Chapter three

Nuclear Reactors and Power Plant Types

3.1 General Nuclear reactor

Nuclear reactors are devices in which atomic nuclei are allowed to

interact in a controlled way giving a yield of energy in the form of heat. It
is possible that in the future fusion reactor will be built, but all existing
commercial reactors are based on fission.

A reactor is a very efficient source of energy: the fission of 1g of a

suitable nuclide per day evolves energy at the rate of about 1MW, as
compared with the combustion of 2.6 tons of coal per day needed for the
same output.

The only naturally-occurring fissile material is the uranium isotope U235

in comparison with a heavier isotope U238. So, a process of enrichment
is needed to produce uranium fuel for most reactors.

There are several components common to most types of reactors:

Fuel: - Usually pellets of uranium oxide (UO2) arranged in tubes to

form fuel rods. The rods are arranged into fuel assemblies in the reactor
core.

Moderator: - This is material, which slows down the neutrons

released from fission so that they cause more fission. It may be water,
heavy water, or graphite.

Control rods:- These are made with neutron-absorbing material such as

cadmium, hafnium or boron, and are inserted or withdrawn from the core

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 to control the rate of reaction, or to halt it. (Secondary shutdown systems
involve adding other neutron absorbers, usually as a fluid, to the system.)

Coolant: - A liquid or gas that circulating through the core so as to

transfer the heat from it.

Pressure vessel or pressure tubes: - Either a robust steel vessel

containing the reactor core and moderator, or a series of tubes holding the
fuel and conveying the coolant through the moderator.

Steam generator: - Part of the cooling system where the heat from the
reactor is used to make steam for the turbine.

Containment: - The structure around the reactor core which is designed

to protect it from outside intrusion and to protect those outside from the
effects of radiation or any malfunction inside. It is typically a meter-thick
concrete and steel structure. There are several different types of reactors
as indicated in the following table.( http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-
ref/students.html)

Table (3.1)

Reactor type Main Number GW Fuel Coolant

Countries

Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) US, France, 252 235 Enriched Water
Japan, Russia UO2

Boiling US, Japan, 93 83 Enriched Water

Water Sweden UO2
Reactor
(BWR)

Gas-cooled Reactor (Magnox & UK 34 13 Natural U CO2

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 AGR) (metal),
Ýenriched
UO2

Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor Canada 33 18 Natural Heavy

CANDU (PHWR) UO2 water

Light Water Graphite Reactor Russia 14 14 Enriched Water

(RBMK) UO2

Fast Neutron Reactor (FBR) Japan, 4 1.3 PuO2 and Liquid

France, UO2 sodium
Russia
0.2
Other Russia, Japan 5
364.5
TOTAL 435

GW = capacity in thousands of megawatts.

Most reactors need to be shut down for refueling, so that the pressure
vessel can be opened up. In this case refueling is at intervals of 1-2 years,
when quarters to a third of the fuel assemblies are replaced with fresh
ones. The CANDU and RBMK types have pressure tubes (rather than a
pressure vessel enclosing the reactor core) and can be refueled under load
by disconnecting individual pressure tubes.

If graphite or heavy water is used as moderator, it is possible to run a

power reactor on natural instead of enriched uranium. Natural uranium
has the same elemental composition as when it was mined (0.7% U-235,
over 99.2% U-238), enriched uranium has had the proportion of the
fissile isotope (U-235) increased by a process called enrichment,
commonly to 3.5 - 5.0%. In this case the moderator can be ordinary

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water, and such reactors are collectively called light water reactors.
Because the light water absorbs neutrons as well as slowing them, it is
less efficient as a moderator than heavy water or graphite.

Practically all fuel is ceramic uranium oxide (UO2 with a melting point of
2800°C) and most is enriched. The fuel pellets (usually about 1 cm
diameter and 1.5 cm long) are typically arranged in a long zirconium
alloy (zircaloy) tube to form a fuel rod, the zirconium being hard,
corrosion-resistant and permeable to neutrons. Zirconium is an important
mineral for nuclear power, where it finds its main use. It is therefore
subject to controls on trading. It is normally contaminated with hafnium,
a neutron absorber, so very pure 'nuclear grade' Zr is used to make the
zircaloy, which is about 98% Zr plus tin, iron, chromium and sometimes
nickel to enhance its strength. Numerous rods form a fuel assembly,
which is an open lattice and can be lifted into and out of the reactor core.
In the most common reactors these are about 3.5 meters long.

