COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND RURAL TRANSFORMATION

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

SENIOR SEMINAR ON THE SOCIO ECONOMIC IMPACTS OF WATER

HYACINTH INVASION IN ETHIOPIA

Submitted to Department of Agricultural Economics

By

Endeshaw Gedefaw

Advisor:-

Abebe.D (Assistant Prof .of agricultural Economics)

Jun, 2018

Gondar, Ethiopia

I
Table of Contents
LIST OF FIGURE ...................................................................................................................... III
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................... IV
ACKNOWLEDGMENT ............................................................................................................. V
Executive summary ...................................................................................................................... VI
1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background and Justification ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 Objectives ............................................................................................................................. 3
2. Literature review and discussion............................................................................................. 4
2.1 Theoretical Literature Review ........................................................................................... 4
2.1.1 Water ............................................................................................................................. 4
2.1.2 Hyacinth ........................................................................................................................ 4
2.1.3 Water hyacinth ............................................................................................................. 4
2.1.4 The Origin, Occurrence, Distribution Invasion Of Water Hyacinth...................... 6
2.2 Empirical Literature Review and Discussions ................................................................. 8
2.2.1 Socio-economic impact of water hyacinth invasion in Ethiopia ............................... 9
2.2.2 Social impact ............................................................................................................... 10
2.2.3 Environmental impact................................................................................................ 11
2.2.2 Impact of water hyacinth on fishing activity in Ethiopia ....................................... 14
2.2.3 Impact of water hyacinth on crop production in Ethiopia ................................... 14
2.2.4 The effect of Water hyacinth invasion in Ethiopia .................................................. 16
2.2.5 Factors promoting the growth and infestation of water hyacinth ......................... 19
2.2.8 Control Measures and management of water hyacinth ........................................ 20
3. Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 26
4. REFERENCE .......................................................................................................................... 28

II
 LIST OF FIGURE
Table 2.2.1: Mean area of coverage water hyacinth in hectare…………………………………15
Figure 2.2.3: Dense mat and new invasion of hyacinth on Debey and Gumara…………………21
Figure 2.2.2: concpual framwok of the review …………………………………………………22
Figure 2.2.4: biological control of water hyacinth Lake Tana…………………………………..24
Figure 2.2.5: physical control of water hyacinth Lake Tana……………………………………25

III
 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

CPUE Catch Per Unit Of Effort

EEA The Ethiopian Energy Authority

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization

ICDPs Integrated Conservation and Development Projects

ITDG Intermediate Technology Development Group

IUCN International Union for The Conservation Of Nature

LVEMP Lake Victoria Environmental Management Project

LVRBC Lake Victoria River Basin Commission

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations

RSA Republic of South Africa

UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme

IV
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First and for most, I would like to extend my unshared thanks to the Almighty God for helping
me to the success and accomplishment of this seminar paper. I express my deepest gratitude and
particular appreciation to my advisor, Abebe Dagnew for his unlimited support, guidance,
suggestion, comment, and encouragement throughout the development of this seminar paper. I
also extend my sincere gratitude and appreciation to my department head Taye Melese and my
colleagues for their support, guidance and suggestions, which became an important part of this
seminar paper.

V
 Executive summary

Water hyacinth, Eichhornia Crassipes, is an aquatic invasive species which is native to South
America. It profoundly affects the tropical and subtropical region of the world. In addition, it is
recognized as one ofthe worst weeds and most aggressive invasive species by the International
Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN). In Africa, Zimbabwe is one of the first African
countries which water hyacinth wasofficially recorded. In Ethiopia, it announced in 1956 in
Koka Lake and Awash river. Water hyacinthinfestation around the Lake Tana is aggravated from
time to time. This study was conducted on fiveworedas (such as Dera, Fogera, Libokemkem,
Gondar Zuria and Dembia) which have a higher infestationof water hyacinth coverage. There
were about 5394 hectares of water hyacinth areal coverage of the wholeworedas at the cost of
the Lake. From those woredas, Dembia was holding most areal coverage (2563hectares) of
water hyacinth infestation. To determine the areal extent of water hyacinth around the
lake,consecutive ground control truck points was calibrated. Water hyacinth is one of the main
of economical, social, environmental, ecological, fishing and crop production impact of
Ethiopian income water source.The major socio-economic activities along the Ethiopian lakes
and River are fishing and farming. Ethiopian aquatic ecosystems provided more than 180 fish
species and the country had the potential to produce 51,500 tonnes of fish per year. Based on the
review the current problems of Ethiopian fishes and fishery were, impact of water hyacinth
(mainly in observed Lake Tana and some other Ethiopian rift valley lakes). Comprehensive local
estimates of economic impacts of water hyacinth in the affected areas of the Ethiopian water
bodies which is result rise of fish price, poverty rise, higher unemployment is occur, reduce
quality and quantity of water source, minimize amount of crop production on capture farm
place, reduction of fish income, transportation and tourism income. Effect and factor promotion
of water hyacinth in Ethiopia is persistent species are extensively conventional as one of the
foremost cause of biodiversity loss endemic fish species fatality and can have momentous
possessions on resource accessibility and can restrain or improve the comparative great quantity
of inhabitant species Water hyacinth has grown rapidly in Lake Victoria due to run-off and
wastewater carrying nutrients from agricultural activities.The socio-economic impacts of water
hyacinth are dependent on the extent of the invasion, the uses of the impacted water body,
control methods and the response to control efforts.

VI
 1. Introduction

1.1 Background and Justification

Water is an irreplaceable and indispensable natural resource, vital for life on earth, economic
development and human well-being. It is an essential resource for economic production and an
enable of trade for most types of goods and service. (Walter et al., 2011; cited by RS Arp1 GCG
Fraser1 and MP Hill2, (2017).

According to RS Arp GCG Fraser1 and MP Hill (2017) Water demand for agriculture and
urban and industrial consumption continue to grow in the light of continued economic
development, an ever-increasing global population and new demands for bio fuel production
(Walter et al., 2011; Saseendran et al., 2014 and Rose grant et al., 2009).
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is one of the most destructive aquatic weeds in the world
and presents an indirect threat to economically productive water resources, such as irrigation
water (Van Wilgen et al., 2008; Villamanga and Murphy, 2010; as cited by Mercy Mbula, 2016).

According to Mercy mbula (2016) water hyacinth is a free floating aquatic weed, which is
characterized by rapid and large vegetative reproduction output, and known to rapidly colonizing
new areas, as a single plant it reproduces rapidly (Zhang et al., 2010; Williams et al., 2007).
In Ethiopia, water hyacinth was announced in 1956 in Koka Lake and Awash River (Samuel and
Netsanet, 2014; UNEP, 2013; as cited by Melaku Getachew Ayalew, 2016).

