Photovoltaics

This lecture complements chapter 3 in

“Renewable Energy”
 The photoelectric effect

When light falls on a metal surface, electrons may be ejected. The energy E of
the ejected electrons depends on the frequency ν of the incident light according
to the equation E = hν−φ, where h is Planck's constant, and φ is the energy
required to remove the electron from the metal surface. If the electrons from the
metal surface are collected to make an electric current, the strength of the
current depends on the intensity of the incident light. The discrete quantities of
radiation are called photons. Each photon has energy hν, and the intensity of the
radiation is determined by the number of photons received per unit time.
Silicon lattice with electron pairs (dots)
in covalent bonds (lines)

The atoms in crystalline solids are held together in a regular lattice by covalent
bonds. Each covalent bond linking two atoms consists of a pair of electrons,
called valence electrons, one from each atom. The valence electrons move in
the space between the two atoms with energies in a band of energies known as
the valence band. The valence band of a solid consists of a large number of
separate energy levels, one for each valence electron. The behavior of electrons
is such that when all the valence electrons are in position no more valence
electrons can be added to the lattice.
Electron energy level bands in solids

In some solids there are extra electrons moving freely through the lattice without
being held in covalent bonds. These electrons are called conduction electrons
because they carry electric currents through the solid. Their energies are in
another band known as the conduction band at a higher energy level than the
valence band. Between the highest energy level in the valence band and the
lowest energy level in the conduction band there may be a forbidden band of
energies. No electrons can have energies within the forbidden band. The
difference between the energy at the bottom of the conduction band and the
energy at the top of the valence band is called the energy gap. The most
convenient measure of energy in electronics is the energy gained by an electron
when it is accelerated through an electric potential of one volt, called the electron
volt (eV). Energy gaps are typically of the order 1 eV = 1.602×10-19J.
 Electron energies in an electrical
insulator

An electrical insulator has its valence band filled with electrons and its
conduction band empty. Therefore, there are no free electrons available to
carry an electric current. Moreover, the energy gap is large, so it is not
possible for ordinary processes to provide enough energy for the valence
electrons to break out of their valence bonds and jump into the conduction
band where they might carry an electric current. Carbon in the form of
diamond is an insulator with energy gap 5.5eV
 Electron energies in an electrical
conductor

An electrical conductor, such as copper, besides having its valence

band filled, also has a partly filled conduction band. Sometimes there
is no forbidden band because the conduction and valence bands
overlap. The conduction band has empty energy levels into which the
conduction electrons can jump with very little change of energy.
Consequently, the conduction electrons are free to move through the
lattice and carry an electric current.
 Electron energies in a semiconductor

An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure substance with just enough electrons

to fill the valence band, but it has a small energy gap. It is possible for
certain processes to give some valence electrons enough energy to jump
across the energy gap into the conduction band where they are able to
carry an electric current. As there are only a few of these conduction
electrons the solid is called a semiconductor. An example is silicon, which
has an energy gap of 1.1 eV.
 Electron-hole pairs in semiconductors

• When an electron jumps from the valence band to the conduction

band it leaves behind a hole, or missing electron, in a covalent bond.
This hole can easily be filled by an electron from an adjacent covalent
bond, so the hole can move through the lattice.
• Thus an intrinsic semiconductor conducts electricity by means of
negative charge carriers (electrons) and positive charge carriers (holes).
• Electron-hole pairs may be produced by thermal excitation. The
number of pairs produced depends on the energy gap Eg and on the
magnitude of kT, where T is the absolute temperature and k is
Boltzmann's constant 8.617×10-5 eV/K. At ordinary temperatures T
=300K, and so kT =0.026 eV. This is only 2.4% of Eg for silicon, but
it is enough to give some conductivity.
Photon excitation of electron-hole pairs
• Electron-hole pairs may also be produced by photon excitation. The
rate at which pairs are produced depends on the intensity of the light,
i.e. the rate at which photons are absorbed.
• A photon can create an electron-hole pair only if its energy is equal
to, or greater than, the energy gap. The energy of a photon is given by
hc/λ, where c is the speed of light. When lambda is given in µm and
the photon energy Eλ is given in eV we have Eλ= 1.24/λ.
• For photon excitation in silicon (Eg = 1.1 eV) we require Eλ > 1.1 eV,
i.e. λ < 1.13 µm. Therefore, the photons in visible light can increase
the electrical conductivity of silicon by the creation of electron-hole
pairs, but the photons in the infra-red part of the spectrum with
lambda > 1.13 µm cannot.
• The electrical conductivity of semiconductors can be greatly increased
by adding certain impurities in concentrations of about one part per
million. The process is called doping.
 n-type doped semiconductor

Silicon may be doped with phosphorous atoms, which have five outer
electrons. Four of the outer electrons become valence electrons in the valence
band. The energy levels of the extra electrons are just below the bottom of the
conduction band with a small energy gap of 0.05 eV. This is less than twice the
value of kT (0.026 eV) at a temperature 300K. Therefore the extra electrons are
easily excited thermally into the conduction band where they become negative
charge carriers.
 Majority and minority charge carriers

• The number of conduction electrons donated by

the impurities is much greater than the number of
charge carriers produced from electron-hole pairs.
• The donated conduction electrons are therefore
called majority carriers.
• The charge carriers produced from the electron-
hole pairs are called minority carriers.
• Because the majority carriers are negative the
phosphorous-doped silicon crystal is called an n-
type semiconductor.
 Comparison metallic conductor, pure
silicon, and doped silicon
• In a typical metallic conductor the density of
electrons in the half-filled conduction band is
about 1028m-3.
• In pure silicon the density of the electrons thermally
excited into the conduction band as minority
carriers is about 1010m-3.
• In doped silicon the number of impurity atoms may
be about 1022m-3. The number of electrons
thermally excited into the conduction band as
majority carriers from the energy levels of the extra
electrons is then about 1020m-3.
 p-type doped semiconductors

Silicon may also be doped with boron atoms, which have only three outer
electrons. These atoms create unfilled energy levels just above the top of the
valence band . Electrons are easily excited thermally into these levels, leaving
holes in the valence band. The holes created in this way act as positive
majority charge carriers, and the doped crystal is called a p-type semiconductor.
 Charge balance
• In each type of semiconductor the electric charges
on the fixed impurities balance the charges on the
majority carriers and keep the crystal as a whole
electrically neutral. Thus, in n-type material the
impurities act as fixed positive charges, and in p-
type material the impurities act as fixed negative
charges.
• However, at a junction between an n-type and a p-
type semiconductor there can a local imbalance of
space charge, giving rise to a local electric field.
 Semiconductor n-p junctions
An n-p junction is a semiconductor which
is doped as an n-type semiconductor on
one side and as a p-type semiconductor on
the other side. Near the junction, free
electrons from the n-type side fill the holes
from the p-type side forming a depletion
layer which is deficient in majority carriers.

In this layer the fixed impurities then create an excess positive charge on the
n-type side and an excess negative charge on the p-type side. This produces
an electric potential barrier Vb which counterbalances further movement of
majority carriers across the junction. The height of the potential barrier Vb
is somewhat less than the energy gap Eg because the fixed impurities slightly
hinder the movement of majority carriers. The potential difference across
the junction produces an electric field in the depletion layer directed from
the n-type side towards the p-type side.
 The minority current across an
n-p junction
• When equilibrium has been reached in an n-p junction there are two
equal and opposite electric currents flowing across the depletion
layer. One current consists of minority carriers, and the other current
consists of majority carriers.
• Consider first the minority carriers. The thermally excited electrons
which are minority carriers on the p-side of the junction are caused to
drift towards the n-type side by the electric field in the depletion
layer.
• Likewise, the holes which are minority carriers on the n-type side of
the junction are caused to drift towards the p-type side.
• The effect of these two movements is a small drift current Imin from
the n-type side to the p-type side. The size of Imin depends only on the
rate at which minority carriers are being created by thermal excitations of
electrons across the energy gap Eg of the semiconductor. It does not
depend on the height Vb of the potential barrier.
 The majority current across an
n-p junction
• In the equilibrium state the current Imin caused by minority
carriers is balanced by an equal and opposite current Imaj caused
by the diffusion of majority carriers.
• Because there are more electron carriers on the n-type side than
on the p-type side, there is a diffusion of electrons across the
junction from the n-type side to the p-type side.
• Likewise, there is a diffusion of holes across the junction from
the p-type side to the n-type side.
• The effect of these two movements is the diffusion current Imaj,
which is small because it is against the potential barrier. The
number of fixed impurity charges in the depletion layer adjusts
itself so that the height Vb of the potential barrier allows only
enough majority carriers across to make Imaj balance Imin.
Junction diode with reverse bias

• When an external potential difference is applied

across the junction the height of the potential
barrier is changed. This causes Imaj to change,
because the majority carriers have to diffuse against
a stronger electric field. But Imin is still limited by
the thermal excitation of electron-hole pairs, and
remains the same.
• If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to
the n-type side of the junction, then the height of
the potential barrier is increased. This is called
reverse bias. With reverse bias Imaj is reduced, and
only the very small current Imin flows in the circuit.
Junction diode with forward bias

If the positive terminal of the battery is

connected to the p-type side of the
junction then the height of the potential
barrier is reduced. This is called forward
bias. With forward bias Imin is still
unchanged, but Imaj is increased, because
the majority carriers diffuse against a
weaker electric field.
 Current-voltage characteristic of a
junction diode
• The current-voltage characteristic curve of
a junction diode is shown in the figure.
• It is highly non-linear, so the diode acts as
a rectifier and does not obey Ohm's law.
• With reverse bias the diode has a high
resistance. With forward bias the diode has
a low resistance, and the resistance decreases
as the forward bias is increased.

