HVDC POWER SUPPLY DESIGN

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for

The award of

(DIPLOMA IN ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING)

NAME REG NO
T.HEMAKUMAR 17309982

C.PARTHIBAN 17309990

V.SARANRAJ 17309995

G.THIYAGU 17310001

D.HEMANATHAN 17326001

B.MOHANRAJ 17326005

Guided by

Mrs.R.PRABA,B.E.,M.Tech.,
LECTURER/EEE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

(562-Shri Sitheshwarrar Polytechnic College .

kalavairoad, Poongodu, Arcot-632 503)

SHRI SITHESWARRAR POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE.
KALAVAIROAD,POONGODU,ARCOT-632 503

BONAFIDE certificate
This is certify that the project report on
HVDC POWER SUPPLY DESIGN
Has been submitted by

The project report is submitted in parallel fulfillment of the

requirement of the diploma in Electrical & Electronic Engineering.
State board of technical education Chennai during the academic
2016-2019.

Certified that candidate with state board of technical education

Chennai has been examined in project viva examination held on

GUIDE

Mrs.R.PRABA,B.E.,M.Tech. HEAD OF DEPARTMENT

EXTERNAL EXAMINER INTERNAL EXAMINER

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We Extent our grateful thanks to Mr.M.JAYAPRAKASH
NARAYANAN ME.,Principal of SHRI SITHESWARRAR
POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE, the correspondent
Mr.D.THARANIPATHY Msc,MA,B.Ed.., Administrative officers
Mr.S.ADHIKESAVAN B.A, For the kind consent to work for
this project.
Our sincere thanks to our kind head of the Department
of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Mr.N.JAYAMURUGAN.BE.,P.STC, for co-operating in each
aspect, and giving valuable suggestion and advices.
We would also like to express my gratitude to
Mrs.R.PRABA.B.E.,M.Tech.,
for her constant guidance and supervision during the period
of my project work and providing me the necessary facilities
for the completion of my project.
Our special gratitude to the staff members
MR.C.ELUMALAI.BE.,PGDCA
Mr.D.SATHISHKUMAR.B.E.,Mrs.S.ARUNA.B.E.,
Mr.N.D.KARTHIKEYAN.M.E for their support and also for
taking part in our projects to success for helping us to this
project.
We congratulate each and every one for our co-student for
making the project in success
 Abstract

Boost converters are used worldwide in very gargantuan quantity as

drivers for the purpose of LED Lighting. Here in this paper, A Boost
converts using MC34063 is designed and develop which has a input
voltage of 12V and constant output voltage of 500V. The developed
circuits is different from conventional boost circuit as it eliminates
the need for MOSFET thus also gets rid of external circuits used for
providing PWM pulses for switching and in turn making the circuit
compact and minimizing the switching loses. It has advantages like
high efficiency, fast response and good stability. The circuits is
validated through a hardware model and experimental results show
that the output of the converter through the Multimeter.
Introduction

• Natural Commutated Converters. Natural commutated converters are most used

in the HVDC systems as of today. The component that enables this conversion
process is the thyristor, which is a controllable semiconductor that can carry very
high currents (4000 A) and is able to block very high voltages (up to 10 kV). By
means of connecting the thyristors in series it is possible to build up a thyristor
valve, which is able to operate at very high voltages (several hundred of kV).The
thyristor valve is operated at net frequency (50 hz or 60 hz) and by means of a
control angle it is possible to change the DC voltage level of the bridge. This
ability is the way by which the transmitted power is controlled rapidly and
efficiently.

• Capacitor Commutated Converters (CCC). An improvement in the thyristor-

based commutation, the CCC concept is characterised by the use of commutation
capacitors inserted in series between the converter transformers and the thyristor
valves. The commutation capacitors improve the commutation failure performance
of the converters when connected to weak networks.

• Forced Commutated Converters. This type of converters introduces a spectrum of

advantages, e.g. feed of passive networks (without generation), independent
control of active and reactive power, power quality. The valves of these converters
are built up with semiconductors with the ability not only to turn-on but also to
turn-off. They are known as VSC (Voltage Source Converters). Two types of
semiconductors are normally used in the voltage source converters ;the GTO (Gate
Turn-Off Thyristor) or the IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor). Both of them
have been in frequent use in industrial applications since early eighties. The VSC
commutates with high frequency (not with the net frequency). The operation of the
converter is achieved by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). With PWM it is
possible to create any phase 3 angle and/or amplitude (up to a certain limit) by
changing the PWM pattern, which can be done almost instantaneously. Thus,
PWM offers the possibility to control both active and reactive power
independently. This makes the PWM Voltage Source Converter a close to ideal
component in the transmission network. From a transmission network viewpoint, it
acts as a motor or generator without mass that can control active and reactive
power almost instantaneously.
GENERAL
 The world’s first commercial high-voltage direct current (HVDC) link,
situated between the Swedish mainland and the island Gotland, was
delivered by ABB already in the 1950’s. ABB has participated in the
delivery of more than half of the world’s around 170 HVDC links

 HVDC is an established technology that has been in commercial use for 60

years. During the first 30 years, it was a niche technology, with a limited
number of installations per ye ar. With the changes in demands due to
evolving environmental needs, HVDC has become a common tool in the
design of future global transmission grids.

 HVDC Light was launched in 1997 and is an adaptation of classic HVDC.It

is used to transmit electricity in lower power ranges (from under 100 to
1,200 MW) over short and medium long distances. The technology can use
overhead lines or environmentally sound oil-free underground and
underwater cables.

 There are two types of HVDC, the classic technology using thyristors for
conversion, and VSC (voltage source converters) technology, by ABB called
HVDC Light, which uses transistors (IGBT’s) for conversion. A classic
HVDC transmission typically has a power rating of several hundreds of
megawatts (MW) and many are in the 1,000 – 3,000 MW range. They use
overhead lines, or undersea/underground cables, or a combination of cables
and lines.
literature review
The development of the mercury arc rectifier’s capability by Uno Lamm and his team at ASEA
(now part of ABB) in the 1930s and 1940s led to the first “modern” commercial HVDC system,
the 20-MW, 98-km, 100-kV system linking the island of Gotland and the Swedish mainland [6].
This led to the rapid development of the technology reaching ± 250 kV and 600 MW in 1965
with the first New Zealand Inter-Island link and ± 400-kV 1440 MW in the U.S. Pacific Intertie
in 1970 In Itaipu, Brazil, HVDC was chosen to supply 50Hz power into a 60 Hz system; and to
economically transmit large amount of hydro power (6300 MW) over large distances (800 km)
In Leyte-Luzon Project in Philippines, HVDC was chosen to enable supply of bulk
geothermal power across an island interconnection, and to improve stability to the Manila AC
network
In Rihand-Delhi Project in India, HVDC was chosen to transmit bulk (thermal) power (1500
MW) to Delhi, to ensure: minimum losses, least amount right-of-way, and better stability and
control.
In Garabi, an independent transmission project (ITP) transferring power from Argentina to
Brazil, HVDC back-to-back system was chosen to ensure supply of 50 Hz bulk (1000MW)
power to a 60 Hz system under a 20-year power supply contract.
In Gotland, Sweden, HVDC was chosen to connect a newly developed wind power site to the
main city of Visby, in consideration of the environmental sensitivity of the project area (an
archaeological and tourist area) and improve power quality.
In Queensland, Australia, HVDC was chosen in an ITP to interconnect two independent
grids (of New South Wales and Queensland) to: enable electricity trading between the two
systems (including change of direction of power flow); ensure very low environmental impact
and reduce construction time.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM

PWM VOLTAGE
AC RECTIFIER LC FILTER INVERTING
SOURCE CIRCUIT

FLY BACK IC MC 34063

FILTER OR BOOST
COOK CONVERTER
CONVERTER

LOAD
OPERATION OF BLOCK DIAGRAM

 The block diagram of the HVDC POWER SUPPLY DESIGN is shown in the figure. The
RECTIFIER is an alternating current (AC) to Direct current (DC) converter that rectifiers
mains AC input to DC output. Bridge rectifiers are widely used in power supplies that
provide necessary DC voltage for the electronic components or devices. They can be
constructed with four or more diodes or any other controlled solid state switches.
Depending on the load current requirements, a proper bridge rectifier is selected.
 LC FILTER is the LC circuits are used either for generating signals at a particular
frequency, or picking out a signal at a particular frequency from a more complex signal;
this function is called a band pass filter. The purpose of an LC circuit is usually to
oscillate with minimal damping, so the resistance is made as low as possible.
 The MC34063A Series is a monolithic control circuit containing the primary functions
required for DC−to−DC converters. A boost converter or regulator (step-up converter),
basically steps up the input DC voltage value and provides at output as per the load
requirements hence the name step-up converter. The boost regulator mainly consists of a
diode, a transistor which acts as a switches and normally one energy storage element.
Capacitors are usually used at the output as a device for removing output voltage ripple
that is hence only DC is available at the output and can be used along with inductor too
sometimes.

 flyback converters are one of the simplest DC-DC converter topologies to include
electrical isolation. Although generally only viable for lower range power supplies (up to
1000w), they do have a number of advantages .other than the converter’s inherent
simplicity, perhaps the greatest of these is that the design does not require an additional
inductor.

 The transformer provides isolation, and yet also functions as a pair of coupled inductors ,
storing energy as with a basic buck boost converter.
 Electronic filters are circuits which perform signal processing functions, specitically to
remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enchance wanted ones ,or
both. Electronic filters can be passive or active, analog or digital, high pass , low pass,
band pass, band stop or all pass. Discrete time or continuous time , linear or non linear ,
infinite impulse response .
 The most common types of electronic filters are linear filters, regardless of other aspects
of their design. See the article on linear filters for details on their design and analysis.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
CIRCUIT EXPLANATION

 The Circuit diagram of the boost converter using MC34063 DC-DC converter is shown
in Figure MC34063 is a monolithic control circuit containing all the active functions
required for switching DC-to-DC converters. It represents significant advancements in
ease of use with highly efficient, yet simple switching regulators. The use of switching
regulator is becoming more pronounced than linear regulators because of the size and
power-efficiency requirements of new equipment designs. Switching regulators increase
application flexibility while reducing the cost Circuit diagram of the boost converter
using MC34063 DC-DC converter is shown in Figure MC34063 is a monolithic control
circuit containing all the active functions required for switching DC-to-DC converters

 It represents significant advancements in ease of use with highly efficient, yet simple
switching regulators. The use of switching regulator is becoming more pronounced than
linear regulators because of the size and power-efficiency requirements of new
equipment designs. Switching regulators increase application flexibility while reducing
the cost MC34063 was designed for buck, boost and voltage-inverter converter
applications. It includes temperature-compensated reference voltage, oscillator, active
peak-current limit, output switch and output-voltage-sense comparator. All these
functions are contained in an 8-pin DIP or SOIC package

 The RECTIFIER is an alternating current (AC) to Direct current (DC) converter that
rectifiers mains AC input to DC output. Bridge rectifiers are widely used in power
supplies that provide necessary DC voltage for the electronic components or devices.
They can be constructed with four or more diodes or any other controlled solid state
switches. Depending on the load current requirements, a proper bridge rectifier is
selected.
 LC FILTER is the LC circuits are used either for generating signals at a particular
frequency, or picking out a signal at a particular frequency from a more complex signal;
this function is called a band pass filter. The purpose of an LC circuit is usually to
oscillate with minimal damping, so the resistance is made as low as possible.

 The MC34063A Series is a monolithic control circuit containing the primary functions
required for DC−to−DC converters. A boost converter or regulator (step-up converter),
basically steps up the input DC voltage value and provides at output as per the load
requirements hence the name step-up converter. The boost regulator mainly consists of a
diode, a transistor which acts as a switches and normally one energy storage element.
Capacitors are usually used at the output as a device for removing output voltage ripple
that is hence only DC is available at the output and can be used along with inductor too
sometimes.
 flyback converters are one of the simplest DC-DC converter topologies to include
electrical isolation. Although generally only viable for lower range power supplies (up to
1000w), they do have a number of advantages .other than the converter’s inherent
simplicity, perhaps the greatest of these is that the design does not require an additional
inductor.

 The transformer provides isolation, and yet also functions as a pair of coupled inductors ,
storing energy as with a basic buck boost converter.
 Electronic filters are circuits which perform signal processing functions, specitically to
remove unwanted frequency components from the signal, to enchance wanted ones ,or
both. Electronic filters can be passive or active, analog or digital, high pass , low pass,
band pass, band stop or all pass. Discrete time or continuous time , linear or non linear ,
infinite impulse response .
 The most common types of electronic filters are linear filters, regardless of other aspects
of their design. See the article on linear filters for details on their design and analysis.
 HARDWARE IMPLEMENTATION

4.1 HARDWARE DESCRIPTION

The hardware design of the proposed project consists of the major blocks as

Follows:

1. Power supply unit

2. Transformer

3. Bridge Rectifier

4. Voltage Regulator

5. Diode

6. Battery

7. Resistor

8. Capacitor

9.Inductor

10.Transistor

11.Intergrated circuit

12.LED
Power supply
An AC-DC power supply converts alternating current (AC) into the direct current (DC) that
most electronic devices require, usually at a lower voltage. Thus, despite its name, a power
supply actually requires an external supply of power to operate. Larger products, such as
computers or stereo equipment, generally have a power supply contained within the device,
enabling it to plug directly into a wall outlet. Smaller battery-powered devices, such as cellular
phones or media players, generally use an external power supply in the form of a small plastic
pod or box that plugs into a wall outlet and delivers DC via a wire terminating in a miniature
connector. The external type of power supply is often, but not always, referred to as an AC
adapter. Although an AC-DC power supply is not a single component, it is often sold as a
preassembled modular unit from component suppliers.

As we all know any invention of latest technology cannot be activated without the source of
power .so it this fast moving world we deliberately need a proper power source which will be
apt for a particular requirement. All the electronic components starting from diode to Intel IC`s
only work with a DC supply ranging from +5v to +12v. we are utilizing for the same, the most
cheapest and commonly available energy source of 230v-50Hz and stepping down , rectifying
filtering and regulating the voltage. This will be dealt briefly in the fourth-coming sections.

10∞f/25v : for maintaining the stability of the voltage at the load side.

O, 1∞f : for bypassing the high frequency disturbances.

 4.2.1 TRANSFORMER

A transformer requires an input of alternating current (AC). It transforms the input voltage to
one or more output voltages that can be higher or lower.
Transformers range in size from tiny impedance matching units in audio equipment such as
microphones, to multi-ton behemoths that supply high voltage through the national power grids.
Almost all electronic equipment that is designed to be powered by municipal AC in homes or
businesses requires the inclusion of a transformer. Two small power transformers are shown in
Figure . The one at the rear is rated to provide 36VAC at 0.8A when connected with a source of
125VAC. At front, the miniature transformer is a Radio Shack product designed to provide
approximately 12VAC at 300mA, although its voltage will be more than 16VAC when it is not
passing current through a load.

4.2.1.1 STEP – UP AND STEP – DOWN TRANSFORMERS

So far, we’ve observed simulations of transformers where the primary and

secondary windings were of identical inductance, giving approximately equal voltage and
current levels in both circuits. Equality of voltage and current between the primary and
secondary sides of a transformer, however, is not the norm for all transformers. If the
inductances of the two windings are not equal, something interesting happens.

4.2.1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF IDEAL TRANSFORMER

Zero winding resistance: It is assumed that, resistance of primary as well as
secondary winding of an ideal transformer is zero. That is, both the coils are purely inductive
in nature. Infinite permeability of the core: Higher the permeability, lesser the mmf required
for flux establishment. That means, if permeability is high, less magnetizing current is required
to magnetize the transformer core.
No leakage flux: Leakage flux is a part of magnetic flux which does not get linked
with secondary winding. In an ideal transformer, it is assumed that entire amount of flux get
linked with secondary winding (that is, no leakage flux).100% efficiency: An ideal transformer
does not have any losses like hysteresis loss, eddy current loss etc. So, the output power of an
ideal transformer is exactly equal to the input power. Hence, 100% efficiency.

Fig .4.2.1.2 characteristics of ideal transformer

Now, if an alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary winding of an ideal
transformer, counter emf E1 will be induced in the primary winding. As windings are purely
inductive, this induced emf E1 will be exactly equal to the apply voltage but in 180 degree
phase opposition. Current drawn from the source produces required magnetic flux. Due to
primary winding being purely inductive, this current lags 90° behind induced emf E1.
This current is called magnetizing current of the transformer Iμ. This magnetizing current
Iμ produces alternating magnetic flux Φ. This flux Φ gets linked with the secondary winding
and emf E2 gets induced by mutual induction. (Read Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction.) This mutually induced emf E2 is in phase with E2. If closed circuit is provided at
secondary winding, E2 causes current I2 to flow in the circuit. For an ideal transformer, E1I1 =
E2I2.

Voltage is needed; voltage regulators are the go-to component. They take an input
voltage and create a regulated output voltage regardless of the input voltage at either a fixed
voltage level or adjustable voltage level (by selecting the right external components).

This automatic regulation of the output voltage level is handled by various feedback
techniques, some as simple as a diode while others include complex feedback topologies that
can improve performance, reliability, efficiency, and add other features like boosting output
voltage above the input voltage to the voltage regulator.
BRIDGE RECTIFIER
In the previous power diode tutorial we discussed ways of reducing the ripple or
voltage variations on a direct DC voltage by connecting smoothing capacitors across the load
resistance.

Fig 4.3 circuit diagram of bridge rectifier

While this method may be suitable for low power applications it is unsuitable to
applications which need a “steady and smooth” DC supply voltage. One method to improve on
this is to use every half-cycle of the input voltage instead of every other half-cycle. The circuit
which allows us to do this is called a Full Wave Rectifier.

Like the half wave circuit, a full wave rectifier circuit produces an output voltage or
current which is purely DC or has some specified DC component. Full wave rectifiers have
some fundamental advantages over their half wave rectifier counterparts. The average (DC)
output voltage is higher than for half wave, the output of the full wave rectifier has much less
ripple than that of the half wave rectifier producing a smoother output waveform.

In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each half of the cycle.
A multiple winding transformer is used whose secondary winding is split equally into
two halves with a common centre tapped connection, (C).

This configuration results in each diode conducting in turn when its anode terminal is
positive with respect to the transformer centre point C producing an output during both half-
cycles, twice that for the half wave rectifier so it is 100% efficient.
VOLTAGE REGULATOR

DEFINITION

Correctly known as a linear voltage regulator to distinguish it from a switching regulator

or DC-DC converter. However, the full term is not generally used, and “voltage regulator”
is normally understood to mean a linear voltage regulator.

What It Does
A linear voltage regulator provides a tightly controlled DC output, which it derives from an
unregulated or poorly regulated DC input. The DC output remains constant regardless of the load
on the regulator (within specified limits). It is a cheap, simple, and extremely robust component.
There is no single schematic symbol for a linear voltage regulator. The general physical
appearance of a commonly used type of regulator, rated for an output of around 1A DC, is shown
at Figure 19-1. The LM7805, LM7806, LM7812, and similar regulators in the LM78xx series are
encapsulated in this type of package, with pins that are spaced at 0.1” and have functions as
shown. Other types of regulator may differ in appearance, or may look identical to this one but
have different pin functions. Always check datasheets to be sure.

How It Works
All linear regulators function by taking some feedback from the output, deriving an error value
by comparing the output with a reference voltage (most simply provided by a zener diode),
and using the error value to control the base of a pass transistor that is placed between the input
and the output of the regulator. Because the transistor operates below saturation level, its
output current varies linearly with the current applied to its base, and this behavior gives the
linear regulator is name. Figure shows the relationship of these functions in simplified form;
Figure shows a little more detail, with a Darlington pair being used as the pass transistor. The
base of the pair is controlled by two other transistors and a comparator that delivers the error
voltage. This version of a voltage regulator is known as the standard type. The voltage difference
required between the base and emitter of an NPN transistor is a minimum of 0.6V. Because
multiple transistors are used inside a standard-type voltage regulator, it requires a minimum total
voltage difference, between its input and its output, of 2VDC. This voltage difference is known
as the dropout voltage. If the voltage difference falls below this minimum,
the regulator ceases to deliver a reliable output voltage until the input voltage rises again. Low
drop out regulators allow a lower voltage difference, but are more expensive and less commonly
used. They are described under the following Variants section.
The package design of a commonly used voltage regulator. Others may be significantly different,
and the pin functions may vary. Check manufacturer datasheets for details.
Discrete components could in theory be used to build a voltage regulator, but this ceased to be
cost-effective several decades ago. The term is now understood to mean one small integrated
package containing the basic circuit augmented with additional, desirable features, such as
automatic protection against overload and excessive heat. Instead of burning out if it is
overloaded, the component simply shuts down. Most voltage regulators also tolerate accidentally
reversed power connection (as when batteries are inserted the wrong way around) and
accidentally reversed insertion of the regulator in a circuit board. Other components can satisfy
the requirement to deliver power at a reduced voltage. Most simply, if two resistors in series are
placed across a power source, they form a voltage divider,

Figure A linear voltage regulator basically consists of a transistor whose base is controlled
by corrective feedback derived from the output.
Figure The fundamental internal features of a standard-type voltage regulator, including a Darlington pair, two
transistors, a voltage divider, comparator, and reference voltage source, shown inside the dashed white line.
which provides an intermediate voltage at the connection between them. However, this
voltage will vary depending on fluctuations in the input voltage and/or load impedance. A
voltage regulator is the simplest way to supply a voltage that remains stable regardless
of excursions in the input or fluctuations in power consumed by the load. The
disadvantage of a standard-type voltage regulator is that it is inefficient, especially
when a relatively high input voltage is used to deliver a relatively low output voltage.
If Vin is the input voltage, Vout is the output voltage, and Iout is the output current, the
average power loss, P, is given by the formula:
P = Iout * (Vin - Vout)
For example, if the output current is 1A, the input voltage is 9VDC, and the output is
5VDC, 44% of
the input power will be wasted, and the component will be only 56% efficient. The wasted
power
(about 4 watts, in this case) will be dissipated as heat. Even when a standard-type
regulator runs
at its minimum 2VDC dropout voltage, it must dissipate 1W when delivering 0.5A.

DIODE

The signal diode which is also sometimes known by its older name of the Point Contact
Diode or the Glass Passivity Diode, are physically very small in size compared to their
larger cousins. Generally, the PN junction of a small signal diode is encapsulated in glass to
protect the PN junction, and usually have a red or black band at one end of their body to help
identify which end is the cathode terminal. The most widely used of all the glass encapsulated
signal diodes is the very common1N4148 and its equivalent 1N914 signal diode. Small signal
and switching diodes have much lower power and current ratings, around 150mA, 500mW
maximum compared to rectifier diodes, but they can function better in high frequency
applications or in clipping and switching applications that deal with short-duration pulse
waveforms. The characteristics of a signal point contact diode are different for both germanium
and silicon types and are given as:

1. Germanium Signal Diodes – These have a low reverse resistance value giving a
lower forward volt drop across the junction, typically only about 0.2 to 0.3v, but have a
higher forward resistance value because of their small junction area.

2. Silicon Signal Diodes – These have a very high value of reverse resistance and give
a forward volt drop of about 0.6 to 0.7v across the junction. They have fairly low values of
forward resistance giving them high peak values of forward current and reverse voltage.
The electronic symbol given for any type of diode is that of an arrow with a bar or line at its end
and this is illustrated below along with the Steady State V-I Characteristics Curve.
4.5.1 Silicon Diode V-I Characteristic Curve

Fig 4.5.1 Silicon Diode V-I Characteristic Curve

The arrow always points in the direction of conventional current flow through the diode
meaning that the diode will only conduct if a positive supply is connected to the Anode, ( a )
terminal and a negative supply is connected to the Cathode ( k ) terminal thus only allowing
current to flow through it in one direction only, acting more like a one way electrical valve,
( Forward Biased Condition ).However, we know from the previous tutorial that if we connect
the external energy source in the other direction the diode will block any current flowing through
it and instead will act like an open switch, ( Reversed Biased Condition ) as shown below.

4.5.2 Forward and Reversed Biased Diode

Then we can say that an ideal small signal diode conducts current in one direction ( forward-
conducting ) and blocks current in the other direction ( reverse-blocking ). Signal Diodes are
used in a wide variety of applications such as a switch in rectifiers, current limiters, voltage
snubbers or in wave-shaping circuits.

Signal Diode Parameters

Signal Diodes are manufactured in a range of voltage and current ratings and care
must be taken when choosing a diode for a certain application. There are a bewildering array of
static characteristics associated with the humble signal diode but the more important ones are.

4.5.3. Maximum Forward Current

The Maximum Forward Current ( IF(max) ) is as its name implies the maximum forward
current allowed to flow through the device. When the diode is conducting in the forward bias
condition, it has a very small “ON” resistance across the PN junction and therefore, power is
dissipated across this junction in the form of heat. Then, exceeding its ( IF(max) ) value will cause
more heat to be generated across the junction and the diode will fail due to thermal overload,
usually with destructive consequences. When operating diodes around their maximum current
ratings it is always best to provide additional cooling to dissipate the heat produced by the diode.
For example, our small 1N4148 signal diode has a maximum current rating of about 150mA with
a power dissipation of 500mW at 25oC. Then a resistor must be used in series with the diode to
limit the forward current, ( IF(max) ) through it to below this value.

4.5.4. Peak Inverse Voltage

The Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) or Maximum Reverse Voltage ( VR(max) ), is the maximum
allowable Reverse operating voltage that can be applied across the diode without reverse
breakdown and damage occurring to the device. This rating therefore, is usually less than the
“avalanche breakdown” level on the reverse bias characteristic curve. Typical values
of VR(max) range from a few volts to thousands of volts and must be considered when replacing a
diode. The peak inverse voltage is an important parameter and is mainly used for rectifying
diodes in AC rectifier circuits with reference to the amplitude of the voltage were the sinusoidal
waveform changes from a positive to a negative value on each and every cycle.

4.5.5 Total Power Dissipation

Signal diodes have a Total Power Dissipation, ( PD(max) ) rating. This rating is the
maximum possible power dissipation of the diode when it is forward biased (conducting). When
current flows through the signal diode the biasing of the PN junction is not perfect and offers
some resistance to the flow of current resulting in power being dissipated (lost) in the diode in
the form of heat. As small signal diodes are non-linear devices the resistance of the PN junction
is not constant, it is a dynamic property then we cannot use Ohms Law to define the power in
terms of current and resistance or voltage and resistance as we can for resistors. Then to find the
power that will be dissipated by the diode we must multiply the voltage drop across it times the
current flowing through it: PD = VxI

4.5.6. Maximum Operating Temperature

The Maximum Operating Temperature actually relates to the Junction Temperature ( TJ )

of the diode and is related to maximum power dissipation. It is the maximum temperature
allowable before the structure of the diode deteriorates and is expressed in units of degrees
centigrade per Watt, ( oC/W ).This value is linked closely to the maximum forward current of the
device so that at this value the temperature of the junction is not exceeded. However, the
maximum forward current will also depend upon the ambient temperature in which the device is
operating so the maximum forward current is usually quoted for two or more ambient
temperature values such as 25oC or 70oC.
BATTERY

An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external
connections provided to power electrical devices such as flashlights, smart phones, and electric
cars When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its
negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that when
connected to an external circuit will flow and deliver energy to an external device. When a
battery is connected to an external circuit, electrolytes are able to move as ions within, allowing
the chemical reactions to be completed at the separate terminals and so deliver energy to the
external circuit. It is the movement of those ions within the battery which allows current to flow
out of the battery to perform work.Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a
device composed of multiple cells,however the usage has evolved additionally to include devices
composed of a single cell. Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and
discarded; the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge. Common examples
are the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices.
Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can
be discharged and recharged multiple times using an applied electric current; the original
composition of the electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid
batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops
and smartphones. Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power
hearing aids and wristwatches to small, thin cells used in smartphones, to large lead acid
batteries used in cars and trucks, and at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms
that provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data centers
and etc.
4.6.1. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION BATTERY

Fig 4.6.1. principle of operation battery

 A voltaic cell for demonstration purposes. In this example the two half-cells are linked
by a salt bridge separator that permits the transfer of ions. Batteries convert chemical energy
directly to electrical energy. A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell
consists of two half-cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and
cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which
anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half cell includes electrolyte and the positive
electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Redox reactions power the battery.
Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode during charging, while anions are
oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode during charging. During discharge, the process is
reversed. The electrodes do not touch each other, but are electrically connected by the
electrolyte. Some cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell. A separator allows ions to
flow between half-cells, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes. Each half-cell has an
electromotive force (emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from the interior to
the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells.
Thus, if the electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the
difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions.The electrical driving force or
across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in
volts.The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-
circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage
of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the opencircuit voltage and the terminal
voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible
internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then
dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on
complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joules of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance
increases under discharge and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the
voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the
shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed.The
voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical
reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different
chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have
different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. The high electrochemical
potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emf of 3 volts or
more.
RESISTANCE
A resistor is one of the most fundamental components in electronics. Its purpose is to impede
a flow of current and impose a voltage reduction. It consists of two wires or conductors attached
at opposite ends or sides of a relatively poor electrical conductor, the resistance of which is
measured in ohms, universally represented by the Greek omega symbol, Ω. Schematic symbols
that represent a resistor are shown in (Left: The traditional schematic symbol. Right: The more
recent European equivalent).

The US symbol is still sometimes used in European schematics, and the European symbol is
sometimes used in US schematics. Letters K or M indicate that the value shown for the resistor is
in thousands of ohms or millions of ohms, respectively. Where these letters are used in Europe,
and sometimes in the US, they are substituted for a decimal point. Thus, a 4.7K resistor may be
identified as 4K 7, a 3.3M resistor may be identified as 3M3, and so on. (The numeric value in
Figure was chosen arbitrarily.) Figure . Resistor symbols. The left one is more common
in the United States, while the right one is widely used in Europe. The 4.7K value was chosen
arbitrarily. A resistor is commonly used for purposes such as limiting the charging rate of a
capacitor; providing appropriate control voltage to semiconductors such as bipolar transistors;
protecting LEDs or other semiconductors from excessive current; adjusting or limiting the
frequency response in an audio circuit (in conjunction with other components); pulling up or
pulling down the voltage at the input pin of a digital logic chip or controlling a voltage at a point
in a circuit. In this last application, two resistors may be placed in series to create a voltage
divider.

A potentiometer may be used instead of a resistor where variable resistance is required.

Sample resistors of various values are shown in Figure. From top to bottom, their power
dissipation ratings are 3W, 1W, 1/2W, 1/4W, 1/4W, 1/4W, and 1/8W. The accuracy (tolerance)
of each resistor, from top to bottom, is plus-or-minus 5%, 5%, 5%, 1%, 1%, 5%, and 1%. The
beige-colored body of a resistor is often an indication that its tolerance is 5%, while a blue-
colored body often indicates a tolerance of 1% or 2%. The blue bodied resistors and the dark
brown resistor contain metal-oxide film elements, while the beige bodied resistors and the green
resistor contain carbon film. For more information on resistor values, see the upcoming Values
section.

Working of Resistor

The working of a resistor can be explained with the similarity of water flowing through a
pipe. Consider a pipe through which water is allowed to flow. If the diameter of the pipe is
reduced, the water flow will be reduced. If the force of the water is increased by increasing the
pressure, then the energy will be dissipated as heat. There will also be an enormous difference in
pressure in the head and tail ends of the pipe. In this example, the force applied to the water is
similar to the current flowing through the resistance. The pressure applied can be resembled to
the voltage. One of the critical pieces in an electric circuit, the resistor is the most omnipresent
electronic component. Available in wide varieties, these resistors can be used in various
applications. Resistors are broadly classified as fixed and variable resistors, according to the
type of resistance value they offer. Here, in this article we shall discuss about variable resistors,
its definition, types and uses.
TRANSISTOSR
GENERAL DESCRIPTION

Enhanced performance, new generation, high-voltage, high-speed switching npn transistor in

a plastic full-pack envelope intended for use in horizontal deflection circuits of colour television
receivers. Features exceptional tolerance to base drive and collector current load variations
resulting in a very low worst case dissipation.

SYMBOL

PIN CONFIGURATIO PIN DESCRIPTION

1 BASE

2 COLLECTOR
3 EMITTER

Forward bias safe operating area. Ths 25 °C

(1) Ptot max and Ptot peak max lines.
(2) Second breakdown limits.
I Region of permissible DC operation.
II Extension for repetitive pulse operation.
III Extension during turn-on in single transistor converters provided that
RBE 100 and tp 0.6 s.NB: Mounted with heatsink compound and 30
 newton force on the centre of the envelope.

LIFE SUPPORT APPLICATIONS

These products are not designed for use in life support appliances, devices or
systems where malfunction of these products can be reasonably expected to result
in personal injury. Philips customers using or selling these products for use in such
applications do so at their own risk and agree to fully indemnify Philips for any
damages resulting from such improper use or sale.

BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

The word transistor, on its own, is often used to mean bipolar transistor, as this
was the type that became most widely used in the field of discrete semiconductors.
However, bipolar transistor is the correct term. It is sometimes referred to as a
bipolar junction transistor or BJT.

SYMBOL
The most common symbol for an NPN transistor is shown at top-left, with letters C,
B, and E identifying collector, base, and emitter. In some schematics the circle in the symbols is
omitted, as at top-right.
Symbols for an NPN transistor (top) and a PNP transistor (center and bottom). Depending on
the schematic in which the symbol appears, it may be rotated or inverted. The circle may be
omitted, but the function of the component remains the same.
How It Works
Although the earliest transistors were fabricated from germanium, silicon has become the most
commonly used material. Silicon behaves like an insulator, in its pure state at room temperature,
but can be “doped” (carefully contaminated) with impurities that introduce a surplus of electrons
unbonded from individual atoms. The result is an N-type semiconductor that can be induced
to allow the movement of electrons through it, if it is biased with an external voltage.
Forward bias means the application of a positive voltage, while reverse bias means reversing
that voltage. Other do pants can create a deficit of electrons, which can be thought of as a surplus
of “holes” that can be filled by electrons. The result is a Ptype semiconductor. A bipolar NPN
transistor consists of a thin central P-type layer sandwiched between two thicker Ntype
layers. The three layers are referred to as collector, base, and emitter, with a wire or contact
attached to each of them. When a negative charge is applied to the emitter, electrons are forced
by mutual repulsion toward the central base layer. If a forward bias (positive potential) is
applied to the base, electrons will tend to be attracted out through the base. However, because
the base layer is so thin, the electrons are now close to the collector. If the base voltage increases,
the additional energy encourages the electrons to jump into the collector, from which they
will make their way to the positive current source, which can be thought of as having an even
greater deficit of electrons. Thus, the emitter of an NPN bipolar transistor emits electrons into the
transistor, while the collector collects them from the base and moves them out of the transistor. It
is important to remember that since electrons carry a negative charge, the flow of electrons
moves from negative to positive. The concept of positive-to negative current is a fiction that
exists only for historical reasons. Nevertheless, the arrow in a transistor schematic symbol points
in the direction of conventional (positive-to-negative) current. In a PNP transistor, a thin N-type
layer is sandwiched between two thicker P-type layers, the base is negatively biased relative to
the emitter, and the function of an NPN transistor is reversed, as the terms “emitter” and
“collector” now refer to the movement of electron-holes rather than electrons. The collector is
negative relative to the base, and the resulting positive-to-negative current flow moves from
emitter to base to collector. The arrow in the schematic symbol for a PNP transistor still indicates
the direction of positive current flow. Symbols for NPN and PNP transistors are shown
in Figure 28-1. The most common symbol for an NPN transistor is shown at top-left, with letters
C, B, and E identifying collector, base, and emitter. In some schematics the circle in the symbols
is omitted, as at top-right. A PNP transistor is shown in the center. This is the most common
orientation of the symbol, since its collector must be at a lower potential than its emitter, and
ground (negative) is usually at the bottom of a schematic. At bottom, the PNP symbol
is inverted, allowing the positions of emitter and collector to remain the same as in the symbol
for the NPN transistor at the top. Other orientations of transistor symbols are often found, merely
to facilitate simpler schematics with fewer conductor crossovers. The direction of the arrow in
the symbol (pointing out or pointing in) always differentiates NPN from PNP transistors,
respectively, and indicates current flowing from positive to negative. NPN transistors are much
more commonly used than PNP transistors. The PNP type was more difficult and expensive to
manufacture initially, and 242 Encyclopedia of Electronic Components Volume 1 How It Works
discrete semiconductor > multi-junction > bipolar transistor circuit design evolved around the
NPN type. In addition, NPN transistors enable faster switching, because electrons have greater
mobility than electron-holes. To remember the functions of the collector and the emitter in an
NPN transistor, you may prefer to think in terms of the collector collecting positive
current into the transistor, and the emitter emitting positive current out of the transistor. To
remember that the emitter is always the terminal with an arrow attached to it (both in NPN and
PNP schematic symbols), consider that “emitter” and “arrow” both begin with a vowel, while
“base” and “collector” begin with consonants. To remember that an NPN transistor symbol has
its arrow pointing outward, you can use the mnemonic “N/ever P/ointing i/N.”

What It Does
A bipolar transistor amplifies fluctuations in current or can be used to switch current on and off.
In its amplifying mode, it replaced the vacuum tubes that were formerly used in the amplification
of audio signals and many other applications. In its switching mode it resembles a relay,
although in its “off” state the transistor still allows a very small amount of current flow,
known as leakage.
A bipolar transistor is described as a discrete semiconductor device when it is individually
packaged, with three leads or contacts. A package containing multiple transistors is an integrated
circuit. A Darlington pair actually contains two transistors, but is included here as a discrete
component because it is packaged similarly and functions like a single transistor. Most integrated
circuits will be found in Volume 2 of this encyclopedia.
LED
When an LED indicator is described as bein through hole, it has leads for insertion into
holes in a circuit board. The term does not mean that the indicator itself is meant to be pushed
through a hole in a panel, although this may also be done.The LED is cylindrical with a
hemispherical top that acts as a lens. The leads are relatively thick,to conduct heat away from the
component. A dimensioned diagram of a typical LED measuring 5mm in diameter is shown in
Figure.

Figure Dimensions of a typical 5mm LED. The longer wire connects with the anode, while the
shorter wire connects with the cathode. Adapted from a datasheet published by Lite-On
Technology Corporation. An LED indicator that is not the through-hole type is usually a surface-
mount component. LEDs for surface mounting are mostly rectangular and can be as small as
1mm x 0.5mm. They may require a heat sink.

Schematic Symbols
Figure shows a variety of symbols that are commonly used to represent an LED. The triangle at
the center of each symbol points in the direction of conventional (positive-to-negative) current
flow—from the anode to the cathode. Each pair of arrows radiating away from the diode
indicates emitted light. Wavy arrows are sometimes used to represent infrared (thermal)
radiation. Often, however, an infrared LED is represented in exactly the same style as an LED
that emits visible light. With the exception of the wavy arrows, the various styles of schematic
symbol are functionally identical and do not identify different attributes of the component such
as size or color .Figure . Various symbols may be used to representan LED. See text for details.

Common Usage
LED indicators have mostly displaced neon bulbs and miniature incandescent lamps for
the purpose of showing the status of a device.They are found in industrial control panels, home
audio systems, battery chargers, washer/dryers, and many other consumer-electronics products.
Higher output variants are used in flashlights, traffic signals, taillights on automobiles, and for
illumination of subjects that are being photographed.LED indicators may be assembled in
large numbers in attention-getting displays such as Christmas lights. Red, orange, yellow,
green, and blue are the basic standard colors. LEDs that appear to generate white light are
common, but they do not emit an evenly weighted spectrum of wavelengths. See “Non-
Incandescent Sources” on page for a discussion of this topic.

How It Works
An LED, like any diode, contains a semiconductor PN junction that conducts current only in the
forward direction (i.e., from the more-positive side of a power supply to the more-negative
side). The diode becomes conductive above a threshold voltage sufficient to force electrons in
the n-type region and holes in the p-type region to combine with each other. Each time this
occurs, energy is released. The energy liberated by one electron-hole combination creates a
photon, or one quantum of light. The amount of energy released depends on the band gap, which
is a property of the semiconductor material. The band gap is the smallest energy that can create
an electron-hole pair. The energy determines the light’s wavelength, and thus the color. The band
gap also determines the threshold voltage of the LED. For this reason, LEDs of different colors
have widely different threshold voltages. Because an LED will often be used in devices where
the DC power supply exceeds the maximum forward voltage, a series resistor is customarily
used as a simple way to restrict current
ADVANTAGES