The rapid growth and infestation of the water hyacinth weed has a number of problems on the
river environment including water quality and quantity for both domestic and productive use,
reduced fish stocks, increase in vector borne diseases and clog water intakes at hydro-electric
dams (Cilliers et al., 2003; Mathur et al., 2005; Williams et al., 2007; as cited by Mercy Mbula,
2016).
Through high levels of evapo transpiration and resulting water loss, water hyacinth may erode
water and irrigation productivity, placing a negative externality on irrigation-fed agriculture.
Despite contributing only 2.5% (R84.7 billion) to South Africa’s primary production in 2014,

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agriculture is an important employer of labor and a significant consumer of the country’s
freshwater resources (RSA, 2015; Nieuwoudt et al., 2004).

Irrigation water, specifically, contributes roughly 30% towards the country’s total agricultural
output and is directly impacted by the threat of IAPs such as water hyacinth (Nieuwoudt et al.,
2004). Considering the economic importance of irrigation water, and its relative scarcity, the
threat presented by water hyacinth needs to be controlled. To do so, an economic valuation of
water hyacinth and its control is needed to justify the allocation of scarce funds and resources
between competing control projects (Turpie, 2004 as cited by RS Arp GCG Fraser1 and MP Hill,
2016).

Today the current problem of socio economic activity in Ethiopia even if Africa spread of water
hyacinth (epoch weed) in water body. It was reduce fish productivity and crop production. The
inland fishery of Africa is contributed about 2.1 million tones of fish per year, it represents
(24%) of the total world fish production from inland water bodies (FAO, 2004; as cited by
Agumassie Tesfahun, 2018).
According to agumassie Tesfahun (2018) Fishery has significant role that contributes to the
economy of the country (Mitike, 2015). It contributes a valuable asset in the economy of a given
country (Felegeselam, 2003).The inland water body of Ethiopia is covered about 7,400 km2 of
the lakes and about 7,000 km a total length of the rivers (Felegeselam, 2003; Mitike, 2015),
More than 180 fish species were harbored in these water bodies (Temesgen and Getahun, 2016).
The fish production potential is estimated for 51,500 tons per year in Ethiopia. However, only
30-38% of this potential is currently used (Mitike, 2015; Temesgen and Getahun, 2016).
According to Temesgen and Getahun (2016) the exploitation of fish is depending on the socio-
economic factors, resource accessibility and religious causes on fish utilization that integrates
into human diet.
Major challenges of fishes and fishery in water bodies of the present day of Ethiopia were
suffered from water hyacinth impacts and poisonous plant seeds that causes toxic to the fish, lack
of awareness of the community in fisheries management, no fish stock assessment has been done
so far, limited institutional, technical and financial capacity and low research and development
capacities (Mitike, 2015; Desta et al., 2017, as cited by Agumassie Tesfahun 2018).

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The most three popular control mechanisms for eradicating water hyacinth are biological,
chemical and physical controls, with biological control the only cost efficient sustainable control
option for water hyacinth (Cilliers et al., 2003). The most recent successful programme has been
on Lake Victoria where the mats of the plant have been defeated using biological control (Lake
Victoria River Basin Commission (LVRBC), 2016 as cited by Firehun, Y. Taye, T 2014).

According to fiehun.Y and Taye, T (2014) Chemical control is not the best method to control the
weed as the long term economical, social, and environmental and health effect still remains
unknown. However, the most common control methods used are physical using dredgers and
mechanical mowers methods, but are not suitable for large infested areas, very expensive, high
technology, high capital and a short term control method (Mathur et al., 2005). Dredgers have
been employed to remove the weed in Kafubu River for the past several years yet the weed still
keep appearing (Lumba, 2015).
In Ethiopia, close to 35 invasive alien plant species are posing negative impacts on native
biodiversity, agricultural lands, rangelands, national parks, waterways, lakes, rivers, power dams,
roadsides, urban green spaces with great economy and social consequences Rezene F, Taye T
(2014). They may also alter biological communities and ecosystem structure and processes in
terms of food web structure and energy flow (Wondie Z 2013; as cited by Taye, T 2014).

The major socio-economic activities along the Ethiopian lakes and River are fishing and farming.
Comprehensive local estimates of economic impacts of water hyacinth in the affected areas of
the Ethiopian water bodies have not been done yet, except for the Wonji-Shoa Sugar
estate which incurred about US$ 100,000 in total from 2000 to 2013 for the control of
this weed (Firehun et al., 2014; as cited by Melaku Getachew Ayalew, 2016).

1.2 OBJECTIVES
The overall objective of the seminar is to review the Impact of Water Hyacinth Invasion on socio
economic activity in Ethiopia.

3
 2. LITERATURE REVIEW AND DISCUSSION
2.1 Theoretical Literature Review

This section reviews basic concepts of water, hyacinth, water hyacinth, and origin of water
hyacinth, invasion of water hyacinth, occurrence and distribution of water hyacinth.

2.1.1 Water

Water is a natural resource, which generates every year through the natural process. Water
regeneration is influenced by economical, physical, chemical, geological, and hydrological and
biological processes (Saseendran et al., 2014).

2.1.2 Hyacinth

According to goggle Hyacinth’s is a small genus of bulbous, fragrant flowering plants in the
family Asparagaceae, subfamily Scilloideae. (Stevens, P.F. "Angiosperm Phylogeny Website:
Asparagales: Scilloideae". Mobot.org. Retrieved 7 November 2017).

2.1.3 Water hyacinth

Water hyacinth is a perennial, herbaceous and aquatic plant species of the family Pontederiaceae
(Gopal, 1987).The genus Eichhornia contains a number of other species, all of which are aquatic,
but only E. crassipes has become a serious weed (Coetzee et al., 2009). The leaves of water
hyacinth are comprised of smooth, glossy, circularto kidney-shaped lamina and a swollen,
spongy petiole. The petiole contains air, causing plants to float on the water surface.

Water hyacinth shows substantial variation in both leaf and flower forms (Julien et
al., 1999).Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes, is considered as one of the world’s worst weeds
(Holm et al., 1977,), invading lakes, ponds, canals, and rivers. Because of its extremely fast
growth, the weed has become the major floating water weed of tropical and subtropical regions.
In the absence of natural enemies, the weed quickly becomes invasive, colonizing slow moving
waters resulting in thick and extensive mats (Edwards and Musil, 1975) which degrade aquatic
ecosystems and limit their utilization (Hill and Coetzee, 2008).