Burnable poisons are often used (especially in BWR) in fuel or coolant to

even out the performance of the reactor over time from fresh fuel being
loaded to refueling. These are neutron absorbers which decay under
neutron exposure, compensating for the progressive build up of neutron
absorbers in the fuel as it is burned. The best known is gadolinium, which
is a vital ingredient of fuel in naval reactors where installing fresh fuel is
very inconvenient, so reactors are designed to run more than a decade
between refueling .

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 Fig 3.1 nuclear reactors diagram

3.2 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

This is the most common type, with over 230 of which are in use for
power generation and further several hundred in naval propulsion. The
design originated as a submarine power plant. It uses ordinary water as
both coolant and moderator. The design is distinguished by having a
primary cooling circuit, which flows through the core of the reactor under
very high pressure, and a secondary circuit in which steam is generated to
drive the turbine.

A PWR has fuel assemblies of 200-300 rods each, arranged vertically in

the core, and a large reactor would have about 150-250 fuel assemblies
with 80-100 tones of uranium.

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Water in the reactor core reaches about 325ƒC (feet cubic), hence it must
be kept under about 150 times atmospheric pressure to prevent it boiling.
Pressure is maintained by steam in a pressuriser (see diagram). In the
primary cooling circuit the water is also the moderator, and if any of it
turned to steam the fission reaction would slow down. This negative
feedback effect is one of the safety features of the type. The secondary
shutdown system involves adding boron to the primary circuit.

Fig 3.2 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR)

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Fig 3.3 PWR vessel and internals

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The secondary circuit is under less pressure and the water here boils in
the heat exchangers, which are thus steam generators. The steam drives
the turbine to produce electricity, and is then condensed and returned to
the heat exchangers in contact with the primary circuit.

3.3 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

This design has many similarities to the PWR, except that there is only a
single circuit in which the water is at lower pressure (about 75 times
atmospheric pressure) so that it boils in the core at about 285ƒC(feet
cubic). The reactor is designed to operate with 12-15% of the water in
the top part of the core as steam, and hence with less moderating effect
and thus efficiency there.

The steam passes through drier plates (steam separators) above the core
and then directly to the turbines, which are thus part of the reactor circuit.
Since the water around the core of a reactor is always contaminated with
traces of radionuclides, it means that the turbine must be shielded and
radiological protection provided during maintenance. The cost of this
tends to balance the savings due to the simpler design. Most of the
radioactivity in the water is very short-lived*, so the turbine hall can be
entered soon after the reactor is shut down.

A BWR fuel assembly comprises 90-100 fuel rods, and there are up to
750 assemblies in a reactor core, holding up to 140 tones of uranium. The
secondary control system involves restricting water flow through the core
so that steam in the top part means moderation is reduced.

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 Fig3.4 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

Fig 3.5 Boiling Water Reactor (BWR) vessel and internals

3.4 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR or CANDU)

The CANDU reactor design has been developed since the 1950s in
Canada. It uses natural uranium (0.7% U-235) oxide as fuel, hence needs
a more efficient moderator, in this case heavy water (D2O). With the
CANDU system, the moderator is enriched (i.e. water) rather than the
fuel.

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The moderator is in a large tank called a calandria, penetrated by several
hundred horizontal pressure tubes which form channels for the fuel,
cooled by a flow of heavy water under high pressure in the primary
cooling circuit, reaching 290ƒC. As in the PWR, the primary coolant
generates steam in a secondary circuit to drive the turbines. The pressure
tube design means that the reactor can be refueled progressively without
shutting down, by isolating individual pressure tubes from the cooling
circuit.

A CANDU fuel assembly consists of a bundle of 37 half meter long fuel

rods (ceramic fuel pellets in zircaloy tubes) plus a support structure, with
12 bundles lying end to end in a fuel channel. Control rods penetrate the
calandria vertically, and a secondary shutdown system involves adding
gadolinium to the moderator. The heavy water moderator circulating
through the body of the calandria vessel also yields some heat (though
this circuit is not shown on the diagram above).

