UNIT – I

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1.0Introduction : This unit will discuss the basic concepts of research, its importance. The
categories of research, scientific research, hypothesis and its concepts, and qualities of a good
research will also be covered in this unit.

2.0 Learning Objectives:

On completion of this unit you will be able to

Define research and hypothesis

Understand the process of scientific research and its application in analyzing business
problems
Learn the different types of research and understand the applications.
Understand the responsibilities of the researcher and the manger.
Describe what is hypothesis and its importance in research.

1.0 MEANING OF RESEARCH

A careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts in any branch
of knowledge. Redman and Mory defines research as a “systematized effort to gain new
knowledge. Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known to
the unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery.
 Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical
sense. According to Clifford Woody research comprises of defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypotheses or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether the fit the formulating hypothesis.

OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet.

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it.

2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group.
3. To determine the frequently with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else.
4. To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables.

TYPES OF RESEARCH
1. Fundamental, Pure or Theoretical Research
(i) Discovery of a new theory : Fundamental Research may be entirely new
discovery, the knowledge of which has not existed so far. Such a discovery
may follow from the researcher’s own idea or imagination. This really depends
upon how genius a researcher is. The researcher is often born-genius, has a
sharp intellect, is thirsty for knowledge and eventually has an ocean of
knowledge in his possession and from this ocean emerges a jewel that
 enlightens the world. This discovery may have nothing to do with an existing
theory.

(ii) Development of the existing theory : These days, this type of research is also
held to take the shape of an improvement in the existing theory by relaxing
some of its assumptions or by reinterpreting it or be developing a new theory
with the existing one as its basis. Since theory is always based on assumptions,
there often exists enormous scope for altering or formulating new set of
assumptions and adding new dimensions to the existing theory. There also
exist the possibilities of re-interpretation of the theory that has already been
developed. A researcher may as well take off from the existing theories and
come out with a new one of his own. The assumptions of a theory should
always be well defined and plausible. Relaxing assumptions, altering them or
making new ones altogether depends upon how a researcher views the existing
theory. Thus the theory in its existing form may appear to be outdated and
implausible with the prevailing conditions. For example , Malthusian
population theory became almost useless in his own country owing to new
developments invalidating the assumptions of his theory.

2. Applied Research
This type of research is based on the application of known theories and models to the
actual operational fields or populations. The applied research is conducted to test the
empirical content or the basic assumptions or the very validity of theory under given
conditions. For example, Lewis’s growth model for labour surplus economies assumes that
real wage rate of labour shall remain constant till the surplus labour is completely wiped out;
it may be of interest to a researcher to investigate if it so happens in every labour surplus
economy. Researcher may accordingly apply Lewis model to an economy, which by known
tests has been identified as labour surplus and examine if the real wage rate does remain
constant. This may or may not happen. The model may accordingly hold or not in case of that
economy. In case of a theory or model not holding good, the researcher’s interest may further
be stimulated to know why a given model does not apply and what modifications would be
required to make the model operational in that situation. Applied research contributes to
social science (1) by providing the kind of convincing evidence of the usefulness to society
which is necessary to continuing support: (2) by utilizing and developing techniques which
can also be made to serve so-called basic research; and (3) by providing data and ideas which
may speed up the process of generalization.

Applied research often takes the form of field investigation and aims at collecting the
basic data for verifying the applicability of existing theories and models in given situation.
Naturally, therefore the adequacy and accuracy of data will have considerable impact on the
way in which the applicability of a model can be tested.

Various Categories of Research

The present view of categorizing research is somewhat different and we shall new
discuss the categories of research in that perspective. The research these days is categorized as
(i) Ex-post Facto research; (ii) Laboratory or experimental research; (iii) Field investigation
research; (iv) Survey research; (v) Evaluation research; and (vi) Action research.

(i) Ex-Post Facto Research. Ex-post facto research is systematic empirical inquiry
in which the scientist does not have direct control of independent variables
because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are
inherently not manipulable. Inferences about relations among variables are
made, without direct intervention, from concomitant variations of independent
and dependent variables. This kind of research is based on a scientific and
analytical examination of dependent and independent variables. Independent
variables are studied in retrospect for seeking possible and plausible relations
and the likely effect that the changes in independent variables produce on a
single or a set of dependent variables. In ex-post research, the researcher’s
control on the behavior of independent variables is very week and in many
 cases no control is possible. Social sciences particularly do not afford a
possibility of controlling the changes in the behavioral pattern of independent
variables. These are usually affected by complex social phenomena and one
can only examine how the dependent variable is affected by such situations.
Ex-post facto research, therefore, has to take things as these are and examine
separately or wholly their impact on the explained variables. The ex-post facto
research may be carried out on a limited scale or on a very large scale
depending upon the techniques of research are available with the researcher
and what is the nature of the investigation that researcher has undertaken.

In any case, this type of research has some of the weaknesses, which, at times, obstruct
its application and adaptability on a larger scale. The weaknesses are:

1. The inability to control the changing patterns of independent variables.

2. Secondly, the ex-post facto research findings carry the risk of improper interpretations.
3. Thirdly, the ex-post facto research may not have any particular hypothesis as there is a
likelihood that such a hypothesis my predict a spurious relationship between
independent and dependent variables. However, despite these weaknesses there is
considerable scope for conducting research of this type in social sciences. Since most
of the social behavioral problems cannot be subjected to experimental investigations,
ex-post facto research is a good explanatory instrument of changes that take place in
the dependent variables. If the set of independent variables is carefully selected and
proper techniques adopted for analyses, meaningful insights can be gained into the
changing pattern of dependent variables. It can even be said that ex-post facto research
is more important than experimental research.

(i) Laboratory or Experimental Research. By definition, research of this type

is confined to laboratory experiments alone. The basic feature of such
research is that there exists a possibility of exercising control over
independent variables and isolating their influences for plausible
 explanations. “ A laboratory experiment is a research study in which the
variance of all or nearly all of the possible influential independent variables
not pertinent to the immediate problem of the investigation is kept at a
minimum. This is done by isolating the research in a physical situation
apart from the routine of ordinary living and by manipulating one or more
independent variables under rigorously specified operation a lased, and
controlled conditions. This type of research has a limited application in
social sciences as it is extremely difficult to study social variables in
isolation of each other. However, it may, at times be possible to create a
situation, wherein a maximum control can be exercised to keep the
variations among the independent variables at a minimum. In such cases
laboratory experiment type of research may find its applicability in social
research as well.

(ii) By making use of experimental research we can make out what happens over a
period of time to a group of slum families residing in a low-rent public housing project,
meanwhile observing also the change in a control group of low income families living in slum
dwellings for the same period. To rule out the disturbing effects of differences in family size,
income, education patterns, etc., these factors are held constant by matching the experimental
group of residents against the control group on these factors.

Laboratory experiments usually help to discover relations under pure and

contaminated conditions. These are also treated as test fixable from known theories and
models and are also held as competent to refine or modify the existing theories and a related
hypothesis.

(iii) Fiend Investigation Research. “A field experiment is a research study in a

realistic situation in which one or more independent variables are manipulated
by the experimenter under as carefully controlled conditions as the situation
 will permit. Where the laboratory experiment has a maximum of control, most
field studies must operate with less control, a factor that is often a severe
handicap to the experiment. The weakness of field experiment, therefore, is of
practical nature. The control cannot be held as very tight, the investigator
himself works under several influences and may at times be faced with
unpleasant situations and the independent variables may get significantly
affected by uncontrolled environmental influences.

A field experiment is generally credited with a few virtues which are supposed
to be unique to this category of research. These virtues may be listed as

(1) the variables in a field experiment operate more strongly than those used in
laboratory experiment. This is because of the fact that field situation takes
stock of realistic natural operations.
(2) Secondly field experiments have the advantage of investigating more
fruitfully the dynamics of inter- relationships of small groups of variables. (3)
Field experimental studies are also ideal to testing of the theory and to solution
of the real world problems.

Field experimental studies, therefore, are important part of the applied research
which, at times, play an important role in pointing out the nature and direction
of the refinements required for an existing doctrine.

(iv) Survey Research ; This type of research has become very popular these days a
scientific method for discovering relevant impact and inter-relationships of
social and psychological variables form given populations. Survey research
studies large and small populations by selecting and studying samples chosen
form the populations to discover the relative incidence, distribution and inter-
relations of sociological and psychological variables. Population. Populations
may be small or large and the survey research can work well by resorting to
sampling practices. If survey research is also called as sample survey research,
 it will not be inappropriate. Survey research as a matter of fact has developed
as research activity along with the development of sampling theory and its
diverse procedures. The advantage of this type of research is that it links
sample investigations with populations and thereby offers an easy opportunity
of studying population behavior through sample survey research assessments.
Survey research is mostly devoted to the study of characteristics of the
populations under investigations.

Survey research is approached through the methods of personal

interviews, mailed questionnaires and personal discussions besides indirect
oral investigation. These days this type of research is held to be significant in
making valuable contribution to social science research methodology. It has
directly helped in the improvement of the sampling procedures and their
applicability to real world situations besides also suggesting improvements in
resolving the complex situations to unambiguous experimentation with a view
to obtaining research findings.

This type of research has the advantage of greater scope in the sense
that a larger volume of information can be controlled form a very large
population. Survey research, no doubt, is more expensive but the amount and
quality of information that is collected makes such investigation very
economical.

This type of research, however, suffers form some limitations, which could be listed as
follows;
a It is charged that survey information touches only the surface of the research
field and does not make a deeper thrust into it.
b It is also charged with demanding of more time, effort and money.
c Sometimes if sample information’s have not been collected very carefully, the
magnitude of sampling error may be too large to render the sample results
reasonably accurate.
 d Since the sample research is based on the respondents interviews, the problems
of inhibitions, indifference and unawareness of the nature and purpose of
investigation renders survey information invalid or at least imprecise.

Despite the weakness mentioned above, survey research holds a greater promise for social
researchers in future for exploring socioeconomic information in diverse population

IV Evaluation Research;
Evaluation research is a recent addition to the types of research. It
would be appropriate to call this category of research as a product of
developmental programming which has been adopted on a very large
scale in recent years, more particularly after Second World War when
most of the Third World Countries emerged of the development
science. This type of research is primly directed to evaluate the
performance of the developmental projects and other economic
programmers that have already been implemented. The objective being
to realistically assess the impact of any such programmers. Evaluating
is held to mean comprehensive concepts of measurement and its
because of this definition of evaluation that project evaluations have
become frequent in the recent years.

V Action Research
Action research is also a recent addition to the categories of
research known to a modern social scientist. By its very definition, it is
research through launching of a direct action with the objective of
obtaining solutions to the given Problems. In conducting research
through launching of the changes that take place in given populating.
Action research is spread over different phases such as a base line
survey, where all the possible information of research interest is
collected to enable the researcher to acquaint himself with the existing
or operational situations. This also aims at collecting information from
other sources that have direct or indirect bearing of the research
Programme. At the second phase, the planned action is practically
launched and then at the next phase action research carries out
periodical assessment of the project.

The methods used for this type of research are usually personal
interview method and the survey method. Sometimes attitude
measurement techniques are also made use of. Some problems
associated with action research are the personal values of the
individuals, lack of social scientist’s interest and exclusive locations
with the respondent.

A research in its basic order may not be much different than

merely conducting survey research at different stages. It has, however,
the advantages o direct-action oriented solutions to the real world
problems and sometimes ha the potentialities of suggesting significant
improvements in the existing solution. Actions research warrants a
through insight into the research problems and an equally effective
commander the actions proposed to be launched for research findings.
SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads
to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention. Research inculcates scientific and inductive
thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and organization.

The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business
or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.

Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system. For instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires
of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs.

Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with
motivational research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more then one way, in
taking business decisions.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and
in seeking answers to various social problems. Research in social sciences is considered both
with knowledge for its own sake and with knowledge for what it can contribute to practical
concerns. This double emphasis is perhaps especially appropriate in the case of social science.

FORMULATION OF RESEARCH PROPOSAL

The research design in a way tells us what observations to make, how to make them
and how to analyze the quantitative representations of the observations. There may not be
such thing as a single or correct research design. "Research design represents a compromise
dictated by the many practical considerations that go into social research.
 A research design usually comprises of the following major steps:

1. Selection and statement of research problem;

2. Formulation of Hypothesis;
3. Methodology and definitions of concepts and variables;
4. Data collection; and
5. A resume of related literature.

1. Selecting a Topic for Research

The selection of a research topic is very important job for a researcher. The range of
potential topics for research is as broad as the range of social behavior itself. As is
usually the case every problem may not be researchable and, therefore, if the
researcher has not been able to select the problem properly, his efforts may not yield
the desired results and in some cases it may lead to frustration and desperateness of
the researcher. The selection of problem is not simple. On the face of it, the
selection of a problem may appear to be simple but when one envisages the
operational difficulties of putting a design into effective research, he may find that
the selection of problem is a very complex phenomenon and warrants several
considerations. There is no foolproof rule which will guide the investigator in
formulating significant questions about a given research area. Here, the training and
gifts of the individual are of major importance.

The selection of research problem firstly depends of whether research is being

conducted as a requirement of a degree or it is for academic interest. If the research
is only to fulfill some requirements for obtaining a degree, the problem may be more
specific and limited in scope and may offer itself for completion with in a pacified
time, If the researcher fails to select such a problem as would be completed in a
reasonable amount of time, he would often run into difficulties and may go without
the desired degree.
 Sources of Research Problems
The research problems may be selected form the following sources;
1. Theory of one’s own interest;
2. daily problems;
3. technological changes;
4. unexplored areas; and
5. Discussions with supervisor.

A researcher may select a problem for investigation form a given theory in which he
has considerable interest. In such situations the researcher must have thorough
knowledge of that theory and should be sufficiently inquisitive to explore some
unexplained aspects or assumptions of that theory. Research problem can also be
selected on the basis of daily experience of a researcher. Every day problems
constantly present something new and worthy of investigation and it depends on the
sharpness of the researcher’s intellect to knit his daily experiences into a research
problem.

Technological changes in a fast changing society are constantly bringing forth

new problems and new opportunities for research. What is the impact of a changed
technology on the existing socio-economic setup, always interest the researcher and
tempts him to undertake such studies as are revealing regarding the impact of new
technology on the existing system.

Research problems can be both abstract and of applied interest. These may
also be selected form those areas which have not been explored so far. Such areas
may be theoretical or empirical in nature. For example, an economic analysis of hill
farming systems in a region where such an investigation has not been undertaken
 earlier is a useful piece of research. In a similar fashion many geographical regions
about which no knowledge exists can easily be taken up for research purposes.
Sometimes the researcher while discussing his interests with his proposed
supervisor may come across a problem that can be researched by the investigator. The
problem may relate to any source as discussed above. In the same way reading
assignments in text books, special assignments, research reports and term papers may
also suggest some additional areas of needed research. Many research articles suggest
problems for further investigation that may prove fruitful. Such specialized sources as
the, Encyclopedia of Social Sciences Research, Dissertation Abstracts, International
and similar other publications are rich sources for problem seekers.

2. Formulation of Hypothesis
The next important part of a research is the formulation of a hypothesis. A
Hypothesis is an assertion that the investigator seeks to investigate. A hypothesis is "a
proposition, condition, or principle which is assumed, perhaps without belief, in order
to draw out its logical consequences and by this method to test its accord with facts
which are known or may be determined." According to G.A. Lundberg. "A hypothesis
is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested. In its most
elementary stage, the hypothesis may be any hunch, guess, imaginative idea, which
becomes the basis for action or investigation.

Goode and Hatt have defined it as "a proposition which can be put to tests to
determine its validity." An hypothesis looks forward. It is proposition which can be
put to a test to determine its validity. It may seem contrary to, or in accord with,
common sense. It may prove to be correct or incorrect. In any event, however, it
leads to an empirical test. Whatever the outcome, the Hypothesis is a question put in
such a way that an answer of some kind can be forthcoming. It is an example of the
organized skepticism of science, the refusal to accept any statement without empirical
verification. Formulation of hypothesis gives definite point to the inquiry, aids in
establishing direction in which to proceed, and helps to delimit the field of enquiry by
 singling out the pertinent facts on which to concentrate and by determining which
facts should be set aside, at least for the time being. The use of hypothesis, thus
prevents a blind research and indiscriminate gathering of data which may later prove
irrelevant to the problem under study" In this connection Lundberg Observes;-
" The only difference between gathering data without a hypothesis and gathering them
with one is that in the latter case we deliberately recognize limitations of our senses
and attempt to reduce their fallibility by limiting our field of investigation so as to
permit a greater concentration of attention on the particular aspect which past
experience leads us to believe are significant for out purpose."

The formulation of hypothesis, thus, is very crucial and the success or the failure of a
research study depends upon how best it has been formulated by the researcher. We
may conclude by saying that it is hard to conceive modern science in all its rigorous
and disciplined fertility without the guiding power of hypothesis.

QUALITIES OF WORKABLE HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis should have the following characteristics:

i The hypothesis should be conceptually clear. To have

a clear conception of a hypothesis two things are must: one, the concepts should be
those which are commonly accepted and communicable rather than the products of a
"Private world". It may be discussed with fellow students and other researchers in the
field to see if it carries that exact sense.

ii The Hypothesis should be specific. The hypothesis

should not be vague or ambiguously formulated. It must be specific, rigid and
reasonable in its contents and definition.
iii Capable of empirical test. The Hypothesis should be
such as can be put to empirical test.
iv Related to body of theory;
It is desirable that the hypothesis selected must be in continuation with theory already
evolved. A researcher may select a subject matter which is "interesting" without
finding out whether he will really help to refute, qualify or support any existing
theories of social relations. A science, however, can be cumulative only by building
on an existing body of fact and theory. It cannot develop if such a study is an isolated
survey.

v Related to available technique.

Whatever hypothesis has been formulated should have an available technique for its
testing. "The theorist who does not know what techniques are available to test his
hypothesis is in a poor way to formulate usable questions". However, this quality of
being related to existing technique is not an absolute necessary. If the problem is
significant enough as a possible frame of reference it may be useful to know whether
or not it meets the test of the time. For example, socio-economic hypotheses of Marx
were not proved by his data since necessary techniques were not available.
Nevertheless, Marxian frameworks are an important source of more precise, smaller,
verifiable propositions. Goode and Halt have rightly pointed out "In any serious
sociological discussion, research frontiers are continuously challenged by the assertion
that various problems "ought' to be investigated even though the investigations are
presently impossible."

Importance of Hypothesis:
The formulation of the Hypothesis is a central step in good research and it is
important to give it a great deal of thought. There is little doubt that hypotheses are
indispensable tools of scientific research and in absence of a proper or suitable
hypothesis, a lot of time and labor of the researcher will be waste in fruitless research.
Criteria of Good Research
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is
important is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them.
One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria.

i The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.

ii The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit

another researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been attained.

iii The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results
that are objective as far as possible.

iv The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design
and estimate their effects upon the findings.

v The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate.

vi Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

vii Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a

good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

Technique Involved in Defining a Problem

 Let us start with the question; What does one mean when he/she wants to define a
research problem? The answer may be that one wants to state the problem along with the
bounds within which it is be studies.

How to define a research problem is undoubtedly a herculean task However, it is a

task that must be tackled intelligently to avoid the perplexity encountered in a research
operation. The usual approach is that the researcher should himself pose a question (or in
case some one else wants the researcher to carry on research, the concerned individual,
organization or an authority should pose the question to the researcher) and set-up techniques
an procedures for throwing light on the light on the question concerned for formulating or
defining the research problem.

Defining a research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of a research study
and must in no case be accomplished hurriedly. However, in practice this is frequently
overlooked which causes a lot of problems later on. The technique for the purpose involves
the undertaking of the following steps generally one after the other:

i Statement of the problem in a general way;

ii understanding the nature of the problem
iii surveying the available literature;
iv developing the ideas through discussions; and
v rephrasing the research problem into working proposition

A brief description of all these points will be helpful.

Statement of the problem in a general way;

First of all the problem should be stated in a broad general way, keeping in
view either some practical researcher must immerse himself thoroughly in the
subject matter concerning which he wishes to pose a problem. The
problem stated in broad general way may contain various ambiguities which
must be resolved by cool thinking and rethinking over the problem. At the
 same time the feasibility of a particular solution has to be considered and the
same should be kept in view while stating the problem.

i Understanding the nature of the problem:

The next step in defining the problem is to understand its origin and nature
clearly. The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with those
who first raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about
and with what objectives in view. The researcher should also keep in view the
environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.

ii Surveying the available literature:

All available literature concerning the problem at hand must necessarily be
surveyed and examined before a definition of the research problem is given.
This means that the researcher must be well-conversant with relevant theories
in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature.
Studies on related problems are useful for indicating the type of difficulties
that may be encountered in the present study as also the possible analytical
shortcomings. At times such studies may also the possible analytical
shortcomings. At times such studies may also suggest useful and even new
lines of approach to the present problem.

iii Developing the ideas through discussions:

Discussion concerning a problem often produces useful information. Various
new ideas can be developed through such an exercise. Hence, a researcher
must discuss his problem with his colleagues and others who have enough
experience in the same area or in working on similar problems. Discussions
with such persons should not only be confined to the formulation of the
specific problem at hand, but should also be concerned with the general
approach to the given problems, techniques that might be used, possible
solutions, etc.
 iv Rephrasing the research problems:
Finally, the researcher must sit to rephrase the research problem into a working
proposition. Once the nature of the problem has been clearly understood, the
environment (within which the problem has got to be studied) has been
defined, discussions over the problem have taken place and the available
literature has been surveyed and examined. rephrasing the problem into
analytical or operational terms is not a difficult task.

Selecting the Problems

The research problem undertaken for study must be carefully selected. The task is a
difficult one, although it may not appear to be so. Help may be taken form a research guide in
this connection. Nevertheless, every researcher must in out his own salivating for research
problem cannot be borrowed. A problem must spring form the researcher’s mind like a plant
springing form its own seed. The following points may be observed by a researcher in
selecting a research problem or a subject for research

i Subject which is overdone should be not be normally chose, for it will be a difficult
task to throw any new light in such a case.

ii Controversial subject should not become the echoic of an average researcher

iii Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.

iv The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related
research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.

The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs
involved, and the time factor are few other criteria that must also be considered in selecting
a problem.
 The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study. This may not be
necessary when the problem requires the conduct of a research closely similar to one that
has already been done.

1.2 Scientific Method

Meaning
Research is a scientific endeavor. It involves scientific method. "The scientific
method is a systematic step – by step procedure following the logical processes of
reasoning." Scientific method is a means for gaining knowledge of the universe. It does
not belong to any particular body of knowledge; it is universal. As Karl Pearson
emphasizes "the scientific method is one and same in all branches and that method of all
logically trained minds the unity of all sciences consists alone in their method not in their
mutual relation describes their sequence is a man of science.

"Science is not wrapped up with any particular body of facts." Science is independent
of any particular subject matter. "It takes knowable universe for its subject. It deals with
physical as well as psychical processes, with man as much as with nature.

Basis of Scientific Method

The Scientific method is based on certain "articles of faith." These are:
- reliance on empirical evidence
- Use of relevant concepts
- commitment to objectivity
- ethical neutrality
- generalization
- Verifiability
- logical reasoning process.

1. Reliance on evidence:
 Truth is established on the basis of evidence. Conclusion is admitted, only
when it is based on evidence. Scientific method involves a systematic process. The
answer to a question is not decided by intuition or imagination. Relevant data are
collected through observation or experimentation.
The validity and the reliability of data are checked carefully and the data are analyzed
thoroughly, using appropriate methods of analysis. Conclusion is reached on the basis
of the result of analysis.

2. Use of Concepts:
We experience a vast number of facts through our senses. Facts are things
which actually exist. In order to deal with them, we use concepts with specific
meanings. Concepts are logical constructs or abstractions created form sense
impressions, percepts and experiences. They are symbols representing the meaning
that we hold. We use them in our thinking and communication. Otherwise clarity and
correct understanding cannot be achieved.

3. Commitment to objectivity:
Objectivity is the hallmark of the scientific method. It means forming a
judgment upon facts unbiased by personal impressions. According to Green
"Objectivity is the willingness and ability to examine evidence dispassionately." The
conclusion should not vary form person to person. It should be the same for all
persons. A person of science must "above all things... strive at self-elimination in his
judgment and provide and argument which is as true for each individual mind as his
own.

4. Ethical neutrality:
Sciences do not pass normal judgment on facts. It does not say that they are
good or bad. As Schroedniger says, "Science never imposes anything, science states.
Science aims at nothing but making true and adequate statements about its objects.
5.Generalizations:
Scientists are not concerned with isolated events, but with the commonality of
a series of events. They aim at discovering "under the surface layer of diversity the
thread of uniformity. Around a discovered uniformity a logical class and its observed
pattern, a descriptive generalization is formulated. In formulating a generalization, we
should avoid the danger of committing the particularistic fallacy, which arises through
an inclination to generalize on insufficient or incomplete and unrelated data. This can
be avoided by the accumulation of a large body of data and by the employement of
comparisons and control gorups.

6.Verifiability:
The conclusions arrived at by a scientist should be veifiable. He must make
known to others how he arrived at his conclusions. He should thus expose his own
methods and conclusions to critical scrutiny. When his conclusion is tested by others
under the same conditions, then it is accepted as correct. Such verification through
replication may either confirm established conclusions or modify them or even
invalidate them. For example, originally an atom was considered to be indivisible, but
subsequent researches have proved that it is divisible and thus provided the basis for
developing atomic energy.

7.Logical reasoning process:

The scientific method involves the logical process of reasoning. This
reasoning process is used for drawing inference form the finding of a study or for
arriving at conclusion. For example, in a survey of the expenditure pattern on basic
necessaries forms a very high proportion of the total expenditure, it is concluded that
lower the household income, the higher is the proportion spent on basic necessaries.
The logical reasoning process consists of induction and deduction.
. Induction
Meaning: Induction is one of the methods of logical reasoning process.
The inductive method consists of studying several individual cases and drawing a
generalization. Therefore, induction involves two processes observations and
generalization. Conclusions form induction is tentative inferences and they are subject
to further confirmation based on more evidence.

When followed: This method is followed when new facts are studied,
new truths are uncovered and new generalizations are formulated form a research
project. For example, in a farm management study it is proposed to test the
hypothesis; "

Analytic induction
Involves case – by – case analysis of specific features of a problem. Cressey
outlined the step – by – step procedure of analytic induction:
1 Define the phenomenon to be explained.
2 Formulate Hypothesis to explain the phenomenon.
3 Study a case to determine whether hypothesis fits in the case.
4 If the hypothesis does not fit the facts, either reformulate the hypothesis
or redefine the phenomenon so that the case is excluded. (This definition
must be more precise than the first one).
5 Examine a small number of cases to attain practical certainty; but
whenever a negative case disproving the explanation is discovered,
reformulate the hypothesis.
6 Continue this procedure of examining cases, redefining the phenomenon
and reformulating the hypothesis, until a universal relation ship is
established.
7 For purposes of proof, examine cases outside the area circumscribed by
the definition to determine whether or not the final hypothesis applies to
them.
Deduction

Meaning : Deduction is reasoning process of applying a general accepted

principle to a specific individual case falling under the general principal. It is regarded "as
reasoning from the general to the particular. This reasoning established a "logical relationship
between a major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion." A major premise is a
previously established generalization or assumption; a minor promise is a particular case
related to the major premise. The logical relationship of these premises lead to conclusion,
e.g.,
Major premise All men are mortal
Minor Premise A is a man
Conclusion A is mortal.

Use: This deductive method of moving from the general assumption to the specific
application is useful for solving problems. But it is not useful in arriving at new truths. The
inductive process overcomes this limitation of deductive process.

Essential conditions:
The conditions necessary for valid deduction are:
1 The general rule or assumption must be correct.
2 The general rule must be applied only to the cases which properly fall under it.

The general rule of the major premise must be correct, If it is not correct, then the
conclusion cannot be correct. For example, consider the following deduction;
Major premise All regular employees are insincere.
Minor premise Kumar is a regular employee.
Conclusion Kumar is insincere.
 The conclusion is justified only if both the premises are acceptable as true.
The truth of the minor premise is easy to determine, but the major premise is not true.
The argument is therefore defective, even if Kumar turns out to be insincere.

Relevance of Induction and Deduction:

The logical processes of both induction and deduction are useful in research
studies. Both are "inseparable parts of a system of reasoning. In other words, distinct
process of inductive and deductive reasoning does not exist." Both processes are often
used simultaneously. There is a sequencing of induction deduction processes, which
is described by John Dewey as the "double movement of reflective thought." When a
puzzling condition occurs, one seeks inductively to explain by a hypothesis. In turn,
the hypothesis is used in the deduction of further facts which can confirm or deny the
truth of the hypothesis. For example, the chief executive of an enterprise observes that
profits are lower than expected (Fact). He asks. "what is the cause”? His tentative
conclusion (Hypothesis) is "Hower profits are due a fall in sales." He examines the
sales records and finds that the actual sales volume is lower than the budgeted figure
(fact). This fact confirms his hypothesis. Now he may raise a second problem of
competition, he infers (Hypothesis) "competition accounts for a fall in sales." He will
analyze the market reports received form regional offices and verify the truth of this
hypothesis. This process of fact/question/ hypothesis/deducted fact /
confirmation/question, and so on may be continued till the final explanation is arrived
at.

Requisites of a good scientific Method

The essentials of a good scientific method as summed up by the Advisory
Committee on Economic and Social Research of the Council of Social Science
Research are:
 1 Careful logical analysis of the problem, separating its elements and whenever
possible, formulating hypotheses;

2 Unequivocal definition of terms and concepts and statistical units and measures,
so that others will understand exactly and be able to repeat the analysis and test the
generalizations;
3 Collection of data pertinent to the problem under study;

4 Classification of data;

5 Expression of variables in quantitative terms whenever possible;

6 Rigorous and exacting experimental or statistical procedure in summarizing the

data and in isolating the attributes or variables and measuring their relationships
and inter – effects;

7 Sound logical reasoning as to the testing of hypothesis and drawing

generalizations;

8 Statement in unassailable terms of the exact conclusion arrived at from the

findings;
9 Specific and clear statement of generalizations to facilitate checking and
testing by others;

10 Complete elimination of personal equation; and

11 Complete and careful reporting of the research process, definitions and the
methods of analysis so that others can check the analysis or test the generalizations
with new sets of data.

The Components of Scientific Approach

 The scientific approach has two components: the procedural and the personal.

Procedural component:
The procedure of scientific method involves the following major steps:
1 Define the problem
2 Establish hypothesis as to causes/explanations/ solutions of the problem.
3 Collect the data.
4 Analyze the data to test the hypotheses and draw inferences.

The researcher must have a thorough knowledge of the subject-matter of the

problem so as to formulate a conceptual model for its study. He must
operationalise the concepts to determine the data requirements. He must select
appropriate methods for collection of data

The researcher must have a thorough knowledge of the subject matter of the problem
so as to formulate a conceptual model for its study. He must operationlise the concepts to
determine the data requirements. He must select appropriate methods for collection of data
and use relevant statistical techniques and tests for testing hypotheses. All these steps require
creative imagination, extraordinary care and patience.

The Researcher’s personal qualities:

The researcher’s qualities and attitudes are more important than the procedural steps.
The researcher needs, as rightly emphasized by Eigelberner, "the scientific imagination to
construct hypotheses, the analytical ability to devise crucial experiments to test the
hypotheses, the resourcefulness, manipulative skill and persistence to carry through the
experiment, the perspective which distinguishes the essential from then non-essential, and the
reasoning which coordinates individual facts into a principal. He must possess integrity,
honesty, sincerity, poise and perseverance. He must also possess "the spirit of independence
and the spirit of originality.
Scientific Attitude:
Above all, the scienctific method calls for scientific attitude. The scientific attitude is
based on a complexity of elements, viz.,
 Consistent thinking;

 Objective, dispassionate and unbiased devotion to collection and treatment of facts;

 Overcoming personal preconceptions and value judgments, be cause they not only
have a distorting effect on the data but are also highly insidious;

 Avoiding, personal and vested interests – the scientist does not tailor his views to fit
preconceived notions or preferences of men in power;

 Avoiding wishful thinking;

 Stubborn determination to analyze one’s own system of thinking and taking nothing
for granted without evidence, tests and proofs

 "Faith in the universality of cause and effect." without this faith, a pursuit of scientific
knowledge may be flouted whenever it interferes with special interest or prejudices;

 Ardent curiosity, fertile imagination and love of experimental inquire;

 Ability to rise form failure with a new curiosity and new sense of inquiry;
 "Compassion and understanding" – without these knowledge could be dangerous;

 Patience and self-control and ability to overcome wishful thinking; and

 Keeping an open mind.

All these elements are components of the scientific attitude. "These elements tend to correct
not only factual error, but also mental, emotional and volitional frailties of a research worker.

WHY STUDY RESEARCH?

The study of research methods provides you with the knowledge and skills you
need to solve the problems and meet the challenges of a fast-paced decision-making
environment. Business research courses are recognition that students preparing to
manage business, not-for-profit, and public organizations – in all functional areas need
training in a disciplined process for conducting an inquiry related to a management
dilemma. Three factors stimulate an interest in a scientific approach to decision
making:

1 The manager’s increased need for more and better information.

2 The availability of improved techniques and tools to meet this need, and
3 The resulting information overload if discipline is not employed in the process.

During the last two decades, we have witnessed dramatic changes in the
business environment. Emerging from a historically economic role, the business
organization has evolved in response the social and political mandates of national
public policy, explosive technology growth, and continuing innovation in global
communications. These changes have created new knowledge needs for the
manager and new publics to consider when evaluating any decision. Other
knowledge demands have arisen form problems with mergers, trade policies,
protected markets, technology transfers, and macroeconomic savings – investment
issues.

THE VALUE OF ACQUIRING SKILLS

You can profit by having research skills in at least five situations.
1 As. a decision maker you’ll often feel the need for more information before selecting a
course of action Your options are limited if there is no one to whom you can delegate this
task. You either make an intuitive judgment without gathering additional information, or
you gather the data yourself with some reasonable level of skill. Gathering information
may involve data mining existing databases and information sources or collecting new
information. At the early levels of your career in management, when you experience is
limited and your intuitive judgment less reliable, it should be obvious which option in
better.

2 In a second instance, you may be called on to do a research study for a higher-level

executive. Such a task, often coming early in your career, can be seen as a career –
boosting opportunity; it can be the chance to make a favorable impression on that
executive

3 The third scenario has you buying research services form others or evaluating proposals
for research prepared by others. If you can understand the research design proposed and
adequately judge th equality of the planned activities and the likelihood that such activities
will assist you in making a decision, you can save your organization both time and money

4 Because much decision making relies on using information collected during prior
research projects, with research skills you will be able to deal professionally with the
fourth scenario: evaluating the applicability of prior research to assist in resolving a
current management dilemma

5 A fifth reason to study research methods is so that you may establish a career as a
research specialist. As a specialized function, research offers attractive career
opportunities, especially in financial analysis, marketing research, operations research,
public relations, and human resources management, Job opportunities for research
specialists exist in all fields of management and in all industries
WHAT MUST THE RESEARCHER ACCOMPLISH?
Reporting: At the most elementary level, an inquiry may be made only to provide an
account or summation of some data, perhaps the generation of some statistics. The task may
be quite simple and the data readily available. At other times, the information may be
difficult to find. A reporting study calls for knowledge and skill with information sources and
gatekeepers of information sources. Such a study usually requires little inference or
conclusion drawing.

Descriptive: Descriptive studies try to discover answers to the questions who, what,
when, where, and sometimes how. The researcher attempts to describe or define a subject,
often by creating a profile of a group of problems, people, or events. Such studies may
involve the collection of data and the creation of a distribution of the number of times the
researcher observes a single event or characteristic (known as a research variable), or they
may involve relating the interaction of two or more variables.

Descriptive studies may or may not have the potential for drawing powerful
inferences. Organizations that maintain databases of their employees, customers, and
suppliers already have significant data to conduct descriptive studies using internal
information. Yet many firms that have such data files do not mine them regularly for the
decision-making insight they might provide.

The descriptive study is popular in business research because of its versatility across
disciplines. In not-for-profit corporations and other organizations, descriptive investigations
have a broad appeal to the administrator and policy analyst for planning, monitoring, and
evaluating. In this context, how questions address issues such as quantity, cost, efficiency,
effectiveness, and adequacy.