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Water hyacinth was introduced in different parts of the world as a beautiful garden plant (ITDG,
1999; Labrada et al., 1996; Shanab et al., 2010). It is characterized by rapid growth rate and
infestation on large water area causing different problems (Shanab et al., 2010; Zhang et al.,
2010). The weed affects solar light penetration into water bodies, reduces oxygen through
decomposition, alters chemistry of water and substantially increases water evapotranspiration
(ITDG, 1999).

The negative impacts of water hyacinth are due to its dense, impenetrable mats which restrict
access to water. These mats affect fisheries and related commercial activities, functioning of
irrigation canals, navigation/transport, hydro-electric programmes and tourism (Navarro and
Phiri, 2000).Ecologically, benthic and littoral diversity is reduced (Masifwa et al., 2001; Toft et
al.,2003; Midgley et al., 2006), while population of vectors of human and animal diseases such
as bilharzias and malaria are increased with water hyacinth infestation as these plants interfere
with pesticide application (Harley et al., 1996).

Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) defined as one of the world’s worst weeds, invading
lakes, ponds, canals, and rivers due to its extremely fast growth; the weed has become the major
floating water weed of tropical and subtropical regions (Holm et al., 1977). According to
Firehun,Y (2014) it is the result of complex interactions between physical, environmental,
biological, socio-economical, and political issues of local, country wide or global nature.

According to RS Arp GCG Fraser and MP Hill (2016) the weed carries a number of negative
environmental and socio-economic impacts, from reducing dissolved oxygen and biodiversity in
invaded water bodies, to obstructing transport routes and fishing ground accessibility. It forms
large mats on the surface of water bodies, generally leading to increased water loss through
evapotranspiration (ET) relative to ‘normal’, open-water evaporation (EW) (Villamanga and
Murphy, 2010). Water hyacinth can therefore result in an unnecessary loss of water, which could
otherwise be used in a more productive manner (Richardson and Van Wilgen, 2004; Van Wilgen
et al., 2008; Villamagna and Murphy, 2010 and Singh and Gill, 1996).

5
Generally, water hyacinth is one of the world’s worst weeds invading lakes, ponds, canals, and
rivers since hyacinth weeds are main negative impact economic, social, and environmental and
other agricultural and industrial activity. Proximity of our country Ethiopia to European and
Middle Eastern markets makes fish production to be discouraged, since proximity of country
maximizes loss of fish profits & can be decrease employment opportunity in our Ethiopia by
reducing income. Water hyacinth weed are affects fisheries and related commercial activities and
other solar light penetration in to water body. It was introduce different part the world water
body.

2.1.4 The origin, occurrence, distribution invasion of Water hyacinth

Water hyacinth is found across the tropical and sub-tropical regions. Originally from the Amazon
Basin, its entry into Africa, Asia, Australia, and North America was facilitated by human
activities (Dagno et al., 2012). Since the end of nineteenth century, water hyacinth plants have
been taken from its origin to all parts of the world as an ornamental and botanical gardens plant
(CABI, 2015). But things got out of control: the water hyacinth was like a tiger let out of its cage
(Tegene and Ayele, 2014). Later, water hyacinth has found its way into rivers, lakes, dams,
reservoirs, irrigation and drainage structures throughout the tropics and the sub-tropics and
became an invasive weed (CABI, 2015).

Julien et al. (1999) indicated that in the USA the weed was first introduced in
Louisiana in 1884 and afterwards in Florida in 1890. Because of its striking flowers, it
was deliberately introduced into botanic gardens in many other countries, from which
it inevitably spread as a weed (CABI, 2015). Important explanations for the
continental spread of the weed include its capacity to quickly multiply when away
from its natural enemies in South America (Rezene, 2005).

According to Melaku Getachew Ayalew (2016) Water hyacinth (Eichhorniacrassipes) is a

perennial, herbaceous, aquatic plant and is Native to the Amazon Basin in South America. Water
hyacinth has emerged as a major weed in more than50 countries in the tropical and subtropical
regions of the world with profuse and permanent impacts (Patel, 2012; Téllez et al., 2008;
Samuel and Netsanet, 2014). Water hyacinth has been identified by the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as one of the 100 most aggressive invasive species (Téllez et al.,

6
2008) and recognized as one of the top 10 worst weeds in the world (Gichuki et al., 2012; Patel,
2012). It is characterized by rapid growth rates, extensive dispersal capabilities, large and rapid
reproductive output and broad environmental tolerance (Zhang et al., 2010).
In Ethiopia, water hyacinth was announced in 1956 in Koka Lake and Awash River (Samuel and
Netsanet, 2014; UNEP, 2013). It also prevailed in most of rift valley lakes, canals, reservoirs and
irrigation water supply within different manifestation magnitude. Lake Tana is the one in which
water hyacinth infestation highly occurred (Firehun et al, 2014; as cited by Melaku Getachew
Ayalew 2016). Invasion of the water hyacinth one of the difficulty unenthusiastic ecological
impact of the in Lake Tana in Ethiopia such as disarticulation of biodiversity through deprivation
of water quality and smothering of habitat by wide-ranging, permanent water hyacinth swathe.
The water under the internal of widespread stationary mats of water hyacinth was nearly devoid
of oxygen, predominantly late in the nighttime and early in the sunup Zhang Y, Zhang D, Barrett
S 2010, as cited by Wassie,A (2014).
Invasive water hyacinths are of a large apprehension in Ethiopia, affectation exacting problems
lakes, rivers, power dams, water ways, tourism, roadsides and urban green spaces with great
economic and ecological consequences. It is prevalent in tropical and subtropical water bodies
where nutrient levels are often high due to agricultural runoff, deforestation and insufficient
waste water treatment. In recent years, water hyacinth has spread faster, and the most serious
infestation is in Ethiopia particularly in Lake Tana. One of the top ten ecologically dangerous
and worst invasive weed, water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is aggressively infesting Lake
Tana (Ayalew W, Ali S, Eyayu M, Goraw G, Gebriel W, 2014 as cited by Mitike A.(2015).

To sum up, water hyacinth weeds are distributed easily all part of the world in the water body.
The origin of water hyacinth weed was first occurred in South America. In Africa first occurred
Australia. In our country Ethiopian water body has infection by hyacinth weed. It was first
occurred in Ethiopia Megech River in north Gondar zuria woreda. This weed was quickly
multiply distributed. It was compare water hyacinth weed even worse, even more than other
plant weed. The occurrences of this weed are guest to compare other weed. It was also
distribution on water body but not dry land.

Invasion of the water hyacinth one of the difficulty unenthusiastic economical, social and
ecological impact of the in Lake Tana in Ethiopia such as disarticulation of biodiversity through

7
deprivation of water quality and smothering of habitat by wide-ranging, permanent water
hyacinth swathed. As a result water hyacinth effect are easily harmed by disease & pests which
minimizes production & quality of water, lack of infrastructure for transportation, poor
knowledge of society about its nutritional value, narrow certified seed producer, narrow genetic
base, poor marketing & infrastructure technologies, lack of appropriate post harvest technology,
& disease & pests these & other related terms affect production of water. The weed of water
hyacinth was growth rapid rate. Those invasion weed was not diametrically abolished but it was
aggressed or reduced.