Fig 3.6 Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR or CANDU)

3.5 Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR)

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These are the second generation of British gas-cooled reactors, using
graphite moderator and carbon dioxide as coolant. The fuel is uranium
oxide pellets, enriched to 2.5-3.5%, in stainless steel tubes. The carbon
dioxide circulates through the core, reaching 650ƒC and then past steam
generator tubes outside it, but still inside the concrete and steel pressure
vessel.

Control rods penetrate the moderator and a secondary shutdown system

involves injecting nitrogen to the coolant.

The AGR was developed from the Magnox reactor, also graphite
moderated and CO2 cooled, and a number of these are still operating in
UK. They use natural uranium fuel in metal form.

Fig 3.7 Advanced Gas-cooled Reactor (AGR)

3.6 Light water graphite-moderated reactor (LWGMR)

This is a Soviet design, developed from plutonium production reactors. It

employs long (7 meter) vertical pressure tubes running through graphite

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moderator, and is cooled by water, which is allowed to boil in the core at
290°C, much as in a BWR. Fuel is low-enriched uranium oxide made up
into fuel assemblies 3.5 miters long. With moderation largely due to the
fixed graphite, excess boiling simply reduces the cooling and neutron
absorption without inhibiting the fission reaction, and a positive feedback
problem can arise.

3.7 Advanced reactors

Several generations of reactors are commonly distinguished. Generation I

reactors were developed in 1950-60s and relatively few are still running
today. They mostly used natural uranium fuel and used graphite as
moderator. Generation II reactors are typified by the present US fleet and
most in operation elsewhere. They typically use enriched uranium fuel
and are mostly cooled and moderated by water. Generation III are the
Advanced Reactors, the first two of which are in operation in Japan and
others are under construction or ready to be ordered. They are
developments of the second generation with enhanced safety.

Generation IV designs are still on the drawing board and will not be
operational before 2020 at the earliest, probably later. They will tend to
have closed fuel cycles and burn the long-lived actinides now forming
part of spent fuel, so that fission products are the only high-level waste.
Many will be fast neutron reactors.

More than a dozen (Generation III) advanced reactor designs are in

various stages of development. Some are evolutionary from the PWR,
BWR and CANDU designs above, some are more radical departures. The
former include the Advanced Boiling Water Reactor, two of which are
now operating with others under construction. The best-known radical

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new design is the Pebble Bed Modular Reactor, using helium as coolant,
at very high temperature, to drive a turbine directly.

Considering the closed fuel cycle, Generation I - III reactors recycle

plutonium (and possibly uranium), while Generation IV are expected to
have full actinide recycle.

3.7.1 Fast Neutron Reactors

Some reactors (only one in commercial service) do not have a moderator

and utilise fast neutrons, generating power from plutonium while making
more of it from the U-238 isotope in or around the fuel. While they get
more than 60 times as much energy from the original uranium compared
with the normal reactors, they are expensive to build and await resource
scarcity to come into their own. See also Advanced Reactors paper.

Primitive reactors the world's oldest known nuclear reactors operated at

what is now Oklo in Gabon, West Africa. About 2 billion years ago, at
least 17 natural nuclear reactors achieved criticality in a rich deposit of
uranium ore. Each operated at about 20 kW thermal. At that time the
concentration of U-235 in all natural uranium was 3.7 percent instead of
0.7 percent as at present. (U-235 decays much faster than U-238, whose
half-life is about the same as the age of the Earth.) These natural chain
reactions, started spontaneously by the presence of water acting as a
moderator, continued for about 2 million years before finally dying away.

During this long reaction period about 5.4 tones of fission products as
well as 1.5 tones of plutonium together with other transuranic elements
were generated in the orebody. The initial radioactive products have long
since decayed into stable elements but close study of the amount and
location of these has shown that there was little movement of radioactive

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wastes during and after the nuclear reactions. Plutonium and the other
transuranics remained immobile.

4 Nuclear power Stations For Electrical Energy

4.1 Nuclear power plant types

The structure of a nuclear power plant in many aspects resembles to that

of a conventional thermal power station, since in both cases the heat
produced in the boiler (or reactor) is transported by some coolant and
used to generate steam. The steam then goes to the blades of a turbine and
by rotating it, the connected generator will produce electric energy. The
steam goes to the condenser, where it condenses, i.e. becomes liquid
again. The cooled down water afterwards gets back to the boiler or
reactor, or in the case of PWRs to the steam generator.