Explanatory
Academics have debated the relationship between the next two types of studies,
explanatory and predictive, in terms of which precedes the other. Both types of research are
grounded in theory, and theory is created to answer why and how questions. For our
purposes, an explanatory study goes beyond description and at tempts to explain the reasons
for the phenomenon that the descriptive study only observed. This would be a descriptive
study if it had stopped here. But if problems in the processes could be linked with sales losses
due to an inability to make timely deliveries to retail or wholesale customers, then an
explanatory study would emerge. The researcher tests this hypothesis by modeling the last
year of business using the relationships between processes and results.

Predictive
If we can provide a plausible explanation for an event after it has occurred, it is
desirable to be able to predict when and in what situations the event will occur. A Predictive
Study, the fourth type, is just as rooted in theory as explanation. The aviation industry may be
interested in explaining the radiation risks for flight crews and passengers form the sun and
stars. The variables might include altitude, proximity of air routes to the poles, time of year,
and aircraft shielding. Perhaps the relations among the four variables explain the radiation
risk variable. This type of study often calls for a high order of inference making. Why, for
example, would a flight at a specified altitude at one time of year not produce so great a
radiation risk to the airliner’s occupants as the same flight in another season? The answer to
such a question would be valuable in planning air routes. It also would contribute to the
development of a better theory of the phenomenon. In business research, prediction is found
in studies conducted to evaluate specific courses of action or to forecast current and future
values.

Business Research Defined

Any of the four types of studies – reporting, descriptive, explanatory, or predictive –
can properly be called research. Business research as a systematic inquiry provides
information to guide business decisions.
All four cases presented meet this definition, but they suggest different stages of
scientific development.
How Scientific Is Business Research?
The development of scientific method in business research lags behind similar
developments in the physical science. Physical scientists have been more rigorous in their
concepts and research procedures. They are much more advanced in their theory
development than are business scientists. The public domain has sponsored much physical
research, some of it for hundreds of years. Governments have allocated billions of dollars to
support such research, driven by threat of war and national pride has also played a major role
in the advance of physical science. Much of the findings of their research are in the public
domain.

Business research operates in a less favorable environment in other ways too. Physical
research is normally conducted under controlled laboratory conditions; business research
seldom is. Business research normally deals with topics such as human attitudes, behavior,
and performance. Pepole think they already know a lot about these topics and do not easily
accept research findings that differ form their opinions.
One outcome of these trends is that research – based decision making will be more
widely used in the future than it has been in the past. Managers who are not prepared for this
change will be at a severe disadvantage.

WHAT IS GOOD RESEARCH?

Good research generates dependable data, being derived by practices that are
conducted professionally, that can be used reliably for managerial decision making. Good
research differs form poor research that is carelessly planned and conducted, resulting in data
that a manager can’t use to reduce his or her decision – making risks. Good research follows
the standards of the scientific method.

1 Purpose clearly defined. The purpose of the research – the problem involved or the
decision to be made – should be clearly defined and sharply delineated in terms as
unambiguous as possible. Getting this in writing is valuable even in instances where the
decision maker and researcher are the same person. The statement of the meanings of all
words and terms significant to the research. Failure of the researcher to do this adequately
may raise legitimate doubts in the minds of research report readers as to whether the
researcher has sufficient understanding of the problem to make a sound proposal to attack
it. This characteristic is comparable to developing a strategic plan before developing a
tactical plan or an action map for achieving an objective.

2 Research process detailed. The research procedures used should be described in

sufficient detail to permit another research to repeat the research. Except when secrecy is
imposed, research reports should reveal with candor the sources of data and the means by
which they were obtained. Omission of significant procedural details makes it difficult or
impossible to estimate the validity and reliability of the data and justifiably weakens the
confidence of the reader in the research and any recommendations based on the research.
This characteristic is comparable to developing a tactical plan.

3 Research design thoroughly planned. The procedural design of the research should be
carefully planned to yield results that are as objective as possible. When a sampling of the
population is involved, the report should include evidence concerning the degree of
representative ness of the sample. A survey of opinions or recollections ought not be used
when more reliable evidence is available form documentary sources or by direct
observation. Bibliographic searchers should be as thorough and complete as possible.
Experiments should have satisfactory controls. Direct observations should be recorded in
writing as soon as possible after the event. Efforts should be made to minimize the
influence of personal bias in selecting and recording data. This characteristic is
comparable to developing detailed action plans for each tactic.

4 High ethical standards applied. Researchers often work independently and have
significant latitude in designing and executing research projects. A research design that
includes safeguards against causing mental or physical harm to participants, and makes
data integrity of a first priority, should be highly valued. Ethical issues n research reflect
important moral concerns about the practice of responsible behavior in society.
Researchers frequently find themselves precariously balancing the rights of their subjects
sponsibility to guard the welfare of the participants in the studies, and also the
organizations to which they belong their clients, colleagues, and themselves. Careful
consideration must be given to research situations when there is a possibility for physical
or psychological harm, exploitation, invasion of privacy, and loss of dignity. The research
need must be weighed against the potential for adverse effects.

5 Limitations frankly revealed: The researcher should report, with complete frankness,
flaws in procedural design and estimate their effect on the findings. There are very few
perfect research designs. Some of the imperfections may have little effect on the validity
and reliability of the data; others may invalidate them entirely. A competent researcher
should be sensitive to the effects of imperfect design, and his or her experience in
analyzing the data should provide a basis for estimating their influences. As a decision
maker, you should question the value of research where no limitations are reported.

6 Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs; Analysis of the data should be
sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance, and the methods of analysis used should be
appropriate. The extent to which this criterion is met is frequently a good measure of the
competence of the researcher. Adequate analysis of the data is the most difficult phase of
research for the novice. The validity and reliability of data should be checked carefully.
The data should be classified in ways that assist the researcher to research to reach
pertinent conclusions and clearly reveal the findings that lead to those conclusions. When
statistical methods are used, the probability of error should be estimated and the criteria of
statistical significance applied.

7 Findings presented unambiguously. Some evidence pertinent ot estimates of the

competence and integrity of the researcher may be found in the report itself. Language hat
is restrained, clear, and precise; assertions that are carefully drawn and hedged with
appropriate reservations; and an apparent effort to achieve maximum objectivity tend to
leave a favorable impression of the researcher with the decision maker. Generalizations
that outrun the evidence on which they are based, exaggerations, and unnecessary verbiage
tend to leave an unfavorable impression. Such reports are not valuable to managers
wading through the minefields of business decision-making. Presentation of data should
be comprehensive, easily understood by the decision maker, and organized so that the
decision maker can readily locate critical findings.

8 Conclusions justified. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of

the research and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis. Researchers
are often tempted to broaden the basis of induction by including personal experiences and
their interpretations – data not subject to the controls under which the research data were
gathered. Equally undesirable is the all – too- frequent practice of drawing conclusions
form a study of a limited population and applying them universally. Research may also be
tempted to rely too heavily on data collected in a prior study and use it in the interpretation
of a new study. Such a practice is sometimes prevalent among research specialists who
confine their work to clients in a small industry. These actions tend to decrease the
objectivity of the research and weaken confidence in the findings. Good researchers
always specify the conditions under which their conclusions seem to be valid.

9 Researcher’s experience reflected. Greater confidence in the research is warranted if

the researcher is experienced, has a good reputation in research, and is a person of
integrity. Were it possible for the reader of a research report to obtain sufficient
information about the researcher, this criterion perhaps would be one of the best bases for
judging the degree of confidence a piece of research warrants and the value of any decision
on which it rests. For this reason, the research report should contain information about the
qualifications of the researcher.

These nine criteria provide an excellent summary of what is desirable in decision-

oriented research They are especially appropriate to guide research done by managers
themselves, for they create barriers to adjusting research findings to meet desired ends
rather than to reflect reality.
 Criterion 2 calls for a detailed proposal specifying what will be done, but in
many exploratory studies it is not possible to eb that precise prior to starting the study.
It is even more important, therefore, when researcher and manager are separated by
organizational boundaries, to state the nature of decision problem clearly and
unambiguously (Criterion1.)

The threat of bias is mentioned under criterion 2, but it should be given more
emphasis. The business researcher often knows form the beginning what results the
sponsor would like to have. To combat this potentially biasing influence, it may be
necessary to secure an understanding between manager and researcher before starting
that the objective is to uncover reality – wherever that leads.

Criterion 3 calls for complete disclosure of methods and procedures used in the
research study. This also is highly desirable, because it enables others to test findings
through replication. Such openness to scrutiny has a positive effect on the quality of
research. However, competitive advantage often militgates against methodology
disclosure in business research. Some time even the acknowledgement of a study’s
existence is considered unwise. For example, firms like J.D. Power and Associates
will not provide enough information on their methodology to repeat an automotive
market study. Similarly, neither Compaq nor IBM knew of the extensive research the
other was engaged in at the time each developed its low-cost line of desktop
computers. In the current litigation by states attorneys general against cigarette
companies performed studies manipulating nicotine levels to enhance the addictive
power of tobacco products.

The manager – Research Relationship

Information gathering is an integral part of any manager’s job. So it is not surprising
that many managers do their own research, at least part of the time. The lower a manager is in
the decision- making hierarchy, the more likely he or she is to do most of his or her own
research. When managers lack either research time or talent, they may delegate the task to a
staff assistant or a research specialist. This delegation of responsibility can result in greater
synergy, especially if the research is decision driven and each party makes a full contribution
to the joint venture.

In an organizational setting, the researcher should look on the manager as a client. An

effective working relationship between researcher adn manager is not achieved unless both
fulfill their respective obligations and several critical barriers are overcome.

Manager Researcher Contributions

The obligations of managers are to specify their problems and provide researchers
with adequate background information and access to company information gatekeepers. It is
usually more effective if managers state their problems in term of the decision choices they
must make rather than specify the information they think they need. If this is done, both
manager and researcher can jointly decide what information is needed.
Manager – Researcher Conflicts

Some conflicts between decision maker’s ad researchers are traced to management’s

limited exposure to research. Managers seldom have either formal training in research
methodology or research expertise gained through experience. And, due to the explosive
growth of research technology in recent years, a knowledge gap has developed between
managers and research specialists as model building and more sophisticated investigative
techniques have come into use. Thus the research specialist removes the manager form his
or her comfort zone: The manager must now put his or her faith, and sometimes his or her
career, in the hands of the research specialist and hope for the best.

In addition, managers often see research people as threats to their personal status.
Managers still view management as the domain of the "intuitive artist" who is the master in
this area.
 The researcher will inevitably have to consider the corporate culture and political
situations that develop in any organization. Members strive to maintain their niches and may
seek ascendancy over their colleagues.
A fourth source of stress for researchers is their frequent isolation from managers.
Researchers draw back into their specialty and talk among themselves. Management’s lack of
understanding of research techniques compounds this problem. The research department can
become isolated; reducing the effectiveness of conclusions a researcher may draw form
research findings.

Decision – Driven Research

Business research has an inherent value to the extent that it helps management make
better decisions. Interesting information about consumers, employees, or competitors might
be pleasant to have, but its value is limited if the information cannot be applied to a critical
decision.
Unit 2

TYPES AND METHODS OF RESEARCH

CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

Introduction

Although any typology of research in inevitably arbitrary, Research may be classified

crudely according to its major intent or the methods. According to the intent, research may be
classified as:
Pure Research
Applied Research
Exploratory Research
Descriptive Study
Diagnostic Study
Evaluation Studies
Action Research
According to the methods of study, research may be classified as:
Experimental Research
Analytical Study
Historical Research
Survey

The Nature of Classification

The above classification is not a watertight demarcation. It is just an approach to
differentiate the distinctive approaches to research for the purpose of understanding. The
different types of research are, of course, not sharply distinguishable form one another. There
may be overlapping between one type/method and another. For example, pure research may
involve experimentation or case study or analytical study; Evaluation studies may apply
experimental or survey Research may involve quasi-experimental approach or analytical
approach; and so on.

In the following sections, the meaning, nature and the other aspects of each of the
above types and methods of research are discussed.

Pure and applied Research:

Pure Research
Pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it
in practice, e.g., Einstein’s theory of relativity, Newton’s contributions, Galileo’s
contributions. etc.

Pure research is also known as basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of

intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It is not necessarily problem – oriented. It aims at
extension of knowledge. It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an
existing theory. The development of various science owes much to pure research. The
findings of pure research enrich the storehouse of knowledge that can be drawn upon in the
future to formulate significant practical researches. In the words of Dixey, "natural
knowledge pursued for its own sake without any direct view to future utility will often lead to
results of most unexpected kind and of very highest practical importance." Thus, pure
research lays the foundation for applied research. The findings of pure research formed the
basis for innumerable scientific and technological inventions like steam engine, machines,
automobiles, electronic gadgets, electronic data processing, telecommunication, etc., which
have revolutionized and enriched our human life.

Applied Research
Applied research is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an
action or policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action – directed. It seeks an
immediate and practical result, e.g., marketing research carried on for developing a new
market or for studying the post-purchase experience of customers.

 There is vast scope for applied research in the fields of technology,

management, commerce, economics and other social sciences. Innumerable
problems are faced in these areas. They need empirical study for finding
solutions.

Though the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find solutions to a practical

problem, it may incidentally contribute to the development of theoretical knowledge by
leading to the discovery of new facts or testing of a theory or to conceptual clarity.
The Interplay between pure and Applied Research

The distinction between pure and applied research is not absolute, but at best only
relative, for pure research may have significant potential for its application to the solution of a
practical problem now or later (e.g., application of Newton’s Law of Gravity in space
research); and applied research may end up making a scientific contribution to the
development of the theoretical knowledge (e.g., Elton Mayo’s Hawthorne Study’s
contribution to Behavioral science).

EXPLORATORY OR FORMULATIVE RESEARCH

Meaning
Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the
researcher has little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor’s initial investigation of a
patient suffering form an unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying it. "It is ill-
structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives." It usually takes the form of
a pilot study.

Though it is a separate type of research, it is appropriate to consider it as the first stage

of a three-stage process of exploration, description and experimentation.
Purposes
The Purpose of an exploratory study may be:

 to generate new ideas or

 to increase the researcher’s familiarity with the problem or
 to make a precise formulation of the problem or
 to gather information for clarifying concepts or
 to determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study.

An exploratory study does not aim at testing hypothesis. According to Daniel Katz, it
just attempts "to see what is there rather than to predict the relationships that will be founded."
But it should be so designed as provide as definite information as possible for a set of research
objectives.

Levels of Exploratory Studies

Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies. "At the first level is the
discovery of the significant variables in the situation: at the second, the discovery of
relationships between variables." It is necessary to delimit the area to be studied even at the
first level. Katz warns that it is a mistake to believe that one study is going to be able to
account for all the variance in complex social phenomena. He advises that "it is much more
effective to take one central set of variables and investigate them as thoroughly as possible as
to try to study the universe in the piece of research."

The Need for Exploratory Studies

Social Sciences are relatively young. Researches in them are scarce. Many of them
inevitably have to be exploratory ones. Few well-trodden paths exist to follow for the
investigators of social life. Most existing theories in social sciences are either too general or
too specific to provide clear guidance for empirical research. Hence exploratory research is
necessary to get initial insight into the problems for the purpose of formulating them for more
precise investigation. Hence it is also known as formulative research.
The Steps in Exploration
Selltiz and others have suggested the following three steps/methods for the exploratory
study;
1. A review of pertinent literature
2. An experience survey
3. An analysis of insight stimulating’ cases.

1. Literature Survey;
A study of related and pertinent books, articles and reports turns up a number of
leads and clues for further investigation that will advance the research. A workable
hypothesis may be formulated; important variables may be identified.

2.Experiences Survey;
Informal interviews with persons experienced in the area of study will help the
researcher in securing insight into the subject and its various facts. In selecting the person
for this survey, representation to different facts of experience should be given. For
example, in an exploratory study of the problem of rural development, it is profitable to
interview researcher familiar with rural studies, rural development administrators, social
workers, rural financial institutions and village leaders.

The researcher should prepare an interview guide so as to have an idea of issues and
aspects of the problems on which questions may be posed. Of course, this interview guide
should be flexible enough to explore various avenues that emerge during the interviews.

This survey may yield a new hypothesis and information on the various dimensions of
the study, facilities and cooperation available for the study, and the factors to be
controlled.
 Analysis of insight-stimulating cases: In an unexplored area of study, an intensive
study of some selected cases can yield stimulating insights. For example, the
extraordinary theoretical insights of Sigmund Freud on human Psyche were the result of
his intensive study of patients. Profound insights into the relationship between the
individual and society have been brought out by anthropological case studies of primitive
cultures.

Descriptive Research
Meaning
Descriptive study is a fact – finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is
the simplest type of research. It is more specific than an exploratory study, as it has focus on
particular aspects or dimensions of the problem studied. It is designed to gather descriptive
information and provides information for formulating more sophisticated studies. Data are
collected by using one or more appropriate methods: observation, interviewing and mail
questionnaire.

Criteria
All problems do not lend themselves to descriptive study. This method is applicable
to problems which satisfy certain criteria. First, the problem must be describable and not
arguable. For instance, philosophical and controversial issues are not suitable for descriptive
study. Second. the data should be amenable to an accurate, objective, and , if possible,
quantitative assemblage for reliability and significance. Third. it should be possible to
develop valid standards of comparison. Last, it should lend itself to verifiable procedure of
collection and analysis of data.

Objective
A descriptive study aims at identifying the various characteristics of community or
institution or problem under study, but it does not deal with the testing of propositions or
hypotheses. However, it "can reveal potential relationships between variables, thus setting the
stage for more elaborate investigation later.
 A descriptive study also aims at a classification of the range of elements comprising
the subject matter of study. The classification must satisfy tow criteria, viz.,
1. Exhaustiveness and
2. Mutual exclusiveness.

Exhaustiveness is achieved when all the important elements are identified. Mutual
exclusiveness occurs when each item can be unambiguously placed in only one category in
the system. Descriptive information should also be useful for explanation, prediction and
awareness.

Descriptive Study V. Analytical Study

A descriptive study identifies relevant variables but does not aim at testing hypotheses.
On the other hand, an analytical study is primarily concerned with testing hypotheses and
specifying and interpreting relationships.

A descriptive study is relatively less limited by the rigorous requirements of

measurement and analysis than an analytical study. An analytical study’s design
approximates to the model of an experimental design.

A descriptive study employs simple statistical techniques like averages and

percentages, but an analytical study employs advanced statistical techniques like correlation
and multivariate analysis.

Usefulness
The descriptive studies are useful in their own way.
1. They have much to contribute to the development of a young science, as
descriptive information can focus directly on a theoretical point. It may be
 useful in verifying focal concepts through empirical observation. "The more
adequate the description, the greater is the likelihood that the units derived
from the description will be useful in subsequent theory building."

2. Descriptive information can highlight important methodological aspects of

data collection and interpretation. The collection of factual data increases our
awareness of the relative accuracy of our measuring devices. Thus our ability
to accumulate further knowledge is significantly broadened.

3. Descriptive information obtained in a research may be useful for prediction

about areas of social life outside the boundaries of the research

4. Descriptive studies are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social
action programmers.

Limitations
The descriptive method of study has certain limitations:
1. It is not applicable to problems which cannot satisfy the required criteria
mentioned earlier.
2. The researcher may make description an end in itself. Research must lead to
discovery of facts.

3. Although social science problems are continuous and have a past and a future,
the researcher may lose him in current conditions only.

4. The researcher may tend to over – use statistics. In making statistical analysis,
its limitations should be recognized.

DIAGNOSTIC STUDY
Meaning
This is similar to descriptive study but with different focus. It is directed towards
discovering what is happening, why it is happening and what can be done about. It aims at
identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it.

Purpose
A diagnostic study may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether
certain variables are associated, e.g., are persons hailing from rural areas more suitable for
manning the rural branches of banks? Do more villagers than city-vote for a particular party?

Requirements
Both descriptive and diagnostic studies share common requirements, viz., prior
knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear – cut definition of the given
population, adequate methods for collecting accurate information, precise measurement of
variables, statistical analysis and test of significance. As the aim is to obtain complete and
accurate information about a given situation/ phenomenon, the research design must make
much more provision for protection against bias than is required in an exploratory study.

Diagnostic Study v. Descriptive Study

Though these two types of studies have in common emphasis on the specific
characteristics of given phenomenon, they differ form each other in some respects.
First, a diagnostic study is more directly concerned with causal relationships and with
implications for action than is a descriptive study.

Second, while a descriptive study is oriented towards finding out what is occurring, a
diagnostic study is directed towards discovering not only occurring but way it is occurring
and what can be done about it.

Third, a diagnostic study is more actively guided by hypotheses than is a descriptive

study.
 Last, a diagnostic study is not possible in areas where knowledge is not advanced
enough to make possible adequate diagnosis. In such cases, the social scientist limits his
effort to descriptive studies.

3.4 EVALUATION STUDIES

Meaning
Evaluation study is one type of applied research. It is made for assessing the
effectiveness of social or economic programmers implemented (e.g., irrigation project) on the
development of the project area.

Suchman defines evaluations as "determination of the results attained by some activity

(whether a programme, a drug or a therapy or an approach) designed to accomplish some
valued goal or objective."

Purpose
Evaluative research is, thus, directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of
an activity and its performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its
success. It is also concerned with change over time. As Suchman puts it, "evaluative research
asks about the kind of change the program views as desirable, the means by which the change
is to be brought about, and the signs according to which such change can be recognized."

Types of Evaluation
Evaluation is of three types:

1. Concurrent evaluation: This is a continuous process and partakes the nature of

an inspection or social audit of an on – going programme. It aims at the
evaluation of the quality of implementation and serves as a feed back for
improving the performance.
 2. Periodic evaluation: This is made after each distinct phase or state of a project
has been completed. In the case of a medium period time bound Programme
like 5-year plan, this evaluation may be done in the middle of the period and it
may be called mid-term/interim evaluation.

3. Terminal evaluation: This is done after the completion of a programme or

project (e.g., an irrigation project). This is designed to assess the extent of the
achievement of its goals or objectives. It may also involve a benefit-cost
analysis. In the case of a project with long-gestation period (e.g., an irrigation
project), the appropriate methodology for terminal evaluation will consist of a
survey-cum-experimental design.

Criteria of Evaluation Research

Weiss and Coleman list a number of specific criteria which distinguish evaluative
research form other types of research

First, evaluation research is usually conducted for a client who intends to use the
finding as a basis for decision-making. This is quite different form basic research which aims
at knowledge for its own sake.

Second, the evaluation research deals with his client’s questions relating to the latter’s
Programme, while the basic researcher formulates his own research questions.
Third, the evaluation researcher measures whether the Programme goals are being
reached. Other scientific researchers concern themselves with 'what is', rather than with
comparisons of 'what is ' with 'what ought to be'.

Fourth, unlike basic researcher who normally has control over research work, the
evaluation researcher works in a setting where priority goes to the Programme as opposed to
the evaluation. This means that the evaluation researcher must fit time schedule to the
Programme/project’s built-in-time schedule. The Programme staff tends to see data-
collection work as hindrance to their work.

Fifth, researcher- Programme personnel conflicts are inherent in a evaluation study.

While the researcher is interested in objective evaluation and public dissemination of results,
the project personnel expect that the evaluation results should be meant for in-house use only.

Nevertheless, evaluation research does not differ form other types of research in
methodology. The problems of reliability, validity, and operationalization and research
methods, techniques and principles are common to evaluation and other types of research.

ACTION RESEARCH
Meaning
Action research is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an
action Programme lunched for solving a problem for improving an existing situation.
In the quest for development, advancement, excellence and promotion of welfare of
people, government, institutions and voluntary agencies undertake action Programmes for
achieving specific goals or objectives. Land reform programmes, agricultural extension
programmes, social welfare programmes, human resource development programmes,
Programmes for improving the quality of life in fctiories and offices, etc., are some examples
of action programes.

Type of Action Research

Type I : Classical Design : Research and action are separate and independent. The
connection between research and ation is not purposely know/use the research finding. The
researcher may not deliberately gear his work toward contributing to the effectiveness of an
action protgramme.
 Type II : Interdependence of action and research: Action is carried out by an agency
not connected with a research institution. Research on action may be entrusted to an
independent research body. For example, government may launch a development programme
and a university social scientist may be welcomed to study the on-going programme. The
researcher may include in his report a section on implications for action, and give a copy of
the report to the implementing agency, but he had no further obligation to the action
programme.

Type III : Evaluative research built into an action programme : In this case, research
is dependent upon action, and the action people define the scope of the research.

Type IV: Action for research: Here the activities of the action programme are designed
and modified to carry out tests of hypotheses of research. For example, a researcher may
wish to test the relative effectiveness of three different methods of introducing family
planning information: Personal contact with the wife, personal contact with both husband and
wife, and impersonal contact through the mass media alone. For this research purpose, a
family planning programme applying each approach to different groups o couples with similar
characteristics and under similar circumstances has to be launched. Thus the research
requirements dictate how the action will be carried out.

Type V: Research – cum – action : Action and research go together as a joint

endeavor. Researcher and decision makers jointly design and launch the action programme
and research on it. Once the operational design is completed and action launched, they record
what happens under specified conditions. They may vary the conditions if they want.

Evaluation in Action Research

 Action research always has an evaluative component. As an action programme is
designed to bring about some change, an action research usually studies the following
questions as proposed by Hinkle

1. What is it that has changed?

2. How much has it changed (extent)?
3. How quickly has it changed (rate)?
4. What were the conditions before and after the change?
5. What occurred during the transition?
6. What were the stimuli that induced change?
7. Through what mechanisms did change occur?
8. What brought stabilization at a particular point in change?
9. Can directionality be observed in the change?
These questions indicate the problem areas which can be focus of evaluation. The
areas are:
1. Impact of the programme on intended recipients.
2. Extent of the programme’s effect on the intended recipients.
3. Time involved in bringing about the impact of effects.
4. Before – after measures of the variables which are supposed to undergo
change.
5. Identification of the events and processes that took place between the before-
and-after measures.
6. Analysis of the subject-matter or content of the programme.
7. Organizational, structural and operational aspects of the programme.
8. Factors in the Change introduced.
9. Direction of the changes observed relative to the objectives of the programme.

The Phases in the Action Research

The different phases in the action research are;
1. a baseline survey of the pre-action situation;
2. a feasibility study of the proposed action programme;
 3. planning and launching the programme;
4. concurrent evaluation of the programme;
5. making modifications and changes in the programme and its method of
implementation in the light of the research findings; and
6. final evaluation, if the programme is time – bound.

The success of the action research depends on the cooperation of action implementing
people and the beneficiaries of the action programme.

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
Introduction
There are various phenomena such as motivation, productivity, development, and
operational efficiency which are influenced by various variables. It may become necessary to
assess the effect of one particular variable or one set of variables on a phenomenon. This
need has given rise to experimental reserch.

Meaning
Experimental research is designed to assess the effects of particular variables on a
phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining
whether and in what manner variables are related to each other. The factor which is
influenced by other factors is called a dependent variable, and the other factors which
influence it are known as independent variables. For example, agricultural productivity, i.e.,
crop yield per hectare is a dependent variable and the factors such as soil fertility, irrigation,
quality of seed, manuring, and cultural practices which influence the yield are independent
variables.
The nature of relationship between independent varriables ad dependent vaiables is
perceived and stated in the form of causal hypothesis. A closely controlled procedure is
adopted to test them. The testing of the hypotheses will be described in detail later .

Procedure
 Two identical groups are selected. These should be 'identical' in terms of the
characteristics of the phenomenon under study. For example, in a farm productivity
experiments, two plots of farm land with same soil composition, soil fertility, same size,
same climate and same irrigation facility should be selected for the study.

One of the groups is used as experimental group, and the other as control group.
Experimental group is exposed to an experimental variable or stimtulus. Control group is not
exposed to the experimental variable. The difference between the experimental and control
groups' outcome is attributed to the effect of the experimental variable.

IIlustration : An agricultural scientist desires to study the impact of application of a

particular chemical fertilizer (say, Urea) on the yield of a crop.
He selects two identical plots of land in a farm. All conditions – soil fertility, climate,
irigation, seed, cultural practice – are the same. Thus all variables are kept constant.
In the experimental plot alone, he applies chemical fertilizer. This is the only
variation between the two plots. Hence the difference in yield is attributable to the
application of the chemical fertilizer.

In some cases, a single group may be used as both control and experimental group.
For example, a cooperative extension worker wants to know the effect of a member –
education programme on the cooperative knowledge of the members of a cooperative. He
selects a cross section of members of a society at random. He measures the type and extent of
cooperative knowledge of the group. He then exposes them to a member education
programme. He again measurers their knowledge. The difference in knowledge can be
attributed to the programme.
Conditions
From an analysis of the above procedure, the conditions required
for an experimental study may be indentified. They are:
1. It should be possible for selecting exactly identical groups. This
possibility exists in physical and natural sciences, but not so in social
sciences which deal with human life. It is difficult to find exactly
identical groups of persons. We may get approximetely similar groups
only.

2. The target groups should be amenable for experimentation. This is

ensured in physical sciences. But human beings may not always be
willing to be subject to experimentation.

3. It should be possible to identify all the independent variables that affect

the dependent variable under study. This again is ensured in physical
sciences, but not in social phenomena, as out knowledge of human mind
and behaviour is limited.

4. It should be possible to keep non-experimental variables constant so as

to study. The effect of experimental variables on the phenomenon. Such
close controls over the are almost impossible in human life situations, which
are dynamic and complex. Thus strictly controlled experimentation is rarely
feasible with human beings.
Nevertheless, useful and fairly valued experimental research is possible in
several areas of social sciences such as economic development, welfare
programms, social education, teaching technology, political administration,
industrial and agricultural finance, management of enterprises and institutions
and so on. It is possible to achieve reasonable degree of validity by adopting
appropriate techniques .
 Types of Experimental Designs
The Major types of experimental designs are:
1. After – only design
2. One group Before – after design
3. Before – after design with control group.
1. After – only design : This is the simplest type of experimental design. The
effect on a dependent variable (Y) is assessed by measuring it in both
Experimental (E) and Control (C) groups after E has been exposed to an
independent variable (X). In a fertilizer application experiment cited above the
crop yield (Y) is measured in both E and C plots, after the experiment is over.
The difference is attributed to the application of chemical fertifizer (X).

2. One group Before – after design : In this design the same group is used as E
and C, measuring Y before and after, the group has been exposed to X.
Suppose a researcher wants to evaluate the effectiveness of a film in changing
attitudes towards drinking and driving. He may employ this second type of
design. The change in score on an attitude test given on the target group
before after seeing the firm measures the film’s effect.

3. Before – after design with Control Group : In this design, both the E and C
groups are measured before and after E is exposed to X. This is a better design
than the previous ones. This eliminates the impact of extraneous factors
occurring during time period.

Evaluation of Experimental Research

The use of experimental designs in social science research is
complicated. It is difficult to establish comparable experimental and control
 groups. There are limits to design; it is expensive and time consuming. It can be
used to study the present only, and cannot be used for studies of the past or the
future.

The relationships studied by scientists, according to Rosenberg, may be

classified into following kinds:
1 Stimulus – response relationship : It is characterized by an independent
specific external variable with a dependent variable being a particular response
to it e.g., relationships between reward an d satisfaction; between
advertisement and consumption patterns.
For a more detailed discussion of experimental research, see
1 Donald T. Campbell and Julian C Stanley, Experimental and Qusi-
Ex-perimental Designs for Research, Chicago: Rand McNally & Co.,
1963;
2 in G. Lindzey and E.Aroson (eds.) The handbook of social
psychology, Reading, Mass: Addison Wesley Publishing Co., 1968,
3 F. Stuart Chapin, Experimental Design in Social Research, New
York: Harper & Raw Publishers, 1955.

2.One – Shot case study

This involves an observation of a single group at one point in time,
usually subsequent to an event supposed to have produced change e.g., a study of a rural
community after a rural development programme; study of a political system after a
general election.

This is study of only what exists at the time of study; therefore, it has no control over
extrinsic and intrinsic factors. Besides, it does not allow for manipulation of the
independent variable or for before-after or control-experimental group comparison.
Further, a case study analyses a single unsampled system, it is weak on generalization as
well. It has also no checks on internal validity and thus is of little use in testing causal
relations. However, this study is useful in exploratory research.
3. Cross – Sectional Study ( or correlational design)
This is most predominant design employed in survey research. It is an attempt to
approximate the after – only control group design by using cross tabulations and statistical
techniques like correlation and multivariate analysis.
A sample of individuals is drawn and data relating to their background characteristics
and dependent variable under study are collected form them. For example, so test a
hypothesis; "the birth rates vary inversely with soico-economic status." Data may be collected
from a sample of families belonging to various socio-economic levels; the relations between
variables may be studies by using correlation technique. The important limitation of this
analysis is that the time order or direction of causation cannot be easily determined.

4. Ex-post-facto-design
This is a variation of the correlational design. It provides a partial solution to the time
order problem. This is a retrospective or after – the event study. It looks from the past to the
present.
It requires information about the past be asking retrospective questions regarding an
earlier period. For example, an investigator desiring to assess the effect of a family planning
publicity programme on the attitude of women could ask them about their present views as
well as about their views before their exposure to the publicity programme. The drawback of
this approach is the bias arising out of respondent’s memory distortions. A partial solution is
to introduce checks for detecting gross inaccuracies in the memory of respondents.

ANALYTICAL STUDY OR STATISTICAL METHOD

Meaning
Analytical study is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to
quantitative data. It may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical techniques
applicable to numerical data. Hence it is also known as the Statistical Method.

Aim.
 This study aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships. It
concentrates on analysing data in depth and examining relationships form various angles by
bringing in as many relevant variables as possible in the analysis plan.
Uses
This methods is extensively used in business and other fields in which quantitative
numberical data are generated. It is used for measuring variables, comparing groups and
examining association between factors.
Data may be collected from either primary sources or secondary sources.
There is vast scope for making anlytical studies by using data published by various
Departments of Government and institutions like the Reserve Bank of india, Bureau of Public
Enterprises, NABARD, Central Statistical Organization.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Meaning
Historical study is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to
reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or a movement or a system and
discovering the trends in the past.
It is descriptive in nature. it is a difficult task; it must often depend upon inference
and logical analysis of recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon direct
observation. Hence it is aptly described as "the induction of principles through research into
the past and social forces which have shaped the present."

Objective
Its objective is to draw explanations and generalizations form the past trends in order
to understand the present and to anticipate the further. It enables us to grasp our relationship
with the past and to plan more intelligently for the future. The past contains the key to the
present and the past and the present influences the future. Historical study helps us in
visualizing the society as a dynamic organism and its structures and functions as evolving,
steadily growing and undergoing change and transformation.

Sources of Data
 The sources of data for historical research consists of
1 eyewitness accounts narrated by an actual observer or participant in an
event,
2 oral testimony by elders,
3 records and other documentary materials and
4 relics. The data available form the above sources may be scattered and
discontinuous and fragmented. Personal accounts are mostly subjective and so
should be studied with great caution and corroborated with documentary
evidences. The origin and genuineness of the sources and the validity of facts
contained in them should be critically tested ad examined. Their authenticity
should be tested. Only authentic sources should be depended upon for
collection of data. It is essential to check and cross-check the data from as
many sources as possible.
Steps in historical Method
First, the feasibility of the study should be examined. The research should see
whether the selected problem lends itself to historical analysis. It should be one of tracing and
describing the past or of relating to the recent past to draw out its significance for the present
and the future. It should also be feasible in terms of his research ability, time and cost.
Second, the selected problem be formulated and the plan of study should be designed.
Third, the sources of data should be located.
Fourth, the genuineness of the sources and the validity of the facts contained in them
should be tested.
Fifth, relevant facts should be collected form the authentic sources and they should be
checked and cross-checked.
Sixth, the facts should be arranged into a logical sequence and this synthesis of facts is
the basis for rebuilding of the past situation.
Last, by adopting induction process meaningful interpretations and generalizations
should be made.
The quality of a historical study depends on the relevance, adequacy and completeness
of facts collected, their reliability, and the ingenuity of the researcher in classifying and
integrating them and in drawing inferences.
Limitations and difficulties
As the historical study is concerned with the past, reliable and adequate data may not
be available. The remoter is the past, the greater is the difficulty in obtaining relevant facts.
It is also difficult to test the genuineness and authenticity of sources and the data
available form them. Personal biases and private interpretations often enter unconsciously.
It is difficult to establish the time order of events.
The records available are not kept in the order and with the precision that a researcher
expects. Hence his inferences may not be full or accurate.
The dispersal of documents is another limitation. The researcher may not succeed in
locating all documents.
It is difficult to perceive the real significance of the data because of their remote time
period.
Further, in historical research, precise measurements, verifications and replication are
not possible.
SURVEYS

Meaning
Survey is a 'fact – finding' study. It is a method of research involving collection of
data directly from a population or a sample thereof at particular time. It must not be confused
with the mere clerical routine of gathering and tabulating figures. It requires expert and
imaginative planning, careful analysis and retional interpretation of the findings.
Data may be collected by observation, or interviewing or mailing questionnaires.
The analysis of data may be made by using simple or complex statistical techniques
depending upon the objectives of the study.
The Characteristics of Survey Method
The survey method has certain characteristics:
1. It is always conducted in a natural setting; it is a field study.
2. It seeks responses directly form the respondents.
3. It can cover a very large population, thanks to sampling techniques.
 4. A survey may involve an extensive study or an intensive study. An extensive study
covers a wider sample An intensive one covers a few samples and tends to 'dig
deeper.' These two approaches serve different ends; where generalization or
estimation is necessary, the extensive approach is useful, but where one wants to
make an indepth study of some aspects of a subject-matter, the intensive approach is
preferable.
5. A survey covers a definite geographical area: a city, or a district, or a state.
The quality of a survey depends upon the thoroughness of the planning, the
soundness of sampling, the adequacy and reliability of data, the quality of analysis and
the interpretation of the findings.
Steps involved in a Survey
The sequence of the tasks involved in carrying out a survey from the first
stage of planning to the final stage of preparing the report is presented below;
1. Selection of a problem and its formulation,
2. Preparation of the research design,
3. Operationalisation of concepts and construction of measuring indexes and scales,
4. Sampling,
5. Construction of tools for collection of data and their pre-test,
6. Field work and collection of data,
7. Processing of data and tabulation,
8. Analysis of data, and
9. Reporting.
All these steps are discussed in detail in the relevant chapters.