2.2 Empirical Literature Review and Discussions

Water hyacinth has a major invasive alien weed in the Rift Valley of Ethiopia having
successfully established and invaded the different water bodies. The presence of water hyacinth
(Eichornia crassipes) was reported and confirmed in Lake Tanaat various times (Wondie et al.
2012). The presence of the floating weed, E.crassipes, was also reported in the area between Rib
river mouth, MitrehaAbaworka kebele, Gondar Zuria Woreda and Dirma River mouth, Dembia
Woreda(Shimelis and Getachew 2013 ecological effect of water hyacinth on waterfowls of
Megech, Dirma and Rib River mouths at Lake Tana, Ethiopia unpublished paper).

The areas where the weed was observed are mostly river mouths where the nutrient condition
was relatively good and the water quality condition has started to deteriorate. Among them most
of the studies applied socio-economic activities along the Ethiopian River include fishing, crop
production and farming, which the communities depend on for their day to day livelihood. For
instance, Firehun, Y.Struik, P. C. Lantinga, E. A and TayeT (2014) analyzed the Distribution,
Socioeconomic Importance and Management Water Hyacinth in the Rift Valley Water Bodies of
Ethiopia. A binomial logit model was used to determine the impact of different explanatory
variables on farmers to socio economic activity of water hyacinth on fishing. These explanatory
variables are sex, age and education level of household, governmental organizations,
nongovernmental organization (NGOs), soil erosion problem, Farmer’s attitude towards water
conservation practices and urban dwellers.

To sum up, Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), one of the world’s most destructive invasive
plants, presents a direct threat to economically productive water resources. The aim of this

8
review was to assessed the impacts of water hyacinth on major socio-economic activities on
Ethiopian lakes and River.

2.2.1 Socio-economic impact of water hyacinth invasion in Ethiopia

The socio-economic impacts of water hyacinth were affected enterprise personnel’s at Aba-
Samuel Dam, lake tana, Lake Ellen, Lake Koka, Wonji-Shoa Sugar Estate, Ethiopian Electric
Power Authority (at Koka dam) and communities along Awash River(Senayit et al., 2004; Taye
et al., 2009).

Disruption of Fishing Activities:- The ability of the aquatic weed to reproduce rapidly affects
socio-economic such as hampering fishing as the weed makes it difficult to access open areas,
entangles boat propellers and clogs waterways (Wassie et al 2014). Water hyacinth makes it
difficult to transport goods and reduces fish catch on water bodies, and more fuel is consumed
when water hyacinth infestation is high (Asmare et al.,2016),). On Lake tana, water hyacinth
reduces fish stock by limiting access to breeding, nursing, and feeding grounds (Awoke and
Melaku, 2017)). Fishermen also find it difficult in carrying out fishing activities due to the
presence of water hyacinth infestation.

Blockage of waterways hampering agriculture:- Farmers and investors were growing their
crops in Ethiopian water bodies without doing the impact assessment (Mitike, 2015) . Nearly 6
million people live in the Abaya, Chamo, Hawassa and Chew-Bahir catchments and the
population density is more than 160 people/km. Cultivation of teff (Eragrostis tef), chickpea,
grass pea and maize practices has been impacted around the shore in LakeTana (Asmare et al,
2016). Farmers (21.33%) and factories (5.34%) had polluted Lake Ziway (Mitike, 2015).
Ethiopian water bodies (Meko et al., 2017). Moreover, most of the investors prefer the rift valley
for flower production in Ethiopia. The aquatic weed blocks irrigation channel and reduces the
flow of water by 40% to 95%, which in turn affects and obstruct the amount of water reduced in
crop fields (Jones, 2009).

Impacts on Hydropower:- Water hyacinth causes high water losses through evapotranspiration
and blocking turbines. The Owen Falls hydropower scheme on Lake tana has suffered the impact
of the weed, hence plenty of time and money has been invested to clear and prevent the weed

9
from entering the turbines, which may cause damage and power interruptions (ITDG, 1999). On
Owen Falls hydropower scheme, the water hyacinth caused damage to water coolers and
generators, prompting the power utility company to switch off generators for maintenance, and
about 15 Megawatts of electricity were lost causing power cut in an urban area of Ethiopia
(Firehun, Y 2014).

Generally , water hyacinth invasion in Ethiopia has one of the main impact socio economic,
environmentally and ecologically activities in which reduction of income by the block irrigation
channel and minimize the flow water and reduce crop field production, reduced catch hold of
water bodies and it was disconcertedness of fish breeding by water soil and it reduction of water
quality even if quantity, Even though the economic impact of this invasion in Ethiopia directly
and indirectly losses of wealth. In such directly losses are crop losses, losses of export, and
losses of pasture productivity and losses of fisheries. It also indirectly losses such as flooding,
landside, damage to dams, increase wildlife and losses of tourism. So as compared with other
countries the growth of those weed pattern are very high in Ethiopia because of Most of our
populations are illiterate & lives in rural part of the country as a result the peoples have poor
knowledge about solve the problem of water hyacinth weed. Water hyacinth has been in the
present years a major problem on Lake tana and abay river which is a shared water resource
between Sudan and Egyp. The water losses for power generation and blocking of turbines by the
weed on abay Hydropower Station in Ethiopia, leads to loss of revenue of about US$15.00 every
year by abay Electricity Supply Corporation.

2.2.2 Social impact

The issue of water is the issue of life. In Africa, India and Sir Lanka, water hyacinth
interferes with agricultural practices by blocking irrigation and drainage systems and
by increasing the loss of water (Aweke, 1994). Societies that are able to use their water
resources in an efficient and sustainable manner have succeeded in being food self sufficient,
reducing the incidence of water-borne diseases and minimizing adverse effects of the resource.
The stagnant water resulted from obstructing effect of the weed provides a breeding ground and
habitat for several vectors of diseases such as mosquitoes, flies, snails and other organisms
associated with human illnesses, including malaria, schistosomiasis, encephalitis, filariasis and
cholera (CABI, 2015).These impacts pose, especially in the least developed countries, an

10
additional burden on the limited health services and facilities available to the rural communities.
In Ethiopia, Senayit et al. (2004) reported an increase in malaria incidence and lack of
drinking water, whereas during peak infestation periods the floating weed serves as a
host for snakes and crocodiles.
Water hyacinth infestations have been reported to lower quantity of water supplied
in Kenya and Tanzania (Mailu, 2001). It interferes with the water intake
points through blockage, which consequently lowers the quantity of water pumped.
Moreover, when the water level decreases, the unpleasant smell from decomposed
water hyacinth residues disturbs the villagers. Water hyacinth also impedes the
recreational use of rivers and lakes (Mujingni, 2012).