Several nuclear power plant (NPP) types are used for energy generation
in the world. The different types are usually classified based on the main
features of the reactor applied in them. The most widespread power plant
reactor types are:

 Light water reactors: both the moderator and coolant are light water
(H2O). To this category belong the pressurized water reactors
(PWR) and boiling water reactors (BWR).
 Heavy water reactors (CANDU): both the coolant and moderator
are heavy water (D2O).

 Graphite moderated reactors: in this category there are gas cooled

reactors (GCR) and light water cooled reactors (RBMK).
 Exotic reactors (fast breeder reactors and other experimental
installations).

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  New generation reactors: reactors of the future.

Fig 4.1 nuclear power station

4.2 Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Power Plant Type

The pressurized water reactor belongs to the light water type: the
moderator and coolant are both light water (H2O). It can be seen in the
figure that the cooling water circulates in two loops, which are fully
seperated from one another.

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The primary circuit water is continuously kept at a very high pressure and
therefore it does not boil even at the high operating temperature. (Hence
the name of the type.) Constant pressure is ensured with the aid of the
pressurizer (expansion tank). (If pressure falls in the primary circuit,
water in the pressurizers is heated up by electric heaters, thus raising the
pressure. If pressure increases, colder cooling water is injected to the
pressurizer. Since the upper part is steam, pressure will drop.) The
primary circuit water transfers its heat to the secondary circuit water in
the small tubes of the steam generator, it cools down and returns to the
reactor vessel at a lower temperature.

Since the secondary circuit pressure is much lower than that of the
primary circuit, the secondary circuit water in the steam generator starts
to boil (red). The steam goes from here to the turbine, which has high and
low pressure stages. When steam leaves the turbine, it becomes liquid
again in the condenser, from where it is pumped back to the steam
generator after pre-heating.

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 Fig (4.2) Details of Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) Plant

COMPONENTS Of (PWR)
1 Reactor vessel 2 Fuel elements 3 Control rods
4 Control rod drive 5 Pressurizer 6 Steam generator
7 Main circulating pump 8 Fresh steam 9 Feed water
10 High pressure turbine 11 Low pressure turbine 12 Generator
13 Exciter 14 Condenser 15 Cooling water
16 Feed water pump 17 Feed water pre-heater 18 Concrete shield
19 Cooling water pump

Normally, primary and secondary circuit waters cannot mix. In this way it
can be achieved that any potentially radioactive material that gets into the
primary water should stay in the primary loop and cannot get into the
turbine and condenser. This is a barrier to prevent radioactive
contamination from getting out.

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In pressurized water reactors the fuel is usually low (3 to 4 percent)
enriched uranium oxide, sometimes uranium and plutonium oxide
mixture (MOX). In today's PWRs the primary pressure is usually 120 to
160 bars, while the outlet temperature of coolant is 300 to 320 °C. PWR
is the most widespread reactor type in the world: they give about 64% of
the total power of the presently operating nuclear power plants.

PWRs keep water under pressure so that it heats, but does not boil. Water
from the reactor and the water in the steam generator that is turned into
steam never mix. In this way, most of the radioactivity stays in the reactor
area.

The functions of the Pressurized Water Reactor are: -

1/ To provide structural support for the fuel
2/ To maintain a pressure boundary for the reactor coolant
3/ To transfer heat from the fuel to the water
4/ To not allow bulk boiling (nucleate boiling like you see in the bottom
of a pot just starting to boil is OK)

4.3 PWR Cycle :-

The Pressurized Water Reactor designs are similar for the units provided
by the various manufacturers. Differences are illustrated by the table
below:-

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Table (4-2)

Reactor
Steam
Coolant
Manufacturer MW MW Loops Pressurizer Generators
Pumps
per Loop
per Loop

450- 167-
Westinghouse 1-4 1 1 1
3000 1000

2700- 900-
Framatome 3-4 1 1 1
3600 1300

Babcock & 2400- 800-

2 1 2 1
Wilcox 3000 1000

Combustion 2400- 800-

2 1 2 1
Engineering 3600 1300

ABB 3000 1000 4 1 1 1

Mitsubishi 3000 1000 4 1 1 1

(http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/basic-ref/students.html)

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