The Purpose of Surveys

Surveys serve several purposes:
1. The purpose of many surveys such as population census, socioeconomic
surveys, expenditure surveys, marketing surveys etc., is simply to provide
information to government or planners or business enterprises. These surveys
have a descriptive purpose. In short, all fact – findings surveys have this
purpose
 2. Many enquiries aim to explain phenomena. Their function is to test
hypotheses, to explain the causal relationships between variables and to assess
the influences of various factors on some phenomenon like job-satisfaction,
labour productivity and consumer behaviour. Surveys aiming at explanation
involve in-depth analysis and complex interpretations.
3. Surveys may be designed to make comparisons of demographic groups (e.g.,
comparison of low income groups with high income groups) or real groups,
e.g., work groups in factories or offices. Comparison of behavioural or
attitudinal groups can also be made. For example, in a factory, the attitudes of
high- production workers toward the company may be compared with the
attitudes of low-production workers.
4. Surveys concerned with cause and effect relationships can be useful for
making predictions. For example, if relationships between income increases
and purchase of durable goods are established in a consumer behaviour survey,
a prediction about future demand for durable goods with reference to
anticipated income increases can be made. A survey of people’s future plans
and intentions is another approach to make predictions. This is one of the
methods adopted for demand forecasts.

Types of surveys
All aspects of human behaviour, social institutions, economic system,
and business undertakings lend themselves to surveys. The subject matter of surveys may be
broadly categorised into:
A: Social Surveys
1. Demographic characteristics of a group of people
2. Social environment of people
3. People’s opinions and attitudes
4. People’s behaviour and activities.
B: Economic Surveys
1. Economic conditions of people
2. Working of economic units
3. Operations of an economic System
Demographic characteristics include family composiion, marital status, fertility,
age and so on. Population census is primarily on the demographic aspects of
people. All social surveys include some demographic aspects.
Social environment covers all social factors, housing conditions and
social amenities and social institutions.
Surveys of opinions and attitudes deal with various issues (e.g., direct
v. indirect election of the head of government), systems (e.g., democracy) and
schemes and programmes (e.g., family planning).
People’s activities refer to 'what people do', e.g., use of leisure time,
newspaper – reading, etc. People’s behaviour is concerned with their
consumption pattern, life-style, organizational behaviour, group dynamics, etc.
Economic conditions include occupation, income, saving, investment,
assets, etc.
Economic units refer to shops, business firms, financial institutions, etc.
Economic system may refer to capitalism, cooperative system, socialism and
mixed economy.

Advantages/merits of Survey Research

The major advantages of a survey method are:
1. The versatility of the survey method is its greatest strength. It is the only
practical way to collect many types of information form individuals, such
as personal characteristics, socio-economic data, attitudes, opinions,
experiences and expectations.
2. The survey method facilitates drawing generalizations about large
populations on the basis of studies of representative sample.
3. The survey method facilitates drawing generalizations about large
populations on the basis of studies of representative sample.
4. Surveys sensitize the researcher to unanticipated or unknown
problems. The collection of data from respondents through interviewing
or mailing often uncover facts previously unknown to the researcher.
 5. Surveys are useful instrument for verifying theories.

Limitations
Although survey method is a research instrument of great versatility and
extensive application, it has certain limitations:
1. Survey method is primarily meant for collection of data from primary sources:
individuals, households and institutions; hence its feasibility depends upon the
willingness and cooperation of the respondents
2. A sample survey is subject to sampling error. Its findings must be interpreted in the
light of this error.
3. The survey method depends primarily on verbal behaviour. The respondent can give
untrue or misleading answers. Hence a survey is subject to response errors.
4. A survey is also subject to the errors of measurement implicit in quantifying attitudes,
abilities, behaviour and other personal traits.
5. There is a limit of the number of items of information that can be collected in a single
survey. There is an optimal length of time for an interview. Beyond that point,
interview weariness sets in. Hence the extent of data requirement should be delimited
to the tolerance level of respondents.
6. A sample survey designed to represent a population over a wider geographical area
may not give adequate representation to any population characteristic which is highly
localized. This means that the influences of specific local social groups cannot be
assessed through a national survey.
7. The survey method alone is inadequate to analyse adequately the complex fabric of
social organisation. It is also not well suited to studies of historical development.
8. Survey is very expensive in terms of time and cost. Hence an individual cannot to
carry out an extensive survey out of his resources.

CASE STUDY
Meaning
 A case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a social group, an
episode, a process, a situation, a programme, a community, an institution or any other
social unit.
It is one of the most popular types of research methods. Its purpose may be to
understand the life cycle of the unit under study or the interaction between factors that
explain the present status or the development over a period of time. Some examples of a
case study are: a causative study of a successful cooperative society; a study of the
financial health of a business undertaking; a study of labour participation in management
in a particular enterprise; a study of juvenile delinquency; a study of life-style of working
women; a study of life in slums; a study of urban poor; a study of economic offenses; a
study of refugees from another country.

Functions
The case study method describes a case in terms of its peculiarities. It gives us an
insight into the typical or extreme cases whose unique features are not reflected by the
usual statistitional method.

A case study helps to secure a wealth of information about the unit of study which
may provide clues and ideas for further research. It provides an opportunity for the
intensive analysis of many specific details that are overlooked in other methods.
It examines complex factors involved in a given situation so as to identify causal
factors operating in it.
A case study aims at studying everything about something rather than something about
everything as in the case of a statistical method.

While in a statistical approach the 'individual' disappears from the analysis, in a case
study the 'individual' disappears form the analysis, in a case study the 'individual'
disappears from the analysis, in a case study the 'individual' representing the 'wholeness' is
preserved, as it is an approach which views any social unit as a whole. Thus a case study
gives us a total view of a unit or a clear insight into a situation or process in its total
setting. Thus the perspective of a case study is both qualitative and organic. It gives
orverall generic picture of a problem.

The case study, as a research method, often employees moe techniques than one.
Thus, for tracing a developmental process, it uses historical method, it employs
descriptive method where a factual picture is needed, it employs interviewing, mail
questionnaire, check lists, rating scales, etc., to gather data, it looks to statistics for testing
hypotheses.

The aim of a case study is to ascertain the generic development of a social unit under
study, revealing the factors that moulded its aid in studying behaviour in specific, precise
detail, Burgess termed the case study method as" the social microscope."
It is most valuable for diagnostic, administrative and therapeutic purposes.
It develops ideas, sometime leading to conclusion and sometimes to hypotheses to be
tested. It may also be useful for developing new concepts or testing existing concepts.

Case Study V.Survey

Case study may be conducted as an independent study or a supplementary
investigation to a survey. The primary distinctions between a case study and a survey lie
in the intensity and depth of investigation and its coverage.
1. While a survey is a broad based investigation of a phenomenon, a case study
is an intensive investigation.
2. A survey covers a large number of units – all units of a universe or a sample of
them; but a case study is a study of a single unit/group.
3. The findings of a study can be generalized when it is based on a representative
sample; whereas the findings of a case study cannot be generalized.
4. While a survey is useful for testing hypotheses about large social aggregates; a
case study is useful for testing hypotheses about the structural and procedural
characteristics (e.g., status relation, interpersonal behaviour, managerial style)
of a specific social unit (e.g., an organisation, a small group or a community).
Disadvantages/Limitations
The major disadvantages/limitation of case studies are;
1. The most prominent disadvantage of case studies is their limited
generalizability. As case studies are studies of stray cases, they are not
sufficient for making meaningful generlizations to larger social aggregates.
2. Case studies are generally more time-consuming than surveys
3. Case study method is indequate for an analysis of macro-problems.
4. The danger of investigator’s over- confidence is more in a case study. This
leads to various biases such as errors of perception, judgment and over-
emphasis of unusual events, unwarranted extrapolation, and ad hoc theorizing
and sweeping generalizations.

Merits
The merits of a case study method far exceed its limitations.
1. Case studies are flexible with respect of data collection methods. All methods of data
collection are useful to case studies.
2. A case study can extend virtually to any dimension of the topic studied. All aspects
may be studied or specific aspects may be emphasized.
3. Case studies may be conducted in practically any kind of social seting.
4. Case studies offer specific instances of tests of theories.
5. Case study is a highly fruitful approach for the purpose of group or process analysis as
against the analysis of individual traits alone.
6. Case studies give to the researcher a wider range of insights into human life which
cannot be gained through a general survey.

FIELD STUDIES
Meaning
Field studies are scientific enquiries aimed at discovering the relations and
interactions among sociological, psychological and educational variables in real social
structures and life situations like communities, schools, factories, organizations and
institutions. A social or institutional situation is selected and the relations among the
attitudes, values, perceptions and behaviors of individuals and groups in the selected situation
are studied. Some examples of field studies are: Dollard’s study of caste and class in a
southern town, Malinowski’s investigations of the Trobriand Islanders, Lynd’s study of
Middletown, Jone’s study of the socio – economic basis of class in Aknon, Ohio, Mann –
Kanitkau’s study of land and labour in a Deccan village; Aiyyappan’s study of social
revolution in a Kerala village.

Field Study V. Surveys

Although it is not easy to draw a fine logical distinction between survey and field
study, there are practical differences between them. First, a survey attempts to be
representative of the universe under study and thus calls for an adequate and representative
sample. This emphasis on sampling may or may not be found in a field study, because it is
more concerned with a thorough account of the processes under study than with their
typicality in a large universe.

Second, while a field study aims at directly studying the interrelations of the parts of
social structure of a single community or a single group, a survey aims at covering a larger
universe, and it may indirectly deal with social and psychologicl prcesses, through inference
form the statistical analysis rather than through direct observation. Thus, field study will
provide a more detailed natural picture of social interrelations of the group than does a survey.

Types of Field Studies

Katz has classified field studies into
1. anthropological studies and
2. quantitative field studies.
In an anthropological study, the researcher lives in the selected community, observes its
people, talks with them at great length, and thus gains a thorough insight into the social
structure of the community and the people’s life, culture and ideologies. But the
anthropological approach does not aim at precise measurement of specific variables and
relations.
 On the other hand, a social – psychological field study employs quantitative approach
and measures variables and their interrelationships. Newcomb’s research on Bennington
College, a self-contained college community is an example for this type of study. The
conclusions of a quantitative study can be readily confirmed by other investigators.
Steps of a Field Study
Katz suggests a general model consisting of the following phases in the conduct of a
field study;
1. Preliminary Planning,
2. the scouting expedition or the anthropological study,
3. the formulation of the research design,
4. the pretesting of research instruments and procedures,
5. the full-scale field operations, and
6. the analysis of materials.

Preliminary Planning:
It is better to start a field study with a tentative plan covering scope of the study, its
broad objectives and time schedule. The plan will be finalized after the result of the
scouting expedition are available.
The Scouting Expedition : This phase of study involves an informal and investigation
in which the field workers try to get a through under standing of the important forces in
the situation. The objective of this exploratory work is to identify the significant variables
in the situation and group behavior. Informal procedures can be adopted for gathering
information. They may include: consulting informal leaders; contacting informants like
newspaper reporters, local teacher etc., using discrepancies in the accounts of informants
as a basis for further exploration; living in the community and participating in its
activities; observing specific situations; stydying available records and secondary sources.
Field workers should keep daily full records of their work and observations.
 Unit III

RESEARCH ETHICS

What are research ethics?

Like other of business, research demands ethical behavior from its participants. Ethics

are norms or standards of behavior that guide moral choices about our behavior and our

relationships with others. The goal of ethics in research is to ensure that no one is harmed or

suffers adverse consequences form research activities are pervasive and include violating

nondisclosure agreements, breaking respondent confidentiality, misrepresenting results,

deceiving people, invoicing irregularities, avoiding legal liability, and more.

The recognition of ethics as a problem for economic organizations was shown in a

survey where 80 percent of organizations reported the adoption of an ethical code

Surprisingly, the evidence that this effort has improved ethical practices is questionable. The

same study reports limited success for codes of conduct that attempt to restrain improper

behavior.

There is no single approach to ethics. Advocating strict adherence to a set of laws is

difficult because of the unforeseen constraint put on researchers. Because of Germany’s war
history, for example, the government forbids many types of medical research. Consequently,

the German people do not benefit form many advances in natively, relying on each

individual’s personal sense of morality is equally problematic. Consider the clash between

those who believe death is deliverance from a life of suffering and those who value life to the

point of preserving it indefinitely through mechanical means. Each value system claims

superior knowledge of moral correctness.

Clearly, a middle ground between being completely code governed and ethical

relativism is necessary. The foundation for that middle ground is an emerging consensus on

ethical standards for researchers. Codes and regulations guide researchers and sponsors.

Review boards and peer groups help researchers examine their research proposals for ethical

dilemmas. Many design-based ethical problems can be eliminated by careful planning and

constant vigilance. In the end, responsible research anticipates ethical dilemmas and attempts

to adjust the design, procedures, and protocols during the planning process rather than treating

them as an after thought. Ethical research requires personal integrity form the researcher,

project manager, and the client.

Ethical Treatment of Respondents and Subjects

Whether data are gathered in an experiment, interview, observation, or survey, the

respondent has many rights to be safeguarded. In general, research must be designed so a

respondent does not suffer physical harm, discomfort, pain, embarrassment, or loss of privacy.

To safeguard these, the researcher should follow three guidelines.

1. Begin data collection by explaining to the respondents the benefits expected form the

research. Neither overstate nor understate the benefits so the respondents are not

inclined to exaggerate answers.

2. Explain to the respondents that their right and well-being will be adequately protected,

and say how that will be done. This may be accomplished by maintaining

confidentiality of the responses or by destroying the names and addresses of the

respondents.

3. Be certain that interviewers obtain the informed consent of the respondents. Also,

require that the method of getting the consent be appropriate and adequate. When

questionnaires contain sensitive questions about family income, it is inadequate to

obtain blanket consent for the questionnaire. Instead, the researcher should explain

that the questionnaire contains some sensitive

Questions and the respondents are free not to answer any question that makes them

uncomfortable.

Benefits

Whenever direct is made with a respondent, the research benefits should be discussed.

An interviewer should begin an introduction with his or her name, the name of the

research organization, and a brief description of the purpose and benefit of the research.

This puts respondents at ease, they know to whom they are speaking, and it motivates

them to answer questions truthfully.

 Deception

Deception occurs when the respondents are told only part of the truth or when the truth

is fully compromised. Some believe this should never occur. Others suggest two reasons

for deception:

1. to prevent biasing the respondents before the survey or experiment and

2. to protect the confidentiality of a third party (e.g., the client. Deception should not

be used in an attempt to improve response rates.

Informed Consent

Securing informed consent from respondents is a matter of fully disclosing the

procedures of the proposed survey or other research design before requesting permission to

proceed with the study. There are exceptions that argue for a signed consent form. When

dealing with children, it is wise to have a parent or other person with legal standing sign a

consent form. When doing research with medical or psyschological ramifications, it is also

wise to have a consent form. If there is a chance the data could harm the respondent or if the

researchers offer only limited protection of confidentiality, a signed form detailing the types

of limits should be obtained. For most business research, oral consent is sufficient. An

example of how informed consent procedures are implemented is shown in Figure. In this

example, a university research center demonstrates how they adhere to the highest ethical

standards for survey procedures.

In situations where respondents are intentionally or accidentally deceived, they should

be debriefed once the research is complete.

FIGURE INFORMED
CONSENT PROCEDURES FOR SURVEYS

Surveys conducted by the Indiana University Center for Survey Research contain the
following informed consent components in their introductions:
1. Introduce ourselves – interviewer’s name and Indiana University
Center for survey research
2. Briefly describe the survey topic (e.g., barriers to health insurance)
3. Describe the geographic area we are interviewing (e.g., people in Indiana) or target
sample
4. Tell who the sponsor is (e.g., National Endowment for the
Humanities)
5. Describe the purpose(s) of the research (e.g., satisfaction with
services received provided by a local agency)
6. Give a "good-faith" estimate of the time required to complete the
interview
7. Promise anonymity and confidentiality (when appropriate)
8. Tell the respondent the participation is voluntary
9. Tell the respondent that item-nonresponse is acceptable
10. Ask permission to begin

Sample Introduction:
Hello,I' m (fill NAME) from the Center for Survey Research at Indiana University.
We’re surveying Indianapolis area residents to ask their opinions about some health issues.
This study is sponsored by the National Institutes of Health and its results will be used to
research the effect of community ties on attitudes toward medical practices.
 The survey takes about 40 minutes. Your participation is anonymous and voluntary,
and all your answers will be kept completely confidential. If there are any questions that you
don’s feel you can answer, please let me know and we’ll move to the next one. So, if I have
your permission, I'll continue.
Sample Conclusion.
The respondent is given information on how to contact the principal investigator. For
example; John Kennedy is the Principal Investigator for this study. Would you like Dr.
Kennedy’s address or telephone number in case you want to contact him about the study at
any time?
follow – up medical or psychological attention should be provided to continue to en - sure

the participants remain unharmed by the research.

For experiments, all subjects should be debriefed. As mentioned previously, this

corrects any deception that occurred and it allows subjects to put the experiment into context.

Debriefing usually includes a description of the hypothesis being tested and the purpose of the

study. Subjects who were not deceived still benefit from the debriefing session. They will be

able to understand why the experiment was created. The researchers also gain important

insight into what the subjects thought about during and after the experiment. This may lead to

modifications the future research designs. Like survey and interview respondents, subjects in

experiments and observational studies should be offered a report of the findings.

To what extent do debriefing and informed consent reduce the effects of deception?

Research suggests that the majority of subjects do not resent temporary deception and may

have more positive feelings about the value of the research after debriefing than those who

didn’t participate in the study. Nevertheless, this is an ethically thorny issue and should be

addressed with sensitivity and concern for research participants.

Rights to Privacy
Privacy laws in the United States are taken seriously. All individuals have a right to

privacy, and researchers must respect that right. The importance of the right to privacy is

illustrated with an example

An employee of large video rental company is also a student at the local university.

For a research project, this student and his team members decide to compare the video-

viewing habits of a sample of customers. Using telephone interviews, the students begin their

research. After inquiring about people’s viewing habits and the frequency of rentals versus

purchases, the students move on to the types of films people watch. They find that most

respondents answer questions about their preferences for children’s shows, classics,

bestsellers, mysteries, and science fiction. But the co-operation ceases when the students

question the viewing frequency of pornographic movies. Without the guarantee of privacy,

most people will not answer these kinds of questions truthfully, if at all. The study then loses

key data.

The privacy guarantee is important not only to retain validity of the research but also

to protect respondents. In the previous example, imagine the harm that could be caused by

releasing information on the viewing habits of certain citizens. Clearly, the confidentiality of

survey answers in an important aspect of the respondents’s right to privacy.

Once the guarantee of Confidentiality is given, protecting that confidentiality is

essential. Researchers should restrict access to information that reveals names, telephone

numbers, address, or other identifying features. Only researchers who have signed

nondisclosure, confidentiality forms should be allowed access to the data. Links between the

data or database and the identifying information file should be weakened. Individual
interview response sheets should be inaccessible to every one except the editors and data

entry personnel.

But privacy is more than confidentiality. A right to privacy means one has the right to

refuse to be interviewed to be interviewed or to refuse to answer any question in an interview.

Potential participants have a right to privacy in their own homes, including not admitting

researchers and not answering telephones. And they have the right to engage in private

behavior in private places without fear o observation. To address these rights, to engage in

private behavior in private places without fear of observation. To address these rights, ethical

researchers ask permission to interview respondents. They inform respondents of their right

to refuse to answer any question. They schedule field interviews only during daylight (and

not at mealtime), or they call in advance to set an appointment for an interview. Tele phone

interviews are limited in time and occur only during reasonable hours. Observation is

restricted to public behavior.

Data Collection in Cyberspace

Some ethicists argue that the very conduct that results in resistance form respondents

– interference, invasiveness in their lives, denial of privacy right – has encouraged researchers

to investigate topics online that have long been the principal commodity of offline

invesigation. The novelty and convenience of communicating by computer has led reearchers

to cyberspace in search of abundant sources of data. Whether we call it the "wired society,"

"digital life", computer-mediated communication" or "cyber culture, the growth of cyber

studies causes us to question how we gather data online, deal with subjects, and present

results.
ETHICS AND THE CLIENT
There are also ethical considerations to keep in mind when dealing with the research

client. Whether undertaking product, market, personnel, financial, or other research, a client

has the right to receive ethically conducted research.

Confidentiality
Some clients require confidentiality for various reasons. Many clients wish to

undertake research without revealing themselves. This is one reason for hiring out side

consulting firms to complete research projects. When a company is testing a new product

idea, it may not want consumers to be influenced by the company image. If a company is

contemplating entering a new market, it may not wish to have competitors aware of its plans.

For these and other reasons, corporations have a right to dissociate themselves form the

sponsorship of the project. This type of confidentiality is called sponsor nondisclosure. It is

the responsibility of the research firm to respect that desire and devise a plan that safeguards

the identity of the client.

The second reason for confidentiality involves the purpose of the study or its details.

A client may be testing a new idea that is not yet patented and does not want the competition

to know of its plans. It may be investigations employee complaints and does not want to

spark union activity. Or a new public offering might be contemplated. For whatever reason,

clients have the right to demand and receive Purpose nondisclosure and findings

nondisclosure between themselves and the researchers.

Right to quality Research

An important ethical consideration for the researcher and the (internal and external)

client is the client’s right to quality research. Form the proposal through the design to data

analysis and final reporting, the researcher guides the client on the proper techniques and
interpretatins. Ethical researchers provide the client with the type of study he or she needs to

solve the management question. Often clients will have heard about a sophisticated data-

handling technique and will want it used even when it is inappropriate for the problem at

hand. The researcher should guide the client so this does not occur. The design of the project

should be suitable for the problem; research techniques should not be chosen so maximum

resercher revenue or minimum researcher effort is achieved at the sponsor’s expense.

Client’s Ethics
Occasionally, researchers may be asked by clients to identify respondents or their

groups, change the data, interpret the data in a favorable light, omit sections of data analysis

and conclusions, or change the research findings. Each of these is an example of unethical

client behavior. Compliance by the researcher would be a breach of ethical standards.

RESEARCHERS AND TEAM MEMBERS

Another ethical responsibility of researchers is their team’s safety and their own. In

addition, the responsibility for ethical behavior rests with the researcher who, along with

assistants, is charged with protecting the anonymity of both the client and the respondent.

It is the researcher’s responsibility to design a project so the safety of all interviewers.

surveyors, experimenters, or observers is protected. Several factors may be important in these

situations. Some urban areas and undeveloped rural areas may be unsafe for research

assistants. If, for example, the researcher must personally interview people in a high – crime

district, it is reasonable to provide a second team member to protect the researcher.

Alternatively, if an assistant feels unsafe after visiting a neighborhood by car, an alternate

researcher should be assigned to the destination. It is unethical to require staff members to

enter an environment where they feel physically threatened. Researchers who are insensitive
to these concerns face both research and legal risks the least of which involves having

interviewers falsify instruments.

Researchers should require ethical compliance form team members just as sponsors expect

ethical behavior from the researcher. Assistants are expected to carry out the sampling plan.

to interview or observe respondents without bias, and to accurately record all necessary data.

Unethical behavior, such as filling in an interview sheet without having asked the respondent

the questions, cannot be tolerated. The behaviour of the assistants is under the direct control

of the responsible researcher or field supervisor. If an assistant behaves improperly in an

interview or shares a respondent’s interview sheet with an unauthorized person, it is

researcher’s responsibility. Consequently, all assistants should be well trained and supervised.

Professional Standards
Various standards of ethics exist for the professional researcher. Many corporations,

professional associations, and universities have a code of ethics. The impetus for these

policies and standards can be traced to two documents, the Belmont Report of 1979 and the

Federal Register of 1991. Society or association guidelines include ethical standards for the

conduct of research. One comprehensive source contains 51 official codes of ethics issued by

45 associations in business, health, and law. The business section of this source consists of

ethics standards for

Accounting – American Institute of Certified Public Accountants.

Advertising - American Association of Advertising Agencies; Direct

Marketing Association

Banking - American Bankers Association

 Engineering - American Association of Engineering Societies; National

Society of Professional Engineers

Financial Planning - Association for Investment Management and Research;

Certified Financial Planner Board of Standards/Institute of Certified

Financial Planners; International Association for Financial Planning

Human resources - American Society for Public Administration ;Society for

Human Resource Management.

Insurance - American Institute for Chartered Property Casualty Under writers;

American Society of Chartered Life Underwriters and Chartered

Financial Consultants

Management - Academy of Management; The Business Roundtable

Real estate - National Association of Realtors

Other professional associations’ codes have detailed research section: The

American Marketing Association, the American Association for public Opinion

Research, the American Psychological Association, the American political Science
Association, and the American Sociological Association. These associations update their
codes frequently.
We commend professional societies and business organization for developing
standards. However, without enforcement, standards are ineffectual. Effective codes
1. are regulative,

2. protect the public interest and the interests of the profession served by the code,

3. are behavior specific, and

4. are enforceable.

A study that assessed the effects of personal and professional values on ethical
consulting behavior concluded:
 The findings of this study cast some doubt on the effectiveness of
professional codes of ethics and corporate policies that attempt to deal with ethical
dilemmas faced by business consultants. A mere codification of ethical values of the
profession or organization may not counteract ethical ambivalence created and
maintained through reward systems. The results suggest that unless ethical codes and
policies are consistently reinforced with a significant reward and punishment structure
and truly integrated into the business culture these mechanisms would be of limited
value in actually regulating unethical conduct.
Federal, state, and local governments also have lows, policies, and procedures in place
to regulate research on human beings. The U.S. government began a process that coves
all research having federal support. Initially implemented in 1966, the In situational
Review Boards, (IRBs) engage in a risk assessment and benefit analysis review of
proposed research. The federal regulations were developed into policy by the
Department of health and Human Services (HHS). Most other federal and state agencies
follow the HHS – developed guidelines.
Since 1981, the review requirement has been relaxed so research that is
routine no longer needs to go through the complete process. Each institution receiving
funding from HHS or doing research for HHS is required to have its own IRB

Figure Resources for Ethical Awareness

Journals and Magazines

Business Ethics
Business Ethics Quarterly
Ethikos
Journal of Business Ethics
Research, Training, and conferences
Business ethics conferences, The Conference Board, New york, NY (212-759-0900)
Center for Professional Ethics, Manhattan College, Riverdale, NY (718-862-7442)
Center for the Study of Ethics in the Professions, Illinois Institute of Technology,
Chicago, IL (312-306-1868)
Ethics Resource Center, Washington, DC(202-737-2258)
 European Business Ethics Network, Breukelen, The Netherlands
Graduate Research Ethics Education Workship, Association of Practiacal and
Professional Ethics,
Indian University, Bloomington, IN (812-855-6450)
Institute for Business and Professional Ethics, Depaul University, Chicago, IL(312-362-
6569)
International Conference on Business Ethics, The World Center for Business Ethics/
The Management
Roundtable International, Inc., Denver, Co(303-759-8845)
Teaching Research Ethics, Poynter Center Indiana University, Bloomington, IN(812-
855-0261)
The Beard Center for Leadership in Ethics, A.J. Palumbo School of Business
Administration,
Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA(412-396-5475)
The Center for Business Ethics, Bentley College, Waltham, MA(617-891-2000)
The Center for Professional and Applied Ethics, University of North
Carolina, Charlotte, NC (704-547-3542)
The Institute for the study of Applied and Professional Ethics, Dartmouth College,
Hanover, NH (603-646-1263)
The Programme in Ethics and the Professional Harvard University, Cambridge, MA
The Wharton Ethics Program, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA(215) 898-
1166

to review research proposals. Many institutions require all research, funded and
unfunded, to undergo review by the local IRB. The IRBs concentrate on two areas. First
is the guarantee of obtaining complete, informed consent from participants. This can be
traced to the first of 10 points in the Nuremberg Code. Complete in formed consent has
four characteristics:
1. The respondent must be competent to give consent/

2. Consent must be voluntary, free form coercion, force, requirements, and so forth.
 3. Respondents must be adequately informed to make a decision.

4. Respondents should know the possible risks or outcomes associated with the

research.

This second item of interest to the IRB is the risk assessment and benefit analysis review. In
the review, risks are considered when they add to the normal risk of daily life. Significantly,
the only benefit considered is the immediate importance of the knowledge to be gained.
Possible long-term benefits from applying the knowledge that may be gained in the gained in
the research are not considered.
Other federal legislation that governs, or influences, the ways in which research is
carried out are the Right to Privacy laws. Public Law 95-38 is the Privacy Act of 1974. This
was the first law guaranteeing Americans the right to privacy. Public Law 96-440, the
privacy Protection Act of1980, carries the right to privacy further. These was the first law are
the basis for protecting the privacy and confidentiality of the respondents and the data.

RESOURCES FOR ETHICAL AWARENESS

There is optimism for improving ethical awareness. According to the Center for
Business Ethics at Bentley College, a third of the Fortune 500 have ethics officers, a
substantial rise since the late 1980s. Almost 90 Percent of business schools have ethics
programs, up from a handful several years ago. Figure 5-2 provides a list of recommended
resources for business students, researchers, and managers.
UNIT – IV

RESEARCH DESIGN

MEANING OF RESEARCH DESIGN

“A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a
manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure.”
As such the design in clues and outline of what the researcher will do form writing the
hypothesis and its operational implications to the final analysis of data. More explicitly, the
design decisions happen to be in respect of:

I What is the study about?

II Why is the study being made?
III Where will the study be carried out?
IV What type of data is required?
V Where can the required data be found?
VI What periods of time will the study include?
VII What will be the sample design?
VIII What techniques of data collection will be used?
IX How will the data be analyzed?
X In what style will the report be prepared?

Important concepts in research design:

Before describing the different research designs. It will be appropriate to explain the various
concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood.

1.Dependent and independent variables: a concept which can take on different quantitative
values is called a variable. As such the concepts like weight, height income are all the
examples of variables. Qualitative phenomena are also quantified on the basis of the presence
or absence of the concerning attribute(s) Phenomena which can take on quantitatively
different values even in decimal points are called ‘continous’variables. But all variables are
not continues. If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous
variables,. Age is an example continues variable,. but the number of children is an example of
non-continuous variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and the variable that is
antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable.

2. Extraneous Variable: Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the
study, but may affect the variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher
wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gains in social
studies achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent
variable and social studies achievement variable.

3. Control: One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the

influence the influence or effect of extraneous variable(s). the technical term ‘control’ is used
when we design the study minimizing the effects of extraneous independent variables.

4. Confounded relationship: when the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s)., the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is
said to be confounded by an extraneous variable(s).

5. Research hypothesis: when a prediction or hypothesized relationships is to be tested by

scientific methods, it is termed as reearch hypotheis. The research hypotheis is a predictive
statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent vartiable. Usually a research
hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable.

6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research: when the purpose of

research is to test a research is termed test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-
testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.
Research in which in the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental
hypothesis-testing research’ and a research in which an independent variable is not
manipulated is called ‘non-experimental hypothesis- testing research.

7.Experimental and control groups:

In an experimental hypothesis testing research when a group is exposed to usual
conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to some novel or
special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’.

8. Treatments:
 The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are
usually referred to ad ‘treatments’. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the
usually studies Programme and the special studies Programme.

9.Experiment:
The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating to some
research problem is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to
examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types
viz., absolute experiment and comparative experiment.

10. Experimental unit(s):

The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are
known as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very
carefully.

Different Research Designs

Different research designs can be conveniently described if we categorize them as:

(1) Research design in case of exploratory research studies;
(2) Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies,
(3) Research design in case of hypothesis testing research studies.

1. Research design in case of exploratory research studies;

Exploratory research studies are also termed as formulative research studies. The
main purpose of such studies is that of formulating a problem for more precise investigation
or of developing the working hypotheses from an operational point of view. The major
emphasis in such studies is on the discovery of ideas and insights. As such the research
design appropriate for such studies must be flexible enough to provide opportunity for
considering different aspects of a problem under study. Inbuilt flexibility in research design
in needed because the research problem, broadly defined initially, is transformed into one
with more precise meaning in epxloratory studies, which fact may necessitate changes in the
research procedure for gathering relevant data. Generally, the following three methods in the
context of research design for such studies are talked about;
(a) the survey of concerning literature;
(b) the experience survey and
(c) the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples.

The survey of concerning literature happens to be the most simple and fruitful method of
formulating precisely the research problem or developing hypothesis, Hypotheses stated
by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness be evaluated as a basis for further
research. It may also be considered whether the already stated hypotheses suggest new
hypothesis. In this way the researcher should review and build upon the work already
done by others, but in cases where hypotheses have not yet been formulated, his task is to
review the available material for deriving the relevant hypotheses form it.

Experience survey means the survey of people who have had practical experience with
the problem to be studies. The object of such a survey is to obtain insight into the
relationships between variables and new ideas relationships between variables and new
ideas relating to the research problem. For such a survey people who are competent and
can contribute new ideas may be carefully selected as respondents to ensure a
representation of different types of experience. The respondents so selected may then be
interviewed by the investigator. The respondents so selected may then be interviewed by
the investigator. The researcher must prepare and interview schedule for the systematic
questioning of informants. But the interview must ensure flexibility in the sense that the
respondents should be allowed to raise issues and questions which the investigator has not
previously considered.

Thus, an experience survey may enable the researcher to define the problem more
concisely and help in the formulation of the research hypothesis. The survey may as well
provide information about the practical possibilities for doing different types of research.
 Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples is also a fruitful method for suggesting
hypotheses for research. It is particularly suitable in areas where there is little experience
to serve as a guide. The method consists of the intensive study of selected instances of the
phenomenon in which one is interested. For this purpose the existing records, if any, may
be examined, the unstructured interviewing may take place, or some other approach may
be adopted. Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of the study and the ability of the
research to draw together diverse information into a unified interpretation are the main
features which make this method an appropriate procedure for evoking insights.

2. Research design in case of descriptive and diagnostic research studies:

Descriptive research studies are those studies which are concerned with
describing the characteristics of a particular individual, or of a group, whereas diagnostic
research studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its association
with something else. The studies concerning whether certain variables are associated are
examples of diagnostic research studies. From the point of view of the research design,
the descriptive as well as diagnostic studies share common requirements and as such we
may group together these two types of research studies. In descriptive as well as in
diagnostic studies, the researcher must be able to define clearly, what he wants to measure
and must find adequate methods for measuring it along with a clear cut definition of ‘
population’ he wants to study. Since the aim is to obtain complete and accurate
information in the said studies, the procedure to be used must be carefully planned. The
research design must make enough provision for protection against bias and must
maximize reliability, with due concern for the economical completion of the research
study. The design in such studies must be rigid and not flexible and must focus attention
on the following:
a Formulating the objective of the study (What the study is
about and why is it being made?)
b Designing the methods of data collection(what techniques
of gathering data will be adopted)
c Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
 d Collecting the data (where can the required data be found
and with what time period should the data be related?)
e Processing and analyzing the data
f Reporting the findings.

3. Research design in case of hypothesis-testing research studies:

Hypothesis-testing research studies (generally known as experimental studies) are

those where the researcher tests the hypotheses of causal relationships between variables.
Such studies require procedures that will not only reduce bias and increase reliability, but will
permit drawing inferences about causality. Usually experiments meet this requirement.
Hence, when we talk of research design in such studies, we often mean the design of
experiments.

Important Experimental Designs

Experimental design refers to the framework or structure of an experiment and as such
there are several experimental designs. We can classify experimental designs into two broad
categories, viz., informal experimental designs and formal experimental designs. Informal
experimental designs are those designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of analysis
based on differences in magnitudes, whereas formal experimental designs offer relatively
more control and use precise statistical procedures for analysis. Important experimental
designs are as follows:

a Informal experimental designs:

i Before – and- after without control design.

ii After-only with control design.
iii Before-and-after with control design.

Features of a Good design

 A good design is often characterized by adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient,
economical and so on. Generally, the design which minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analyzed is considered a good design. The design which
gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to be the best design in many investigations.
Similarly design which yields maximal information and provides an opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a problem is considered most appropriate and efficient
design in respect of many research problems. Thus, the question of good design is related to
the purpose or objective of the research problem and also with the nature of the problem to be
studied. A design may be quite suitable in one case, but may be found wanting in one respect
or the other in the context of some other research problem. One single design cannot serve
the purpose of all types of research problems.

A research design appropriate for a particular research problem, usually involves the
consideration of the following factors:

i the means of obtaining information;

ii the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
iii the objective of the problem to be studied;
iv the nature of the problem to be studied; and
v the availability of time and money for the research work.

Important Concepts Relating to Research Design

Before describing the different research designs, it will be appropriate to explain the
various concepts relating to designs so that these may be better and easily understood.

1.Dependent and independent variables:

A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable.
Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or
absence of the concerning attribute(s). Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different
values even in decimal points are called ‘continuous variables’*. But all variables are not
continuous. If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variables
or in statistical language’ discrete variables**. Age is an example of continuous variable, but
the number of children is an example of non-continuous variable. If one variable depends
upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and the
variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable.

2.EXTRANEOUS VARIABLE :
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but may affect
the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables. Suppose the researcher wants to
test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s gains in social studies
achievement and their self-concepts. In this case self-concept is an independent variable and
social studies achievement is a dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social
studies achievement, but since it is not related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the
researcher, it will be termed as an extraneous variable. Whatever effect is noticed on
dependent variable as a result of extraneous variable(s) is technically described as a
‘experimental error’.
A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent is attributed entirely to
the independent variable(s), and not to some extraneous variable or variables.

3. Control:
One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimize the influence or
effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we design the
study minimizing the effects of extraneous independent variables. In experimental researches,
the term ‘control’ is used to refer to restrain experimental conditions.

4. Confounded relationship:
When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of extraneous variable(s),
the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded by
an extraneous variable(s).
5. Research hypothesis:
When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested by scientific methods,
it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement that
relates an independent variable to a dependent variable. Usually a research hypothesis must
contain, at least, one independent and one dependent variable.

6. Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research:

When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-
testing research. It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.
Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed ‘experimental
hypothesis-testing research’ and a research in which an independent variable is not
manipulated to called ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing research*.

7. Experimental and control groups:

In an experimental hypothesis-testing research when a group is exposed to usual
conditions, it is termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to some novel or
special condition, it is termed and ’experimental’ group.

8. Treatments:
The different conditions under which experimental and control groups are put are
usually referred to as ‘treatments’. In the illustration taken above, the two treatments are the
usual studies Programme and the special studies Programme.

9.Experiment:
The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating o some research
problem is known as an experiment. For example, we can conduct an experiment to examine
the usefulness of a certain newly developed drug. Experiments can be of two types viz.,
absolute experiment and comparative experiment.

10. Experimental unit(s)

 The per-determined plots or the blocks, where different treatments are used, are
known as experimental units. Such experimental units must be selected (defined) very
carefully.

Need for Research Design

Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various
research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. Just as for better,
economical and attractive construction of a house, we need a blueprint (or what is commonly
called teh map of the house) well thought out and prepared by an expert architect, similarly
we need a research design or a plan in advances of data collection and analysis for out
research project. Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be adopted
for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in their analysis, keeping in view
the objective of the research and the availability of staff, time and money. Preparation of the
research design should be done with great care as any error in it may upset the entire project.
Research design, in fact, has a great bearing on the reliability of the results arrived at and as
such constituted the firm foundation of the entire edifice of the research work

DEVELOPING A RESEARCH PLAN

After identifying and defining the problem as also accomplishing the relating task, researcher
must arrange his ideas in order and write them in the form of an experimental plan or what
can be described as ‘Research Plan’. This is essential specially for new researcher because of
the following:

a It helps him to organize his ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for him to look
for flaws and inadequacies, if any.
b It provides an inventory of what must be done and which materials have to be collected
as a preliminary step.
c It is a document that can be given to others for comment.

Research plan must contain the following items;

1 Research objective should be clearly stated in a line or two which tells exactly what it is
that the researcher expects to do.

2. The problem to be studied by researcher must be explicitly stated so that one may know
what information is to be obtained for solving the problem.

3 Each major concept which researcher wants to measure wants to measure should be
defined in operational terms in context of the research project.

4 The plan should contain the method to be used in solving the problem. An Overall
description of the approach to be adopted is usually given and assumptions, if any, of
the concerning method to be used are clearly mentioned in the research plan.
5 The plan must also state the details of the techniques to be adopted. For instance, if
interview method is to be used, an account of the nature of the contemplated
interview procedure should be given. Similarly, if tests are to be given, the
conditions under which they are to be administered should be specified along with the
nature of instruments to be used. If public records are to be consulted as sources of
data should also be written out in all details.

6 A clear mention of the population to be studied should be made. If the study

happens to be sample based, the research plan should state the sampling plan i.e.,
how the sample is to be identified. The method of identifying the sample should be
such that generalization form the sample to the original population is feasible.
7 The plan must also contain the methods to be used in processing the data. Statistical
and other methods to be used must be indicated in the plan. Such methods should not
be left until the data have been collected. This part of the plan may be reviewed by
experts in the field, for they can often suggest changes that result in substantial saving
of time and effort.
8 Results of pilot test, if any, should be reported. Time and cost budgets for the
research project should also be prepared and laid down in the plan it self.
UNIT – V

METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

MEANING AND IMPORTANCE OF DATA

Meaning of Data

The search for answers to research questions calls of collection of data. Data are facts,
figures and other relevant materials, past and present, serving as bases for study and analysis.
Some examples of data are:

• The types of Loans secured by borrowers (for a credit survey)

• The items of raw materials required for a unit of output.
• The quantity of each material required for a unit of output.
• The sex, age, social class, religion, income level of respondents in a consumer
behaviour study.
• The opinions of eligible couples on birth control devices (Family Planning
Survey).
• The capital expenditure proposals considered by a firm during a year (Financial
Management)
• The marks obtained by students of a class in a test on a particular subject
(performances of students)
• The opinions of people on voting procedure in a general election (Opinion Poll).
• The types of new read by newspaper readers (Readership Survey).
• The aspirations of management trainees (The emerging Managers in India
enterprises).
• The types and frequency of breakdowns occurred in a particular brand of scooter
(Post-purchase behaviour Survey). And so on.
Types of Data
The data needed for a social science research may be broadly classified into (a) Data
pertaining to human beings, (b) Data relating to organizations and (c) Data pertaining to
territorial areas.

Personal data or data related to human being consist of –

(1) Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals: age, sex, race,
social class, religion, marital status, education, occupation, income, family size, location of
the household, life style, etc,

(2) Behaviour variables: attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practice,

intentions, etc. Organizational data consist of data relating to an organization’s origin,
ownership, objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth.
Territorial data re related to geophysical characteristics, resources endowment,
population, occupational pattern, infrastructure, economic structure, degree of development,
etc. of spatial divisions like villages, cities, taluks, districts, state and the nation.

Importance of data
The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of
factual data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. Inferences
based on imagination or guess work cannot provide correct answers to research questions.
The relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a
study.
 Data from the basis for testing the hypotheses formulated in a Study. Data also
provide the facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables which
are analyzed with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical analysis and
tests of significance provide the answers to research question. Thus the scientific process of
measurement, analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of relevant data and
their accuracy. Hence the importance of data for any research study.

The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) Secondary
sources.

Primary Sources
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data
that have not been previously collected, e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher on
brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behaviour
from a sample of consumers by interviewing them. Primary data are first-hand information
collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc.

Secondary Sources
These are sources containing data, which have been collected and complied for
another purpose. The secondary sources consist of readily available compendia and already
complied statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researches for their
studies, e.g., census reports, annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statistical
statements, Reports of Government Departments, Annual Reports on currency and finance
published by the Reserve Bank of India, Statistical Statements relating to Co-operatives and
Regional Rural Banks published by the National Bank for Agricultural and Rural
Development, Reports of the National Sample Survey Organization, Reports of trade
associations, publications of international organizations such as UNO, IMF, World Bank,
ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial Journals, newspapers, etc.

Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also
unpublished records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by
firms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records personnel records register of
members, minutes of meeting, inventory records, etc.
Features of Secondary Sources: Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of
all sorts of materials, they have certain common characteristics.
First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of
constructing tools and administering them.

Second, they consist of data over which a researcher has no original control over
collection and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources are shaped
by others. Clearly, this is a feature, which can limit the research value of secondary sources.
Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher
using them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.

USE OF SECONDARY DATA

Uses
The secondary data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specific
information from secondary sources may be used for reference purposes. For example, the
general statistical information on the number of co-operative credit societies in the country,
their coverage of villages, their capital structure, volume of business, etc. may be taken from
published reports and quoted as a background information in a study on the evaluation of
performance of cooperative credit societies in a selected district/state.
Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of a
research may be tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared with
the national averages; the performance indicators of a particular bank may be tested against
the corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole; and so on.

Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research
project. Such studies as Securities Market Behaviour. Financial Analysis of Companies,
Trends in credit allocation in commercial banks, Sociological Studies on crimes, historical
studies, and the like depend primarily on secondary data. Year books, Statistical reports of
government departments, reports of public organizations like Bureau of Public Enterprises,
Census Reports etc. serve as major data sources for such research studies.

Advantages
Secondary sources have some advantages.
1. Secondary data, if available, can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once their source
documents and reports are located, collection of data is just a matter of desk work. Even the
tediousness of copying the data from the source can now be avoided, thanks to xeroxing
facilities.

2. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much
cost. Thus the use of secondary data extends the researcher’s space and time reach.

3. The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific
generalizations can be made. This is especially so when data from several environment and
cultural settings are required for the study.

5. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings based on
primary data. It readily meets the need for additional empirical support. The
researcher need not await the time when additional primary data can be collected.

Disadvantages/limitations
The use of secondary data has its own limitations.
1. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our specific
research needs. The definitions adopted by those who collected those data may be different,
units of measure may not match; and time periods may also be different.

2. The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their accuracy we
need to know how the data were collected
 .
3. The secondary data are not uptodate and become obsolete when they appear in
print, because of time lag in producing them. For example, Population Census data are
published two or three years later compilation, and no new figures will be available for
another ten years.

5. Finally information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all
social scientists. Even if the location of the source is known, the accessibility
depends primarily on proximity. For example, most of the unpublished official
records, and compilations are located in the capital city, and they are not within the
easy reach of researchers based in far off places.
6.
Evaluation of Secondary Data
When a researcher wants to use secondary data for his research, he should evaluate
them before deciding to use them.

Data Pertinency: The first consideration in evaluation is to examine the pertinency of

the available secondary data to the research problem under study. The following questions
should be considered:

1. What are the definitions and classifications employed? Are they consistent with our
own?
2. What are the measurements of variables used? What is the degree to which they
conform to the requirements of our research?
3. What is the coverage of the secondary data in terms of topic and time? Does this
coverage fit the needs of our research?

On the basis of above consideration, the pertinency of the secondary data to the
research on hand should be determined. A researcher who is imaginative and flexible may be
able to redefine his research problem so as to make use of otherwise unusable available data.
Data Quality: If the researcher is convinced that the available secondary data fit his needs,
the next step is to examine the quality of the data.

The quality of data refers to their accuracy, reliability and completeness.

The assurance and reliability of the available secondary data depends on the
organization, which collected them, and the purpose for which they were collected. What is
the authority and prestige of the organization? Is it well recognized? Is it noted for
reliability? Is it capable of collecting reliable data? Does it use trained and well qualified
investigators? The answers to these questions determine the degree of confidence we can
have in the data and their accuracy.

It is important to go to the original source of the secondary data rather than to use an
immediate source, which has quoted from the original. Then only, the researcher can review
the cautionary and other comments that were made in the original source.

The completeness refers tot he actual coverage of the published data. This depends on
the methodology and sampling design adopted by the original organization. Is the
methodology sound? Is the sample size small or large? Is the sampling method appropriate?
Answers to these questions may indicate the appropriateness and adequacy of the data for the
problem under study.

The question of possible bias should also be examined. Whether the purpose for
which the original organization collected the data may have dictated a particular orientation?
Has the study been made to promote the organization’s own interest? How the study was
conducted? These are important clues.

The researcher must be on guard when the source does not report the methodology and
sampling design. Then it is not possible to determine the adequacy of the secondary data for
the researcher’s study.
 METHODS OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA: GENERAL
Introduction
Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources. In
this case, the researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his research
needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the
collection of Primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social
science research such as socio-economic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural
communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social
institutions, marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys,
readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP)
studies, farm management studies, business management studies, etc., required data are not
available from secondary sources and they have to directly gathered from the primary sources.
In all cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary
data have to be gathered.

Methods of Primary Data Collection

There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a ‘Tool’.
While a method refers to the way or ode of gathering data, a tool is an instrument used for the
method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a)
observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation, (e) simulation, and (f)
projective technique. Each of these methods is discussed in detail in the subsequent sections

Observation involves gathering of data relating to the selected research by viewing

and/or listening. Interviewing involves face-to-face conversation between the investigator
and the respondent. Mailing is used for collecting data by getting questionnaires completed
by respondents. Experimentation involves a study of independent variables under controlled
conditions. Experiment maybe conducted in a laboratory or in field in a natural setting.
Simulation involves creation of an artificial situation similar to the actual life situation.
Projective methods aim at drawing inferences on the characteristics of respondents by
presenting to them stimuli. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages .

Choice of Methods of Data Collection

Which of the above methods of data collection should be selected for a proposed
research project? This is one of the questions to be considered while designing the research
plan. One or more methods has/have to be chosen. The choice of a method or methods
depends upon the following factors:

1. The nature of the study of the subject matter: If it is a study of

opinions/preferences of persons, interviewing or mailing may be appropriate depending on the
educational level of the respondents. On the other hand, an impact study may call for
experimentation; and a study of behavioural pattern may require observation.

2. The unit of enquiry: The unit of enquiry may be an individual, household,

institution or community. To collect data from households, interviewing is preferable. Data
from institutions may be collected by mail survey and Studies on Communities call for
observational method.

3. The size and spread of the sample: If the sample is small and the area covered is
compact interviewing may be preferable, but a large sample scattered over a wider area may
require mailing.

4. Scale of the survey: A large scale survey may require mailing or interviewing
through trained investigators.
 5. The educational level of respondents: For a simple survey among educated
persons concerned with the subject-matter on study, a mail survey may be appropriate. But
for a survey of less educated/illiterate persons like industrial workers, slum dwellers, rural
people, interviewing is the only suitable method.
6. The type and depth of information to be collected: For collection of general
simple factual and non-emotional data, interviewing or mailing is appropriate. For an indepth
survey of personal experiences and sensitive issues, in depth interview is essential. For
collection of data on behaviour, culture, customs, life style etc., observational method is
required.

7. The availability of skilled and trained manpower: In this case, even for a large
general survey entailing many complicated questions, interviewing can be adopted.

8. The rate of accuracy and representative nature of the data required:

Interviewing is the most appropriate method for collecting accurate data from a representative
sample of population. Interviewing can achieve a higher response rate.

A researcher can select one or more of the methods keeping in view the above factors.
No method is universal. Each method’s unique features should be compared with the needs
and conditions of the study and thus the choice of the methods should be decided.

Evaluation of Data Collection Methods

The appropriateness of a method of data collection may be evaluated on the basis of
the following criteria:

1. The efficiency: The case, speed and cost with which the method can collect data,
2. Data quality and adequacy: Response rate, respondent motivation, scope for
cross-checking and accuracy of data, interviewer-bias, ability to clarify and probe.
3. Naturalness of setting
4. Anonymity
5. Interview of context and question under,
 6. Control of context and question order,
7. Ability to use visual aids,
8. Potential for controlling variables and
9. Dependence on respondent’s reading and writing ability.

TABLE
Comparison of Data Collection Methods

Methods of
Sl. Inter- Field
data collection Obser- Lab- Simulatio
No viewin Mailing Experime
Rated vations Experiment n
. g nt
Dimensions
1 Efficiency
(a) Ease Low Low Low Moderate Low Moderate
(b) Speed
Low Low Low Moderate Low Moderate
(c) Cost
Moderat High Low Low High Moderate
e
2 Data Quality
& Adequacy
(a) response High High Low - Moderate High
rate
High High Low - Moderate High
(b) respondent
motivation
(c) cross
High High Low High High High
checking
(d) Interviewe
r bias
Low Mode- None None Moderate Moderate
(e) Clarificati
on & rate
Probing
- High None - - -

3 Naturalness of High Mode- High` Low Moderate Moderate

setting rate

4 Anonymity Moderat Low High Low Low Low

 e
5 Investigator’s High High None High High High
Supervision
6 Control of - High None - - -
context &
Question order
7 Use of visual High High Low High High High
aids
8 Control of None - - High Moderate High
variables
9 Dependence None None High High None High
on
Respondents’
reading &
writing ability

.OBSERVATION
Meaning and Importance
Observation means viewing or seeing. We go on observing something or other while
we are awake. Most of such observations are just casual and have no specific purpose. But
observation as a method of data collection is different from such casual viewing.

Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its

proper setting for the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observation as
a method includes both ‘seeing’ and ‘hearing’. It is accompanied by perceiving as well.
 Observation is a classical method of scientific enquiry. The body of knowledge of
various natural and physical sciences such as biology, physiology, astronomy, plant ecology
etc. has been upon centuries of systematic observation.

Observation also plays a major role in formulating and testing hypothesis in social
sciences. Behavioural scientists observe interactions in small groups; anthropologists observe
simple societies, and small communities; political scientists observe the behavior of political
leaders and political institutions. In a sense, as the Webbs 1 have pointed out, all social
research begins and ends with observation. A researcher silently watching a city council or a
trade union committee or quality circle or a departmental meeting or a conference of
politicians or others picks up hints that help him to formulate new hypothesis. He can test
them through further observation and study.

Observation becomes scientific, when it (a) serves a formulated research purpose, (b)
is planned deliberately, (c) is recorded systematically, and (d) is subjected to checks and
controls on validity and reliability. Validity refers to the extent to which the recorded
observations accurately reflect the construct they are intended to measure. Validity is
assessed by examining how well the observations agree with alternative measures of the same
construct. Reliability entails consistency and freedom from measurement error. This is
usually assessed in terms of (a) the extent to which tow or more independent observers agree
in their ratings of the same event; and (b) the repeatability of observations over time by means
of test-retest comparisons

Characteristics
Observation as a method of data collection has certain characteristics.
1. It is both a physical and a mental activity. The observing eye ‘catches’ many things
which are sighted, but attention in focused on data that are pertinent to the given study.

2. Observation is selective. A researcher does not observe anything and everything,

but selects the range of things to be observed on the basis of the nature, scope and objectives
of this study. For example, suppose a researcher desires to study the causes of city and
accidents and has formulated a tentative hypothesis that accidents re caused by violation or
traffic rules and overspeeding. When he observes the movements of vehicles on the road,
many things are before his eyes: the type, make, size and colour o the vehicles, the persons
sitting in them, their hairstyle, etc. All such things which are not relevant to his study are
ignored and only over speeding and traffic violations are keenly observed by him.

3. Observation is purposive and not causal. It is made for the specific purpose of
noting things relevant to the study.

4. It captures the natural social context in which person’s behaviour occurs.

5. It grasps the significant events and occurrences that affect social relations of the
participants.
6. Observation should be exact and be based on standard tools of research such as
observation schedule, socio-metric scale etc., and precision instruments, if any.

Types of Observation
Observation may be classified in different ways. With reference to the investigator’s
role, it may be classified into (a) participant observation, (b) non-participant observation, it
may be classified into (c) direct observation, and (d) indirect observation. With reference to
the regour of the system adopted, observation is classified into (e) controlled observation, and
(f) uncontrolled observation.

Participant Observation: In this observation, the observer is a part of the

phenomenon or group, which is observed, and he acts as both an observer and a participant.
For example, a study of tribal customs by an anthropologist by taking part in tribal activities
like folk dance. The persons who are observed should not be aware of the researcher’s
purpose. Then only their behaviour will be ‘natural’. The concealment of research objective
and researcher’s identity is justified on the ground that it makes it possible to study certain
aspects of the group’s culture which are not revealed to outsiders.
 The advantages of participant observation are: 1. The observer can understand the
emotional reactions of the observed group, and gets a deeper insight of their experiences. 2.
The observer will be able to record context which gives meaning to the observed behaviour
and heard statements.

Disadvantages: Participant observation suffers from some demerits.

1. The participant abserver narrows his range of observation. For example, if there is
a hierarchy of power in the group/community under study, he comes to occupy one position
within it, and thus other avenues of information are closed to him.

2. To the extent that the participant observer participates emotionally, the objectivity is
lost.
3. Another limitation of this method is the dual demand made on the observer.
Recording can interfere with participation, and participation can interfere with observation.
Recording on the spot is not possible and it has to be postponed until the observer is alone.
Such time lag results in some inaccuracy in recording.

Because of the above limitations, participant observation is generally restricted to

those cases where non-participant observation is not practical, e.g., a study of the functioning
of a mobile library or mobile bank of tribal community, etc.

Non-participant Observation: In this method, the observer stands apart and does not
participate in the phenomenon observed. Naturally, there is no emotional involvement on the
part of the observer. This method calls for skill in recording observations in an unnoticed
manner.
Direct Observation: This means observation of an event personally by the observer
when it takes place. The method is flexible and allows the observer to see ad record subtle
aspect of events and behaviour as they occur. He is also free to shift places, change the focus
of the observation. A limitation of this method is that the observer’s perception circuit may
not be able to cover all relevant events when the latter move quickly, resulting in the
incompleteness of the observation.
 Indirect Observation: This does not involve the physical present of the observer, and
the recording is done by mechanical, photographic or electronic devices, e.g., recording
customer and employee movements by a special motion picture camera mounted in a
department of a large store. This method is less flexible than direct observation, but it is less
biasing and less erratic and recording accuracy. It also provides a permanent record for an
analysis of different aspects of the event.

Controlled Observation: This involves standardization of observational techniques

and exercise of maximum control over extrinsic and intrinsic variables by adopting
experimental design and systematically recording observations (see 7.6 Experimentation,
below).
Controlled observation is carried out either in the laboratory or in the field. It is
typified by clear and explicit decisions on what, how, and when to observe. It is primarily
used for inferring causality, and testing casual hypothesis.

Uncontrolled observation: This does not involve control over extrinsic and intrinsic
variables. It is primarily used for descriptive research. Participant observation is a typical
uncontrolled one.
Planning Observation
The use of observation method requires proper planning.
First, researcher should carefully examine the relevance of observation method to the
data needs of the selected study.
Second, he must identify the specific investigative questions, which call for use of
observation method. These determine the data to be collected.
Third, he mist decide the observation content, viz., specific conditions, events and
activities that have to be observed for the required data. The observation content should
include the relevant variables.

Fourth, for each variable chosen, the operational definition should be specified.
 Fifth, the observation setting, the subjects to be observed, the timing and mode of
observation, recording procedure, recording instruments to be used, and other details of the
task should be determined.

Last, observers should be selected and trained. The persons to be selected must have
sufficient concentration powers, strong memory power and unobtrusive nature. Selected
persons should be imparted both theoretical and practical training.

Conditions of Effective Observation

1. Observations must be done under conditions, which will permit accurate results.
The observer must be in vantage point to see clearly the items to be observed. The distance
and the light must be satisfactory. The mechanical devices used must be in good working
conditions and operated by skilled persons.
2. Observation must cover a sufficient number of representative sample o the cases.
3. Recording should be accurate and complete.
4. The accuracy and completeness of recorded results must be checked. A certain
number of cases can be observed again by another observer/another set of mechanical
devices, as the case may be. If it is feasible, two separate observers and sets of instruments
may be used in all or some of the original observations. The results could then be compared
to determine their accuracy and completeness.

Observation tools and Recording Devices

Systematic observation requires the use of observation schedule (or Observationnaire),
diary, and various mechanical recording devices.
Schedule: The data requirements are identified by analyzing the core of the problem,
the objectives of the study, the investigative questions, hypothesis and the operational
definition of concepts and out of the data requirements, items of data to be collected through
observation are identified. A schedule is then constructed, covering those items of data.

It should be constructed in such a manner as to make it possible to record the

necessary information easily and correctly. Enough space should be provided for recording
observations for each item. The items should appear in logical groupings and in the order in
which the observer would observe them.

Field observation Log: This may take the form of diary of cards. Each item of
observation is recorded under appropriate subheading. At the time of observation, rough
notings may be made, and at the end of the day, full log may be made. The card system is
flexible and facilitates arrangement of items in any desired order.

Mechanical Devices: These may include cameras, tape recorders, videotape and
electronic devices. Still, motion, sound, colour and time-lapse cameras give a permanent
record of events. Microscopic and Telescopic lens may be used a cameras. Eye cameras are
common in advertising and package research. They record eye movements while a consumer
is looking at advertisements or packages. Other recording instruments are: tape, disc, and
wire recorders, barometers, hygrometers, speedometers, one-way screens and mirrors, closed-
circuit television, light meter, pocket calculators.

Suitability and Application

Observation is suitable for a variety of research purposes. It may be used for studying
(a) the behaviour of human beings and social groups: life styles, customs and manners,
interpersonal relations, group dynamics, crowd behaviour, leadership styles, managerial
styles, other behaviours and actions; (b) the behaviour of other living creatures like birds,
animals etc.,; (c) physical characteristics of inanimate things like stores, factories residences,
etc.,; (d) flow of traffic and parking problems; (e) movement of materials/products through a
plant.

It may be used in exploratory research to gain insights that will be subsequently tested
as hypotheses. It may be used to collect supplementary data that may interpret or qualify
findings obtained by other methods. Observation may be used as the primary method, e.g.,
anthropological studies of communities, behavioral studies of small groups.
 Observation may be used in studying behaviour in ‘natural’ settings or in the
laboratory, e.g., group formation may be studied as it occurs in a real-life situation or in the
laboratory room.

Advantages
Observation has certain advantages.
1. The main virtue of observation is its directness; it makes it possible to study
behaviour as it occurs. The researcher need not ask people about their behaviour and
interactions; he can simply watch they do and say.

2. Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena as they occur
in their ‘natural’ settings. Other methods introduce elements of artificiality into the
researched situation for instance, in interview, the respondent may not behave in a natural
way. There is no such-artificiality in observational studies, especially when the observed
persons are not aware of their being observed.

3. Observation is more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to articulate
meaningfully, e.g., studies of children, tribal, animals, bird, etc.

4. Observation improves the opportunities for analyzing the contextual background at

behaviour. Furthermore verbal resort can be validated and compared with behaviour through
observation. The validity of what men of position and authority say can be verified by
observing what they actually do.

5. Observation makes it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs. For example,
only observation can provide an insight into all the aspects of the process of negotiation
between union on management representatives.

6. Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing effect on their
conduct than does questioning.
 7. It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised questioning.

7. Mechanical devices may be used for recording data in order to secure more accurate
data and also of making continuous observations over longer periods.

Limitations
Observation cannot be used indiscriminately for all purposes. It has its won
limitations.

1. Observation is of non use for studying past events or activities. One has to depend
upon documents or narrations by people for studying such things.

2. It is not suitable for studying opinions and attitudes. However, an observation of

related behaviour affords a good clue to the attitudes, e.g., and observation of the seating
patterns of high caste and class persons and low caste and class person in a general meeting in
a village may be useful for forming an index of attitude.

3. Observation poses difficulties in obtaining a representative sample. For

interviewing and mailing methods, the selection of a random sampling can be readily ensured.
But observing people of all types does not make the sample a random one.

4. Observation cannot be used as and when the researcher finds it convenient to use it.
He has to wait for the event to occur. For example, an observation of folk dance of a tribals
community is possible, only when the tribals perform it.

5. A major limitation of this method is that the observer normally must be at the scene
of the event when it takes place. Yet it may not be possible to predict here and when the
event will occur, e.g., road accident, communal clash.

6. Observation is a slow and expensive process, requiring human observers and/or

costly surveillance equipments.
 EXPERIMENTATION
Meaning
Experimentation is a research process used to study the casual relationships between
variables. It aims at studying the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable,
by keeping the other independent variable constant through some type of control. For
example, a social scientist may use experimentation for studying the effect of a method of
family planning publicity on people’s awareness of family planning techniques.
Various kinds of designs such as “after-only design”, “before-after-design”, etc. are
used for experimentation

Why Experiment?
Experimentation requires special efforts. It is often extremely difficult to design, and
it is also a time consuming process. Why should then one take such trouble? Why not
simply observe/survey the phenomenon? The fundamental weakness of any non-
experimental study is its inability to specify causes and effect. It can show only correlations
between variables, but correlations alone never prove causation. The experiment is the only
method, which can show the effect of an independent variable on dependent variable. In
experimentation, the researcher can manipulate the independent variable and measure its
effect on the dependent variable. For example, the effect of various types of promotional
strategies on the sale of given product can be studies by using different advertising media
such as T.V., radio and Newspapers.

Moreover, experiment provides “the opportunity to vary the treatment (experimental

variable) in a systematic manner, thus allowing or the isolation and precise specification of
important differences.

Planning and Conducting Experiments

It is easy to conceive ideas, but difficult to translate the ideas into a workable,
credible, meaningful set of experimental operations. This to a great extent depends upon the
researcher’s knowledge, imagination and intelligence. Yet the general procedure in
experimentation may be out-lined.

First, determine the hypothesis to be tested and the independent and dependent
variables involved in it.
Second, operationalize the variables by identifying their measurable dimensions.

Third, select the type of experimental plan. The types of experimental design based on types
of control may be classified into: (a) One group plan, using the sane group as experimental
and control group and measuring it before and after experimental treatment; (2) Matched
groups plan, consisting of two identical groups, one to be used as control group and another as
experimental group, with a) Post-test only measurement or (b) pretest-post-test measurements.
Fourth, choose the setting: The setting may be field or laboratory (See subsequent
paragraphs for detailed discussion on these two types of experiments).

Fifth, make the experimental conditions as nearly the same as the expected real life
conditions. This is essential in order to make the findings reliable.

Sixth, make a record of pre-experimental conditions.

Seventh, introduce appropriate methods for controlling extraneous variables that are
not manipulated in the experiment.

These methods are:

1. Removing the variable: An extraneous variable may be eliminated completely.
For example, observer distraction may be removed by separating the observer by a one-way
glass partition. Some variables may be eliminated by selecting cases with uniform
characteristics, e.g., using only male subjects removes sex as a variable.

2. Matching cases: Selecting control and experimental groups with identical

characteristics. By this all variables are kept constant.
 3. Balancing cases: This means assigning subjects to experimental and control groups
in such as way that the means and the variances of the groups are s nearly equal as possible
.
4. Randomization: This involves pure chance selection and assignment of subjects to
experimental and control groups. This method eliminates systematic bias and minimizes the
effect of extraneous variables.

6. Analysis of covariance: This is statistical method of eliminating initial differences

on several variables between the experimental and control groups. Pretest mean
scores are used as covariates.

Eighth, apply the experimental treatment and record observations and measurements
using appropriate measurement devices. If feasible, repeat the tests several times in order to
insure the accuracy of results.

Ninth, analyze the results, using appropriate statistical devices.

Last, interpret the results, giving consideration to all possible extraneous conditions.
No possible cause should be overlooked, as unforeseen conditions might influence the results.

Applications
The applications of experimental method are discussed under ‘Laboratory
Experiment’, and ‘Field Experiment’, below.
Evaluation of Experimental Method
Experimental Method
Experimentation has some specific advantages and disadvantage.

The advantages are:

1. Its power to determine causal relationships between variables surpasses that of all
other methods. The influence of extraneous variables can be more effectively controlled in
this method.
 2. The element of human error is reduced to the minimum.
3. More conditions may be created and tested in experimentation than may be possible
in other methods.
4. Experimentation yields generally exact measurements and can be repeated for
verifying results.

The Disadvantages: It is difficult to establish comparable control and experimental

groups.
Secondly, the scope for experimentation with human beings is extremely limited.

Thirdly, experiment is often difficult to design, tends to be expensive and time-

consuming.

Fourth, it is artificial’ to some extent and may lack realism.

Fifthly, experimentation can be used only in studies of the present but not in studies
relating to past or future.

Sixthly, it is no use in determining opinions, motives and intentions of persons.

Finally, the results observed may not be the true effects of the experimental treatment,
but may be artifacts, i.e., effects of some extraneous variables. For instance, experimenter
may unwillingly influence his subjects to behave in ways that confirm the hypothesis,
particularly if the subjects want to please the experimenter. Laboratory experiment is
especially vulnerable to such artifacts when subjects know they are being studied and want to
create a good impression.

Laboratory Experiment
An experiment can be conducted either in a laboratory or in a real-life setting.
 A laboratory experiment is an investigation conducted in a setting created specifically
for the purpose. The researcher manipulates an independent variable and studies its effect on
a dependent variable, keeping other variables constant.

Purposes: The purposes of laboratory experiments are: (1) to discover casual relations
under uncontaminated conditions, reduce the discovered relations to functional form y = f(x)
and make predictions on the basis of the functions; (2) to test the predictions derived form
theory and other researches; and (3) to refine theories.

Applications or Uses: This method is useful not only in physical sciences research,
but also in social sciences research. Eventhough experimentation on a social science problem
has special difficulties, it can be used for a variety o studies such as voting behaviour,
leadership style, learning process, effectiveness of advertising media, effect of a package on
sales, influence of incentive schemes on labour productivity and so on.

Evaluation of this method: It has several merits. They are:

1. The chief merit of experiment method is the possibility of securing relatively
complete control over extraneous factors.
2. The experimenter can manipulate one or more variables and study its or their impact
on a dependent variable.
3. The experimenter in most cases can achieve a high degree of specificity in
operationalising the variables.
4. An experiment yields precise results and it is replicable.

Demerits: The experimental method is not free from drawbacks.

1. The greatest weakness of this method is probably the lack of strength of
independent variables. As the laboratory situation is artificial, the effects of experimental
manipulations are usually weak.
2. This method is highly structured, thus limiting flexibility.
 3. The result cannot be simply generalized to real life situations, because in the latter,
various extraneous forces operate. Thus an experimental method lacks external validity (see
para on validity below).
Nevertheless, the contributions of experimental method to theory building are so great
that this method is one of man’s greatest achievements.

Field Experiment
This is experiment conducted in a real life situation in which the experimenter
manipulates an independent variable in order to test a hypothesis. Compared with laboratory
experiment, a field experiment incorporates less control. As it is difficult to foresee and
control extraneous factors in a field experiment, its result is subject to large uncontrolled
variation.

Application or Uses: This method is well suited to both testing of theory and finding
solutions to practical social problems. It has been used for studying a variety of social action
programmes such as, improving the quality of work life in assembly-line, post offices and
insurance companies and bank; the learning process in educational institutions and training
centres; changing group productivity; changing organizational culture; changing superior-
subordinate relationships in organization; overcoming resistance to change through
participative approach; changing attitude through social contract; changing food habits;
improving the effectiveness of mass education; testing new products in market; determining
best procedures or techniques for tasks; and so on.

“Anyone who wishes to take effective social action in any setting can improve upon
the uncontrolled tryout of new methods by the application of more scientific experimental
procedures. Through careful measurement, better theorizing, the use of control groups, and
other aspects of improved experimental design, the practical problems of social action can be
solved with greater certainty, with greater accuracy, and sometimes with greater efficiency
than through common-sense trial-and-error methods.”
 The field experiment will be more successful if preceded by a field study which, gives
a more thorough knowledge of the setting and thus enables the experimenter to manipulate
and control his variables more effectively.

Illustration: In a field experiment in a factory, Coch and French manipulated

participation of workers in planning and studied its effect on various dependent variables –
production, resignations, and aggression. The broad hypothesis tested was that resistance to
change can be overcome by increased participation in decisions or processes that lead-to
change. Factory workers were divided into three groups. The members of the control group
did not participate in any of the discussions or decisions about changes in the factory. Two
experimental groups did participate in discussions and decision in different degrees: total
participation and participation by representation. The results supported the hypothesis
.
Evaluation of the field experimental methods: This method has some unique
virtues.
1. The variables in a field experiment usually have a stronger effect than those of a
laboratory experiment, as the field situation is real. Realism increases with strength of the
variables.

2. The field experiment permits a more unequivocal determination of causal relations,

while a mere non experimental field study reveals only a correlation.

3. This method is particularly appropriate for studying methods of social influence,

social processes and social changes in real life settings.

3. As the field experiment deals with the total life situation, it is well suited for
studying complex syndromes and social processes where the interrelationships
among many analytical variables are involved.

Limitations: The experimental method is not free from limitations.

 1. The major limitations of this method is the practical difficulty involved in the
manipulation of independent variables and randomization in many field situations.

2.Another weakness inherent in this method is lack of precision. Precise measurement

in realistic situation is not so possible as in a laboratory setting.

4. A field experiment is a very difficult process, as it calls for social skills and good
contacts on the part of the experimenter and also it is a time-consuming process.
Unless the organization where it has to be conducted and the subjects cooperate, it
is not possible to conduct it.

Validity
An experiment should achieve two types of validity: internal and external validity.
When the effects of extraneous variables are eliminated and the observed effects of dependent
variable can be ascribed solely to the effect of experimented dependent variables, then the
experiment has internal validity. This is generally achieved in a laboratory experiment,
because in it extraneous variables are controlled.

The extent to which the results of an experiment can be generalized to other settings is
known as external validity. The contribution of an experiment to the body of knowledge
depends upon its external validity.

It is very difficult to achieve cent per cent validity in an experiment, because there are
various threats to validity. Combell and Stanley list twelve threats to validity.

1. Maturation: This means the effects of time. Between the pre-test and the post-test,
the subjects undergo various changes such as fatigue, boredom, growth or intellectual
maturation which may influence their performance and so the difference between the pre-test
and post-test measurements of their performance cannot be ascribed to the effect of
experimental variables only. This source of invalidity is eliminated/minimized by before-
after design with control group, for the control group also experiences the effects of time.
 2. History: Other extraneous events may occur during experimentation and thus
influence the results. These may be evens that occur in the political, economic or cultural life
of the people under study or other minor events such as illness of a subject, disruption in the
experiment of an interruption from any unwanted source. The influence of this source of
invalidity is greater in a field experiment than in laboratory experiment.

4. Testing: It is possible that the experience gained in the pre-test may result in an
increase in the post-test performance.

This testing effect is confounded with the effect of experimental variable. The before-
after design with-control group guards against this source of invalidity also.

4. Instrumentation: If the tests of instruments used for measurement are not accurate
or consistent, of if observers become more experienced or careless, the results will be vitiated
.
5. Statistical Regression: Those who scored highest on a pre-test are likely to score
relatively lower on a re-test, whereas subjects who score lowest in the pre-test are likely to
score higher on a re-test. Thus their average score in re-test may be closer to the overall
population average. This is merely a statistical artifact. Failure to recognize this effect may
lead the researcher to arrive at erroneous conclusion on the results.

6. Differential Selection: Selection bias arises when the experimental and control
groups are not as identical as possible. Techniques like random selection of subjects and
matching may minimize the selection bias.

7. Experimental mortality: This refer to loss of subject due to dropout, migration etc.
This is more likely in a long-term experiment, and affects the comparability of pre-test and
post-test results. The remedy is to omit the pre-test scores of subjects who did not take the
post-test.
 8. Selection-maturation, selection-history or selection-testing interactions: These
interactions between selection and other factors arise when the effect of the other factors
differs between the groups selected.

9. Reactive effect of testing: The pre-test may effect the responsiveness of the
experimental group to the treatment. For example, pre-test measuring knowledge about
Denmark may sensitize the subjects; as a result, they may be more receptive to the
information given out in a film about Denmark, which is the treatment under study.

10. Reactive effect of experimental arrangement: The knowledge of participation in

an experiment may introduce bias in favour of the experimental group. This reactive effect is
popularly known as the “Hawthorne effect”, since its importance was clearly demonstrated in
the famous studies conducted by Prof. Elton Mayo and his associates at the Hawthorne plant
of Western Electric Company in Chicago during early 1930s. In this enquiry into the
relationship between physical work conditions and productivity, the output of a group of
workers under various conditions was measured. They were treated differently and they knew
they were the subjects of the experiments. When light intensity was increased, the workers
output increased; but when the intensity of light was reduced, there was no reduction in their
output, because of the reactive effect of experimental arrangements.

11. Multiple-treatment interference: In some experiments like medical experiments

several types of treatments are tried out successively on the same subject. At each stage, the
residual effect of the previous treatment would interact with the effect of the next one.

12. Contamination: This is a type of bias, which arises when the researcher has some
previous knowledge about the subjects involved in an experiment. This may affect the
objectivity of his judgement.

SIMULATION
Meaning
Simulation is one of the observational methods. It is a process of conducting
experiments on a symbolic model representing a phenomenon. Abelson defines simulation as
“the exercise of a flexible limitation of processes and outcomes for the purpose of clarifying
or explaining the underlying mechanisms involved.” It is a symbolic abstraction,
simplification and substitution for some referent system. In other words, simulation is a
theoretical model of the elements, relations and processes, which symbolize some referent
system, e.g., the flow of money in the economic system may be simulated in a operating
model consisting of a set of pipes through which liquid moves. Simulation is thus a technique
of performing sampling experiments on the model of the systems. The experiments are done
on the model instead of on the real system, because the latter would be too inconvenient and
expensive.

Simulation is a recent research technique; but it has deep roots in history. Chess has
often been considered a simulation of medieval warfare.

The process of Simulation

First, the process or system to be simulated is identified.
Second, the purpose of this simulation is decided. It may be to ‘clarify’ or ‘explain’
the process.

Third, on the basis of the available information on the process or system – its
components and the set of conditions assumed to operate in and between the components –
mathematical model is developed.

Fourth, several sets of input data to be used are collected. Inputs may be samples of
actual data or synthetic data based on the general characteristics of real input data.
Fifth, the type of simulation – computer simulation or man simulation or man-
computer simulation – to be used is determined.
 Last, the simulation to operated with the various sets of input data, and the results are
analyzed to determine the best solution.

Simulation v. Experimentation
A real-life experiment may be too costly or may not be possible because of practical
difficulties or of the complexities of the phenomenon. For example, the search for an optimal
approach to the problem of inventory issue and replenishment through experimentation would
disrupt operations for a certain period of time and also would be very costly; phenomena, like
macro-sociological situations or business systems are so complex, that it would not be
possible to manipulate independent variables, and to control extraneous variable in real-life
experiments on them. Such difficulties do not arise in simulation, because it experiments with
models and can artificially manipulate variables.

Further, an experiment can extrapolate to at best a few variables, whereas simulation,

particularly computer simulation may often handle many variables including intrapersonal
and interpersonal and interpersonal processes.
Simulation, unlike experiments, is best suited to the study of a system with a set of
interrelated and interdependent subcomponents.

Type of simulation
There are three types of simulation, viz., (a) man simulations, (b) computer
simulations, and (c) man-computer simulations.

Man Simulation: This is a game played by people in a laboratory setting to stimulate

people in real world. For example, number of individuals are divided into groups that are
placed in a laboratory room. Each group is instructed to imagine that it represents the
government of a particular nation. Simulated international situations involving treaties,
alliances, threats, wars and the like are then played out by the groups.

No gaming Model can serve as a universal model for all games. Each model is
unique. The size of the group is an important factor. The size may be two persons, three
persons. Other important dimensions are information level (whether individuals have perfect
information or not), and perceived goal motivation – no common interest and purely
competitive or partly competitive and partly cooperative.

Computer Simulation: This is an operational model programmed to generate a

sequence of interactions. This requires precise definitions, string of large amounts of data on
the system to be analyzed and programming of the analysis. For example, two or more sets of
ratios relating to liquidity, profitability and operational efficiency may be fed into a
discriminant function analysis in order to find out which set of variables has a better power to
predict financial health of an enterprise.

Man-computer Simulation: In this type of simulation, persons play the role of

decision-makers, while the computer is responsive to the players’ activities. In this game, the
computer must be provided with a script. “The script lists the messages conveyed to the
player. Two kinds of messages are involved. One is a simple response to the player’s
actions. The other is instructions to the player as to the appropriate way he can respond to the
computer.

Reliability and Validity of Simulations

The successive runs of a simulation should give similar results. Then it is said to be
reliable. This is rarely a problem in computer simulation, but it may be a problem in games.
The reliability in games requires that the Physical equipment should not be cumbersome, the
rules should be clear, simple and complete and the game should not overtax the player’s span
of attention.
Validity refers to the generalizability of the findings of the simulation. This depends on the
degree of correspondence between the operating model and its reference system.

Applications
Simulation is a applicable to various categories of problems.
(1) Behavioural and social problems, e.g., population dynamics; group behaviour;
social conflicts;

(2) Political problems, e.g., prediction of voting in elections; cold war conflicts;
international political situations; international counteractions to specific actions
like diplomatic protest, sanctions etc., study of revolutions;

(3) Economic problems, e.g., study of economics under conditions of recession and
inflation; developmental planning strategies; balance of payment policies;
economic forecasting; urban traffic system design; water resources development;
flood control system; national manpower planning.

(4) Business problems, e.g., determination of proper order quantities; production

scheduling, designing complex distribution system; waiting line problems in
transport services; maintenance scheduling in factories, airlines, bus service;
assembly line scheduling; consumer behaviour prediction; financial forecasting;
introduction of a new product; inventory control system;

(5) War strategies and tactics.

INTERVIEWING
Definition
Interviewing is one of the major methods of data collection. It may be defined as a
two-way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant, initiated for
obtaining information relevant to a specific study. It involves not only conversation, but also
learning from the respondent’s gestures, facial expressions and pauses, and his environment.
Interviewing requires face-to-face contact or contact over telephone and calls for
interviewing skills. It is done by using a structured schedule or an unstructured guide.

Importance
Interviewing may be used either as a main method or as a supplementary one in
studies of persons. Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information from
illiterate or less educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data from
factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating to a person’s
opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs, past experience and future intentions. When qualitative
information is required or probing is necessary to draw out fully, then interviewing is
required. Where the area covered for the survey is compact, or when a sufficient number of
qualified interviewers are available, personal interview is feasible.

Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. People are usually more
willing to talk than to write. Once rapport is established, even confidential information may
be obtained. It permits probing into the context and reasons for answers to questions.
Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the investigator to grasp
the behavioural context of the data furnished by the respondents. It permits the investigator to
seek clarifications and brings to the forefront those questions, that, for one reason or another,
respondents do not want to answer.

Evaluation of interviewing
Advantages: There are several real advantages to personal interviewing.
First, “the greatest value of this method is the depth and detail of information that can
be secured. When used with a well-conceived schedule, an interview can obtain a great deal
of information. It far exceeds mail survey in the amount and quality of data that can be
secured.

Second, the interviewer can do more things to improve the percentage of responses
and the quality of information received than with other methods. He can note the conditions
of the interview situation, and adopt appropriate approaches to overcome such problems as
the respondent’s unwillingness, incorrect understanding of question, suspicion, etc.

Third, the interviewer can gather other supplemental information like economic level,
living conditions etc. through observation of the respondent’s environment.
Fourth, the interviewer can use special scoring devices, visual materials and the like in
order to improve the quality of interviewing.

Fifth, the accuracy and dependability of the answers given by the respondent can be
checked by observation and probing.

Last, interview is flexible and adaptable to individual situations. Even more control
can be exercised over the interview situation.

Limitations: Interviewing is not free from limitations. Its greatest drawback is that it
is costly, both in money and time.

Second, the interview results are often adversely affected by interviewer’s mode of
asking questions and interactions, and incorrect recording and also by the respondent’s faulty
perception, faulty memory, inability to articulate etc.

Third, certain types of personal and financial information may be refused in face-to-
face interviews. Such information might be supplied more willingly on mail questionnaires,
especially if they are to be unsigned.
 Fourth, interview poses the problem of recording information obtained from the
respondents. No foolproof system is available. Note taking is invariably distracting to both
the respondent and the interviewer and affects the thread of the conversation.

Last, interview calls for highly skilled interviewers. The availability of such persons
is limited and the training of interviewers is often a long and costly process.

Characteristics
Interviewing as a method of data collection has certain characteristics. They are:
1. The participants – the interviewer and the respondent – are strangers. Hence the
investigator has to get himself introduced to the respondent in an appropriate manner
.
2. The relationship between the participants is a transitory one. It has a fixed
beginning and termination points. The interview proper is a fleeting, momentary experience
for them.

3. Interview is not a mere casual conversational exchange, but a conversation with a

specific purpose, viz., obtaining information relevant to a study.

4. Interview is a mode of obtaining verbal answers to questions put verbally.

5. The interaction between the interviewer and the respondent need not necessarily be
on a face-to-face basis, because interview can be conducted over the telephone also.

6. Although interview is usually a conversation between two persons, it need not be

limited to a single respondent. It can also be conducted with a group of persons, such as
family members, or a group of children or a group of customers, depending on the
requirements of the study.

7. Interview is an intersectional process. Process. The interaction between the

interviewer and the respondent depends upon how they perceive each other. The respondent
reacts to the interviewer’s appearance, behavior, gestures, facial expression and intonation, his
perception of the thrust of the questions and his own personal needs. Therefore, the
investigator must become alert to what he is bringing to the interview situation through his
appearance and behaviour. For example, how he should dress? What should be the style of
his talk? There are no clear-cut answers to such questions, but some general rule is apparent.
In an interview situation, it is the respondent who is important, but not the investigator, hence
the latter’s dress, gestures and talk should not arouse attention towards him. Just as
overdressing will arouse attention, so will exaggerated mannerism of over-grammatical talk.
As far as possible, the interviewer should try to be closer to the socio-economic level of the
respondents. Moreover, he should realize that his respondents are under no obligation to
extend response. He should, therefore, be tactful and be alert to such reactions of the
respondents as lame-excuse, suspicion, reluctance or diffidence, and deal with them suitably.
He should not also argue or dispute. He should rather maintain an impartial and objective
attitude.

8. Information furnished by the respondent in the interview is recorded by the

investigator. This poses a problem of seeing that recording does not interfere with the tempo
of conversation.

8. Interviewing is not a standardized process like that of a chemical technician; it is

rather a flexible psychological process.

The implication of this feature is that the interviewer cannot apply unvarying
standardized technique, because he is dealing with respondents with, varying motives and
diverse perceptions. The extent of his success as an interviewer is very largely dependent
upon his insightful and skill in dealing with varying socio-psychological situations.

Requirements
The requirements or conditions necessary for a successful interview are:
 1. Data availability: The needed information should be available with the respondent.
He should be able to conceptualize it in terms useful to the study, and be capable of
communicating it.

2. Role perception: The respondent should understand his role and know what is
required of him. He should know what is a relevant answer and how complete is should be.
He can learn much of this from the interviewer’s introduction, explanations and questioning
procedure.

3. The interviewer should also know his role. He should establish a permissive
atmosphere and encourage frank and free conversation. He should not affect the interview
situation through subjective attitude, argumentation, etc.

4. Respondent’s motivation: The respondent should be willing to respond and give

accurate answer. This depends partly on the interviewer’s approach and skill. The
interviewer has interest in it for the purpose of his research, but the respondent has no
personal interest in it. Therefore, the interviewer should establish a friendly relationship with
the respondent, and create in him an interest in the subject-matter of the study.
The interviewer should try to reduce the effect of demotivating factors like desire to
get on with other activities, embarrassment at ignorance, dislike of the interview content,
suspicions about the interviewer, and fear of consequences. He should also try to build up the
effect of motivating factors like curiosity, loneliness, politeness, and sense of duty, respect to
the research agency and liking for the interviewer.

The above requirement reminds that the interview is an interactional process. The
investigator should keep this in mind and take care to see that his appearance and behaviour
do not distort the interview situation.

Types of Interviews
 The interviews may be classified into: (a) structured or directive interview, (b)
unstructured or non-directive interview, (c) focused interview, and (d) clinical interview and
(e) depth interview.

Structured, directive interview

This is an interview made with a detailed standardized schedule. The same questions
are put to all the respondents and in the same order. Each question is asked in the same way
in each interview, promoting measurement reliability. This type of interview is used for
large-scale formalized surveys.

Advantages: This interview has certain advantages. First, data from one interview to
the next one are easily comparable. Second, recording and coding data do not pose any
problem, and greater precision is achieved. Last, attention is not diverted to extraneous,
irrelevant and time-consuming conversation.

Limitation: However, this type of interview suffers from some limitations. First, it
tends to lose the spontaneity of natural conversation. Second, the way in which the interview
is structured may be such that the respondent’s views are minimized and the investigator’s
own biases regarding the problem under study are inadvertently introduced. Last, the scope
for exploration is limited.

Unstructured or non-directive Interview

This is the least structured one. The interviewer encourages the respondent to talk
freely about a given topic with a minimum of prompting or guidance.
In this type of interview, a detailed pre-planned schedule is not used. Only a broad
interview guide is used. The interviewer avoids channeling the interview directions. Instead,
he develops a very permissive atmosphere. Questions are not standardized and not ordered in
particular way.
 This interviewing is more useful in case studies rather than in surveys. It is
particularly useful in exploratory research where the lines of investigation are not clearly
defined. It is also useful for gathering information on sensitive topics such as divorce, social
discrimination, class conflict, generation gap, drug-addiction etc. It provides opportunity to
explore the various aspects of the problem in an unrestricted manner.

Advantages: This type of interview has certain special advantages. It can closely
approximate the spontaneity of a natural conversation. It is less prone to interviewer’s bias.
It provides greater opportunity to explore the problem in an unrestricted manner.

Limitations: Though the unstructured interview is a potent research instrument, it is

not free from limitations.
One of its major limitations is that the data obtained from one interview is not
comparable to the data from the next. Hence it is not suitable for surveys.

Time may be wasted in unproductive conversations. By not focussing on one or

another facet of a problem, the investigator may run the risk of being led up blind ally.
As there is no particular order or sequence in this interview, the classification of
responses and coding may require more time.

This type of informal interviewing calls for greater skill than the formal survey
interview.

Focused Interview
This is semi-structured interview where the investigator attempts to focus the
discussion on the actual effects of a given experience to which the respondents have been
exposed. It takes place with the respondents known to have involved in particular experience,
e.g., seeing a particular film, viewing a particular programme in T.V., involved in a train/bus
accident, etc. This situation is analyzed prior to the interview. An interview guide specifying
topics relating to the research hypothesis is used. The interview is focused on the subjective
experiences of the respondent, i.e., his attitudes, and emotional responses regarding the
situation under study.

The focused interview permits the interviewer to obtain details of personal reactions,
specific emotions and the like.

Merits: This type of interview is free from the inflexibility of formal methods, yet
gives the interview a set form and insures adequate coverage of all the relevant topics.
The respondent is asked for certain information, yet he has plenty of opportunity to
present his views.

The interviewer is also free to choose the sequence of questions and determine the
extent to probing.

Clinical Interview
This is similar to the focused interview but with a subtle difference. While the
focused interview is concerned with the effects of a specific experience, clinical interview is
concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or with the course of the individual'’
life experience.

The ‘Personal history’ interview used in social casework, prison administration,

psychiatric clinics and in individual life history research is the most common type of clinical
interview. The specific aspects of the individual’s life history to be covered by the interview
are determined with reference to the purpose of the study and the respondent is encouraged to
talk freely about them.

Depth Interview
This is an intensive and searching interview aiming at studying the respondent’s
opinion, emotions or convictions on the basis of an interview guide. This requires much more
training interpersonal skills than structured interviewing. This deliberately aims to elicit
unconscious as well as extremely personal feelings and emotions.

This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to encourage free expression of

affectively charged information. It requires probing.

The interviewer should totally avoid advising or showing disagreement. Of course, he

should use encouraging expressions like “uh-huh” or “I see” to motivate the respondent to
continue narration. Sometimes the depth interviewer has to face the problem of affection, i.e.,
the respondent may hide expressing affective feelings. The interviewer should handle such
situation with great care.

Interviewing Process
The interviewing process consists of the following stages:
 Preparation
 Introduction
 Developing rapport
 Carrying the interview forward
 Recording the interview, and
 Closing the interview
Preparation: The interviewing requires some preplanning and preparation. The interviewer
should keep the copies of interview schedule/guide ( as the case may be) ready for use. He
should also have he list of names and addresses of respondents, he should regroup them into
contiguous groups in terms of location in order to save time and cost in travelling.
The interview should find out the general daily routine of the respondents in order to
determine the suitable timings for interview.

Above all, he should mentally prepare himself for the interview. He should think about
how he should approach respondent, what mode of introduction he could adopt, what
situations he may have to face and how he could deal with them.

The interviewer may come across such situations as respondents’ avoidance,

reluctance, suspicion, diffidence, inadequate responses, distortion, etc. The investigator
should plan he strategies for dealing with them. If such preplanning is not done, he will be
got unaware and fail to deal appropriately when he actually faces any such situation. It is
possible to plan in advance and keep the plan and mind flexible and expectant of new
development.

Introduction: The investigator is a stranger to the respondents. Therefore he should

be properly introduced to each of the respondents. What is the proper mode of introduction?
There is no one appropriate universal mode of introduction. This mode varies according to the
type of respondents.

When making a study of organization or institution, the head of the organization

should be approached first and his cooperation secured before contacting the sample
inmates/employees.
 When studying a community or a cultural group, it is essential to approach the leader
first and to enlist his cooperation.

For a survey of urban household, the research organization’s letter of introduction and
the interviewer’s identity card can be shown. In these days of fear of opening the door for a
stranger, residents’ cooperation can be easily secured, if the interviewer attempts to get him
introduced through a person known to them, say a popular person in the area or a social
worker.

For interviewing rural respondents, the interviewer should never attempt to approach
them along with some one from the revenue department, for they would immediately hid
themselves, presuming that they are being contacted for collection of land revenue or
subscription to some government bond. He should not also approach them through a local
political leader, because persons who do not belong to his party will not cooperate with the
interviewer. It is rather desirable to approach the rural respondents through the local teacher
or social worker.

After getting himself introduced to the respondent in the most appropriate manner, the
interviewer can follow a sequence of procedures as under in order to motivate the respondent
to permit the interview.

 With a smile greet the respondent in accordance with his cultural pattern.
 Identify the respondent by name.
 Describe the method by which the respondent was selected.
 Mention the name of the organization conducting research.
 Assure the anonymous or confidential nature of the interview.
 Explain the usefulness of the study.
  Emphasis, the value o respondent’s cooperation, making such statements as:
“you are among he few in a position to supply the information”, “your response is
invaluable”, “I have come to learn from your experience and knowledge.”
The following short introduction will serve as an illustration:

Interviewer: “I’ am from the Department of Management Studies of Bangalore

University. People talk of Japanese Style of management, American style of management and
so on. What is the style of management in Indian enterprises? Is it just an limitation of
western style or is it based on our culture and value system? We should know the nature of
our style of management. Is it not? This study is done throughout the country and the results
will contribute to management thought and profession.”

“The respondents for interview ere chosen entirely by chance. The interview will just
take about half-an-hour. All information is entirely confidential, of course.”

A respondent often has reservations about being interviewed. He may suspect that the
interviewer is a disguised salesman, bill collector, tax official or the like. The interviewer
should skillfully clear such suspicion by establishing his identity.

The respondent may also feel incompetent or fear that he may not be able to answer
questions relation to the study. Allay such kind of anxiety by reassuring him: “There are no
right or wrong answers. This is not a quiz. We are trying to find how persons like you feel”.

Developing Rapport: Before starting the research interview, the interviewer should
establish a friendly relationship with the respondent. This is described as “rapport”. It means
establishing a relationship of confidence and understanding between the interviewer and the
respondent. It is a skill, which depends primarily on the interviewer’s common sense,
experience, sensitivity and keen observation.
 Start the conversation with a general topic of interest such as weather, current news,
sports event, or the like perceiving the probable interest of the respondent from his context.

Such initial conversation may create a friendly atmosphere and if warm interpersonal
relationship and mutual understanding o the other. However the interviewer should “guard
against the over-rapport” as cautioned by Herbert Hyman. Too much identification and too
much courtesy result in tailoring replies to the image of a “nice interviewer.” The Interviewer
should use his discretion in striking a happy medium

.
Carrying the interview forward: After establishing rapport, the technical task of
asking questions from the interview schedule starts. This task requires care, self-restraint,
alertness and ability to listen with understanding, respect and curiosity.

In carrying on this task of gathering information from the respondent by putting

questions to him, the following guidelines may be followed:

1. Start the interview. Carry it on in an informal, natural conversational style.

2. Ask all the applicable questions in the same order as they appear on the schedule
without any elucidation and change in the wording. Ask all the applicable question listed in
the schedule. Do not take answers for granted.

3. If interview guide is used, the interviewer may tailor his questions to each
respondent, covering, of course, the areas to be investigated.

4. Know the objectives of each question so as to make sure that the answers
adequately satisfy the question objectives
.
 5.If a question is not understood repeat it slowly with proper emphasis and appropriate
explanation, when necessary.

6. Take all answers naturally, never showing disapproval or surprise. When the
respondent does not meet with interruptions denial, contradiction and other harassment, he
may feel free and my not try to withhold information. He will be motivated to communicate
when the atmosphere is permissive and the listener’s attitude is non-judgmental and is
genuinely absorbed in the revelations.

7. Listen quietly with patience and humility. Give not only undivided attention, but
also personal warmth. At the same time, be alert and analytic to incomplete, nonspecific and
inconsistent answers, but avoid interrupting the flow of information. If necessary, jot down
unobtrusively the points which need elaboration or verification for later and more timely
probing.

The appropriate technique for this probing is to ask for further clarification in such a
polite manner as: “I am not sure I understood fully. Is this … what you meant?”

8. Neither argue nor dispute.

9. Show genuine concern and interest in the ideas expressed by the respondent, at the
same time, maintain an impartial and objective attitude.

10. Should not reveal your own opinion or reaction. Even when you are asked for
your views, laugh off the request, saying, “Well, your opinions are more important than
mine”.

11. At times the interview “runs dry” and needs reticulation. Then use such
expressions as “Uh-huh” or “That’s interesting” or “I see”, “can you tell me more about that?
and the like.
 12. When the interviewee fails to supply his reactions to related past experiences, re-
present the stimulus situation, introducing appropriate questions which will aid in revealing
the past: “Under what circumstances did such and such a phenomenon occur?” or “How did
you feel about it” and the like.

13. At times, the conversation may go off the track. Be alert to discover drifting, steer
the conversation back to the track by some such remark as, “You know, I was very much
interested in what you said a moment ago. Could you tell me more about it?”

14. When the conversation turns to some intimate subjects, and particularly when it
deals with crises in the life of the individual, emotional blockage may occur. Then drop the
subject for the time being and pursue another line of conversation for a while so that a less
direct approach to the subject can be made later.

15. When there is a pause in the flow of information, do not hurry the interview. Take
it as a matter of course with an interested look or a sympathetic half-smile. If the silence is
too prolonged, introduce a stimulus saying “You mentioned that … What happened then?”

Additional Sittings: In the case of qualitative interviews involving longer duration,

one single sitting will not do, as it would cause interview weariness. Hence it is desirable to
have two or more sittings with the consent of the respondent.

Recording the Interview: It is essential to record responses as they take Place. If the
note-taking is done after the interview, a good deal of relevant information may be lost.
Nothing should be made in the schedule under respective question. It should be complete and
verbatim. The responses should not be summarized or paraphrased. How can complete
recording be made without interrupting the free flow of conversation? Electronic
transcription through devices like tape recorder can achieve this. It has obvious advantages
over note-taking during the interview. But it also has certain disadvantages over note-taking
during the interview. But it also has certain disadvantages. Some respondents may object to
or fear “going on record”. Consequently the risk of lower response rate will arise especially
for sensitive topics.

If the interviewer knows short-hand, he can use it with advantage. Otherwise, he can
write rapidly by abbreviating word and using only key words and the like. However, even the
fast writer may fail to record all that is said at conversational speed. At such times, it is useful
to interrupt by some such comment as “that seems to be a very important point, would you
mind repeating it, so that I can get your words exactly. “The respondent is usually flattered
by this attention and the rapport is not disturbed.

The interviewer should also record all his probes and other comments on the schedule
in brackets to set them off from responses.

With the pre-coded structured questions, the interviewer’s task is easy. He has to
simply ring the appropriate code or tick the appropriate box, as the case may be. He should
not make mistakes by carelessly ringing or ticking a wrong item.

Closing the interview: After the interview is over, take leave off the respondent,
thanking him with a friendly smile.

In the case of qualitative interview of longer duration, select the occasion for departure
more carefully. Assembling the papers for putting them in the folder at the time of asking the
final question sets the stage for a final handshake, a thank-you and a good-bye. If the
respondent desires to know the result of the survey, note down his name and address so that a
summary of the result could be posted to him when ready.

Editing: At the close of the interview, the interviewer must edit the schedule to check
that he was asked all the questions and recorded all the answers and that there is no
inconsistency between answers. Abbreviations in recording must be replaced by full words.
He must ensure that everything is legible.

It is desirable to record a brief sketch of his impressions of the interview and

observational notes on the respondent’s living environment, his attitude to the survey,
difficulties, if any, faced in securing his cooperation and the interviewer’s assessment of the
validity of the respondent’s answers.

Interview Problems
In personal interviewing, the researcher must deal with two major problem, inadequate
response, nonresponse and interviewer’s bias.

Inadequate Response: Khan and Cannel distinguish five principal symptoms of

inadequate response. They are: partial response, in which the respondent gives a relevant but
incomplete answer; non-response, when the respondent remains silent or refuses to answer the
question; irrelevant response, in which the respondent’s answer is not relevant to the question
asked; inaccurate response, when the reply is biased or distorted; and the verbalized response
problem, which arises on account of respondent’s failure to understand a question or lack of
information necessary for answering it.
 One possible approach to deal with an inadequate response is to allow a brief
expectant pause with expectant glance. Another way to encourage the respondent is to use
such expressions as, “I see?” “Is it?” or to put a supplementary neutral a question as “How do
you mean?, “Can you tell me more about that?” or “Can you explain little more fully?”
If the respondent’s answer is ambiguous or inexplicit, probes like “How do you
mean?” or “In what way?” can be used to clarify his answer. For exploring other aspects of
the respondent’s opinion, if any, probes like “Is there anything else?” or “Are there any other
any other reasons?” can be used.

For a ‘don’t know’ answer, over-probing is counter-productive. If motivational

probing fails, no further probing should be attempted.
The problem of inaccurate response is common in economic surveys. The respondents
have difficulty in furnishing accurate information on ‘sensitive’ matters like asset holdings,
income, expenditure, saving and investments. It is difficult to deal with this problem. Perhaps
one possible approach is to use indirect questions instead of direct questions for securing
information on above matters, and to cross-check with information furnished on other related
questions. For example, data on income can be verified with the details on occupation.

Interviewer’s bias: The interviewer is an important cause of response bias. He may

resort to cheating by ‘cooking up’ data without actually interviewing.
The interviewer can influence the responses by inappropriate suggestions, word
emphasis, tone of voice and question rephrasing. His own attitudes and expectations about
what a particular category of respondents may say or think may bias the data.

The respondent’s perception of the interviewer’s characteristics (education, apparent

social status, etc.) may also bias his answers.
 Another source of response bias arises from interviewer’s perception of the situation.
If he regards the assignment a impossible or sees the results of the survey as a possible threat
to personal interests or beliefs he is likely to introduce bias.

As interviewers are human beings, such biasing factors can never be overcome
completely, but their effects can be reduced by careful selection and training of interviewers,
proper motivation and supervision, standardization of interview procedures (use of standard
wording in survey questions, standard instructions on probing procedure and so on) and
standardization of interviewer behaviour. There is need for more research on ways to
minimize bias in the interview.

Non-response
Non-response refers to failure to obtain responses from some sample respondents.
There are many sources of non-response: non-availability, refusal, incapacity, and
inaccessibility.

Non-availability: Some respondents may not be available at home at the time of call.
This depends upon the nature of the respondent and the time of calls. For example employed
persons may not be available during working hours. Farmers may not be available at home
during cultivation season. Selection of appropriate timing for calls could solve this problem.
Evenings and weekends may be favourable interviewing hours for such respondents. If
someone is available, then the respondent’s hours for such respondents. If someone is
available, then the respondent’s hours of availability can be ascertained and the next visit can
be planned accordingly.

A respondent may be too busy, tired or out of station.

Call-backs to find the not-at-homes increase the overall response rate.
 Refusal: Some persons may refuse to furnish information because they are ill-
disposed, or approached at the wrong hour and so on. Although a hardcore of refusals
remains, another try or perhaps another approach may find some of them cooperative.

Incapacity or inability may refer to illness, which prevents a response during the
entire survey period. This may also arise on account of language barrier.

Inaccessibility: Some respondents may be inaccessible. Some may bot be found due
to migration and other reasons.

Non-responses reduce the effective sample size and its respresentativeness.

Methods and aims of control of nonresponse: Kish suggests the following methods
to reduce either the percentage of nonresponse or its effects:

(1) Improved procedures for collecting data are the most obvious remedy for
nonresponse. Improvements advocated are (a) guarantees of anonymity, (b) motivation of the
respondent to cooperate, (c) arousing the respondents’ interest with clever opening remarks
and questions, (d) advance notice to the respondents.

(2) Call-backs are most effective for reducing not-at-homes in personal interviews, as
are repeated mailings to no-returns in mail surveys.
\
(3) substitution for the non-response is often suggested as a remedy usually this is a
mistake, because the substitutes resemble the responses rather than the nonresponses.
Nevertheless beneficial substitution methods can sometimes be designed with reference to
important characteristic of the population. For example, in a farm management study, the
farm size is an important variable and if the sampling is based on farm size, substitution for a
respondent with a particular size holding by another with the holding of the same size is
possible.
 Attempts to reduce the percentage or effects non-responses aim at reducing the bias
caused by differences of non-respondents from respondents. The non-response bias should not
be confused with the reduction of sample size due to non-response. The latter effect can be
easily overcome, either by anticipating the size of non-response in designing the sample size
or by compensating for it with a supplement. These adjustments increase the size of the
response and the sampling precision, but they do not reduce the non-response percentage or
bias.

Telephone Interviewing
Telephone interviewing is a non-personal method of data collection. It may be used as
a major method or supplementary method.

Uses: If will be useful in the following situations:

1. When the universe is composed of those persons whose names are listed in
telephone directories, e.g., business houses, business executives, doctors, and other
professionals.

2. When the study requires responses to five or six simple questions, e.g., Radio or
Television programme survey.

3. When the survey must be conducted in a very short period or time, provided the
units of study are listed in telephone directory.

4. When the subject is interesting or important to respondents, e.g., A Survey relating

to trade conducted by a trade association or a chamber of commerce; a survey relating to a
profession conducted by the concerned professional association.

5. When the respondents are widely scattered and when there are many call backs to
make.
 Evaluation: Advantages: The advantages of telephone interview are:
1. The survey can be completed at very low cost, because telephone survey does not
involve travel time and cost and all calls can be made from a single location.

2. Information can be collected in a short period of time. 5 to 10 interviews can be

conducted per hour.

3. Quality of response is good, because interviewer bias is reduced as there is no face-

to-face contact between the interviewer and the respondent.

4. This method of interviewing is less demanding upon the interviewer.

5. It does not involve field work.

6. Individuals who could not be reached or who might not care to be interviewed
personally can be contacted easily.

Disadvantages: Telephone interview has several limitations.

1. It is limited to persons with listed telephones. The sample will be distorted, if the
universe includes persons not on phone. In several countries like India only a few persons
have phone facility and that too in urban areas only. Telephone facility is very rare in rural
areas. Hence the method is not useful for studying the general population.

2. There is a limit to the length of interview. Usually, a call cannot last over five
minutes. Only five or six simple questions can be asked. Hence telephone cannot be used for
a longer questionnaire.
 3. The type of information to be collected is limited to what can be given in simple,
short answers of a few words. Hence telephone is not suitable for complex surveys, and there
is no possibility of obtaining detailed information.

4. If the questions cover personal matters, most respondents will not cooperate with
the interviewer.

5. The respondent’s characteristics and environment cannot be observed.

6. It is not possible to use visual aids like charts, maps, illustrations or complex scales.

7. It is rather difficult to establish rapport between the respondent and the interviewer.

7. There is no possibility to ensure the identity of the interviewer and to overcome

suspicions.

Group Interviews
Meaning and Nature: A group interview may be defined as a method of collecting
primary data in which a number of individuals with a common interest interact with each
other. In a personal interview, the flow of information is multidimensional.

The group may consist of about six to eight individuals with a common interest. The
interviewer acts as the discussion leader. Free discussion is encouraged on some aspect of the
subject under study. The discussion leader stimulates the group members to interact with
each other.

The desired information may be obtained through self-administered questionnaries or

interview with the discussion serving as a guide to ensure consideration of the areas of
concern. In particular, the interviewer looks for evidence of common elements of attitudes,
beliefs, intentions and opinions among individuals in the group. At the same time, he must be
aware that a single comment by a member can provide important insight.

Samples for group interview can be obtained through schools, clubs and other
organized groups.

Uses: The group interview technique can be employed by researchers in studying

people’s reactions on public amenities, public health projects, welfare schemes, etc. It is a
popular method in marketing research to evaluate new product or service concepts, brand
names, packages, promotional strategies and attitudes. When an organization needs a great
variety of information in as much details as possible at a relatively low cost and in a short
period of time, the group interview technique is more useful. It can be used to generate
primary data in the exploratory phase of a project.

Evaluation: Advantages: The advantages of this technique are:

1. The respondents comment freely and in detail.

2. The method is highly flexible. The flexibility helps the research work with new
concepts or topics, which have not been previously investigated.
3. Visual aids can be used.
4. A group can be interviewed in the time required for one personal interview.
 5. The client can watch the interview unobserved.
6. Respondents are more articulate in a group than in the individual interview.
7. The technique eliminates the physical limitations inherent in individual interviews.

Disadvantages: This method is not free from drawbacks.

1. It is difficult to get a representative sample.
2. There is the possibility of the group being dominated by one individual.
3. The respondents may answer to please the interviewer or the other members in the
group.

Nevertheless, the advantages of this technique outweigh the disadvantages and the technique
is found to be useful for surveys on topics of common interest.

Selection and Training of Interviewers

The quality of data collected depends ultimately upon the capabilities of interviewers.
Hence careful selection and proper training of interviewers is essential.

PANEL METHOD
Meaning
The panel method is a method of data collection, by which data is collected from the
same sample respondents at intervals either by mail or by personal interview. This is used for
longitudinal studies on economic conditions, expenditure pattern, consumer behaviour,
recreational pattern, effectiveness of advertising, voting behaviour, and so on. The period
over which the panel members are contacted for information may spread over several months
or years. The time interval at which they are contacted repeatedly may be 10 or 15 days, or
one or two months depending on the nature of the study and the memory span of the
respondents.

Characteristics
The basic characteristic of the panel method is successive collection of data on the
same items from the same persons over a period of time.

The type of information to be collected should be such facts that can be accurately and
completely furnished by the respondent without any reservation.

The number of item should be as few as possible so that they could be furnished
within a few minutes, especially when mail survey is adopted. The average amount of time
that a panel member has to spend each time for reporting can be determined in a pilot study.

The panel method requires carefully selected and well-trained field workers and
effective supervision over their work.

Need for Panel Study

When sample respondents – particularly households or individuals – are contacted
once only, they may not be able to recall exactly what have occurred during a longer time
period, say a year because their memory span is short. Therefore they will not be able to give
correct information on such facts as cash inflow, source-wise income, expenditure pattern,
purchases, savings, recreation pattern and so on. But when they are contacted successively at
short intervals of 10 or 15 days, they would be able to give accurate information on
happenings between two successive contacts, as the time span is short and well within the
memory span. In this way, data are collected repeatedly at intervals, and computations for the
required period like a year can be easily made and the data so collected will be more reliable.
Illustration
The author of this book adopted the panel method for collection of data for a major
research project (funded by ICSSR) entitled “The Factors affecting the Economic Conditions
of Agricultural Labourers in Coimbatore District” (1971-72). This study involved collection
of primary data from a sample farmers and sample labourers. The sample farmers were
contacted 36 times in the year 1971-1972 once very ten days and data on their farm
operations, number of labourers employed, wages paid etc. were collected. Similarly the
sample labourers were contacted repeatedly once every ten days and data on the number of
days employed, type of work, wage earned and item-wise expenditure, etc. were collected.
On the completion of the entire field work, annual data were compiled from the ten-day long
data.

Types of Panels
The panel may be static or dynamic. A static or continuous panel is one in which the
membership remains the same throughout the life of the panel, except for the members who
drop out. The dropouts are not replaced.

The static panel is appropriate when the purpose is to study changes in a given group
of persons over a period of time. The main drawbacks of the static panel are:
1. Due to dropouts, it ceases to be representative of the original universe after a time.
2. The size of the proporting panel may become too small for satisfactory results

.
In a dynamic panel, to keep the panel representative of the current population in the
area covered by the universe, replacement are found for the members who drop out. A
dynamic panel may also be a rotating one, in which members are systematically replaced at
specified time intervals.
The dynamic panel is most useful when it is important to keep the panel representative
of the population at all times. The main problem connected with its use is the cost and
difficulty of recruiting new members to replace the dropouts.

Evaluation
Advantages: The advantages of panel method are:
1. This method facilities collection of more accurate data for longitudinal studies than
any other method, because under this method event or action is reported soon after is
occurrence.

2. This method makes it possible to have before-after designs for field-based studies.
For example, the effect of public relations or advertising campaigns or welfare measures can
be measured by collecting data before, during and after the campaign.

3. The panel method offers a good way of studying trends in events, behaviour or
attitudes. For example, a panel enables a market researcher to study how brand preferences
change from month to month; it enables an economics researcher to study how employment,
income and expenditure of agricultural labourers change from month to month; a political
scientist can study the shifts in inclinations of voters and the causative influential factors
during an election; it is possible to find out how the constancy of the various economic and
social strata of society changes through time; and so on.

4. A panel study also provides evidence on the casual relationship between variables.
For example, a cross-sectional study of employees may show an association between their
attitude to their jobs and their positions in the organization, but it does not indicates which
came first – favourable attitude or promotion. A panel study can provide data for finding an
answer to this question.
 5. If facilities depth interviewing, because panel members become well acquainted
with the field workers and will be willing to allow probing interviews.

Limitations: The major limitations or problems of the panel method are:

1. This method is very expensive. The selection of panel members, the payment of
premiums, periodic visits of investigators and supervisors, and the costs involved in replacing
dropouts, all add to the expenditures.

2. It is often difficult to set up a representative panel and to keep it representative.

Many persons may be unwilling to participate in a panel study. In the course of the study,
there may be frequent dropouts. The dropouts may be replaced by persons with similar
characteristics. But there is no guarantee that the emerging panel would be a representative
one.

3. A real danger with the panel method is “panel conditioning”; i.e., the risk that
repeated interviews may sensitize the panel members and they become untypical as a result of
being on the panel. For example, the members of a panel study of political opinions may try
to appear consistent in the views they express on consecutive occasions. In such cases, the
panel becomes untypical of the population it was selected to represent. One possible
safeguard to panel conditioning is to give members of a panel only a limited panel life and
then to replace them with persons taken randomly from a reserve list.

4. The quality of reporting may tend to decline due to decreasing interest after a panel
has been in operation for some time. Cheating by panel members or investigators may be a
problem in some cases.
 MAIL SURVEY
Definition
The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data. This method involves
sending questionnaires to the respondents with a request to complete them and return them by
post. This can be used in the case of educated respondents only. The mail questionnaire
should be simple so that the respondents can easily understand the questions and answer them.
It should preferably contain mostly closed-end and multiple-choice questions so that it could
be completed within a few Minutes.

The distinctive feature of the mail survey is that the questionnaire is self-administered
by the respondents themselves and the responses are recorded by them, and not by the
investigator as in the case of personal interview method. It does not involve face-to-face
conversation between the investigator and the respondent. Communication is carried out only
in writing and this requires more cooperation from the respondents than does verbal
communication.

Procedure
The researcher should prepare a mailing list of the selected respondents by collecting
the addresses from the telephone directory or the association or organization to which they
belong.

A covering letter should accompany a copy of the questionnaire. Exhibit 7.1 is a copy
of a covering letter used by the author in a research study on ‘Corporate Planning.’ I must
explain to the respondent the purpose of the study and he importance of his cooperation to the
success of the project. Anonymity may be assured.
 BANGALORE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF
COMMERCE AND MANAGEMENT STUDIES

Dr. O.R. Krishnaswami City

Campus,
Professor and Chairman Bangalore –
560 001
…
19…
Dear respondent,
May we ask you a favour that takes only a few minutes
of your time?
We are conducting a study of Corporate Planning in Public and
Private sector enterprises in India with a view to knowing the status of
this managerial function in India.
We solicit your cooperation in completing the enclosed
questionnaire. Your reply will be kept strictly confidential, of
course, and the result of the study will be shown in statistical
form only.
At your earliest convenience, please return the
completed questionnaire in the enclosed self-addressed
stamped envelope. Exhibit 7.1
A covering letter used for a study on ‘Corporate Planning’
The sponsor’s identity may be revealed. However when such information may bias
the results, it is not desirable to reveal it. In the later case, a disguised organization name may
be used.

A self-addressed stamped envelope should be enclosed in the covering letter.

After a few days from the date of mailing the questionnaires to the respondents, the
researcher can expect the return of completed one from them. The progress in return may be
watched and at the appropriate stage follow-up efforts can be made.
Alternative modes of sending questionnaires
There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents.
They are (1) personal delivery, (2) attaching questionnaire to a product, (3) advertising
questionnaire in a newspaper or magazine, and (4) newsstand inserts.

Personal delivery: The researcher or his assistant may deliver the questionnaires to
the potential respondents with a request to complete them at their convenience. After a day or
two he can collect the completed questionnaires from them. Often referred to as the self-
administered questionnaire method, it combines the advantages of the personal interview ad
the mail survey.

Alternatively, the questionnaires may be delivered in person and the completed

questionnaires may be returned by mail by the respondents.

Attaching questionnaire to a product: A firm test-marketing a product may attach a

questionnaire to a product and request the buyer to complete it and mail it back to the firm.
The respondent is usually rewarded by a gift or a discount coupon.

Advertising the questionnaire: The questionnaire with the instructions for

completion may be advertised on a page of a magazine or in a section of newspapers. The
potential respondent completes it, tears it out and mail it to the advertiser. For example, the
Committee on Banks Customer Service used this method for collecting information from the
customers of commercial banks in India. This method may be useful for large-scale surveys
on topics of common interest.
 Newsstand inserts: This method involves inserting the covering letter, questionnaire
and self-addressed reply-paid envelope into a random sample of newsstand copies of a
newspaper on magazine.

Improving the response rate in a mail survey

The response rate in mail surveys is generally very low, more so in developing
countries like India. Certain techniques have to be adopted to increase the response rate. They
are:

1. Quality printing: The questionnaire may be neatly printed in quality light coloured
paper so as to attract the attention of the respondent.

2. Covering letter: The covering letter should be couched in a pleasant style so as to

attract and hold the interest of the respondent. It must anticipate objections and answer them
briefly. It is desirable to address the respondent by name.

3. Advance information: Advance information can be provided to potential

respondents by a telephone call or advance notice in the newsletter of the concerned
organization or by a letter. Such preliminary contact with potential respondents is more
successful than follow-up efforts.

4. Incentives: Money, stamps for collection and other incentives are also used to
induce respondents to complete and return mail questionnaires.

5. Follow-up-contacts: In the case of respondents belonging to an organization, they

may be approached through some one in that organization known to the researcher.

6. Larger Sample Size: A larger sample may e drawn than the estimated sample
size. For example, if the required sample size is 1000, a sample of 1500 may be
 drawn. This may help the researcher to secure an effective sample size closer to
the required size.

Evaluation of Mail Surveys

Advantages: The advantages of mail surveys are:

1. They are less costly than personal interviews, as cost of mailing is the same
throughout the country, irrespective of distances.

2. They can cover extensive geographical areas

.
3. Mailing is useful in contacting persons such as senior business executives who are
difficult to reach in any other way.

4. The respondents can complete the questionnaires at their conveniences.

5. Mail surveys, being more impersonal, provide more anonymity than personal
interviews.

6. Mail surveys are totally free from the interviewer bias, as there is no personal
contact between the respondents and the investigator.

7. Certain personal and economic data may be given more accurately in an unsigned
mail questionnaire.

Disadvantages: The disadvantages of mail surveys are:

 1. The scope for mail surveys is very limited in a country like India where the
percentage of literacy is very low.

2. The response rate of mail surveys is low. Hence the resulting sample will not be a
representative one.

3. It is also difficult to determine the degree of representativeness of a sample obtained

by mail.

4. The causes for inadequate and non responses cannot be known, and no probing is
possible.

5. Information on the personal characteristics of the respondence and his environment

cannot be secured.

6. Respondents may not cooperate if the mail questionnaire is long or complex.

7. Several returned questionnaire may contain unanswered questions and incomplete

responses.

PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES

The direct methods of data collection, viz., personal interviews, telephone interview
and mail survey rely on respondent’s own report of their behaviour, beliefs, attitudes, etc. But
respondents may be unwilling to discuss controversial issues or to real intimate information
about themselves or may be reluctant to express their true views fearing that they are
generally disapproved. In order to overcome these limitations, indirect methods have been
developed. Projective Techniques are such indirect methods. The become popular during
1950s as a part of motivation research.

Meaning
Projective techniques involve presentation of ambiguous stimuli to the respondents for
interpretation. In doing so, the respondents reveal their inner characteristics. The stimuli may
be a picture, a photograph, an inkblot or an incomplete sentence.

The basic assumption of projective techniques is that a person projects his own
thoughts, ideas and attributes when he perceives and responds to ambiguous or unstructured
stimulus materials. Thus a person’s unconscious operations of the mind are brought to a
conscious level in a disguised and projected form, and the person projects his inner
characteristics.

Functions
Projective techniques can help to overcome some of the following psychological
barriers:

1. The barrier of unawareness: People are often unaware of their motives and
attitudes. For example, a lonely woman may keep cats as some kind of substitute for children,
but also might be unaware of such need.

2. The barrier of irrationality: Our society places a high premium on sensible,

rational and logical behaviour. Most of us tend to rationalize. We invent logical reasons for
actions whose origins are far from rational.
 3. The barrier of inadmissibility: We find it difficult to admit our failure to meet
social norms or expectations.

4. The barrier of self-incrimination: It concerns those aspects of behaviour and

feelings that might lower the respondent’s self-esteem such as communal prejudice,
superstition, etc.

5. The barrier of politeness: People often prefer not to say negative or critical
views. They tend to say ‘all right’ for everything.

Whenever the pilot study shows the existence of the above barriers with respect to the
problem under study, then the use of projective technique should be considered.

Approaches
The commonly used approaches are:
1. Association: “Say-the-first-thing-that comes into your mind” approach is based on
the assumption that a fast response to a stimulus word, picture or question will be less
'guarded’ and therefore more ‘revealing’ of underlying attitudes and motives.

2. Fantasy: The respondent is asked to guess or tell a story or discuss a picture in

imaginary terms. In doing this he is likely to reveal his own attitudes and experiences.

3. Ambiguous Stimuli: Whenever a subject is asked to respond to a relatively

ambiguous stimulus, he will reveal something about himself when making his response.

4.Conceptualizing: The way a respondent names, orders or groups things may reflect
his attitudes.
 All these approaches rely on spontaneity of interpretation, and on ambiguity in the
stimulus. They should be as non-directive as possible so as not to bias the responses. They
also require a certain amount of interpretation on the part of the researcher. The influence
may vary from observer to observer. Thus projective methods lack objectivity and the
reliability and validity are rather shaky. Yet they yield best result when interpreted by tainted
psychologists, in terms of some pre-established psychological conceptualization. In fact,
projective tests serve as a major tool for understanding human personality, and for measuring
achievement motivation as well. “If we have to penetrate deeper, below the level of conscious
awareness or behind the individual’s social façade, then indirect projective techniques have to
be used.”

Types of Projective Techniques

Projective Techniques may be divided into three broad categories: (a) visual projective
techniques, (b) verbal projective techniques, and (c) expressive techniques.
(a) Visual Projective techniques involve use of visual (pictorial) stimuli. They include
(1) Rorschach Tests, (2) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), (3) Rosenweigh Test, (4) Picture
Frustration Test, and (5) Holtzman Inkblot Test (HIT).

(b) Verbal Techniques involve use of words both for stimulus and for response. They
consist of (1) Word Association Test, (2) Sentence Completion Test, and (3) Story
Completion Test.

(d) Expressive Techniques: The subject is required to form some sort of product out of the
given material. But the emphasis is on the manner in which he does the work and not on
 the end product. “The subject expresses his needs, desires, emotions and motives through
working with, manipulating and interacting with materials, including other persons, in a
manner or style that uniquely expresses his personality.”
(e)
The principal expressive methods are (1) play, (2) drawing, (3) finger painting, and (4)
role playing.
Rorschach Test: This was first developed by a Swiss scientist Herman Rorschach and
was used for diagnostic investigation of the personality as a whole. This test uses association
approach. It consists of ten cards. On each card is printed an inkblot. The subject is asked to
tell what he sees – what the blot represents.

This test studies the imagination of an individual. It is also used as a supplementary

test to study mental qualities of an individual. This test requires very high skill on the part of
its administrator.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): This test was first developed by Murrary and
his associates at the Howard Psychological Clinic. In contrast to ink-blot techniques, the TAT
presents highly structured stimuli and required more complex and meaningfully organized
verbal responses.

The TAT material consists of 19 cards containing vague pictures in black and white
and one black card. The subject is shown each card and is asked to make up a story to fit each
picture, telling what led up the event shown in the picture, what I happening at the moment
and what the outcome would be. In the case of the black card, the subject is asked to imagine
some picture on the card, describe it and then tell a story about it.

The content of the story is analyzed, the themes developed by the subject, the way in
which each card is perceived, the roles ascribed to the characters, emotional tones expressed,
speed of responses, length of stories, etc. are considered. On the basis of qualitative scoring
schemes and rating scales relating to them, the interpretation is made.
 The TAT is used extensively in personality research, attitude surveys, executive
appraisal, etc.

Rosenweigh Test of Cartoon Test: This was first developed by Rosenzweig. The
test consists of a series of cartoons. In each cartoon are portrayed two characters: one is
represented as saying something, which is stated in a speech balloon over the character; the
other character is provided with a empty speech balloon. The respondent is asked to write in
the empty balloon that the second character would probably say. The answer of respondents
can be classified according to the attitudes, frame of reference and role perceptions that they
reflect.

The cartoon characters should be so developed as to represent the situation pertinent to

the subject matter under investigation. It is important to maintain the neutrality of cartoon
characters, because it helps the respondent to identify with a character.
The administration of cartoon test requires trained investigator and the interpretation
must be done with the assistance of trained psychologists.

Picture Frustration Test: This is an adaptation of Rozenzweig test. It consists of 24

sets cartoon pictures in pair. In each pair there is a picture depicting a frustrating situation
accompanied by verbal remarks. A blank space is provided for the respondent to write what
the frustrated person would reply.

The responses are classified with reference to the direction of aggression and type of
aggression. The direction of aggression is scored as extrapunitive (aggression turned
outward), intrapunitive (turned inwards), and impunitive (turned off to evade situation or
gloss over it). The type of aggression includes obstacle dominance emphasizing frustrating
object, ego defence, focusing attention on the constructive solution of the frustrating problem.
In scoring this test, the percentage of responses falling into each of these categories is
compared with the corresponding normative percentages.

The P.F., being highly structured and relatively objective in its scoring procedure,
lends itself better to statistical analysis than many other projective techniques. It is used for
research on a variety of problems such as attitude towards minority group, consumer response
to products, reactions of disabled towards their disability etc.

This test calls for a thorough knowledge of psychology and skill in interviewing.
Holtzman Inkblot Test (HIT): This test, developed by W.H. Holtzman, is a
modification of the Rorschach Test. This test consists of 45 inkblot cards based on colour,
movement, shading and other factors. Only one response per card is obtained from the
respondent and his responses are interpreted at three levels of form appropriateness. Form
responses are interpreted for knowing the accuracy or inaccuracy of respondent’s percepts;
shading and colour for ascertaining his affectional and emotional needs; and movement
responses for assessing the dynamic aspects of his life.

Word association test: This is the oldest and simplest test. The interviewer
administering the test reads a list of 25 to 100 words, one at a time. Emotionally-tinged words
are mixed up with neutral words. The respondent is asked to respond with the first matching
word that comes to his mind, in two or three seconds. As he reads the words, the interviewer
records the response and the time taken by the respondent to react to each word.
A word, which provokes and immediate response is more likely to be noticed and
remembered than that which provokes a slow response. Speediness or response also indicates
attitude strength or intensity.
 If the respondent takes more than three seconds to respond with a matching word then
it is called ‘hesitation’. Hesitation indicates his emotional involvement in finding a suitable
word. In some cases, the respondent may “block” or give no answer, because the test word or
what it symbolizes to him is highly charged with emotion. A high hesitation rate and low
response rate to word indicate that the respondent is concerned about what the word means to
him.

The list of words should be selected carefully so that the researcher can uncover the
patterns of responses, motives and attitudes of individuals.

The ‘word association’ test is easy to administer and does not need highly trained
interviewers. However the interpretation requires someone trained in psychology.
This technique is frequently used in marketing research to find out the appropriate
words to be used for advertising.

Sentence Completion Test: This is an extension of word association test. It is

administered and interpreted in the same manner. The respondent is exposed to the first parts
of incomplete sentences and asked to complete them. The completion of sentences requires
the respondent to take a position or express his attitudes.

The objective of the test is to provoke spontaneous response from the respondent and
the first answer reveals his attitudes or motives.

Story completion test: This test is an extended version of the sentence completion
test. The interviewer provides the respondent with the beginning of a story and asks him to
complete it. It is assumed that in completing the story, the respondent will reveal his own
attitudes and other characteristics.
 This test is of great help in identifying and evaluating specific psychogenic needs that
cannot be uncovered by simple projective techniques.

Highly trained interviewers are required to administer this test and the assistance of
psychoanalyst is needed interpretation of data. The data obtained are qualitative and cannot
be analyzed by quantitative methods.

Play technique: This is used often in studying children’s attitude through

manipulation of dolls. A set of dolls representing a miniature life situation is given to
children who are allowed to play with them freely. The manner in which the children
organize dolls would indicate their attitude towards the subject under study.

Finger painting: This is a rich expressive method. A set of pots of a special type of
paint is given to the respondent who is told to draw what he likes with the paints, using his
fingers and hands. Variables can be measured by counting numbers of certain kinds of
manipulative and approach behaviour. Alper, Blans and Adams’ study is an excellent
example. Sixteen aspects of finger painting were measured: time to begin painting, use of
whole hand, fingertip approach, washing-up behaviour, and so on. Significant differences
were found between middle-class and working-class children in most of the tasks.

Role playing: Is the acting-out of assigned specific roles for a brief period by two or
more individuals. This is used in behavioural research. An observation system may be used
to measure the variables under study. Group processes, interpersonal interaction,
authoritarianism, prejudice and other variables can be studied.

Evaluation
“The attractiveness of projective devices lies in the fact that they seem to go below the
surface, that they can give us ‘insights’ and provide us with ‘revealing’ information”. When
used with great care, they can be useful tools of psychological and educational research.
However they do not adequately satisfy the scientific canons of reliability, validity and
objectivity, because they are inadequately standardized with respect to administration and
scoring and standard norms are not available. Hence the projective instruments need not be
used, if we have a more objective instrument to measure the variables under study.

SOCIOMETRY
Definition
Sociometry is “ a method of discovering, describing and evaluating social status,
structure, and development through measuring the extent of acceptance or rejection between
individuals in groups.” Franz defines sociometry as “ a method used or the discovery and
manipulation of social configurations by measuring the attractions and repulsions between
individuals in group.” It is concerned with attractions and repulsions between individuals in a
group. In this method, a person is asked to choose one or more persons according to specified
criteria, in order to find out the person or persons with whom he will like to associates.
Helen Jennings describes sociometry “as a means of presenting simply and graphically
the entire structure of relations existing at a given time among members of a given group.
The major lines of communication, or the pattern of attraction and rejection in its full scope,
are made readily comprehensive at a glance.”

Origin
The basic principles and techniques of sociometry were first embodied a volume
entitled Who Shall Survive? By J.L. Moerno, first published in 1934. An enlarged revised
edition of this book published in 1953 covers the history, theory, terminology, techniques,
bibliography and applications of sociometry.

Sociometry Test
 The basic technique in sociometry is the “sociometric test”. This is a test under which
each member of a group is asked to choose from all other members those with whom he
prefers to associate in specific situation. The situation must be a real one to the group under
study, e.g., ‘group study’, ‘play’ ‘class room seating’ for students of a public school.

A specific number of choices, say two or three to be allowed is determined with

reference to the size of the group, and different levels of preferences are designated for each
choice.

Suppose we desire to find out the likings and disliking of persons in a work group
consisting of 8 persons. Each person is asked to select 3 persons in order or preference with
whom he will like to work on a group assignment. The levels of choices are designated as:
the first choice by the number 1, the second by 2, and third by 3. The result may e tabulated
as under.
Sociometric Choices in a Group of persons
Chosen
A B C D E F G H
A 3 1 2
B 2 1 3
C
Chooser D 3 1 2
E 3 2 1
F 2 1 3
G 3 1 2
H

1 Choice - 3 2 1
2nd Choice 1 1 - 1 2 1
3rd Choice 1 1 2 1 1
Total 2 2 5 3 3 2 1

The requirements of the Sociometric Test are:

 1. The limits of the group should be indicated to the subjects.

2. The number of choices allowed should be specific and it depends on the size of the
group tested.

3. Each subject should be permitted to make his choices and rejections privately
without the presence of the other members of the group.

4. A specific criterion for choice should be used, with reference to the functional
activity of the group.

6. Different levels of preference should be designated for each choice.

Types of choice: Sociometric choice may means ‘choice of persons’, ‘choice of lines
of communication’, or ‘choice of lines of influence’.

Scoring sociometric choices: One method is to count the number of times and
individual is chosen, disregarding the order of choice. This is the most simple method and is
widely used. The main drawback of this method is that it is insensitive, for it does not
distinguish between first and third choice.

Another method is to score the order of choices: say, 3 points to first choice, two to
second choice, and one point to third choice. The weakness of this coring plan is that it treats
the difference between a third choice and no choice as identical to the difference between first
and second choices, and that between second and third choices.

A third plan is to use a rating scale. Each subject may be asked to rate each one of the
other members in a five point scale: 4,3,2,1,0. In this scale 4 means “would like to work with
him very much”, and O means “would not want to work with him at all”, and other numbers
representing intermediate degrees of linking to work with him.
 The results of a sociometric test may be augmented by personal interviews in order to
discover motivation for attraction and rejection – sympathy, fear, anger, jealousy etc.

Methods of Analysis of Sociometric data

There are three important methods of sociometric analysis: sociometric matrix,
sociogram and sociometric index.

Sociometric matrix: A matrix is a rectangular array of numbers or other symbols.

Sociometric matrix is a square or n x n matrix, ‘n’ being the number of persons in a group.

Suppose a group of six members responds to a sociometric question: “With whom

would you like to work on such and such a project during the next three months? Choose any
three individuals.” The responses are choices. If a member chooses another member, the
choice is denoted by 1. If a member does not choose another, the non-choice is denoted by O.
(If rejection has been called for, -1 would be used). The sociometric matrix of choices (C) of
the above group is given in table

Table
Sociometric choice matrix: Six members Group and three-choice question
A B C D E F
A 0 1 0 0 0 1
B 1 0 0 1 1 1
C 0 0 0 1 1 1
D 0 1 0 1 1 1
E 1 0 0 0 0 1
F 0 1 0 1 1 0
Total 2 3 0 4 4 5
 The table can be read by rows (left to right): A choose B, D and F; D chooses B, E and
F and so on. It can also be read by column (vertical). A is chosen by B and E; C is not
chosen by any one. The sums at the bottom indicate the number of choices each member
receives.
The matrix is analyzed by studying the pattern of choices. There are three kinds of
choice: simple or one-way, mutual or two-way, and no choice. A simple one-way choice is
where one member chooses another member, but the latter does not choose the former, e.g., in
Table A chose D, but D did not chooses the former. In Table 7.2 A chose B and B Chose A;
D chose E and E chose D. F is ‘popular’, as he was chosen by all the other members; C is not
popular; no one chose him.

The advantages of the matrix are

:
1. It is inclusive, i.e., the relationship between every single pair is specifically
recorded.

2. Joint relationships among pairs are recorded.

3. Only one interrelation (criterion) is recorded on each matrix and is thus isolated for
scientific study.

3. Matrices maybe combined and compared. Hence they are valuable in

mathematical analysis and synthesis.

The shortcomings of the matrix are:

1. It is not suitable for a large group, as it is difficult to comprehend the complexities

of the choice relations in it.

2. It is a poor graphic device.

 4. It is a poor tool for detecting cliques, mutual choices and other aspects of group
structure.
5.
Sociogram is a graphic representation of the sociometric choice relations of a group.

Exhibit Sociogram of choices

The symbols of those chosen most often are placed nearest the centre of the diagram
and those chosen less often are placed progressively outward. Those not chosen are on the
outside.

One-way choice is represented by a single-pointed arrow, a mutual choice by a

double-edged arrow. A member chosen by most others is a leader and referred to as star. A
member not chosen by other is an isolate. A small group consisting of members who
mutually choose each other is a clique.

Advantages: 1. The sociogram is a superior to the matrix as a graphic device.

2. It gives a birds eye view of all aspects of group structure.

Sociometric Indices: Sociometric choices or other relations are also measure by

indices. A large number of indices are possible.

Σ CA
1. Choice Status Index: CSA = -----------
n-1
Where CSA = the choice status of person A: Σ CA = the sum of choices in column A and n =
the number of individuals in the group. (n-1) is used, because one cannot choose oneself. In
table 7.2 CSA = 2/5 = 0.4; CSF = 5/5 = 1.0. How well or how poorly chosen an individual is
revealed by his choice status index.
 Σ (MC)
-------------
n(n-1)
Group cohesiveness index: GC = --------------
2

Where GC = Group cohesiveness; Σ MC = sum of mutual choices or pairs; n = the

number of individuals in the group. GC index is the proportion of mutual choices to the total
number of possible pairs. In a six member group the total number of possible pairs is 6(6-1)/2
= 15. If in an unlimited choice situation, there were 3 mutual choices, then GC = 3/15 = 0.20,
a low degree of cohesiveness.

In the case of limited choice, the formula is:

(MC)
GC = Σ -----------
dn/2
Where d = the number of choices each individual is permitted. For Table 7.1,
5 5
Table 7.1, GC = ---------- = -------- = 0.67, a high degree of cohesiveness.
3 x 5/2 7.5

Σ acceptances + Σ rejections
3. Social intensity indeed = ------------------------------------
n-1

4. Choice-rejection status = The number of choices minus the number of rejections

received or Σ C - Σ R
 6. Criswell in her study of race cleavages suggest the index of self preference, based
on the actual ratio between in-group and out-group choices and the expected ratio
based on the total number in each group.

Zeleny (28) has developed indices of sociation, social status and morale. Lundbeng and
Steele have developed indices of interaction and cohesion.

Applications
Sociometric techniques are widely used by sociologists, psychologists and
psychiatrists in the study of group structure, status, personality traits, leadership, morale and
social adjustment. They make more explicit and precise the configuration of group
relationship, the characteristics and composition of cliques and other elements in a larger
group, the social position of individual members in a group and the streams and points of
influence within and among groups.

Sociometric studies of communities, fraternities, schools, college student bodies,

camps, armed forces, and factories have been made.

With matrix methods, one can discover cliques in groups, communication and
influence channels, patterns of cohesiveness, connectedness, hierarchization and so on.

Sociometry techniques are highly useful in identifying leadership, small group

behaviour, prejudice, attitudes and values. They are also useful in classifying individuals and
groups.
 A number of sociogram over a period of time may be constructed to measure changes
resulting from efforts to bring isolates into closer group relationships or to transform cliques
into more general group membership. Thus the effectiveness of socializing can be measured
by the changes revealed in the sociogram.

Evaluation
Sociometry is a simple, economical and naturaliztic method of observation and data
collection. It can usually be used for studying human actions in group situations. It has
considerable flexibility. It can be adapted to wide variety of research in the laboratory and in
the field. Its qualification and analysis possibilities re rewarding. Indexes and scoring
devices are extensively used in sociometric studies.

Since sociometry is a peer rating, rather than a rating by superiors, it adds another
dimension to the understanding of members of a group.

However, the difficulty of securing reliable information from sociometric tests and
their statistical limitations have to be recognized. They have to be used with discrimination
and carefully adapted to each situation.

The sociometric measures are one of the multiple means of studying inter-personal
relations. Hence they should be supplemented by other means of gathering information on
such relations. For example, the use of spontaneity tests and interviews and the study of the
pattern of acquaintance pattern yield clues tot he determinants of sociometric responses. The
importance of selecting an appropriate criterion for sociometric questions should be
recognized.
 CONTENT ANALYSIS

Meaning
Content analysis is a research technique for making inferences by objectively and
systematically identifying specified characteristics of contents of documents. This is a
method of data collection and analysis. This is used for gathering data from archival records,
documents, newspapers, diaries, letters, minutes of meetings and the like. The content of the
written materials serves as a basis of inference. The analysis is made objectively and
systematically. Objectivity refers to making analysis on the basis of explicit rules, which
enable different researchers to obtain the same results from the same documents. Systematic
analysis refers to making inclusion or exclusion of content according to consistently applied
criteria of selection; only materials relevant to researcher’s hypothesis are examined.

Content analysis, as a method of studying communications was developed in the

United States as a branch of social psychology known as ‘Communications research’.
Content analysis can be applied to available materials such as letters, diaries,
newspaper articles and editorials, etc. and to materials like stories or essays especially
produced for a particular research problem.

Procedure
Significant content analysis begins with some systematic problem, which requires
specific data from content analysis. The researcher must conceptualize the variables that are
relevant to his problem.

The procedure of content analysis involves certain steps.

 The first step is to define the universe of content that is to be analyzed, e.g., the
editorials of newspapers on the subject-matter of the problem (say ‘sati’) under study; the
publications of an author; the issues of a newspaper for a given period. If the volume of
materials to be examined is too large, a representative sample of documents may be selected
for analysis.

The second step is to specify the content characteristics to be measured. On the basis
of these characteristics, the universe is divided into categories.

Before discussing the general procedures for categorization, it is necessary to specify

the major units of analysis or recording units and to differentiate recording units from context
units. The recording unit is the smallest element of content in which the appearance of a
reference is counted. The context unit is a larger body of the content that may be examined in
characterizing a recording unit. For example, the recording unit may be single term; but in
order to note whether the term is treated favourably or unfavourably, one has to consider the
entire sentence in which the term appears. The sentence is the context unit.

Recording units: Five major recording units are frequently used in content analysis.
They are: words (terms), themes, characters, paragraphs and items. The word is the smallest
unit. The words are counted and a list of frequencies of selected words is prepared. For
example, Laswell in a study on propaganda detection, reports that the Moscow News
frequently used twenty-seven key political terms (bourgeois, class struggle, red army, the
people, revolution etc.) during 1938-39.
 The theme is a proposition about something. It is usually in the form of a sentence,
clause or passage. Themes are most frequently employed in the study of propaganda,
attitudes, images and values.

The character is an individual in a literary production. This is used as a unit in

analyzing stories for studying the traits of characters appearing in them.

The paragraph as a unit of analysis is rarely used because of difficulties on classifying

various things discussed in it.

The item is the whole document. It may be an entire article, a book or a speech.

The third step in content analysis is categorization. Categorization is an important part

of content analysis, because it reflects the purpose of the study and spells out the variables of
the hypothesis to be tested. Eventually recording units are classified and coded into
categories. For example projective stories written by children in response to a picture may be
categorized into ‘creative’ or ‘non-creative’. Categories must relate to the research objectives
and be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Exhaustiveness ensures that every recording unit
relevant to the study can be classified. Mutual exclusivity means that no recording unit can be
included in more than one category. The indicators or criteria for classifying recording units
into respective categories should be explicitly specified. This enables replication, which is an
essential requirement of objectivity.

The last step in content analysis is to quantify the materials in any appropriate form.
One form of quantification is counting the number of objects in each category. A second
form of quantification is ranking. Judges can be asked to rank the objects according to a
specified criterion. The next form of quantification in rating scale. This is generally
employed in quantifying attitudes, and values. For example, the degree of creativity may be
rated as ‘very high, high, average, low, and very low.’
Applications
Content analysis is used for various purposes such as (a) to analyze their, attributes,
antecedents or effects; (b) to infer personality traits of speakers from logical and cognitive
characteristic of their verbal communications; (c) to infer aspects of culture and cultural
change from contents of literatures; (d) to understand the role of the mass media in moulding
public opinion on occasions like general election; (e) to study newspapers stand towards
currnet issues like Staff, terrorism in Punjab India’s peace-keeping force’s role in Sri Lanka
etc.; (f) to determine the philosophy of saints like Sri Ramakrishna, Swami Vivekananda or
Sri Aurobindo and of great national leaders like Mahatma Gandhi, Gopala Krishna Gokhale
or Jawaharlal Nehru; (g) to determine themes and values of novels and short stories; (h) to
measure behaviour variables like need, values, attitudes, authoritarianism, creativity and so on
through an analysis of both available materials and deliberately created materials of projective
kind; (j) to study the propaganda techniques adopted by propagandists to influence the public:
(k) to identify the literary style, concepts or beliefs of a writer, e.g., Mahatma Gandhiji’s
concept to trusteeship; (l) to explain the possible causal factors related to some outcome of
action or event, e.g., the influence of editorials upon the action of the parliament on an
economic legislation; and so on.

Content analysis of available materials should not be used indiscriminately. If a

researcher can gather data directly through interviewing, mailing or projective techniques, so
much the better. If there is no such possibility, then available materials can be used.
 Primary data are generated when a particular problem at hand is
investigated by the researcher employing mail questionnaires, telephone
surveys, personal interviews, observations, and experiments. Secondary Data,
on the other hand, include those data, which are collected for some earlier
research work and re applicable in the study the researcher has presently
undertaken.

Different types of secondary data

Depending upon the gathering source, secondary data can be divided into two categories:

i Internal secondary data;

ii and external secondary data.

Internal Data
Internal data is procured by a researcher in normal operations within his own
premises. These data may include credit records, orders, shipments, sales results, advertising
expenditures, detailed operating statements, general and development budgets, inventory
records, transportation costs, raw material costs, pervious research reports, etc. These are a
few examples of secondary data internally available with in a firm.

External Data

External data are generated and collected from variety of events and sources outside
the firm’s premises.

Sources of External Secondary Data

Government Sources
These sources encompass:
 i) Department of census;
ii) Central Government;
iii) State, district, tehsil,block and panchayat level government sources.
The department of census carries information on census of population, housing,
agriculture, business, manufacturers, minerals, industries, transportation, governments,
etc. Major drawback of the census data is the gap of time between the collection of
data and release of the information.

Commercial Sources
Certain marketing research and advertising agencies such as Indian Marketing
Research Bureau of Hindustan Thompson Associates Ltd., National Advertising Services
(Pvt.) Ltd., ORG, MARG, etc., are engaged in gathering and providing information to the
researchers and other business firms at some nominal prices. Information can also be sought
and procured by researchers form these agencies at reasonable charges.

Industry Sources
Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, for instance, conducts various researches and
published results in its monthly, quarterly, and yearly periodicals and other publications.
Similarly, serveral other institutes(I.M.M’S IITs, research institutes and Indian Universies)
bring out their publications of varied periodicity in which data concerning different projects
and problems is published. Be sides, these institutes and universities have unpublished reports
containing host of research data. There are professional and trade associations which
publish different types of research data.

Miscellaneous Sources.
In this category, we include those researches which are completed by individual
researchers, viz., dissertations, monographs, theses and others. There are certain good project
completed by individual research institutes and university departments.

MERITS OF USING SECONDARY DATA

 1. Economy and Time
Use of secondary data i research is more economical than primary data. Primary data
collection involves preparing of questionnaires for data collection, going to the field
for actual collection, editing, coding and tabulating of data. This is very complicated
and tiresome exercise. Therefore, the prolonged and cumbersome process involved in
primary data makes these very costly as compared to secondary data. Secondary data
can be collected by teh researcher single-handedly in libraries and through other sttic
sources within limited time. On the other hand, collection of primary data may re
quire much longer time. Thus, the money advantage also accompanies the time and
effort advantages in teh case of secondary data colection vis-a-vis primary data
collection.

2. Bias and availability

The secondary data are gathered by certain research agencies on occurrence of various
events e.g., census data. These agencies collect such data for certain purpose. These
data are not biased because the purpose of their collection is different from the
objectives the researcher has in mind while collecting data are not biased be cause the
purpose of their collection is different than the objectives the researcher has in mind
while collecting data for particular research problem. The primary data, on the other
hand, are collected for meeting a specific objective and there exists a lot of scope for
maneuvering these to suit the researcher’s needs. Thus, the bias element is lesser in
secondary data as compared to primary data.

Moreover, an individual researcher faces may difficulties while collecting certain

primary data (Such as data on sales, expenses, profits, etc.) form respondents like wholesalers,
dealers, retailers, competitors, customers. etc. whereas such data can be gathered by research
agencies
are easily available to the researcher in published form.
LIMITATIONS OF USING SECONDARY DATA

The use of secondary data for research in not freedom limitations Following text presents the
majoil limitations of secondary data.

1. Limited Applicability
Finding data to suit a specific project is very cumber some Collection and use of
secondary data requires a lot of hard work on the part of researcher. The secondary data may
have three types of variations, which may hinder their use for the project at hand;

a. units of measurement may be different,

b. definitions and data classes may be different,
c. lack of currency, that is, data may be outdated (obsolete.) To tackel these
difficulties, the researcher has to make ecesary alteration in secondary data to
make these really suitable for use in the in the problem at hand.

3. Doubtful Accuracy
It is difficult to find data of needed accuracy. Often, the available data are distantly
related with the research problem at hand. It is difficult to determine their accuracy
for the present project. More over, some secondary data may be wrongly collected or
fabricated by the research agencies who originally collected them. Such data cannot
be used for the present research project as their use would distort the research results.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SECONDARY DATA

Depending upon the gathering source, secondary data can be divided into two
categories:
i internal secondary data;
ii and external secondary data.
Let us explain each of the two categories in the ensuing text.
Internal Data
Internal data is procured by a researcher in normal operations with in his own premises.
These data may include credit records, orders, shipments, sales results, advertising
expenditures, detailed operating statements, general and developmental budgets, inventory
records, transportation costs, raw material costs, previous research reports, etc. These are a
few examples of secondary data internally available within a firm.

Types of Primary Data

Primary data may pertain to demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the
consumers, attitudes and opinions of people, their awareness and knowledge and other similar
aspects as detailed below.

Demographic and Socio-economic Characteristics

One of the types of primary data of most interest of marketers is the subjects’s demographic
and socio-economic characteristics. These characteristics include features such s subject’s
age, qualifications, occupation, marital status, sex, income, social clasess, etc. These
variables are typically used to cross-classify he collected data.

Socio-economic characteristics are sometimes referred as states of being because they

represent attributes of people. In order to collect data on socio-economic attributes of
consumers, we adopt personal or telephone interview. Mall survey method is also used quite
often.

Methods of Primary Data

Primary data can be collected in marketing by three basic methods, viz., surveys,
observations, and experiments. We discuss the various aspects falling under the head
‘survey’. Remaining two methods, viz., observations and experiments are discussed
elsewhere in this book. In the second part, of exploratory research administration which is
considered as the most crucial part of exploratory research, we have made an attempt to
visualize in depth the various problems or errors facing the researcher. At the end, some
suggestions are put forward to minimize the problems or errors occurring in survey
administration with the help of certain scientific techniques.

SURVEY
Survey is the most commonly used method of primary data collection in marketing
research. This is widely used because of its extreme flexibility. Also, it is the most abused
method because many surveys are conducted where questions are biased or poorly stated,
interviewers are poorly trained, or the sample interviewed is not really a representative of the
population.

Survey research is a systematic gathering of data from respondents through questionnaires.

The purpose of survey research is to facilitate understanding or enable prediction of some
aspects of be behavior of the population being surveyed. A questionnaire is a formal list of
questions to be answered in the survey. Questionnaire may be administered by mail,
telephone, or personal interview.

Survey Techniques
Once the researcher has decided to use survey methods for collecting primary data, he
should make a decision in connection with the techniques of survey or contact method, viz.,
personal interview, telephone survey, and mail survey. This can be done after evaluating each
of these methods in view of the research project undertaken. The evaluation of survey
techniques can be conducted by analyzing the advantages and disadvantages associated with
each of these. In the ensuing text, we take up for discussion each of these techniques.
Personal Interview

In personal interview, the investigator questions the respondents in a fact-to-face

meeting. Personal interviews ma be conducted on a door-to-door basis or in public places
such as shopping centers. The usual approach for the interviewer is to identify himself to a
potential respondent and attempt to secure the respondent’s co-operation in answering a list of
predetermined questions. These answers may be tape-recorded or written down by the
interviewer. Despite high cost, the personal interview can provide critical types of
information on knowledge, intentions, demographic characteristics, attitudes, opinions, and
life styles. In India, this method is very widely used and is considered as the most effective.

Advantages
Main advantages associated with these survey techniques are;
1 It requires relatively shorter period of time to complete.
2 Researcher can procure many different types of information
3 The amount of information procured on each aspect is larger.
4 The results can be projected to the relevant universe with a greater
degree of accuracy.
5 Because there is a personal interaction between the investigator(s)
and the respondents(s), the data obtained are more reliable and valid.

Disadvantages
Major disadvantages associated with the personal interview technique are:

1 The cost per completed interview is relatively higher as compared to other methods.
2 The investigator may have to face relatively more difficulties in administering the
interview schedule.
 3 Respondents may not be available at their homes, give biased responses, or even refuse
to con-operate with the investigator.

4 The investigators themselves may involve in cheating which is very difficult to detect.

5 Time required is more as compared to other survey methods.

Telephone Survey
In telephone survey, Prospective respondents are telephoned, usually at homes, and
asked to answer a series of questions over the telephone.

This form of the survey technique has become more popular in recent years in
advanced countries because more people are having telephones at their houses. In India, still
this method does not find much use as may homes do not have personal telephone systems.

Advantages
The telephone survey has advantages as follows;
1 It can be conducted at a lower cost as compared with personal interviews.

2 The interviews can be completed very quickly. Thus speed is the most significant
advantage.

3 Information of different types (on varying aspects) can be obtained.

4 Telephone survey can be easily administered.

5 In this case also the results can be projected to a high degree of accuracy to the relevant
universe.

Disadvantages
Various disadvantages of telephone survey are as follows;
1 The costs involved are higher than the mail questionnaire.
2 The information on each aspect can be obtained to a limited extent.
3 Visual aids cannot be used.
4 It is difficult to keep respondents on the phone for any length of time if the survey is not
of keep interest to them.
5 The universe covered is generally incomplete because only higher income people have
telephones.
6 Also the telephone directories which are used to select sample, might be obsolete.
7 It is not possible for the investigator to validate the information obtained and has to
accept interviewee’s word. Particularly, on questions related to income products owned
nature of residence, etc. The most effective way to increase responses in phone surveys
is to send a letter or card in advance notifying a person of the up-coming call and its
general purpose.

8. The increasing desire among people to protect their privacy and enhanced rate and
number of crimes may greatly inhibit the use of telephone surveys.

Mail Survey
The most common mode adopted in surveys is to mail to each of the potential
respondents a questionnaire, complete with instructions and a self-addressed stamped
envelope. In this case, no personal interaction occurs between the respondent and
interviewer. Respondents fill out mailed questionnaires and return them duly filled in at
their convenience. Sometimes, mail questionnaires are distributed to the respondents by
personal delivery or newspaper and magazine inserts but in most instances in entire process
relies upon the mail system. The mail interviews received the greatest amount of attention
in India where the two earlier methods are quite costly for a researcher. Also the time
needed by the previous methods is comparatively more.

Advantages
The main advantages of mail survey are as follows;
 1 If a proper mailing list is prepared, all potential sample respondents can be reached.
2 There is no scope of the interviewer’s bias to intrude in as the respondents are not
influenced or inhibited by the presence of an interviewer. They are also more willing
to answer somewhat personal questions.
3 The mail survey is relatively an inexpensive way to obtain information, especially
when the potential respondents are spread over a wide geographical area.
4 There is a possibility of more accurate reply because the respondents fill up the
questionnaires at their own leisure.

Disadvantages
Major disadvantages of the mail survey are as follows;
1 Because in no mail survey 100 Per cent response is received so the information may not
represent the universe correctly.
2 It takes a pretty long period to obtain the responses back from the respondents. Some
times, continuous reminders may have to be issued to the respondents for getting the
response.
3 The mail survey has to use very structured questions and number of questions in the
questionnaire has to be very limited. It may not be possible to tabulate answers if open-
end questions are used.
4 Bias may occur when the sample chosen to be surveyed is not rally representative of the
population.

Questionnaire Design

Questionnaires are an inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number of
respondents. Often they are the only feasible way to reach a number of reviewers large
enough to allow statistically analysis of the results. A well-designed questionnaire that is used
effectively can gather information on both the overall performance of the test system as well
as information on specific components of the system. If the questionnaire includes
demographic questions on the participants, they can be used to correlate performance and
satisfaction with the test system among different groups of users.

It is important to remember that a questionnaire should be viewed as a multi-stage process

beginning with definition of the aspects to be examined and ending with interpretation of the
results. Every step needs to be designed carefully because the final results are only as good as
the weakest link in the questionnaire process. Although questionnaires may be cheap to
administer compared to other data collection methods, they are every bit as expensive in terms
of design time and interpretation.

The steps required to design and administer a questionnaire include:

1. Defining the Objectives of the survey

2. Determining the Sampling Group
3. Writing the Questionnaire
4. Administering the Questionnaire
5. Interpretation of the Results

This document will concentrate on how to formulate objectives and write the questionnaire.
Before these steps are examined in detail, it is good to consider what questionnaires are good
at measuring and when it is appropriate to use questionnaires.

What can questionnaires measure?

Questionnaires are quite flexible in what they can measure, however they are not equally
suited to measuring all types of data. We can classify data in two ways, Subjective vs.
Objective and Quantitative vs. Qualitative.

When a questionnaire is administered, the researchers control over the environment will be
somewhat limited. This is why questionnaires are inexpensive to administer. This loss of
control means the validity of the results are more reliant on the honesty of the respondent.
Consequently, it is more difficult to claim complete objectivity with questionnaire data then
with results of a tightly controlled lab test. For example, if a group of participants are asked
on a questionnaire how long it took them to learn a particular function on a piece of software,
it is likely that they will be biased towards themselves and answer, on average, with a lower
than actual time. A more objective usability test of the same function with a similar group of
participants may return a significantly higher learning time. More elaborate questionnaire
design or administration may provide slightly better objective data, but the cost of such a
questionnaire can be much higher and offset their economic advantage. In general,
questionnaires are better suited to gathering reliable subjective measures, such as user
satisfaction, of the system or interface in question.

Questions may be designed to gather either qualitative or quantitative data. By their very
nature, quantitative questions are more exact then qualitative. For example, the word "easy"
and "difficult" can mean radically different things to different people. Any question must be
carefully crafted, but in particular questions that assess a qualitative measure must be phrased
to avoid ambiguity. Qualitative questions may also require more thought on the part of the
participant and may cause them to become bored with the questionnaire sooner. In general,
we can say that questionnaires can measure both qualitative and quantitative data well, but
that qualitative questions require more care in design, administration, and interpretation.

When to use a questionnaire?

There is no all encompassing rule for when to use a questionnaire. The choice will be made
based on a variety of factors including the type of information to be gathered and the available
resources for the experiment. A questionnaire should be considered in the following
circumstances.

a. When resources and money are limited. A Questionnaire can be quite inexpensive
to administer. Although preparation may be costly, any data collection scheme will
have similar preparation expenses. The administration cost per person of a
questionnaire can be as low as postage and a few photocopies. Time is also an
 important resource that questionnaires can maximize. If a questionnaire is self-
administering, such as a e-mail questionnaire, potentially several thousand people
could respond in a few days. It would be impossible to get a similar number of
usability tests completed in the same short time.

b. When it is necessary to protect the privacy of the participants. Questionnaires are

easy to administer confidentially. Often confidentiality is the necessary to ensure
participants will respond honestly if at all. Examples of such cases would include
studies that need to ask embarrassing questions about private or personal behavior.

c. When corroborating other findings. In studies that have resources to pursue other
data collection strategies, questionnaires can be a useful confirmation tools. More
costly schemes may turn up interesting trends, but occasionally there will not be
resources to run these other tests on large enough participant groups to make the
results statistically significant. A follow-up large scale questionnaire may be necessary
to corroborate these earlier results.

I. Defining the Objectives of the Survey

The importance of well-defined objectives can not be over emphasized. A questionnaire that
is written without a clear goal and purpose is inevitably going to overlook important issues
and waste participants' time by asking useless questions. The questionnaire may lack a logical
flow and thereby cause the participant to lose interest. Consequential, what useful data you
may have collected could be further compromised. The problems of a poorly defined
questionnaire do not end here, but continue on to the analysis stage. It is difficult to imagine
identifying a problem and its cause, let alone its solution, from responses to broad and
generalizing questions. In other words, how would it be possible to reach insightful
conclusions if one didn't actually know what they had been looking for or planning to
observe.

A objective such as "to identify points of user dissatisfaction with the interface and how these
negatively affect the software's performance" may sound clear and to the point, but it is not.
The questionnaire designer must clarify what is meant by user dissatisfaction. Is this
dissatisfaction with the learning of the software, the power of the software, of the ease of
learning the software? Is it important for the users to learn the software quickly if they learn it
well? What is meant by the software's performance? How accurate must the measurements
be? All of these issues must be narrowed and focused before a single question is formulated.
A good rule of thumb is that if you are finding it difficult to write the questions, then you
haven't spent enough time defining the objectives of the questionnaire. Go back and do this
step again. The questions should follow quite naturally from the objectives.

II. Writing the Questionnaire

At this point, we assume that we have already decided what kind of data we are to measure,
formulated the objectives of the investigation, and decided on a participant group. Now we
must compose our questions.

If the preceding steps have been faithfully executed, most of the questions will be on obvious
topics. Most questionnaires, however, also gather demographic data on the participants. This
is used to correlate response sets between different groups of people. It is important to see
whether responses are consistent across groups. For example, if one group of participants is
noticeably less satisfied with the test interface, it is likely that the interface was designed
without fair consideration of this group's specific needs. This may signify the need for
fundamental redesign of the interface. In addition, certain questions simply may only be
applicable to certain kinds of users. For example, if one is asking the participants whether
they find the new tutorial helpful, we do not want to include in our final tally the responses of
experienced users who learned the system with an older tutorial. There is no accurate way to
filter out these responses without simply asking the users when they learned the interface.

Typically, demographic data is collected at the beginning of the questionnaire, but such
questions could be located anywhere or even scattered throughout the questionnaire. One
obvious argument in favor of the beginning of the questionnaire is that normally background
questions are easier to answer and can ease the respondent into the questionnaire. One does
not want to put off the participant by jumping in to the most difficult questions. We are all
familiar with such kinds of questions.

It is important to ask only those background questions that are necessary. Do not ask income
of the respondent unless there is at least some rational for suspecting a variance across income
levels. There is often only a fine line between background and personal information. You do
not want to cross over in to the personal realm unless absolutely necessary. If you need to
solicit personal information, phrase your questions as unobtrusively as possible to avoid
ruffling your participants and causing them to answer less than truthfully.

What kind of questions do we ask?

In general, there are two types of questions one will ask, open format or closed format.

Open format questions are those that ask for unprompted opinions. In other words, there are
no predetermined set of responses, and the participant is free to answer however he chooses.
Open format questions are good for soliciting subjective data or when the range of responses
is not tightly defined. An obvious advantage is that the variety of responses should be wider
and more truly reflect the opinions of the respondents. This increases the likelihood of you
receiving unexpected and insightful suggestions, for it is impossible to predict the full range
of opinion. It is common for a questionnaire to end with and open format question asking the
respondent for her unabashed ideas for changes or improvements.

Open format questions have several disadvantages. First, their very nature requires them to be
read individually. There is no way to automatically tabulate or perform statistical analysis on
them. This is obviously more costly in both time and money, and may not be practical for
lower budget or time sensitive evaluations. They are also open to the influence of the reader,
for no two people will interpret an answer in precisely the same way. This conflict can be
eliminated by using a single reader, but a large number of responses can make this impossible.
Finally, open format questions require more thought and time on the part of the respondent.
Whenever more is asked of the respondent, the chance of tiring or boring the respondent
increases.

Closed format questions usually take the form of a multiple-choice question. They are easy
for the respondent, give

There is no clear consensus on the number of options that should be given in a closed format
question. Obviously, there needs to be sufficient choices to fully cover the range of answers
but not so many that the distinction between them becomes blurred. Usually this translates
into five to ten possible answers per questions. For questions that measure a single variable or
opinion, such as ease of use or liability, over a complete range (easy to difficult, like to
dislike), conventional wisdom says that there should be an odd number of alternatives. This
allows a neutral or no opinion response. Other schools of thought contend that an even
number of choices is best because it forces the respondent to get off the fence. This may
induce the some inaccuracies for often the respondent may actually have no opinion.
However, it is equally arguable that the neutral answer is over utilized, especially by bored
questionnaire takers. For larger questionnaires that test opinions on a very large number of
items, such as a music test, it may be best to use an even number of choices to prevent large
numbers of no-thought neutral answers.
Closed format questions offer many advantages in time and money. By restricting the answer
set, it is easy to calculate percentages and other hard statistical data over the whole group or
over any subgroup of participants. Modern scanners and computers make it possible to
administer, tabulate, and perform preliminary analysis in a matter of days. Closed format
questions also make it easier to track opinion over time by administering the same
questionnaire to different but similar participant groups at regular intervals. Finally closed
format questions allow the researcher to filter out useless or extreme answers that might occur
in an open format question.

Whether your questions are open or closed format, there are several points that must by
considered when writing and interpreting questionnaires:

1. Clarity: This is probably the area that causes the greatest source of mistakes in
questionnaires. Questions must be clear, succinct, and unambiguous. The goal is to
eliminate the chance that the question will mean different things to different people. If
the designers fail to do this, then essentially participants will be answering different
questions.

To this end, it is best to phrase your questions empirically if possible and to avoid the
use of necessary adjectives. For example, it asking a question about frequency, rather
than supplying choices that are open to interpretation such as:

1. Very Often
2. Often
3. Sometimes
4. Rarely
5. Never

It is better to quantify the choices, such as:

 6. Every Day or More
7. 2-6 Times a Week
8. About Once a Week
9. About Once a Month
10. Never

There are other more subtle aspects to consider such as language and culture. Avoid
the use of colloquial or ethnic expressions that might not be equally used by all
participants. Technical terms that assume a certain background should also be avoided.

2. Leading Questions: A leading question is one that forces or implies a certain type of
answer. It is easy to make this mistake not in the question, but in the choice of
answers. A closed format question must supply answers that not only cover the whole
range of responses, but that are also equally distributed throughout the range. All
answers should be equally likely. An obvious, nearly comical, example would be a
question that supplied these answer choices:
1. Superb
2. Excellent
3. Great
4. Good
5. Fair
6. Not so Great

A less blatant example would be a Yes/No question that asked:

7. Is this the best CAD interface you have every used?

In this case, even if the participant loved the interface, but had an favorite that was
preferred, she would be forced to answer No. Clearly, the negative response covers too
 wide a range of opinions. A better way would be to ask the same question but supply
the following choices:

8. Totally Agree
9. Partially Agree
10. Neither Agree or Disagree
11. Partially Disagree
12. Totally Agree

This example is also poor in the way it asks the question. It's choice of words makes it
a leading question and a good example for the next section on phrasing.

3. Phrasing: Most adjectives, verbs, and nouns in English have either a positive or
negative connotation. Two words may have equivalent meaning, yet one may be a
compliment and the other an insult. Consider the two words "child-like" and
"childish", which have virtually identical meaning. Child-like is an affectionate term
that can be applied to both men and women, and young and old, yet no one wishes to
be thought of as childish.

In the above example of "Is this the best CAD interface you have every used?" clearly
"best" has strong overtones that deny the participant an objective environment to
consider the interface. The signal sent the reader is that the designers surely think it is
the best interface, and so should everyone else. Though this may seem like an extreme
example, this kind of superlative question is common practice.

A more subtle, but no less troublesome, example can be made with verbs that have
neither strong negative or positive overtones. Consider the following two questions:

1. Do you agree with the Governor's plan to oppose increased development of

wetlands?
2. Do you agree with the Governor's plan to support curtailed development of
wetlands?
 They both ask the same thing, but will likely produce different data. One asks in a
positive way, and the other in a negative. It is impossible to predict how the outcomes
will vary, so one method to counter this is to be aware of different ways to word
questions and provide a mix in your questionnaire. If the participant pool is very large,
several versions may be prepared and distributed to cancel out these effects.

4. Embarrassing Questions: Embarrassing questions dealing with personal or private

matters should be avoided. Your data is only as good as the trust and care that your
respondents give you. If you make them feel uncomfortable, you will lose their trust.
Do not ask embarrassing questions.

5. Hypothetical Questions Hypothetical are based, at best, on conjecture and, at worst,

on fantasy. I simple question such as:
1. If you were governor, what would you do to stop crime?

This forces the respondent to give thought to something he may have never
considered. This does not produce clear and consistent data representing real opinion.
Do not ask hypothetical questions.

6. Prestige Bias: Prestige bias is the tendency for respondents to answer in a way that
make them feel better. People may not lie directly, but may try to put a better light on
themselves. For example, it is not uncommon for people to respond to a political
opinion poll by saying they support Samaritan social programs, such as food stamps,
but then go on to vote for candidates who oppose those very programs. Data from
other questions, such as those that ask how long it takes to learn an interface, must be
viewed with a little skepticism. People tend to say they are faster learners than they
are.

There is little that can be done to prevent prestige bias. Sometimes there just is no way
to phrase a question so that all the answers are noble. The best means to deal with
prestige bias is to make the questionnaire as private as possible. Telephone interviews
are better than person-to-person interviews, and written questionnaires mailed to
 participants are even better still. The farther away the critical eye of the researcher is,
the more honest the answers.

Now What?

Now that you've completed you questionnaire, you are still not ready to send it out. Just like
any manufactured product, your questionnaire needs to go through quality testing. The major
hurdle in questionnaire design is making it clear and understandable to all. Though you have
taken great care to be clear and concise, it is still unreasonable to think that any one person
can anticipate all the potential problems. Just as a usability test observes a test user with the
actual interface, you must observe a few test questionnaire takers. You will then review the
questionnaire with the test takers and discuss all points that were in any way confusing and
work together to solve the problems. You will then produce a new questionnaire. It is possible
that this step may need to be repeated more than once depending on resources and the need
for accuracy.

Conclusions
Questionnaire design is a long process that demands careful attention. A questionnaire is a
powerful evaluation tool and should not be taken lightly. Design begins with an understanding
of the capabilities of a questionnaire and how they can help your research. If it is determined
that a questionnaire is to be used, the greatest care goes into the planning of the objectives.
Questionnaires are like any scientific experiment. One does not collect data and then see if
they found something interesting. One forms a hypothesis and an experiment that will help
prove or disprove the hypothesis.

Questionnaires are versatile, allowing the collection of both subjective and objective data
through the use of open or closed format questions. Modern computers have only made the
task of collecting and extracting valuable material more efficient. However, a questionnaire is
only as good as the questions it contains. There are many guidelines that must be met before
you questionnaire can be considered a sound research tool. The majority deal with making the
questionnaire understandable and free of bias. Mindful review and testing is necessary to
weed out minor mistakes that can cause great changes in meaning and interpretation. When
these guidelines are followed, the questionnaire becomes a powerful and economic evaluation
tool.

Distinguishing questionnaire and interview schedule

The term questionnaire refers to a self-administered process whereby the respondent

himself/herself reads the question and records his/her answers without assistance of an
interviewer. An interview schedule is technically a list of indicative questions those will be
asked form the respondent in person by an interviewer. The later will also record the answers
given. A questionnaire is more structured and standardized than the interview schedule.

Questionnaire or schedule designing consists of five steps as follows;

1. Specifying data requirements.
2. Determining the type of questions to be asked.
3. Deciding the number and sequence of question
4. Preparing the preliminary draft of questionnaire.
5. Revising and pre-testing the questionnaire.

These five steps are the guidelines for designing a questionnaire and are generally
applicable to both forms of question-asking instruments (questionnaire an schedule.) with
the help of these steps, a careful planning of the questionnaire design can be carried out in
order to avoid various costly mistakes.
1.Specifying Data Requirements
The researcher’s first job is ask himself/herself certain questions and find suitable
answers for them. He/She should ask himself/herself What specific data will be
necessary to test the hypotheses or establish relationships in which he/she is interested?
what relationships among variables are important in accomplishing the research
objectives? In addition, the researcher must keep in mind the analysis he/she is going to
conduct with the collected information. He/she must foresee. What kind of tabulation
and statistical techniques will be used? The researcher should see: whether the population
of the study is properly defined? Whether the population units possess the desired data?
Will they be able to communicate to the researcher? Is there any other more reliable and
economical way to get the required data? The researcher must give a serious thinking to
these questions and find answers. By answering these questions specifically, the
researcher can put the research assignment at hand on the right track and reap a host of
benefits accruing due to this.

2. Determining Type of Questions

After specifying the required data, the researcher must decide the type of questions
required to be asked from the respondents, to elicit this data. He/She must understand
various existing types of questions and decide which of these would suit the most
understand various existing types of questions and decide which of these would suit the
most to his/her project situation. Generally, questions can be categorized into: direct
 questions, indirect questions, open-end questions, and close-end questions. The close-end
questions may be dichotomous, multiple choice, checklists, and so on. The choice of the
type of questions depends upon the type of responses needed.

Direct Questions
Direct questions are just what their name indicates. They explicitly ask for the desired
data. However, the directness of the question also relates to the way a response is
interpreted. For instance, if the respondent is asked whether he/she bought Brand B on
his/her last shopping trip and the research analyst is interested only in whether the
purchase was made, then the question can be considered as direct.

i The questions must be framed in terms of a generalized third person:

ii Seemingly direct questions must be asked;
iii Pictures, stories, or other ambiguous stimuli can be used:

Open-end questions
Sometimes these questions are called free-answer questions. As the name implies, this refers
to a question that has no fixed alternatives (choices) to which the answer must conform. The
respondent answers in his/her own words and at any length he/she chooses. A verbatim
record of the answer is prepared by the interviewer.

Closed-end-questions

Such questions are also called fixed alternative questions. They refer to those questions in
which the respondent is given a limited number of alterative responses form, which he/she is
to select the one that most closely matches his/her opinion or attitude. This facilitates the
respondent to answer in some other way, if he/she desires, an "other" alternative is provided
as a choice.

Dichotomous questions
A dichotomous question refers to one which offers the respondent a choice between only two
alternatives, and reduces the issue to its simplest terms. The fixed alternatives are of the type:
yes/no, approve/disapprove, true/false, agree/disagree, favour/disfavour, right/wrong, and so
on. For example, "Have you been to the beauty parlor during the last twelve months?
(i) Yes –
(ii) no
If yes, about how often on an average have you been to a beauty parlor during the last
twelve months?

a More than once a week,

b once a week,
c every 8 to 15 days,
d every 16 to 28 days,
e less often than every 4 weeks
f other answers please specify.

This question is an example of dichotomous question, followed by a multiple choice question.

Dichotomous questions are used to obtain two types of information:
i Factual – information something is or is not, and
ii recall knowledge – do you remember or do you not?

Multiple – Choice questions

A Multiple choice question refers to one which provides several set alternatives for it answer.
Thus, it is a middle ground between free answer and dichotomous questions. Multiple- choice
questions can be used, when an issue has more than two aspects, or when gradation, opinions,
or degree of intensity is involved.

Checklists
Checklist is simply a statement on a problem followed by a series of answers from which the
respondent can choose. The checklist questions are put on show cards. For example, show
card A may have checklist encompassing questions, e.g.,
(a) which of the products listed on this card do you think are a good value for
money?
(b) which products are mainly for older people?
(c) Which products are mondern?
(d) Which products are expensive?
(e) which products have cut price offer?

Rating Scale
A rating scale is a technique of attitude measurement. A rating scale may ask the respondent
to rate a partivular object alsong specified dimensions. A Likert rating scale for the question,
"How would you rate detergent B on its comparative cleaning ability?
Outstanding .............Above Average .............Average ...........Below Average
.............Poor............

3.Deciding Number and Sequence of Questions

The number of questions to be included in a questionnaire depends upon the nature of
research project at hand. Actually, the topic’s depth or coverage required determines the
number of questions. If the research project is complex, the number of questions needed is
more. If many facets of the project are to be covered, number of questions would be more. If
probe or follow-up questions are included, again there will be longer list of questions.
Generally, a battery of questions is preferred to a single question.

Table: 1.1Distinction between questionnaire and an Interview Schedule

Questionnaire Interview Schedule

1. The term "Questionnaire" usually 1. The term "interview schedule"
refers to a self-administered process refers to a list of questions that will
 whereby the respondent be discussed with the respondent
himself/herself reads the questions in person by an interviewer who
and records his/her answers without will also record the answers given
the assistance of an interviewer. by the respondent.
2. Questionnaire is more highly 2. Interview schedule is mostly
structured and standardized. unstructured and questions are not
standardized.
3. Questionnaire lacks flexibility in 3. In the case of schedule, the
wording and sequencing the interviewer wants the respondent
questions and hence in answering to discuss in his/her own words
the questions. and form his/her own frame of
reference. Hence the flexibility is
there.
4. There is no scope of rewording, 4. An interview schedule my contain
rephrasing, or rearranging the definite questions to be asked but
questions which are fixed on the the interviewer may be allowed to
questionnaire. reword, rephrase, or rearrange the
questions according to his/her own
judgment and situation.
5. In a questionnaire, there is choice of 5. There is lesser freedom to the
the respondent to apply his/her own respondent in answering but he/she
judgment and answer the questions is guided by the interviewer
as he/she thinks right according to latter’s needs.
6. Questionnaire is meant for sending 6. Interview schedule is meant for
by mail to the respondent personal administration by the
interviewer during an interaction
with the respondent.
7. Cover letter carrying request and 7. Interview schedule does not need a
instructions to the respondents is an cover letter because interviewer
essential characteristic of a performs the requesting and
questionnaire. instructing tasks.

DESIGNING THE QUESTIONNAIRE OR INTERVIEW SCHEDULE

Assumptions
While proceeding to design a questionnaire, two key assumptions to be followed are:
1 The researcher assumes that the respondent is able and willing to communicate the
desired data either verbally to an interviewer or in writing on a questionnaire form.
2 The researcher must assume that the information he/she obtains form the interview
and the questionnaire is essentially about the respondent’s verbal or written behavior.

Questionnaire or schedule designing consists of five steps as follows:

1 Specifying data requirements

2 Determining the type of questions to be asked.
3 Deciding the number and sequence of questions
4 Preparing he preliminary draft of questionnaire.
5 Revising and pre-testing questionnaire.
UNIT – V

Sampling Theory

Sampling theory is a study of relationships existing between a populations and

samples drawn from the population. Sampling theory is applicable only to random samples.
For this purpose the population or a universe may be defined as an aggregate of items
possessing a common trait or traits. In other words, a as an aggregate of items possessing a
common trait or traits. In other words, a universe is the complete group of items about which
knowledge is sought. The universe may be finite or infinite. Finite universe is one which has
a definite and certain number of items, but when the number of items is uncertain and infinite,
the universe is said to be an infinite universe. Similarly, the universe may be hypothetical or
existent. In the former case the universe in fact does not exit and we can only imagine the
items constituting it.

The main problem of sampling theory is the problem of relationship between a

parameter and a statistic. The theory of sampling is concerned with estimating the properties
of the population from those of the sample and also with gauging the precision of the
estimate.

Sampling theory is designed to attain one or more of the following objectives:

i Statistical estimation:
Sampling theory helps in estimating unknown population parameters
from a knowledge of statistical measures based on sample studies. In other
words, to obtain an estimate of parameter from statistic is the main objective of
the sampling theory. The estimate can either be a point estimate or it may be
an interval estimate. Point estimate is a single estimate expressed in the form
of a single figure, but interval estimate has two limits viz., the upper limit and
the lower limit within which the parameter value may lie. Interval estimates
are often used in statistical induction.
 ii Testing of hypotheses:
The second objective of sampling theory is to enable us to decide
whether to accept or reject hypothesis; the sampling theory helps in
determining whether observed differences are actually due to chance or
whether they are really significant.

iii Statistical inference :

Sampling theory helps in making generalization about the
population/universe from the studies based on samples drawn from it. It also
helps in determining the accuracy of such generalizations.

The theory of sampling can be applied in the context of statistics of variables (i.e.,
data relating to some characteristic concerning population which can be measured of
enumerated with the help of some well defined statistical unit) in which case he objective
happens to be :
i to compare the observed and expected values and to find if the difference can be
ascribed to the fluctuation of sampling;
ii to estimate population parameters from the sample, and
iii to find out the degree of reliability of the estimate.

The sampling theory for large samples is not applicable in small samples because when
samples are small, we cannot assume that the sampling distribution is approximately normal.

Sampling Techniques

The second approach, where only a few units of population under study are considered for
analysis is called sampling method.

Methods of sampling
 There are two main categories under which various sampling methods can be put.
These two categories are
i Probability sampling: and
ii non – probability sampling.

(i) Probability Sampling

A probability sample, is also called random sample. It is chosen in such a way that
each member of the universe has a known chance of being selected. It is this condition –
Known chance-that enables statistical procedures to be used on the data to estimate sampling
errors.

(ii)Simple Random Sampling

Under simple random sampling each member of the population has a known and eual chance
of being selected. A selection tool frequently used with this design is the random numbers
table.

(ii) Systematic Sampling

In this case the sample numbers are chosen in a systematic manner form the entire
population. Each member has a known chance of being selected, but not necessarily equal
one.

The advantage of this method is that it is more convenient to adopt than the simple random
sampling. The time and work involved in the method are relatively less. If the population is
sufficiently large, systematic sampling can often expected to yield results are similar to those
obtained by any other efficient method.

The disadvantage of this method is that it is lesser representative design than simple random
sampling, if we are dealing with a population having hidden periodicities. The major
weakness of this selection process is that the system used to create a bias in the results. The
every 10th item selected may come out to be a leader or captain. Thus, a bias may enter and
study conducted may lack representative ness of the population. Another problem along
these same lines is that a monotonic trend may exist in the order of the population list and
thus in the sample.

III Stratified Random Sampling

A stratified random sample is used when the researcher is particularly interested in certain
specific categories within the total population is divided into strata on the basis of
recognizable or measurable characteristics of its members. e.g., age, income, education, etc.
The total sample then is composed of members form each strata so that the stratified sample
is really a combination of a number of smaller samples.

In a study to determine salesmen’s attitudes towards travel allowances, it is felt that attitudes
on this subject are closely related to the amount of traveling done by each of these persons.
Thus, a stratified sample could be used with "Kilometers traveled per month" as the make-up
the various strata. Table shows such a breakdown using proportional allocation form each
strata.
Stratifies sampling can be classified into two categories such as
i Proportionate and
ii disproportionate. These two types are discussed as follows.
i Proportionate stratified sampling: The breakdown of members per stratum can be
done on either a proportionate or disproportionate basis. A proportionate stratified
sampling is the method where the number of items, in each stratum is proportionate to their
number in the population.
ii Disproportionate stratified sampling: In certain cases composition of various strata is
such if a proportionate sample were used, very little data would be obtained about some of
the strata.
iii In this method the various units comprising the population are grouped in clusters and
the sample selection is made in such a way that each cluster has a known chance of being
selected. This is also called area sampling (multi-stage sampling.) Experts interpret a
 cluster samples as the one where a selected geographical area(a state, district, a tehsil or a
block) is sampled in its entirety.
A cluster sample is useful in two situations.:
a. When there is incomplete data on the composition of the population, and
b. When it is desirable to save time and costs by limiting the study to specific
geographical areas.

Non-Probability Sampling
In non-probability sampling, the chance of any particular unit in the population being selected
is unknown.
1 Judgment Sampling
A Person Knowledgeable about the population under study chooses sample members
the feels would be the most appropriate for the particular study. Thus a sample is selected on
the basis of his judgment.

2 Convenience Sampling
In this method, the sample units are chosen primarily on the basis of the convenience
to the investigator. If 150 persons are to be selected from Ludhiana city, the
investigator goes to the famous localities like Chaura Bazar, Field Gunj, Industrial
Area and picks up 50 persons from each of these representative localities. The units
selected may be each person who comes across the investigator every 10 minutes. The
probability of the investigator’s coming across of local people of respective areas is
much more than persons representing whole of the Ludhiana city. This is major
weakness of the method of sampling.
3 Quota Sampling
In quota sampling the method is similar to the one adopted in stratified Sampling.
Here also the population is divided into strata on the basis of characteristics of
populations. The sample units are chosen so that each stratum is represented in
proportion to its importance in the population.
Steps in Sampling Design
While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the
following pointes:
i Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define
the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be
finite or infinite. In finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an
infinite universe the number of items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the
total number of items. The population of a city, the number of workers in a factory and
the like are examples of finite universes, whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners
of a specific radio Programme, throwing of a dice etc. are examples of infinite universes.
ii Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club,
school, etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of
such units that he has to select for his study.
iii Source List: It is also known as ‘ Sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn.
It contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only) If source
list is not available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive,
correct, reliable and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be a
representative of the population as possible.

iv Size of sample: This refers to the number of the number of items to be selected from
the universe to constitute a sample. This is a major problem before a researcher. The
size of sampleshould neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum.
An optimum sample is one which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representative
ness, reliability and flexibility. While deciding the size of sample, researcher must
determine the desired precision as also an acceptable confidence level for the estimate.
The size of population variance needs to be considered as in case of larger variance
usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of population must be kept in view for this
 also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study must be kept in
view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study
must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample. Costs too dictate the size of
sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must invariably be taken into
consideration when we decide the sample size.

v Parameters of Interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the
question of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we
may be interested in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in the
population, or we may be interested in knowing some average or the other measure
concerning the population. There may also be important sub-groups in the population
about whom we would like to make estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the
sample design we would accept.

vi Budgetary constraint : Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major
impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of
sample. This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.

vii Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will
use i.e., he must decide about the technique to be used in selected the items for the
sample. In fact, this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are
several sample designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which the researcher
must choose one for his study. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given
sample size and for a given cost, has a smaller sampling error.

Characteristics of a Good sample Design

From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good
sample design as under.
a Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.
b Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
c Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the
research study.
d Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in
a better way.
e. Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be
applied, in general, for the universe with a reasonable level of
confidence.

Criteria of Selecting a Sampling Procedure

In this context one must remember that two costs are involved in a sampling analysis
viz., the cost of collecting the data and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the
data. Researcher must keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences viz., systematic
bias and sampling error. A systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures,
and it cannot be reduced or eliminated by increasing the sample size. At best the causes
responsible for these errors can be detected and corrected. Usually a systematic bias is the
result of one or more of the following factors:
1 Inappropriate sampling frame:
In the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased representation of the
universe, it will result in a systematic bias.
2 Defective measuring device:
If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result in systematic bias.
In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the interviewer is
biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring device is defective there will be
systematic bias in the data collected through such a measuring device.
3 Non-respondents:
If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the sample, there may
arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a situation the likelihood of establishing
contact or receiving a response from an individual is often correlated with the measure of
what is to be estimated.
4 Indeterminacy Principle:
Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under
observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations. For
instance, if workers are aware that somebody is observing them in course of a
work study on the basis of which the average length of time to complete a task
will be determined and accordingly the quota will be set for piece work, they
generally tend to work slowly in comparison to the speed with which they
work if kept unobserved. Thus, the indeterminacy principle may also be a
cause of a systematic bias.

5 Natural bias in the reporting of data:

Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is often the cause of
a systematic bias in many inquiries. There is usually a downward bias
in the income data collected by government taxation department,
whereas we find an upward bias in the income data collected by some
social organization. People in general understate their incomes if asked
about it for tax purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for social
status or their affluence. Generally in psychological surveys, people
tend to give what they think is the ‘correct’ answer rather than
revealing their true feelings.
 UNIT – VI

Testing of Hypotheses I

Hypothesis is usually considered as the principal instrument in research. Its main

function is to suggest new experiments and observations. In fact, many experiments are
carried out with the deliberate object of testing hypotheses. Decision-makers often face
situations where in they are interested in testing hypotheses on the basis of available
information and then take decisions on the basis of such testing.

What is a Hypothesis?
Ordinarily, when one talks about hypothesis, one simply means a mere assumption or
some supposition to be proved or disproved. But for a researcher hypothesis is a formal
question that he intends to resolve. Thus a hypothesis may be defined as a proposition or a set
of propositions set forth as an explanation for the occurrence of some specified group of
phenomena.

Basic Concepts Concerning Testing of Hypotheses

Basic concepts in the context of testing of hypotheses need to be explained.

i Null hypothesis ad alternative hypothesis:
In the context of statistical analysis. We often talk about null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis. If we are to compare method A with method B about its
superiority and if we proceed on the assumption that both methods are equally good,
then this assumption is termed as the null hypothesis. As against this, we may think
that the method A is superior or the method B is inferior, we are then stating what is
termed as alternative hypothesis. The null hypothesis is generally symbolize as Ho
and the alternative hypothesis as Ho suppose we wan to test the hypothesis that the
 population mean (ii) is equal to he hypothesized mean (ho)=100. Then we would say
that the null hypothesis is that the population mean is equal to the hypothesized mean
100 and symbolically we can express as:

Procedure for hypothesis Testing

To test a hypothesis means to tell(on the basis of the data the researcher has collected)
Whether or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. Procedure for hypothesis testing
refers to all those steps that we undertake for making a choice between the two actions
i.e., rejection and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in
hypothesis testing are stated below:

a Making a formal statement:

The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis(Ho) and also of he
alternative hypothesis(Ho). This means that hypotheses should be clearly stated,
considering the nature of the research problem.

b Selecting a significance level:

The hypotheses are tested on a pre-determined level of significance and the same should
be specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or 1% level is adopted for the
purpose. The factors that affect the level of significance are :
a. The magnitude of the different between sample means;
b. The size of the sample;
c. The variability of measurements within samples;
 d. Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional (A directional
hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the difference between, say,
means). In brief, the level of significance must be adequate in the context of
the purpose and nature of enquiry.

c Deciding the distribution to use;

After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is to determine
the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice generally remains between normal
distribution and the t-distribution. The rules for selecting the correct distribution are
similar to those which we have stated earlier in the context of estimation.

d Selection a random sample and computing an appropriate valued;

Another step is to select a random sample(s) and compute an appropriate value form the
sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing

e Calculation of the probability;

One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would diverge as widely
as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in fact true.

f Comparing the probability;

Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with the
specified value for , the significance level. If the calculated probability is
equal to or smaller than the value in case of one-tailed test(and in case of
two-tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e., accept the alternative
Hypothesis) In case we reject Ho, we run a risk of (at most the level of
significance ) committing an error of Type I, but if we accept Ho, then we run
some risk(the size of which cannot be specified as long as the Ho happens to
be vague rather than specific) of committing an error of Type II.)

Characteristics of hypothesis:
Hypothesis must possess the following characteristics;
i Hypothesis should be clear and precise. If the hypothesis is not clear and precise, the
inferences drawn on its basis cannot be taken as reliable.
ii Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untestable hypotheses,
many a time the research Programmes have bogged down. Some prior study may be done by
researcher i order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis "is testable if other
deductions can be made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by
observation."

iii Hypothesis should state relationship between varibles, if it happens to be a relational

hypothesis.

iv Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must

remember that narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop such
hypotheses.
v Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same is
easily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of hypothesis
has nothing to do with its significance.

vi Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent with a
substantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges accept as
being the most likely.
vii Hypothesis should be amenable to testin gwithin a reasonable time. One should not
use even an excellent hypothesis, if the same connot be tested in reasonable time for one
cannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it.

viii Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This
means that by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one
should be able to deduce the original problem condition. Thus hypothesis must actually
explain what it claims to explain; it should have empirical reference.
Limitations of the Tests of Hypotheses

We have described above some important tests often used for testing hypotheses on the basis
of which important decisions may be based. But there are several limitations of the said tests
which should always be borne in mind by a researcher. Important limitations are as follows;

i The tests should not be used in a mechanical fashion. I should be kept in view that
testing is not decision-making itself; the tests are only useful aids for decision-making.
Hence "Proper interpretation of statistical evidence is important to intelligent decisions.

ii Tests do not explain the reasons as to why does the difference exist, say between the
means of the two samples. They simply indicate whether the difference is due to
fluctuations of sampling or because of other reasons but the tests do not tell us as to which
is/are the other reason(s) causing the difference.

iii Results of significance tests are based on probabilities and as such cannot be
expressed with full certainty. When a test shows that a difference is statistically significant,
then it simply suggests that the difference is probably not due to change.

iv Statistical inferences based on the significance tests cannot be said to be entirely

correct evidences concerning the truth of the hypotheses. This si specially so in case of
small samples where the probability of drawing erring inferences happens to be generally
higher. For greater reliability, the size of samples be sufficiently enlarged.
All these limitations suggest that in problems of statistical significance, the inference
techniques (or the tests) must be combined with adequate knowledge of the subject – matter
along with the ability of good judgment.

Meaning of Interpretation
Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences form the collected facts after an
analytical and /or experimental study. Intact, it is a search for broader meaning of research
findings. The task of interpretation has two major aspects viz.,

1. the effort to establish continuity in research through linking the results of a given
study with those of another, and

2. the establishment of some explanatory concepts. "In one sense, interpretation is

concerned with relationships within the collected data, partially overlapping analysis.
Interpretation also extends beyond the data of the study to include the results of other
research, theory and hypotheses." Thus, interpretation is the device through which the
factors that seem to explain what has been observed by researcher in the course of the
study can be better understood and it also provides a theoretical conception which can
serve as a guide for further researches.

Technique of Interpretation
The task of interpretation is not an easy job, rather it requires a great skill and
dexterity on the part of researcher. Interpretation is an art that one learns through practice
and experience. The researcher may, at times, seek the guidance from experts for
accomplishing the task of interpretation.

The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:

1. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found
and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes
and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer of
 his diversified research findings. Infact, this is technique of how generalization
should be done and concepts be formulated.

2. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while

interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor
in understanding the problem under consideration.

3. It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone

having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to
point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation. Such a consultation will
result in correct interpretation and, thus, will enhance the utility of research results.

4. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all
relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in
no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear to
be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.

Precautions in Interpretation
Researcher must pay attention to the following points for correct interpretation:
1. At the outset, researcher must invariably satisfy himself that
a. the data are appropriate, trustworthy and adequate for drawing inferences;
b. the data reflect good homogeneity; and that
c. proper analysis has been done through statistical methods.
2 The researcher must remain cautious about the errors that can possibly arise in the
process of interpreting results. Errors can arise due to fales generalization and /or due
to wrong interpretation of statistical measures, such as the application of findings
beyond the range of observations, identification of correlation with causation and the
like. Another major pitfall is the tendency to affirm that definite relationships exist on
the basis of confirmation of particular hypotheses.
 3 He must always keep in view that the task of interpretation is very much intertwined
with analysis and cannot be distinctly separated. As such he must take the task of
interpretation as a special aspect of analysis and accordingly must take all those
precautions that one usually observes while going through the process of analysis viz.,
precautions concerning the reliability of data, computational checks, validation and
comparison of results.

4 He must never lose sight of the fact that his task is not only to make sensitive
observations of relevant occurrences, but also to identify and disengage the factors that
are initially hidden to the eye. This will enable him to do his job of interpretation on
proper lines.

5 The researcher must remember that "ideally i the course of a research study, there
should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, empirical observation and
theoretical conceptions.

Why Interpretation?
Interpretation is essential for the simple reason that the usefulness and utility of
research findings lie in proper interpretation. It is being considered a basic component of
research process because of the following reasons:

i It is through interpretation that the researcher can well understand the abstract
principle that works beneath his findings. Through this he can link up his findings with
those of other studies, having the same abstract principle, and thereby can predict about
the concrete world of events. Fresh inquiries can test these prediction later on. This
way the continuity in research can be maintained.
 ii Interpretation leads to the establishment of explanatory concepts that can serve as
a guide for future research studies; it opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and
stimulates the quest for more knowledge.

iii Researcher can better appreciate only through interpretation why his findings are
what they are and can make others to understand the real significance of his research
findings.

iv The interpretation of the findings of exploratory research study often results into
hypotheses for experimental research and as such interpretation is involved in the
transition form exploratory to experimental research.

UNIT – IX
REPORT WRITING
Types of Reports
 A technical report is used whenever a full written report of the study is required
whether for record-keeping or for public dissemination. A popular report is used if the
research results have policy implications.

A) Technical Report
In the technical report the main emphasis is on
i The methods employed.
ii assumptions made in the course of the study,
iii the detailed presentation of the findings including their limitations and
supporting data.
A general outline of a technical report can be as follows;
1 Summary of results;
A brief review of the main findings just into two or three pages.
2 Nature of the study
Description of the general objectives of study, formulation of the problem in
operational terms, the working hypothesis, the type of analysis and data required,etc.,
3 Methods employed:
Specific methods used in the study and their limitations. For instance, in sampling
studies we should give details of sample design viz., sample size, sample selection, etc.
4 Data;
Discussion of data collected, their sources, characteristics and limitation. If secondary
data are used, their suitability to the problem at hand be fully assessed. In case of a survey,
the manner which data were collected should be fully described.
5 Analysis of data and presentation of findings;
The analysis of data and presentation of the findings of the study with supporting data
in the form of tables and charts be fully narrated. This, in fact, happens to be the main body
of the report usually extending over several chapters.
6 Conclusions;
A detailed summary of the findings and the policy implications drawn from the results
be explained.
7. Bibliography;
 Bibliography of various sources consulted be prepared and attached.
8. Technical appendices;
Appendices be given for all technical matters relating to questionnaire, mathematical
derivations, elaboration on particular technique of analysis and the like ones.
9. Index;
Index must be prepared and be given invariably in the report at the end.

Popular Report

The popular report is one, which gives emphasis on simplicity and attractiveness. The
simplification should be sought through clear writing,
minimization of technical, particularly mathematical details and liberal us of charts and
diagrams. Attractive layout along with large print, many subheadings, even an occasional
cartoon now and then is another characteristic feature of the popular report. Besides, in such
a report emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy implications.

We give below a general outline of a popular report.

1 The findings and their implications;
Emphasis in the report is given on the findings of most practical interest and on the
implications of these findings.
2 Recommendations for action:
Recommendations for action on the basis of the findings of the study is made in this
section of the report.
3 Objective of the Study;
A general review of how the problem arise is presented along with the specific
objectives of the project under study.
4 Methods employed;
A brief and non-technical description of the methods and techniques used, including a
short review of the data on which the study is based, is given in this part of the report.
5 Results;
 This section constitutes the main body of the report wherein the results of the study are
presented in clear and non-technical terms with liberal use of all sorts of illustrations
such as charts, diagrams and the like ones.
6. Technical appendices;
More detailed information on methods used, forms, etc. is presented in the form of
appendices. But the appendices are often not detailed if the report is entirely meant for
general public.

Layout of the Research Report

Anybody, who is reading the research report, must necessarily be conveyed enough
about the study so that he can place it in its general scientific context, judge the adequacy of
its methods and thus form an opinion of how seriously the findings are to be taken. For this
purpose there is the need of proper layout of the report. The layout of the report means as to
what the research report should contain. A comprehensive layout of the research report
should comprise
(A) preliminary pages;
(B) the main text; and
(C) the end matter.
Let us deal with them separately.

(A) Preliminary pages

In its preliminary pages the report should carry a title and data, followed by
acknowledgements in the form of 'Preface' or 'Foreword'. Then there should be a table of
contents followed by list of tables an illustrations so that the decision-maker or anybody
interested in reading the report can easily locate the required information in the report
(B) Main Text
The main text provides he complete outline of the research report along with all details.
Title of the research study is repeated at the top of the first page of the main text and then
follows the other details on pages numbered consecutively, beginning with the second page.
Each main section of the report should begin on a new page. The main text of the report
should have the following sections;
i Introduction;
iiStatement of findings and recommendations;
iii The results;
iv The implications drawn from the results; and
v The summary.

i Introduction;
The purpose of introduction is to introduce the research project to the readers. It
should contain a clear statement of the objectives of research i.e., enough background should
be given to make clear to the reader why the problem was considered worth investigating. A
brief summary of other relevant research may also be stated so that the present study can be
seen in that context. The hypotheses of study, if any, and the definitions of the major
concepts employed in the study should be explicitly stated in the introduction of the report.
The methodology adopted in conduction the study must be fully explained. The
scientific reader would like to know in detail about such thing; How was the study carried
out? What was its basic design? If the data were collected by means of questionnaires or
interviews, then exactly what questions were asked (The questionnaire or interview schedule
is usually given in an appendix)? If measurements were based on observation, then what
instructions ere given to the observers? Regarding the sample used in the study the reader
should be told; Who were the subjects? How many were there? How were they selected? All
these questions are crucial for estimating the probable limits of generalizability of the
findings. The statistical analysis adopted must also be clearly stated. In addition to all this,
the scope of the study should be stated and the boundary line be demarcated. The various
limitations, under which the research project was completed, must also be narrated.
iiStatement of findings and recommendations;
After introduction, the research report must contain a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language so that it can be easily understood by all
concerned. If the findings happen to be extensive, at this point they should be put in the
summarized form
iii Results; A detailed presentation of the findings of the study, with supporting data in
the form of tables and charts together with a validation of results, is the next step in writing
the main text of the report. This generally comprises the main body of the report, extending
over several chapters. The result section of the report should contain statistical summaries
and reductions of the data rather than the raw data. All the results should be presented in
logical sequence and spitted into readily identifiable sections. All relevant results must find
a place in the hypotheses, if any, with which the study was concerned. But ultimately the
researcher must rely on his own judgement in deciding the outline of his report.
"Nevertheless, it is still necessary that he worked on the problem, the conclusions at which
the arrived, and the bases for his conclusin".
iv Implications of the results;
Toward the end of the main text, the researcher should again put down the results of
his research clearly and precisely. He should state the implications that flow from the results
of the study, for the general reader is interested in the implications for understanding the
human behavior. Such implications may have three aspects as stated below:

i A statement of the inferences drawn form the present study which may be expected to apply
in similar circumstances.
iiThe conditions of the present study which may limit the extent of legitimate generalizations
of the inferences drawn from the study.
iii The relevant questions that still remain unanswered or new questions raised by the study
along with suggestions for the kind of research that would provide answers for them.
It is considered a good practice to finish the report with a short conclusion which summarizes
and recapitulates the main points of the study. The conclusion drawn from the study should
be clearly related to the hypotheses that were stated in the introductory section. At the same
time, a forecast of the probable future of the subject and an indication of the kind of research
which needs to be done in that particular fields is useful and desirable.
V Summary:
 It has become customary to conclude the research report with a very brief summary.,
resting in brief the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major
conclusions drawn form the research results.

C End Matter
At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data
such as questionnaires, sample information, mathematical derivations and the like ones.
Bibliography of sources consulted should also be given. Index (an alphabetical listing of
names, places and topics alsong with the numbers of the pages in a book or report on which
they are mentioned or discussed should invariably be given at the end of the report. The
value of index lies in the fact that it works as guide to the reader for the contents in the
report.

Significance of Report Writing

Research report is considered a major component of the research study for the research
task remains incomplete till the report has been presented and /or written. As a matter of fact
even the most brilliant hypothesis, highly well designed and conducted research study, and
the most striking generalizations and findings are of little value unless they are effectively
communicated to others. The purpose of research is not well served unless the findings are
made known to others. Research results must invariabley enter the general store of
knowledge. All this explains the significance of weriting research report. There re people
who do not consider writing of report as an integral part of the research process. But the
general opinion is in favor of treating the presentation of research results or the writing of re
port as part and parcel of the research project.

Writing of report is th elast step in a research study and requires a set of skills somewhat
different from those calle dfor in respect of theearlier stages of research. This task should be
accomplished by the researcher with utmost care; he may seek the assistance and guidance of
experts for the purpose.

THE COMPUTER AND COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY

A Computer, as the name indicates, is nothing but a device that computes. In this sense, any
device, however crude or sophisticated, that enables one to carry out mathematical
manipulations become a computer. Computer is a machine capable of receiving. Storing,
manipulating and yielding information such as numbers, words, pictures. The computer can
be a digital computer or it can be a analogue computer. A digital compute is one which
operates essentially by counting(using information, including letter and symbols, in coded
form) where as the analogue computer handles information as strings of binary numbers i.e.,
zeros and ones, with the help of counting process but analogue computer converts varying
quantities such as temperature an pressure into corresponding electrical voltages and then
performs specified functions on the given signals. Thus, analogue computers are used for
certain specialized engineering and scientific applications.

Computer technology has undergone a significant change over a period of four

decades. The present day microcomputer is far more powerful and costs very little, compared
to the world’s first electronic computer viz., Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
(ENIAC) Completed in 19*46.

The advances in computer technology are usually talked in terms of 'generation'.

Today we have the fourth generation computer in service and efforts are being made to
develop the fifth generation computer, which is expected to be ready by 1990.

The second generation computer found the way for development with the invention o
the transistor in 1947. The transistor replaced the valve in all electronic devices and made
them much smaller an more reliable. Such computers appeared in the market in the early
sixties. The fourth generation computers owe their birth to the advent of microprocessor – the
king of chips – in 1972. The fifth generation computer, which is presently in the developing
stage, may use new switch (such as the High Electron Mobility Transistor) instead of the
present one and it may herald the era of super conduction computer. It is said that fifth
generation compute will be 50 times or so more faster than the present day super fat
machines.
The Computer System
In general, all computer systems can be described as containing some kind fo input
devices, the CPU and some kind of output devices. Following figure depicts the components
of a computer system ad their inter-relationship;

Concepts of Systems.
If would be appropriate to become familiar with the following terms as well in context
of computers;
(i) Hard ware; All the physical components (Such as CPU, Input-output devices,
etc) of computer are collectively called hardware.
(ii) Software; It consists of computer programs written by the used which allow
the computer to execute instructions.
(iii) Firmware; It is that software which is incorporated by the manufacturer into
the electronic circuitry of computer.
(iv) System software; It is that program which tells the computer how to function,
It is also known as operating software and is normally supplied by the
computer manufacturer.
(v) Application Software; It is that program which tells the computer how to
perform specific tasks such as preparation of company pay roll or inventory
management. This software is either written by the used himself or supplied
by ‘software houses’ the companies whose business is to produce and sell
software.
(vi) Integrated circuit(IC); It is complete electronic circuit fabricated on single
piece of pure silicon. Silicon is the most commonly used semiconductor- a
material which is neither a good conductor of electricity nor a bad one. An IC
may be small-scale, medium-scale or a large-scale depending upon the number
of electronic components fabricated on the chip.
(vii) Memory chips; these ICs form the secondary memory or storage of the
computer. They hold data and instructions not needed immediately by the
main memory contained in the CPU.
 (viii) Two-state devices; The transistors on an IC Chip take oonly two states-they
are either on or off, conducting or non-conducting. The on –state is
represented by i and the off- state by 1 and the off-state by zero. These two
binary digits are called bits. A string of eight bits is termed byte and a group
of bits constitute a word. A chip is called 8-bit, 16bit, 32-bit and so an,
depending on the number of bits contained in its standard word.

Important Characteristics
The followings characteristics of computers are note worthy:-
i Speed: Computers can perform calculations in just a few seconds that human beings
would need weeks to do by hand. This has led to many scientific projects which were
previously impossible.
ii Diligence: Being a machine, a computer does not suffer from the human traits of
tireness and lack of concentration. If two million with exactly the same accuracy and speed
as the first.
iii Storage: Although the storage capacity of the present day computer is much more
than its earlier counterpart but even then the internal memory of the CPU is only large
enough to retains what it feels to be important and relegates unimportant details to the back
of the mind or just forgets them. Hence, it is impossible to store all types of information
inside the computer records. If need be, all unimportant information/data can be stored in
auxiliary storage devices and the same may be brought into the main internal memory of
the computer, as and where. required for processing.
iv Accuracy: The computer’s accuracy is consistently high. Errors in the machinery can
occur but, due to increased efficiency in error-detecting techniques, these seldom lead to
false results. Almost without exception, the errors in computing are due to human rather
than to technological weaknesses, i.e., due to imprecise thinking by the programmer or due
to inaccurate data or due to poorly designed systems.
v Automation: Once a program is the computer’s memory. all that is needed is the
individual instructions to it which are transferred one after the other, to the control unit for
execution.'
vi Binary digits: Computer use only the binary number system (a system in which all the
numbers are represented by a combination of two digits-one and zero) and thus operates to
the base of two, compared to the ordinary decimal arithmetic which operates on a base of
ten.

Computer Applications

At present, computers are widely used for varied purpose. Educational commercial,
industrial, administrative, transport, medical, social, financial and several other organizations
are increasingly depending upon the help of computers to some degree or the other. Even if
our work does not involve the use of computers in our everyday work, as individuals, we are
affected by them.” The motorists, the air passenger, hospital patients and those working in
large departmental stores, are some of the people for whom computers process information.
Everybody who pays for electricity or telephone has their bills processed by computers.
Many people who are working in major orgaisations and receive monthly salary have their
salary slips prepared by computers. Thus, it is difficult to find anyone who in some way or
the other does not have some information concerning them processed by computer".
"Computers can be used by just about anyone: doctors, Policemen, Pilots, Scientists,
engineers and recently even house-wives. Computers are used not only in numeric
applications but also in non-numeric applications such as proving theorems, playing chess,
preparing menu, matrimonial match-making and so on. Without computer we might not
have achieved a number of things. For example, man could not have landed on the moon nor
could he have launched satellites. We might not have built 100 storied buildings or high
speed trains and planes.
The following table depicts some of the important applications and uses of computers:

Applications in Some of the various uses

1 Education (i) Provide a large data bank of information;
(ii) Aid to time tabling;
(iii) Carry out lengthy or complex calculations;
(iv) Assist teaching and learning processes;
 (v) Provide student’s profiles;
(vi) Assist in career guidance.
2 Commerce (i) Assist the production of text material
(Known as word processing) Such as reports, letters,
circulars etc.
(ii) Handle payroll of personnel, office accounts, invoicing,
records keeping, sales analysis, stock control and
financial for easting.
3 Bank & Financial
Institutions (i) Cheque handling;
(ii) Updating of accounts;
(iii) Printing of customer statements;
(iv) Interest calculations.

4 Management (i) Planning of new enterprises;

(ii) Finding the best solution from several options;
(iii) Helpful in inventory management, sales forecasting and
production planning;
(iv) Useful in scheduling of projects.

5. Industry (i) In process control;

(ii) In production control;
(iii) Used for load control by electricity authorities;
(iv) Computer aided designs to develop new products.
6. Communications
& Transportation (i) Helpful in electronic mail;
(ii) Useful in aviation: Training of pilots, seat
reservations, provide information to pilots about
weather conditions;
(iii) Facilitate routine jobs such as crew scheduled, time-
tables, maintenance schedules, safety systems, etc.,;
 (iv) Helpful to railways, shipping companies;
(v) Used in traffic control and also in space flight.
7. Scientific (i) Model processing;
(ii) Performing computations;
(iii) Research and data analysis;
8. The homes (i) Used for playing games such as chess,
draughts, etc.;
(ii) Can be used as an educational aid;
(iii) Home management is facilitated.

COMPUTERS AND RESEARCHERS

Performing calculations almost at the speed of light, the computer has become one of
most useful research tools in modern times. Computers are ideally suited for data analysis
concerning large research projects. Researchers are essentially concerned with huge storage
of data, their faster retrieval when required and processing of data with the aid of various
techniques. In all these operations, computers are great help. Their use, apart expediting the
research work, has reduced human drudgery and added to the quality of research activity.
Research in economics and other social science have found, by now, electronic
computers to constitute an indispensable part of their research equipment. The computers can
perform many statistical calculations easily and quickly. Computation of means, standard
deviations, correlation coefficients, 't' tests, analysis of variance, analysis of covariance,
multiple regression, factor analysis and various nonparametric analyses are just a few of the
programs and subprograms that are available at almost all computer centers. Similarly,
canned programs for linear programming, multivariate analysis, monte carlo simulation etc.
are also available in the market. In brief, software packages are readily available for the
various simple and complicated analytical and quantitative techniques of which researchers
generally make use of. The only work a researcher has to do is to feed in the data he/she
gathered after loading the operating system and particular software package on the computer.
The output, or to say the result, will be ready within seconds or minutes depending upon the
quantum of work.

Techniques involving trial and error process are quite frequently employed in research
methodology. This involves lot of calculations and work of repetitive nature. Computer is
best suited for such techniques, the reducing the drudgery of researcher on the one hand and
producing the final result rapidly on the other. Thus, different scenarios are made available to
researchers by computers in to time which otherwise might have taken days or even months.
The storage facility which the computers provide is of immense help to a researcher
for he can make use of stored up data whenever he requires doing so.
Thus, computers do facilitate the research work. Innumerable data can be processed
and analyzed with greater ease and speed. Moreover, the results obtained are generally
correct and reliable. Not only this, even the design pictorial graphing and report are being
developed with the help of computers. Hence, researchers should be given computer
education and be trained in the line so that they can use computers for their research work.
Research interested in developing skills in computer data analysis, while consulting
the computer centers and reading the relevant literature, must be aware of the following steps;

i data organization and coding;

ii storing the data in the computer;
iii selection of appropriate statistical measures/ techniques;
iv selection of appropriate software package;
v execution of the computer program.

A brief mention about each of the above steps is appropriate and can be stated as under:
First of all, researcher must pay attention toward data organization and coding prior to
the input stage of data analysis. If data are not properly organized, the researcher may face
difficulty while analyzing there meaning later on. For this purpose the data must be coded.
Categorical data need to be given a number to represent them. For instance, regarding sex, we
may give number 1 for male and 2 for female; regarding occupation, numbers 1,2, and 3 may
represent Farmer, Service and Professional respectively. The researcher may as well code
interval or ratio data. For instance, I.Q. Level with marks 120 and above may be given
number, 1,90-119 number 2,60-89 number 3,30-59 number 4 and 29 and below number 5.
Similarly, the income data classified in class intervals such as Rs.4000 and above, Rs.3000-
3999, Rs.2000-2999 and below Rs.2000 may respectively be represented or codes as 1,2,3
and 4. The coded data are to be put in coding forms (most systems call for a maximum of 80
columns per line in such forms) at the appropriate space meant for each variable. Once the
researcher knows how many spaces each variable will occupy, the variables can be assigned
to their column numbers (from 1 to 80). If more than 80 spaces are required for each subject,
then two or more lines will need to be assigned. The first few columns are generally devoted
for subject identity number. Remaining columns are used for variables. When large number
of variables are used in a study, separating the variables with space make the data easier to
comprehend and easier for use with other programs.

Once the data is coded, it is ready to be stored in the computer. Input devices may be
used for the purpose. After this, the researcher must decide the appropriate statistical
measure(s) he will use to analyze the data. He will also have to select the appropriate
program to be used. Most researchers prefer one of the canned programs easily available but
others may manage to develop it with the help of some specialized agency. Finally, the
computer may be operated to execute instructions.
The above description indicates clearly the usefulness of computers to researchers in
data analysis. Researchers, using computers, can carry on their task at faster speed and with
greater reliability. The developments now taking place in computer technology will further
enhance and facilitate the use of computers for researchers. Programming knowledge would
no longer remaining obstacle in the use of a computer.
In spite of all this sophistication we should not forget that basically computers are
machines that only compute, they do not think. The human brain remains supreme and will
continue to be so for all times. As such, researchers should be fully aware about the following
limitations of computer – based analysis;

i Computerized analysis requires setting up of an elaborate system of

monitoring, collection and feeding of data. All these require time,
 effort and money. Hence, computer based analysis may not prove
economical in case of small projects.
ii Various items of detail which are not being specifically fed to
computer may get lost sight of.
iii The computer does not think; it can only execute the instructions of a thinking
person. I poor data or faulty programs are introduced into the computer, the data analysis
would not be worthwhile. The expression "garbage in, garbage out" described this
limitation very will.