To sum up, Societies are able to use water resources in an efficient and sustainable manner.
Most of our populations are illiterate & lives in rural part of the country as a result the peoples
have poor knowledge about solve the problem of water hyacinth weed. So as compared with
other countries the growth of those weed pattern are very high in Ethiopia.

2.2.3 Environmental impact

Water hyacinth mats block canals and rivers leading to flooding. This effect is more
aggravated on riparian residents with little capacity to protect themselves from the
flood as well as flood associated impacts. It has been estimated that the flow of water
in the Nile could be reduced by up to one-tenth due to increased losses in Lake
Victoria from water hyacinth (Julien et al., 1999). This reduction in flow could easily
cause problems for adequate supply of water to irrigation schemes and for transport
over water. For example, in Kenya, boats with capacities less than 700 tones cannot
operate where there is heavy water hyacinth infestation (Mailu, 2001). As a result, in
1997, the Kenya Railways activities have been closed in Asembo, Homa Bay, Kendu
Bay, Kowor, and MbitaandMfanganopier.Once it proliferates in a water body, water hyacinth
dramatically alters the ecosystem and this often results in environmental degradation and a
reduction in biodiversity. A number of authors noted that in many water bodies and wetland
areas, the encroachment of water hyacinth has reduced or eliminated natural vegetation (e.g.,
Terry, 1996; Kumar and Rohatgi, 1999). The plant may negatively impact some native

11
species of invertebrates, fish, birds and plants. For example, in Madagascar, many
parts of the Alaotra Lake, a site of biological importance, have been reported as
covered with carpets of water hyacinth that are detrimental to a number of animal
species, such as the duck Thalassornis leuconotus (Binggeli, 2003). Recent reviw in
Lake Naivasha showed a massive reduction in fish population due to reduced oxygen
levels, which was attributed from resurgence of water hyacinth (Waithaka, 2013).
The blockage of waterways by water hyacinth increases siltation and hinders
activities like swimming, fishing and sand extraction (Mujingni, 2012).

Generally, Water hyacinth weed has one of the reductions of environmental resource. It was
dramatically alters the ecosystem and this often results in environmental degradation and a
reduction in biodiversity. It also minimization the oxygen level amount by water pollution since
result for environmental lapse. It has Increased Evapotranspiration result great implication where
water is already scarce.

Pests and vectors breeding ground:-The mat for water hyacinth maintains organisms that can
cause harm to human health. Water hyacinth slows moving water, and increases breeding
grounds for the malaria causing anopheles mosquitoes and Lake Kariba is a victim of this
(Minakawa et al., 2008). The weed acts as a breeding ground for Mansonioides mosquitoes, the
vectors of human lymphatic filariasis causing nematode Brugia (Chandra et al., 2006; Varshney
et al., 2008). Vectors for the parasite of Schistosomiasis (Bilharzia) such as snails are found in
the thick mat, while dangerous snakes habit in the weed mat (Borokini and Babalola, 2012).

To sum up, water hyacinth invasion weed results increased disease habitat to attack youth
person by mosquitoes. It also result high unemployment to occur which was poverty rapidly
increased.
Reduced oxygen and water quality:- Water hyacinth limits oxygen diffusion between air and
water surface, and decrease oxygen supply by plants (Villamagna and Murphy, 2010). During
decomposition at the bottom of the water body, the weed takes up oxygen and depletes it (EEA,
2012).
Reduced dissolved oxygen concentration in the water body can negatively affect fish that cannot
adapt to new environment, while dead and decayed water hyacinth can deteriorate water quality,
and this may increase the cost of treatment for drinking water (Patel, 2012; Mironga et al., 2011;

12
Ndimele et al., 2011). About 75% of Zambians live in poverty, increasing the treatment of
potable water entails increase in the water supply price. This will disadvantage the majority of
Zambians as they will be unable to afford high price of water (Ndimele et al., 2011). Decrease in
water quality has health risks for those who directly depend of the water from the Kafubu River.
The main livelihood for the local people who live along the River is fishing and farming; the
depletion of dissolved oxygen will reduce fish stock thereby affecting people’s livelihood and
directly increase poverty.

To sum up, Water hyacinth limits oxygen diffusion between air and water surface, and decrease
oxygen supply by plants. Decrease in water quality has health risks, increase water supply price,
reduced fish stock were by affected people livelihood and directly by more much minimized
wealth.
Impact on Biodiversity and ecological communities:-Biological alien invasions are one of
the driving forces of biodiversity loss around the world (Pyšek and Richardson 2010; Vila et al.,
2011). Water hyacinth has caused serious ecological loss of freshwater water bodies (Khanna et
al., 2011; Gichuki et al., 2012). The weed out-competes the indigenous species due to its rapid
reproductive ability, which poses a threat to aquatic biodiversity (Patel, 2012). Due to its
colonization, the water hyacinth also prevents the growth of vital phytoplankton, and ultimately
affects fisheries and other vital aquatic animals (Gichuki et al., 2012; Villamagna and Murphy,
2010). The structure of a macrophyte community plays a large role in determining community
composition of phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish in freshwater ecosystems (Meerhoff et al.,
2007) The plant provides complex structure to the upper portion of the water column that may be
novel in ecosystems that otherwise lack floating vegetation (Arora & Mehra,2003).

To sum up, Water hyacinth has caused serious ecological loss of freshwater water bodies. There
was hyacinth thrive, it has out competes other aquatic plants. This causes an imbalance in micro
ecosystem results in reduced flora and the fauna that depend on it. It has also localized water
quality deteriorates which may be harmful to people who rely on the waterway for drinking
water.

13
 2.2.2 Impact of water hyacinth on fishing activity in Ethiopia

According to Agumassie Tesfahun (2018) Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipses) have been
considered as the worst invasive weeds in relation to its negative impacts on aquatic ecosystems,
agriculture, fisheries, transportation, living conditions and social structures (Bhattacharya et al.,
2015). Moreover, fish kills caused by oxygen depletion as a major impact of water hyacinth
infestation which also impacted negatively on their socio- economic status (Waithaka, 2013).
The current fish production in Lake Tana has declined due to the impact of this weed it had
blocked many fishing grounds.

According to Wassie et al. (2014) reported that water hyacinth infestation has been covered
about 34,500 ha (15% of the Northern shore of the Lake Tana). Consequently, all the fishers
changed their landing site because of water hyacinth expansion obstructs their fishing activities
(Asmare, 2017). Therefore, if the expansion of water hyacinth continues in this trend, it can
negatively affect the livelihood of fishers in both directions by increasing costs of fishing and
reducing the amount of fish caught in Lake Tana (Asmare et al., 2017). As a result, the decline of
large barbs has been observed presently in Lake Tana, which is got shallower and shallower due
to the worst weed (water hyacinth). Furthermore, the catch Per Unit of Effort (CPUE) of
Labeobarbus in 2010 had sharply declined to 6 kg/trip in comparison with 28 kg/trip in 2001 and
63 kg/trip in 1991-1993 (63 kg/trip) (Asmare et al., 2017). In connection to this, a high
infestation level of water hyacinth was also reported in some other Ethiopian rift valley lakes
mainly in Aba-Samuel Dam, Lake Ellen, Lake Koka and Lake Wonji (Frehun et al., 2014) and
studies revealed that a rapid increase in water hyacinth was observed time to time.

To sum up, water hyacinth has the main negative impact on fish production, reduce income of
fishers, reduce fish Creole (genus), rise unemployment, minimize national treasure, increase
poverty, disconcertedness of fish breeding and water hyacinth has reduces efficiency of fishing
activity.

2.2.3 Impact of water hyacinth on crop production in Ethiopia

According to Dereje Tewabe, Wondie Zelalem and Brehan Mohamed (2017) Mat of water
hyacinth during flooding and wave time makes rice production frustrating by totally covering the

14
rice field. Its coverage at the inception period in 2011was about 80 to 100 ha (Tewabe, 2015).
After a year it was cover about 20,000 ha (BoEPLAU, 2012). Even if tremendous amount of
human labor, time and money has been exerted each year by both surrounding community and
government, its coverage continues to escalate up to 50,000 ha in the subsequent years (Anteneh
et al., 2015). Hyacinth makes the farmland more compacted due to its long root that makes the
farm land difficult to plough.Thecollected water hyacinth (heap) has noticeable impact on farm
management because they took large place and make the farmland fragile.

Managing the farmlands for recession agriculture has become labor intensive due to infestation
of this invasive weed. After the water shrinks, water hyacinth stay on the farm by penetrating its
long root to the ground, therefore farmers clean their farmland for planting crop by family and
employed laborers. Farmers spend a large amount of time and money for managing weeds when
they prepare their farm land for recessional agriculture. Water hyacinth invades smother grazing
lands at an alarming rate which directly or indirectly harm livestock. Land and water managers’
incur significant amount of costs for material and labor costs to control or reduce rate of
expansion of the weeds (Erkie Asmare2017).

According to (Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute 2017) the water Hyacinth is
highly infested at the coast of Dera, Fogera, Libokemkem, Gondar Zuria and Gorgora woredas.
In cause of those weed the rice production of this area it became too low because of capture farm
land and to reduction the employment.

Table 1 Mean area coverage water hyacinth in hectare

Woredas Name Area Coverage in Hectare

Dera 260
Fogera 755
Libokemkem 1038
Gondar zuria 780
Dembia 2563

Water hyacinth in Dembia woreda is higher than the remaining woredas. Agricultural activities
highly occur and the water hyacinth is highly affecting the growth and product of farmers’ crops.

15
There were about 5396 hectares of water hyacinth coverage has found in all woredas. Dembia
Woreda has covered 2563 hectares of water hyacinth and adversely affected by this invasive
Species than other woredas. Whereas, Dera woreda has the least areal extent coverage of water
Hyacinth than other woredas. Since In those wereda results the number of agricultural
productivity which include farm production, fish products decline, the number of unemployment
rise and increasing levels of municipal, industrial and agricultural pollution causing
eutrophication.

Generally, crop production on Ethiopia has one of the back bones on economic productivity.
Since theses production was declined on the presence of invasion water hyacinth weed on
farmland capture, difficult on plough land, reduced on water quantity, minimize milk product,
capture animal feeding grass on minimize labor forces and animal starve, died.

It has serious socio-economic and environmental problems for millions of people in riparian
communities. Our population livelihood was agricultural rather than industry as a result many of
the population were infected by different diseases. This is because of our country is mostly
affected by hyacinth which again affects crop production. Most of our populations are illiterate
& lives in rural part of the country as a result the peoples have poor knowledge and low ability
about abolished hyacinth weed.

2.2.4 The effect of Water hyacinth invasion in Ethiopia

Water hyacinth persistent species are extensively conventional as one of the foremost cause of
biodiversity loss and can have momentous possessions on resource accessibility and can restrain
or improve the comparative great quantity of inhabitant species, without unavoidably

According to (Dereje Tewabe, Erkie Asmare, Wondie Zelalem and Brehan Mohamed 2017)
Water hyacinth is a free-floating perennial, herbaceous, aquatic macrophyte that invades fresh
water rivers and lakes and grows rapidly, forming expansive colonies of tall interwoven dense
floating carpets of plants which often create impenetrable barriers and obstruct navigation.
It also infests estuaries, wetlands, streams, ponds, waterways as well as eutrophied lakes and
river mouth areas (Ndimele, Kumolu-Johnson & Anetekhai, 2011).

16
The recent times in regional city Bahar Dar, in Lake Tana one of the recorded in world aquatic
Biosphere Reserve in Ethiopia, so that this lakes Water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes
(Pontederiaceae, Liliales) one of the floating aquatic weed and the biosphere greatest destructive
weed because of its harmful possessions on marine living organism in the lakes living the water
body like fisheries, frogs, other and people’s livelihoods from the surrounding lakes great
influences on financial especially hindering problems on water transport activity, societal,
healthiness related to reduced water quality of the lake and ecological. In the surrounding areas
great problem on different types of diseased exposed the likes of malaria and bilharzias and
snakes, water dirty creation the supply unsuitable for drinking and other domestic use. Natural
foreign invasion be individual of the forceful forces of biodiversity defeat approximately the
world Pyšek P, Richardson D (2010) Wilson JR, Holst N, Rees M (2005).

