organize a Literature Review

Miscellaneous: patents, theses, manufacturers’ manuals and catalogues. Place these

Smith (1995, personal communication)

(d) Organize the Text

(e) Select a Medium for Publication

• does the journal accept papers in your discipline?

• do you want international exposure?

• what is the reputation of the journal among your peers?

• does your institution have a preference for publication?

(f) Write Your Paper

But rather say:

• start with the known then move to the unknown;

• proceed in chronological order when giving methods;

• give symptoms in their order of importance;

• describe effects in ascending or descending order of magnitude; and

• list phenomena in order of frequency of occurrence.

• be concise, by avoiding in and with phrases such as: