ARTICLE IN PRESS

Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516–529

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Buckling of thin-walled conical shells under uniform external pressure

B.S. Golzana, H. Showkatib,
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
b
Engineering Faculty, University of Urmia, Urmia, Iran
Received 7 May 2007; received in revised form 18 October 2007; accepted 18 October 2007
Available online 20 February 2008

Abstract

Shells are for the most part the deep-seated structures in manufacturing submarines, missiles, tanks and their roofs, and fluid
reservoirs; therefore it is a matter of concern to bring about some basic regulations associated with the existing codes. Above all,
truncated conical shells (frusta) and shallow conical caps (SCC) subjected to external uniform pressure when discharging liquids or wind
loads are discussed closely in this paper concerning and thrashing out their empirical nonlinear responses along with envisaging
numerical methods in contrast. The buckling aptitude of shells is contingent upon two leading geometric ratios of ‘‘slant-length to
radius’’ (L/R) and ‘‘radius to thickness’’ (R/t). In this paper, developing six frusta and four shallow cap specimens and their relevant FE
models, use is made of laboratory modus operandi to enumerate buckling elastic and plastic responses and asymmetric imperfection
sensitivity, whose adequacy has been reckoned through comparisons with arithmetical and numerical data correspondingly. These
obtained upshots were aimed at validating and generalizing the data for unstiffened truncated cones and SCC in full scale.
r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Truncated conical shells (frusta); Shallow conical caps (SCC); Buckling; Sole-fish buckling; Postbuckling; Nonlinear response; External
uniform pressure

1. Introduction These structures encompass light weight with high

Performing test on manufactured specimens is the most
steadfast method in engineering researches. Buckling of a
general conical shell depends on scores of variables, for
instance, the geometric properties of the shell (the cone
semi-vertex angle, the base radius, the slant length of the
shell and the thickness), the material properties (isotropic,
composite, laminated, etc.), and the type of the applied
load (axial compression, hydrostatic or uniform pressure,
torsion and combined load). The various parameters
change the buckling behavior of the shell, making it
difficult to achieve a general depiction. Due to the
relatively high slenderness of the specimens, the failure is
in all cases significantly influenced by plasticity effects. The
elastic buckling behavior of unstiffened cones under
compression has been the subject of early analytical studies
based on linear theory, in which axisymmetric elastic
buckling was investigated.
Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 914 141 1065; fax: +98 441 277 7022.
E-mail address: h.showkati@mail.urmia.ac.ir (H. Showkati).
strength in different industrial applications. The signifi-
cance is largely due to their widespread use in tanks and
silos [1], offshore structures, aeronautical and aerospace
technology, ship and submarine hulls [2], pipelines and
industrial chemical plants [3,4].
The critical aptitude of frusta and SCC shells under
uniform external pressure is contingent upon geometric
slenderness ratio of their slant length to radius (L/R) and
radius to thickness (R/t).
There is not enough literature devoted to the analysis
of geometrically imperfect conical shells. Koiter’s general
postbuckling theory provides a basis for analysis of
geometric imperfection sensitivity. All of these imperfec-
tion analyses were done on the shells of constant thickness.
Ansourian [5] presented simplified design method about
imperfections and boundary constraint effects on shells
subjected to wind loading. Holst et al. [6] investigated the
method of considering the strains resulted from fabrication
misfit of perfect and imperfect shells to attain equivalent
residual stresses. Shen and Chen [7] studied buckling and
postbuckling behavior of perfect and imperfect shells with

0263-8231/$ - see front matter r 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.tws.2007.10.011
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B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516–529 517

finite length which were subjected to combined axial and
external pressure. They showed that this behavior is
dependant on geometry, loading and initial imperfections.
Also Yamaki [8] has studied the nonlinear behavior of
externally pressurized cylindrical shells and effects of
geometrical imperfections. Further, other authors have
studied stability of the shells that are outlined in the
perspective to come.
Performing test on manufactured specimens is the most
steadfast method in engineering researches. In this paper,
six frusta and four shallow conical cap (SCC) specimens
have been manufactured and tested under the effect of
uniform external pressure. The material consisted of mild
steel with yield stress of 277 MPa [9]. Boundary conditions
are all simply supported in which only a radial constraint is
provided at the edges. A loading of uniform external
pressure is produced by gauged vacuum pump using
suction process. The stages of prebuckling, initial buckling,
overall buckling and collapse have been observed and
evaluated and nonlinear response of these conical shells has
been studied.
2. Experimental syllabus
2.1. Model size
In deciding on the model size for testing, a number of
issues were considered. Firstly, the models should not be
too large, to avoid any undesirable inconveniences
associated with laboratory testing. Secondly, the models
should not be too small, so as to cause difficulties in their
fabrication. Thirdly, the radius-to-thickness ratios (R/t) of
the models should be analogous to those used in realistic
structures, since the effect of interaction between yielding
and buckling needs to be appropriately captured in the
tests. Typical real values for the R/t ratio are within the
range of 300–1000. As thin steel sheets of 0.5 mm and
above can be easily obtained, welded or soldered effort-
lessly to produce high quality models with special welding
machine or soldering apparatus, it was decided that the
models ought to be of 600 mm in diameter. Consequently,
proper (R/t) ratios can be achieved with different steel
sheet thicknesses.
2.2. Test specimens
In this paper, six different frusta specimens were used,
namely SC1, SC2, SC3, SC4, SC5, SC6 along with four
SCC specimens represented by SCC1, SCC2, SCC3,
and SCC4. . The properties of all models are outlined in
Table 1. The thickness of specimens is totally constant. The
frusta specimens have the same lower base diameter of
600 mm whereas the top base of the first three measures
200 mm in diameter and in the second three it is 100 mm.
The SCC specimens have the same lower base diameter of
600 mm except for SCC3 with a base diameter equal to
500 mm. For the detailed geometry and slenderness ratios
of specimens refer to Table 1. Edge conditions are all
simply supported, in which only radial restraint was
provided.
Three tensile coupon tests were performed identically to
obtain the properties of material. The yield and failure
stresses of this mild steel are 277 and 373 Mpa, correspond-
ingly. The Young modulus acquired, equals 210 GPa.
Each specimen was assembled by cord-oriented welding
over the rolled sheet fragment edges, as is shown in Fig. 1.
A loading of uniform external pressure is produced by
gauged vacuum pump using suction process.
2.3. Fabrication modus operandi
An important issue in shell buckling experiments is the
fabrication of good quality specimens, including the choice
of material and fabrication method. Many fabrication
techniques have been developed [10,11], among which are
electroforming (making duplicates by electroplating metal
onto a mold of an object, then removing the mold in which
the intricate surface details are precisely reproduced by this
process), thermal forming of plastics (PVC, polyethylene,
Lexan, or other materials) and cold working of metal
(spinning, explosive forming, or hydroforming). Most of
these are specialized laboratory techniques for fabricating
nearly perfect model shells. Where tests are intended to

Table 1
Dimensions and aspect ratios of the specimens

Specimen code Thickness t Top radius Bottom radius Height h Semi-vertex R/t R/r L/R L ¼ slant
(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) angle (a) length

SC1 0.6 100 300 223.6 41.81 500 3 1

SC2 0.6 100 300 403.2 26.36 500 3 1.5
SC3 0.6 100 300 565.7 19.47 500 3 2
SC4 0.6 50 300 165.8 56.44 500 6 1
SC5 0.6 50 300 374.2 33.75 500 6 1.5
SC6 0.6 50 300 545.4 24.62 500 6 2
SCC1 0.5 – 300 60 78.69 600 – 1.02
SCC2 0.8 – 300 60 78.69 375 – 1.02
SCC3 0.5 – 250 62.5 75.96 500 – 1.03
SCC4 0.8 – 300 75 75.96 375 – 1.03
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Fig. 1. Sector cutting process and slant length weld lines.
duplicate full-scale steel shell construction as closely as
possible, the method of rolling thin steel sheets followed by
seam welding has been commonly used (e.g. [12–16]).
Another method in seam fusing is soldering the seams that
resulted in a good upshot both in manufacturing and testing
processes and inspired a good prognostication of welds’
performances. This method was adopted in the present work.
2.4. Process of model fabrication
To build the conical shell, it is first made by cutting and
rolling a plate into the desired shape and soldering the
meridional seams. Sheet cutting in the present work is done
using a manually controlled shears and stonecutter cutting
installation. A ‘‘beam compass’’, Fig. 1, consisting of a
precisely machined aluminum strip with two end units was
employed for quality sector cutting. One end unit is
equipped with a small bearing to center the required circle
at a small hole pre-drilled on the sheet and the other end
unit is used to position the tip of the liner. Circles of
different sizes can be obtained by using aluminum strips of
different lengths. Accordingly, sectors can be obtained with
a cutting accuracy within 70.1 mm.
It is quite intricate to obtain clear-cut conical shapes
using the manual rolling process since a number of things
have to be carefully controlled during the process. Firstly, a
small angle (the dip angle) is required between the axis of
the top roll and those of the lower rolls. Secondly, the
rolling speed should be smaller at the small end than that at
the large end of the cone. Consequently, special heed is
required during the cone rolling process and the same
modus operandi needs to be recurring a few times until the
desired shape is achieved. Many radial lines were drawn on
the panel. Such lines have to be kept parallel to the axes of
the rolls when the lines pass through the rolls. To weld
together the shell components is another arduous task. The
meagerness of the models insinuates that special concern is
required in assembling these models to guarantee that the
weld or solder is sturdy enough so that structural failure
precedes joint malfunction, and that the level and form of
geometric imperfections bear some resemblance to those in
real structures.
3. Empirical set-up
3.1. SCC testing system
Fig. 2 shows an overall view of the experimental set-up
for SCC specimens. Concerning the application of this
machine, we coined the name ‘‘machine of detection and
investigation of yield-lines and failure in bending behavior
of steel plates and shells’’ that was invented by the authors
in the preceding year to come up with some empirical
features in accordance with the plates and conical shells
with different shapes and aspect ratios. The full guide and
explanation to this machine has been presented in another
paper and is not the issue of concern in this study.
The base brink of the model junction is placed in the
groove of a rigid circular rim, which in turn sits on vertical
Fig. 2. View of test rig for the cap specimens.
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supports. To ensure that the brink is properly tenable in the
groove it is covered by a grooved rubber and both the
groove of rubber and the rim is filled with silicone sealant.
Then connecting the vacuum pump to the rig the process of
air suction is conducted under the specimen. This trend is
performed in such a way that the loading is exerted
incrementally and in all stages every thing is under the very
control so that the specimen is not destroyed abruptly to
not let us study the process hesitantly and exhaustively.
3.2. Frusta testing system
The test rig of the frusta specimens is composed of two
parts (Fig. 3), which was invented by the authors. The first
part is designed to hold the test specimen at the desired place,
which is composed of two rigid circular grooved plates.
These grooves are entrenched in both sides of specimen.
Four threaded long bars are provided to adjust the plates for
the specimen height. The second part of the rig consisted of a
small platform to be used for installation of vacuum pump.
This pump is employed to generate uniform external pressure
over the shell surface. Careful measurements of the test
results were done by six circumferentially and meridionaly
mounted strain gauges, a manometer and four transducers.
All collected data were processed using a data logger and a
software named UCAM-20PC.
3.2.1. Setting up the frusta
The upper and lower brinks of the frusta were covered
by grooved rubber and then silicon glue was used over all
openings to prevent any possible air seepage during the
suction process. The frusta were placed on the lower
grooved rigid plate. For specimens SC1 and SC4, as the
slant of their inclined surfaces exceeded far more than
vertical position, they could luxate from the grooves; so a
special ring truncated on the edges equal to the slant of the
surfaces was employed to not let the frusta edges luxate
outwardly in case of higher loading and disarticulation.
For the top edges, as there is liability to luxate inwardly,
another specific round plate chamfered inwardly at the
edges is located to prop up this susceptible location
(Fig. 3). Using four threaded bars, the upper plate was
Supporting ring
Fig. 3. View of the frusta test rig and chamfered ring to support the lateral
luxating of edges.
519
placed exactly over the top edge of the frusta in which the
simply supported boundary conditions were geared up at
both trimmings. The modification nuts could foil any axial
load to be applied to the specimens. On the top plate, three
holes were drilled for the purpose of air suction,
manometer installation and air release valve assembly to
control the rate of loading and unloading on shell
specimens. The produced pressure was measured by the
above-mentioned monometer. Fig. 3 shows a total view of
test provision.
3.3. Measurement of imperfections and deformations
Buckling of shells is generally known to be sensitive to
geometric imperfections; so precise surveys of initial
geometric imperfections are an essential step in any high
quality shell buckling experiments. In addition, it is also
desirable to have precise measurements of deformed shapes
of the shell during its loading so that the buckling/collapse
mode can be accurately determined and compared with
theoretical predictions. Many shell imperfection measure-
ment techniques have been developed [18]. LVDTs or other
contacting probes were usually used in most of the earlier
measurement systems [12,13]. For very thin shells with a
relatively low transverse stiffness, the small probe force
may induce distortions of the shell surface, so non-contact
probes are favored.
A simpler way has been applied in the present measure-
ment system for appraising both initial imperfections and
displacements. Seeing that the complete measurements of a
conical surface require a three-dimensional survey of the
radial, circumferential and meridional coordinates, manual
scanning was implemented as the measurement technique.
At first a number of meridians were drawn on the
expanded surfaces of the cones at specified degrees, and
then they were assembled, conducting their meridional
joints. After fabricating, circumferential segments were
segregated on the surface and then the cone was installed in
its place. Subsequently, at the contiguous of each meridian
a ruler was mounted and another ruler was employed to
measure the horizontally projected distance between nodes
of drawn meshes and the edge of the specimens identified
by the ruler rim. In each node of obtained mesh, three
coordinates of r, y and z are measured carefully in all
specimens. Therefore, a real geometry of shell is obtained
and then is used in finite element modeling of the structure
for further comparative analyses.
Despite the relatively stocky geometry of the specimens,
initial geometric imperfections were recorded on all speci-
mens, with the method and mesh outlined above. In order to
render these measurements functional for comparative
studies and numerical modeling, the unrefined imperfections
were subjected to some data processing techniques that
enable the identification of dominant modes and facilitate
comparisons of imperfections with observed buckling and
collapse modes. Fig. 4 shows typical imperfection layouts for
some of the models, (inward/outward) in two different views.
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0
342 300 18
324 250 36
306 200
54
150
288 100 72
50
270 0 90

252 108

234 126

216 144
198 162
180
SCC4

Fig. 4. Initial imperfection layout for SC3, SC6 and SCC4.

It is worth bearing in mind that the measured imperfections
on the models are too large and this is attributed to the small
scale of the models but should be taken into account in
correlating the experimental results with analytical and
design dealings. The first geometric imperfections in the
main lead to a considerable difference between theoretical
and empirical consequences.
A number of strain gauges were installed on the speci-
mens, with some of them being used to measure circumfer-
ential strains and the others to measure meridional strains all
over the specimens and near the weld transitions. The exact
locations of circumferential (SH) and meridional (SV) strain
gauges and transducers are provided in Table 3.
It is worth saying that the difference in external pressure is
less sensitive than that of axial loading. This is because of
postbuckling capacity, which is available in lateral pressure.
4. Exhaustive executions of the tests
The steps of test implementation were as follows:
 Installation and calibration of instrumental apparatus.
 Calculation of approximated critical buckling load by
Jawad [19] equation to determine load steps all through
the tests.
 Gauging initial geometric imperfections.
 Applying an initial external load up to approximately
20% of calculated buckling load, and unloading for the
purpose of system conditioning.
 Applying the external gradually increasing load to reach
to initial buckling and ongoing until the incidence of
overall buckling and failure mode of shell is attained;
 Measuring all required records throughout the test
progress.
5. Failure behavior and potency
Most of the circumferential strains were also similar
and approximately proportional to the load in the initial
stage of loading (Figs. 5(a) and (b)), indicating linear
and dominantly axisymmetric behavior. However, a small
number of circumferential strain gauges had different
readings right from the beginning, which is attributable
to the attendance of relatively large local imperfections
close by. As the load increased, the strain readings at
different locations gradually diverged from each other.
This divergence is a reflection of the growth of non-
symmetric deformations. At a certain increment of the
load, non-periodical deformations could be observed on
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the shells by naked eyes. These deformations continued to These results show that most of the buckles on the
grow with further loading, leading to obvious buckles of models were amplified from initial geometric imperfections
non-similar wavelengths. The development of these buck- (Fig. 4). The buckling load can be defined as the pinnacle
ling lobes was associated with a reduction in the load load of a nonlinear load–displacement curve. Such a
carrying capacity as it led to some deformations at the buckling load incorporates the effect of imperfections.
radial base edge that caused seepage of the air. Explicitly, For the in attendance models, the buckling load of the
the specimens indicated a stable postbuckling path. corresponding perfect structure is believed to be a good
Ultimate failure occurred by the formation of a plastic assess of its veracity, but the determination of buckling
collapse mechanism with nearly non-uniform plastic load is not straightforward. A rough approach may be, to
deformations over a large part of the circumference that take the load at which the strain readings started to
resulted in failure of the supports to sustain the proper diverge, the same as the buckling load. This, on the other
function. Figs. 6 and 7 show the models after the failure. hand, does not allocate a precise definition of the buckling
load as the strain readings had some differences right from
the beginning of loading due to the presence of initial
Table 2 imperfections. Another drawback of using strain readings
Buckling pressure and mode of the specimens is that due to the cost and installation considerations,
Specimens Buckling Buckling Buckling Mode normally, merely part of the cone circumference is installed
load load load numbers by with strain gauges. So the most sought-after locations of
obtained by obtained by obtained by experiments strain measurements for buckling load determination may
experiments FEA (KPa) Jawad have been disregarded. For these reasons, the use of
(KPa) equation
displacements of the cones, which are appraised around the
(KPa)
whole circumference in the current set-ups, is preferred for
SC1 25 28 35.4 7 (skirt mode) attaining the buckling loads.
SC2 20 25 32.3 7 (skirt mode) In Table 2, the buckling pressures and modes of six
SC3 14 22 24.68 6 (skirt mode)
frusta and four SCC specimens in diverse test stages are
SC4 20 27 24.1 6 (skirt mode)
SC5 25 40 31.35 6 (skirt mode) tabulated. Before initial buckling the behavior of shell
SC6 21 35 27.27 6 (skirt mode) is quite static with no pragmatic buckle lobe. As a
SCC1 5.7 6.2 3.83 Sole-fish mode comparison three obtained buckling loads from different
SCC2 8 14.5 20.3 Sole-fish mode approaches have been presented in this table. It is quite
SCC3 7.5 13 4.02 Sole-fish mode
apparent that the experimental outcomes are taking up the
SCC4 10 25 16.2 Sole-fish mode
lower range of load owing to the presence of initial

Table 3
Layout of strain gauges and transducers on all specimens

Strain gauges Transducers

SH1 horizontal SV2 vertical SH3 horizontal SV4 vertical SH5 horizontal SV6 vertical T1 T2 T3 T4
gauge gauge gauge gauge gauge gauge

SC1 3061, 140 mm 2451, 110 mm 1501, 90 mm 1221, 60 mm 541, 50 mm 181, 80 mm 3121, 1441, 841, 3481,
90 mm 190 mm 90 mm 90 mm
SC2 771, 30 mm 961, 350 mm 1341, 120 mm 1981, 220 mm 2581, 270 mm 3421, 170 mm 181, 431, 2311, 3021,
150 mm 100 mm 130 mm 50 mm
SC3 1901, 230 mm 2471, 385 mm 3071, 110 mm 81, 210 mm 691, 60 mm 1251, 310 mm 1501, 1501, 2701, 3451,
310 mm 160 mm 360 mm 210 mm
SC4 1751, 120 mm 1751, 170 mm 1501, 70 mm 481, 220 mm 3481, 50 mm 2641, 70 mm 2051, 601, 3481, 2641,
70 mm 220 mm 70 mm 120 mm
SC5 91, 120 mm 3511, 120 mm 2791, 30 mm 2421, 270 mm 1891, 120 mm 991, 320 mm 3421, 2881, 1981, 1261,
70 mm 220 mm 170 mm 120 mm
SC6 8.51, 70 mm 261, 170 mm 941, 270 mm 1631, 370 mm 2051, 95 mm 2911, 220 mm 3511, 171, 1201, 2491,
120 mm 170 mm 270 mm 220 mm
SCC1 3421, 30 mm 3061, 280 mm 2701, 120 mm 1621, 150 mm 1081, 30 mm 541, 280 mm 3421, 2341, 901, 1261,
120 mm 30 mm 70 mm 280 mm
SCC2 3261, 80 mm 3401, 30 mm 1851, 130 mm 2751, 10 mm 701, 20 mm 1231, 230 mm 3151, 2251, 1691, 301,
80 mm 20 mm 80 mm 230 mm
SCC3 511, 220 mm 2831, 220 mm 2311, 30 mm 2051, 120 mm 1771, 70 mm 771, 120 mm 3471, 2571, Apex 1031,
70 mm 30 mm 120 mm
SCC4 1081, 30 mm 1081, 288 mm 91, 120 mm 2971, 170 mm 2611, 285 mm 1891, 70 mm 1441, 721, 3061, 1441,
30 mm 220 mm 285 mm 150 mm

All distances are measured from the bigger base on the slant length.
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7 7
A B
6 6

5 5
pressure(kpa)

pressure(kpa)
4 4

3 3
t1
2 2
t2
sh1
t3 1 1
sh3
t4 sh5
0 0
-22 -20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 -0.002 -0.001 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004
total deformation(mm) (i) strain
14
A B 12
12
10
10
pressure(kpa)

pressure(kpa)
8
8

6
6

t1 4 4
t2 sv2
t3 2 sv4 2
t4 sv6

0 0
-21 -19 -17 -15 -13 -11 -9 -7 -5 -3 -1 -0.0023 -0.0018 -0.0013 -0.0008 -0.0003
total deformation(mm) (ii) strain

10 8
A 9
B
7
8
6
7
pressure(kpa)
pressure(kpa)

5
6
5 4
4 3
3
t1
2
t2 2 sh1
t3 sh3 1
t4
1
sh5
0 0
-22 -20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 -0.002 -0.001 0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006
total deformation(mm) (iii) strain

20 20
A 18
B 18
16 16
14 14
pressure(kpa)

pressure(kpa)

12 12
10 10
8 8
6 6
t1 4
4
t2 sv2
t3 2 sv4 2
t4 sv6
0 0
-19 -17 -15 -13 -11 -9 -7 -5 -3 -1 -0.0035 -0.003 -0.0025 -0.002 -0.0015 -0.001 -0.0005 0
total deformation(mm) (iv) strain

Fig. 5. (a) SCC total deformation and strain values vs. pressure. (i) SSC1, (ii) SSC2, (iii) SSC3, (iv) SSC4 (b) load–deformation and load–strain graph for
specimens SC1 and SC3 in different coordinates.
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Fig. 5. (Continued)

Digital transducer
Digital strain gauge

Wresting of apex point at the

bifurcation

Failure area

Fig. 6. Failure modes of specimens SC5 and SC6.

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Fig. 7. General layout of failure by formation of plastic displacements in the circumference and supports.

geometrical imperfections, apparatus shortcomings and 6. Buckling of conical shells

other human and instrument-related factors. On the other
hand, for six frusta, taking into account both the buckling
load obtained from FEA and the equation developed by
Jawad it is noticed that for the first three specimens the
latter amount of load exceeds the one that of the previous
one whereas for the second three the outcome is completely
vice versa. Bearing in mind that the all initial imperfections
have been entered to FE models too, one can understated
that the results of the first three specimens are closer to
reality than the second three; that is because the equation
emanated by Jawad formulation is based on the trans-
formed geometrical shape from cylinder to cone; and
according to Table 2, (R/r) ratio for the first three is more
similar to a cylinder than the second three which have a
higher tapering ratio.
The derivation of the equations for the buckling of
conical shells is practically convoluted. The derivation
for the buckling pressure of the cone, shown in Fig. 8,
comprises obtaining expressions for the work carried out
by the applied pressure, membrane forces, stretching of the
middle surface and bending of the cone. The total work is
then minimized to obtain a critical pressure expression.
Seide [20] indicated that the buckling of a cone is affected
by the function f (1r/R) and is expressed as
pcr ¼ p̄f ð1  r=RÞ, (1)
where p̄ is the pressure of equivalent cylinder as defined
above, f the cone function as defined in Fig. 9.
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Fourier decompositions. Such decompositions were not

carried out for the imperfection or deformation measure-
ments on these models, since the form of buckling that was
developed all over the cones was drastically outlying from a
well-ordered wave configuration. On such specimens there
was an overall buckling predisposed by position of weld
lines and efficiency of the supports and formation of the
initial leakage point. So as to set forth a better depiction of
this buckling, principally based on empirical remarks and
for the first time we coined the name ‘‘sole-fish buckling
mode’’ on this phenomenon. The spine of this animal can
better illustrate the weld line and its impact on the other
parts of the shell. The appearance of non-periodical waves
can be easily spotted from this plot.

7. Observations and milestones

Fig. 8. Parametric considerations.
7.1. Frusta specimens

125 In Figs. 10 and 11 a contrast is carried out between

initial and ultimate geometry of specimen SC5 in which the
120 maximum deformation is located roughly at the height
of 13 h.
115
In all shells of this study the loading was continued to
pcr p

110 farther than the range of postbuckling behavior. It is

observed that a ‘‘V’’ shape yield line is developed in the
105 region close to the restrained boundaries of the frusta,
before failure takes place. The same phenomenon was
100 reported by Showkati [21]. In Fig. 6 a typical behavior is
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0
1-r/R
represented for specimen SC5 and SC6.
By escalating the external pressure, the failure mode
Fig. 9. Cone function. was gradually approached. In most specimens, incidence
of a very large displacement in one edge caused an
By various substitutions [19], it can be shown that Eq. (1)
can be transferred to the form
0
0:92Eðte =RÞ25 342 300
18
pcr ¼ , (2) 280
Le =R 324 260
36
240
220
where te is the effective thickness of cone t cos a; t the 200
thickness of cone; and Le the effective length of cone L/2 306 180 54
160
(1+r/R). Thus, conical shells subjected to external 140
120
pressure may be analyzed as cylindrical shells with an 100
288 72
effective thickness and length. 80
60
40
20
270 0 90
6.1. Sole-fish buckling mode

An important parameter in buckling analysis of axisym- 252 108

metrically loaded shells, for instance, the models thrashed
out herein, is the number of circumferential waves in the
buckling mode layout. Notionally speaking, the buckling 234 126
mode is in the form of a single harmonic mode around the
circumference, but in a test, owing to the incidence of 216 144
imperfections, miscellaneous modes may be implicated. A 198 162
well-established way of construing geometric imperfection
180
and deformation measurements to decipher the dominant
harmonic modes and their relationship is to carry out Fig. 10. Polar plot of final geometry measured on specimen SC5.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
526 B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516–529

204
201
198
195
Radius (mm) 192
189
186
183
180
177
174
buckled form
171
initial imperfection
168
0 18 36 54 72 90 108 126 144 162 180 198 216 234 252 270 288 306 324 342 360
Degree

Fig. 11. Initial and ultimate radial deformations in SC5 at the height of 141.4 mm.

250
240
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
140
radius

130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20 Initial imperfection
10 Buckled layout
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
degree

Fig. 12. Initial imperfection and buckled form of SCC1.

unmanageable outflow on vacuum function and then the
test was impeded. Fig. 6 shows plainly the breakdown of
frusta SC5 and SC6.
It is worth noting in externally pressurized frusta shells
that the inward deformations are as well, larger than
outward ones. Comparable geometries of this fact in
specimen SC5 and SCC1 have been plotted in Figs. 11
and 12. Graphs of load–deformation and load–strain paths
of specimens SC1 and SC3 are presented in Fig. 5(b) for
buckling and postbuckling stages.
In this experimental study it is observed that the longer
shells have more deformation and lesser buckling load than
shorter ones.
As another comparison Fig. 13 shows the diversity in
behavior between experimental and FEA methods for two
specimens SC1 and SC4.
7.1.1. Yield line wresting
As shown in Fig. 6 in specimens SC5 and SC6 along
with an increase in pressure at first, initial buckling
lobes were formed, then up hilling the load general
deformation developed in the whole body of the specimens
to the extent that all lobes were complete. Exceeding
the ultimate buckling load and as we neared the failure
load the climax of some of the ‘‘V’’ shape yield lines
that were formed began to wrest. This trend kept
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
B.S. Golzan, H. Showkati / Thin-Walled Structures 46 (2008) 516–529 527

70
65
SC1
60
55
50
45

Pressure (KPa)
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
FEA 5
Expev
0
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Radial displacement (mm)

65
60
SC4
55
50
45
40

Pressure (KPa)
35
30
25
20
15
10
FEA
5
Exper.
0
-10 -9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0
Radial displacement (mm)

Fig. 13. Radial displacement vs. external pressure for specimens, SC1 and SC4.

acting until the bifurcation point at the apex of two
or three yield lines caused resurgence of buckling lobes
in the opposite side of the frusta and eventually it
led to complete failure of one side of the frusta which
took place in the supporting point with luxating the lower
edge.
7.2. SCC specimens
In Fig. 12 a contrast is carried out between initial and
ultimate geometry of test specimen SCC1 in which the
utmost deformation is positioned at the height of 14L of the
specimen.
The load–displacement curves for the net displacements
are plotted for quite a few points in Fig. 5(a). In some of
the models the displacements were similar in the initial
stage of loading, while in the other ones the displacements
started to differ early in the loading stage of SCC1. These
two genuses of models were thus selected to contrast the
two types of behavior. These curves show similar
divergence as observed from the load–strain curves,
Fig. 5(a). The first set, Fig. 5(a) which had similar
displacements in the initial stage of loading, experienced
rapid increases in displacements at increased loads. It is
hence recommended that for the determination of the
buckling load of a model conical shell in its corresponding
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perfect state, a suitable load–deflection curve which shows
an obvious slope change be identified. This is likely to be
for a point in a relatively more perfect region of the shell.
The intersection point between the initial slope of this
curve and a tangent to the postbuckling part of the curve
can be taken as a good rough figure to the buckling load of
a corresponding perfect model. To identify such a suitable
point, load–displacement curves of all points at or near
wave crests and troughs can be contrived. This method
emerges to offer a rational approach for the determination
of buckling loads for conical caps.
8. Concluding remarks
This paper has described a recently developed experi-
mental facility for buckling experiments on conical shells.
The facility consists of a loading system, a simple
measurement strategy for rather accurate geometric
imperfection and deformation surveys, and compulsory
equipment for the fabrication of quality test models.
Distinctive results of sample tests have been presented to
illustrate the competence of this facility. Procedures for
processing the test results to verify both the buckling load
and the modes of buckling have also been presented.
The deliberate data and obtained domino effects are
reported for six frusta and four SCC specimens with simply
supported ends subjected to uniform peripheral pressure.
The salient concluding tips are as follows [9]:
 Fabrication and testing of small-scale models have been
undertaken to examine the buckling behavior of
unstiffened shallow conical shells. In all models, small-
scale manufacturing has produced relatively high
imperfection values. However, since full imperfection
scans have been recorded, the test results can be used to
validate numerical or other models. Since the predic-
tions are influenced by imperfection amplitudes, a
reasonable assumption must be made in the absence of
test models.
 In all specimens, the initial buckling occurred when one
or more buckling lobes were detected. The applied
pressure increased until an overall buckling mode was
formed.
 The yield lines in the lower part of the frusta in all
specimens are in the form of ‘‘V’’ shape, which were
recognized in the range of postbuckling.
 In all specimens, the inward deformations are so larger
than the outward deformations.
 In all specimens, difference between initial buckling and
overall buckling loads was substantial.
 Postbuckling potency exists apparently in all specimens
under the effect of external pressure.
 In all specimens, it is experimentally corroborated that
the longer shells are more flexible in radial direction and
therefore, they are weaker than shorter shells.
 The buckling loads obtained from experiments are lower
than the ones derived from FEA and Jawad equation
while the two latter ones are different in some aspects
related to the tapering ratio of specimens (R/r) and
initial imperfections present in FE models but absent in
the arithmetical come up, which is worth noticing as
mentioned in the context.
 Clearly, for more slender shells the collapse mode will
change and the kinematical assumptions of the mechan-
ism approach would be inappropriate.
Acknowledgments
The work depicted herein outlined part of a scheme on
‘‘Stability and Strength of Conical Cones’’ subsidized by
the Ministry of Science, Technology and Research in
the I.R. Iran and carried out in collaboration with the
Structural Research Center at Urmia University. We would
like to put across gratitude to the technicians in the
Structures Laboratory of Urmia University, in particular
Mr. Jafar Azim Zadeh and our best friend Mr. Emad
Jahangiri for their enthusiasm and professionalism in
conducting the probes. The authors are so appreciative to
Prof. J.G. Teng, for his great favors in providing
commentaries and presenting his constitutive remarks
regarding this research.
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