Water hyacinth has caused severe environmental defeat of freshwater water bodies Gichuki J,
Odhiambo W (1994), Gichuki J, Omondi R, Boera P, Okorut T, Matano AS, et al. (2012).
The weed out-competes the indigenous species due to its rapid reproductive ability, which poses
a threat to aquatic biodiversity [Gichuki J, Omondi R, Boera P, Okorut T, Matano AS, et al.
(2012) .Due to its colonization, the water hyacinth also prevents the growth of vital
phytoplankton, and ultimately affects fisheries and other vital aquatic animals [Villamagna A,
Murphy B (2010)] Lake of Tana generates various employment opportunities for local residents.
This lake is a good job opportunity for the fishing industry, in the town of Bahar Dar. This
product selling to hotels, restaurants, lodges etc. Water hyacinth was pronounced to
encouragement destructively on the fitness of waterside communities. Decrease of oxygen levels
in the water creates and atmosphere inappropriate for fish existence, consequently dropping
species variety, Gerry H, Waage J, Phiri G (1997)
Water hyacinth was perceived to affect fisheries through reduced levels of production, a
reduction in species diversity, poor quality fish, rising cost of operation resulting in lower
income to fishers and higher prices to consumers LVEMP (1995). In the Lake Tana at list
Biosphere Reserve in Ethiopia, so that different type of the habitat of aquatic species. This one of
the indicator Water hyacinth show that the fish loss of habitat, contamination of the water,
fishing pressure subsidized to their deterioration Hecky RE (1993).

17
Water hyacinth the series consequence of these inflows includes the death of fish from oxygen
poisoning and amplified carbon dioxide and low oxygen meditation at evening and lastly
diminution of the oxygen due to breakdown of the departed biomass of algae and phytoplankton
Gopal B (19877) With substantial invasion it reasons very serious disturbance to commercial
fishing, boat transport, and infrastructure such as water supply by obstructive the consumption
points, port facilities and the hydro-electricity generation.

Under heavy infestation the socio-economic structure, food supply and health of the societies
exist in around the lake are extremely worried [Gopal B (1987]. The enlarged water hyacinth
invasion has, therefore, obstructed damagingly on the water quality and amount, fishing
activities, plankton life, farming and health. Rapid growth rate and infestation on large water
area is causing different problems [Shanab S, Shalaby E, Lightfoot D, El-Shemy H (2010),
Villamagna A, Murphy B (2010)]. The weed affects solar light penetration into water bodies,
reduces oxygen through decomposition, alters chemistry of water and substantially increases
water evapo transpiration ITDG (1997).

The leaves are broad, thick, glossy, and ovate and float above the water surface. They have long,
spongy and bulbous stalks. The feathery, freely hanging roots are purple-black. It is one of the
most productive plants on the earth and is considered the world’s worst aquatic weed. It tolerates
annual temperatures ranging from 21.1°C to 27.2°C and its pH tolerance is estimated at 5.0 to
7.5. The ‘beautiful blue devil’ water hyacinth, grows rapidly as a dense green mat over stagnant
water bodies such as lakes, streams, ponds, waterways, ditches and backwaters and is recognized
by its lavender flowers and shinning bright leaves. The plant is euryhaline, tolerating both fresh
and marine water; hence it spread sat an alarming rate Lata N, Veenapani D (2011).The so called
“menace and nuisance” has tremendous potentiality of high rates of vegetative growth. The plant
is now considered as a serious threat to biodiversity. The environmental hazards associated with
these plants are degraded water quality and drastic changes in the plant and animal community,
light and oxygen diffusion are severely curtailed reduction in water movement etc.

Generally, the effect of Water hyacinth invasion in Ethiopia has result from increase
evaporation and transportation of water, fishing opportunity access to sites become difficult
when weed infection is present. Fish population decrease as water begins to lose oxygen and
sunlight. Population of crocodiles and snakes increase. In area where fishermen are barely able to

18
sustain themselves from this industry, this was an economic disaster. It was also result the effect
water hyacinth were increase disease in the habitat, reduced income, reduced biodiversity,
clogging intakes of irrigation, hydropower and water supply system, increase unemployment,
increase by reduction of water quality and quantity compare to other country.
Water hyacinth persistent species are extensively conventional as one of the foremost cause of
biodiversity loss and can have momentous possessions on resource accessibility and can restrain
or improve the comparative great quantity of inhabitant species, without unavoidably being the
powerful force behind community change. It was also perceived to affect fisheries through
reduced levels of production, a reduction in species diversity, poor quality fish, rising cost of
operation resulting in lower income to fishers and higher Prices to consumers.

2.2.5 Factors promoting the growth and infestation of water hyacinth

The world has experienced rapid population growth, industrialization, urbanization and land use
change for the past years. These anthropogenic activities have often lead to increase in the waste
generated and crop production to carter for the growing population (Harley et al., 1997).
Industrial and domestics wastewater carry along nutrients and eventually find their way into
water bodies as run-off (Harley et al., 1997). The unpredictable rapid growth rate of the weed is
attributed by the eutrophication and absence of natural enemies of the plant in water bodies
which cause the weed to bloom (Labrada et al., 1996).

Wilson et al. (2007) considered temperature as one of the strongest determinants for the growth
and reproduction of water hyacinth. The increase in temperature leads to rapid growth and
reproduction of water hyacinth. These physical and chemical parameters will help identify the
pollution sources that cause the infestation of water hyacinth in the River. In Zambia, the water
hyacinth infested massively freshwater bodies during the early 1960‟s and rapidly spread in
many areas such as Kafue River, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Kariba and Kafubu River (Villamagna
and Murphy, 2010). For example, wastewater from the Kafubu and Water Sewerage Company
contribute eutrophication of the river and which influences the growth of water hyacinth, which
has serious consequences on socio-economic activities around Lake Kariba (Lusaka Voice,
2014).

19
Generally, the world has experienced rapid population growth, industrialization, urbanization
and land use change for the past years. In Zambia, the water hyacinth infested massively
freshwater bodies compare to other African country which include Ethiopia. Water hyacinth has
grown rapidly in Lake Victoria due to run-off and wastewater carrying nutrients from
agricultural activities.

2.2.8 Control Measures and management of water hyacinth

According to, Melaku Getachew Ayalew (2016) Water hyacinth is an aggressive invasive weed
that surfaces on water bodies, such as lakes, rivers, and dams. Research conducted on its
productivity shows that it can reproduce itself every two to three weeks depending on the
nutrient condition of the water body. The weed can grow up to a height of 1 meter. It has no
known direct food value to wildlife, and hence is regarded as a pest. If left unchecked, water
hyacinth can cover entire water bodies by forming thick floating mats. Lake Tana is the one in
which water hyacinth infestation highly occurred.

According to local sources, water hyacinth was first observed on Lake Tana at Chera kebele of
Dembya woreda around 2011/2012 (2004 E.C.). By 2015, a significant swath of the lake’s
northern and northeastern shores could be seen covered by water hyacinth. Estimates suggest that
the weed currently covers 25,000 hectares of the lake. Recent media reports suggest that the
weed is spotted on the Abbay River as far as the edges of the Tis Issat Falls, demonstrating the
weed’s capacity to expand itself to new areas.

The precise cause of water hyacinth invasion of Lake Tana is not well recognized. The first
infestations were found near the mouth of the Megech River on the northern shores of the lake. A
detailed survey estimating the water hyacinth coverage of the lake was 40,000 ha of which Libo
Kemkem Woreda.

20
Figure 2: Dense mat and new invasion of hyacinth on Dembya and Gumara

Comprehensive local estimates of economic impacts of water hyacinth in the affected areas of
the Ethiopian water bodies have not been done yet, except for the Wonji-Shoa Sugar state which
incurred about US$ 100,000 in total from 2000 to 2013 for the control of this weed (Firehun et
al., 2014). For Ethiopia, which has an economy highly dependent on agriculture and high
population growth, it is prudent to effectively manage its water resources. Moreover, since most
of the rivers affected by water hyacinth in Ethiopia cross the country border and feed
neighboring countries, effective management of the local water resources would benefit
livelihoods of riparian residents in the neighboring countries.

Generally, Methods to control and contain the weed in Ethiopia include manual as well as
mechanical clearing and in some spots also chemical control. Use of herbicides, even though
effective, is not popular in Ethiopia because of high costs and pollution Therefore, the success of
these methods of control has been rather limited. In contrast, successful bio control of water
hyacinth is long lasting, cost efficient and safe. . Not sincere because in one side avoidance in the
water body but it occurs in the other water body part. Use of biological agents for water hyacinth
control includes arthropods and pathogens.

21
Ethiopia has an economy highly dependent on agriculture and high population growth; it was
prudent to effectively manage its water resources. since most of the rivers affected by water
hyacinth in Ethiopia cross the country border and feed neighboring countries, effective
management of the local water resources would benefit livelihoods of riparian residents in the
neighboring countries.

2.3 Concpual Framewok

22
Fig 3: concpual framwok of the review

Three main control methods for management of water hyacinth

1 .Biological control – According to the Water Act of 2011, biological control method is the most
sustainable, easier and economic friendly long term method, which has been widely used to control
the water hyacinth on water bodies (ITDG, 1999). Under suitable conditions, biological control
using the weevils N.eichhorniae and N.bruchi reduces weed infestations to between 20% and 5%
of its original cover within 3-5 years (Mashingaidze, 2003).

23
According to (Mercy Mbula Ndola District, Zambia). This is a long-term control method and is
recommendable for its user friendly and provides a sound economic and sustainable control
method (ITDG, 1999). This method involves the host specific natural enemies to reduce the
population density of the weed. Several insects such as weevils, moth and fungi are used as
control agents for the water hyacinth (Cilliers, 2003). In Australia, the method has been
successful through regular release of the weevils Neochetina eichhorniae and N. bruchi, and the
moth same odes albiguttalis, and has successfully reduced the population density of water
hyacinth (Labrada et al., 1996). Also in Lake Victoria biological control under surveillance and
regular monitoring has been successfully applied to defeat water hyacinth (Lake Victoria Basin
Commission, 2016).

To sum up, biological control method is the most sustainable, easier and economic friendly long
term method. It has also long-term direct practice and is suggested for its consumer friendly and
provides a sound financial and sustainable manage way. It has used weevils N.eichhorniae, moth,
fungi and N.bruchi reduces weed infestation.therfore those control method of water hyacinth are
economically more effective, efficiency, profitable and solve risk problem than other control
method.

Figure 4: biological control of water hyacinth Lake Tana

24
1. Physical control - Although this method is mostly used around the world, it is very expensive
to apply and uses equipment such as mechanical mowers and dredgers. The method can only
solve small infested areas hence is not a sustainable long term solution (ITDG, 1999). It requires
fleet of vehicles to transport large quantities of water hyacinth after it has being removed and the
mats of water hyacinth can have a density of up to 200 tons per acre (Harley et al., 1997).

25
 Figure 5: physical control of water hyacinth Lake Tana

1. Chemical control - This method uses herbicides such as 2, 4-d, Diquat and Glysophate
to control water hyacinth (Labrada et al., 1996). It is ideal for small infestation areas not
big areas. Application is done either on the ground or air with skilled operators. The
method has environmental and health concerns as herbicides can be harmful, especially
sources used for drinking and washing (ITDG, 1999). Apart from the three control
methods, Harley et al. (1997) suggested that if the amount of nutrients entering any water
body is decreased, this automatically reduces the infestation and growth of the water
hyacinth.

Generally, Methods on control water hyacinth invasion weed in Ethiopia has biological,
physical and chemical method. For instance biological and chemical controlled method are
contrast idea, in biologist says every living thing not die but economist say only save source of
water no consider other living thing. The income water is source of other living thing. As
economist the only controlled method invasion hyacinth species was diametrically eradicated by
chemical method. It was consider only spare (salvage) water sources not consider other source of
product Therefore, the success of these methods of control has been rather limited. In contrast,
successful bio control of water hyacinth is long lasting, cost efficient and safe. Not sincere
because in one side avoidance in the water body but it occurs in the other water body part.

26
 3. Conclusions

Water hyacinth (E. crassipes) is a flowering, floating, freshwater plant, native to South America.
It has beautiful, large, pale-blue flowers, with purple and yellow spots on the petals and shiny,
round green leaves. The flower can be bought in local markets, such as in Dakar, Senegal, where
it is a source of income for women. Unfortunately, it grows and spreads so quickly in warmer
climates that it is now known as the world's worst water weed.
Water hyacinth is one of the most chronic environmental and socio economic problems of the
present situation in Ethiopia. To avert the global as well as local environmental disaster and
economical malefactor being brought by water hyacinth , it is imperative to take action
quickly and on a vast scale. The weed obstructs electricity generation, irrigation, navigation,
and fishing; increases water loss resulting from evapotranspiration; and facilitates proliferation
of such diseases as bilharzias. Experts agree that sufficient knowledge of the biological,physical,
mechanical, and chemical means of controlling water hyacinth exists in Ethiopia . Centres within
the region also have the expertise to handle the weed problem. However, these centres, together
with affected communities, governments, and support organizations, have usually failed to
mobilize efforts in time to prevent the weed from spreading to crisis levels.
Water bodies in Ethiopia are important for fisheries, domestic and industrial water supplies,
livestock and irrigation, transportation, communication, sports, recreation,and tourism. They are
also important in moderating the climate, as well as sustainingthe gene pools of an assemblage of
plants, fish, insects, reptiles, and birds. In Ethiopia rivers, lakes, swamps, and lagoons, water
hyacinth has been increasing at an alarming rate. The interdependence of the networks of African
waters in neighbouringstates has facilitated its spread to new aquatic environments.
Water hyacinth has severe socioeconomic effects on human populations in areas where people
depend on lakes and rivers for transportation, fishing, drinking,and meeting other needs. The
weed increases the rate of water loss and interfereswith agricultural and hydroelectric-power
schemes.

27
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