If the applied forward bias voltage is large enough the internal electric
field across the depletion layer is from the p-type side of the junction to
the n-type side. Then a large current flows in the circuit.
 Photovoltaic solar cell circuit

When solar radiation falls on a silicon n-p junction, photons with

wavelength less than 1.13 µm generate electron-hole pairs. The electric
field in the depletion layer drives the electrons to the n-type side and the
holes to the p-type side. This separates most of the electrons and holes
before they can recombine. A solar photovoltaic cell consists of a thick
n-type crystal covered by a thin p-type layer exposed to the sunlight. An
electrical load resistance R is connected across the junction. The
electrons and holes produce a current, and the energy in the solar
radiation is converted into electrical energy in the circuit.
Current-voltage characteristics of a
photovoltaic solar cell
• Electron-hole pairs generated in a photovoltaic
cell by the absorption of photons increase the
number of minority carriers on both sides of the
n-p junction.
• This causes the current Imin of minority
carriers to increase. But the current Imaj of the
majority carriers remains the same.
• The increase in the number of minority
carriers causes the current-voltage characteristic
of the photovoltaic cell to shift downwards as
shown in the figure.
• The current-voltage characteristic curves
published by the manufacturers of photovoltaic
cells are upside down copies of the bottom right
hand quadrant of the figure.
 Solar cell with resistive load
• If the external load resistance R is zero we have a short circuit, and the
current in the circuit is I = Imin - Imaj, where Imaj is constant, and Imin is
proportional to the rate at which electron-hole pairs are created by the
absorption of photons. This is proportional to the intensity of the light
falling on the photovoltaic cell.
• When the load resistance R is increased an increasing forward bias V = IR is
applied to the junction. This lowers the potential barrier, which increases
Imaj, and the current I is reduced.
• When the load resistance is infinite we have an open circuit, and the voltage
across the photovoltaic cell is about 0.6V, which is determined by the height
of the internal potential barrier Vb. The electrical power in the load
resistance is zero in a short circuit (R = 0), and also in an open circuit (R =
infinity). The maximum power is obtained when the potential drop across
the load is about 80% of Vb, which is about 0.5V in silicon solar cells.
 The current-voltage characteristic and
maximum-power point
• A solar cell may operate over a wide range of voltages (V) and
currents (I). By increasing the resistive load on an irradiated cell
continuously from zero (a short circuit) to a very high value (an
open circuit) one can determine the maximum power point, the
point that maximizes VI; that is, the load for which the cell can
deliver maximum electrical power at that level of irradiation.
(The output power is zero in both the short circuit and open
circuit extremes).
• A high quality, monocrystalline silicon solar cell, at 25 °C cell
temperature, may produce 0.60 volts open-circuit (Voc). The cell
temperature in full sunlight, even with 25 °C air temperature,
will probably be close to 45 °C, reducing the open-circuit
voltage to 0.55 volts per cell. The voltage drops modestly, with
this type of cell, until short-circuit current is approached (Isc).
Dependence of current and voltage on
intensity of illumination
• Maximum power (with 45 °C cell temperature) is typically
produced with 75% to 80% of the open-circuit voltage (0.43
volts in this case) and 90% of the short-circuit current. This
output can be up to 70% of the Voc Isc product.
• The short-circuit current (Isc) from a cell is nearly proportional
to the illumination, while the open-circuit voltage (Voc) may
drop only 10% with a 80% drop in illumination.
• Lower-quality cells have a more rapid drop in voltage with
increasing current and could produce only ½Voc at ½ Isc. The
usable power output could thus drop from 70% of the Voc Isc
product to 50% or even as little as 25%. Vendors who rate their
solar cell “power” only as Voc Isc , without giving load curves,
can be seriously distorting their actual performance.
 Efficiency of a solar cell
• The efficiency of photovoltaic conversion is limited by the relationships
between the photon energies and the energy gap in the semiconductor.
• Photons in the ultra-violet and visible regions of the solar spectrum have
energies greater than the energy gap, so only part of their energy is converted
into electrical energy by the creation of electron-hole pairs. The excess energy
is dissipated as heat.
• Photons in the near infra-red with wavelengths 0.7 µm to 1.1 µm have
energies only slightly greater than the energy gap, so most of their energy is
converted into electricity.
• Near infra-red photons with wavelengths greater than 1.13 µm have energies
less than the energy gap and cannot produce electron-hole pairs, so they
cannot contribute to the electrical energy output of the solar cell. Taking
these facts into consideration we find that an upper limit to the efficiency of
a silicon solar cell is 45%.
• However, recombination of electrons and holes before they are completely
separated reduces the attainable efficiency still further to about 20%.
 How to measure efficiency?
• A solar cell's energy conversion efficiency is

Pm
η=
E Ac

• This term is calculated using the ratio of the maximum power point Pm
divided by the input light irradiance (E, in W/m²) under standard test
conditions (STC) and the surface area of the solar cell (Ac in m²).
• STC specifies a temperature of 25°C and an irradiance of 1000 W/m² with
an air mass 1.5 (AM1.5) spectrum. These correspond to the irradiance and
spectrum of sunlight incident on a clear day upon a sun-facing 37°-tilted
surface with the sun at an angle of 41.81° above the horizon.
• This condition approximately represents solar noon near the spring and
autumn equinoxes in the continental United States with surface of the cell
aimed directly at the sun. Thus, under these conditions a solar cell of 12%
efficiency with a 100 cm2 (0.01 m2) surface area can be expected to produce
approximately 1.2 watts of power.
 Three generations of solar cells
• Solar Cells are classified into three generations which
indicates the order of which each became prominent.
At present there is concurrent research into all three
generations while the first generation technologies are
most highly represented in commercial production,
accounting for 89.6% of 2007 production.
 First generation solar cells
• First generation cells consist of large-area, high quality
and single junction devices. First Generation technologies
involve high energy and labor inputs which prevent any
significant progress in reducing production costs. Single
junction silicon devices are approaching the
theoretical limiting efficiency of 33%, and can achieve
cost parity with fossil fuel energy after a payback
period of 5-7 years.
First generation silicon technologies
• Monocrystalline silicon (c-Si): often made using the Czochralski
process. Single-crystal wafer cells tend to be expensive, and
because they are cut from cylindrical ingots, do not
completely cover a square solar cell module without a
substantial waste of refined silicon. Hence most c-Si panels
have uncovered gaps at the four corners of the cells.
• Poly- or multicrystalline silicon (poly-Si or mc-Si): made from cast
square ingots — large blocks of molten silicon carefully cooled
and solidified. These cells are less expensive to produce than
single crystal cells but are less efficient.
• Ribbon silicon: formed by drawing flat thin films from molten
silicon and having a multicrystalline structure. These cells
have lower efficiencies than poly-Si, but save on production
costs due to a great reduction in silicon waste, as this
approach does not require sawing from ingots.
 Second generation technologies
• Second generation materials have been developed to address energy
requirements and production costs of solar cells. Alternative
manufacturing techniques such as vapor deposition and
electroplating are advantageous as they reduce high temperature
processing significantly. It is commonly accepted that as
manufacturing techniques evolve production costs will be dominated
by constituent material requirements, whether this be a silicon
substrate, or glass cover.
• Second generation technologies are expected to gain market share in
2008. The most successful second generation materials have been
cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS),
amorphous silicon (a-Si), and micromorphous silicon. These
materials are applied in a thin film by standard plasma enhanced
chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) to a supporting substrate such as
glass or ceramics reducing material mass and therefore costs.
• These technologies do hold promise of higher conversion efficiencies
and cheaper production costs. Among major manufacturers there is
certainly a trend toward second generation technologies.
Combining cells with different bandgap

The efficiency of a solar cell can be

enhanced by combining cells
consisting of different semiconductors
with different bandgaps, and thus
provide absorption of a larger portion
of the solar light spectrum.
 Amorphous silicon (a-Si)
• a-Si is the non-crystalline form of silicon. Silicon is normally
tetrahedrally bonded to four neighboring silicon atoms. In crystalline
silicon this tetrahedral structure is continued over a large range,
forming a well-ordered lattice (crystal).
• In a-Si this long range order is not present and the atoms form a
continuous random network. One of the main advantages over c-Si
relies in its production technique, as thin films of it can be deposited
over large areas.
• It can be doped to form p- or n-type layers to form electronic devices.
For this reason a-Si has become the material of choice for the active
layer in thin-film transistors (TFTs), which are used in large-area
electronics applications, mainly for liquid-crystal displays (LCDs).
• It is also used to produce large-area photovoltaic solar cells. This is a
relatively new application, although the small solar cells used in
some pocket calculators have been made with a-Si for many years.
 Cadmium-telluride (CdTe) cells
• CdTe is a highly useful material in the making of solar cells,
which provides a highly cost-effective solar cell design, but at a
lower efficiency than polysilicon.
• However, this is easily off-set by the ability of CdTe panels to
handle normally problematic low-light scenarios efficiently-
substantially more efficiently than traditional X-si panels.
• Cadmium telluride is toxic but only so if ingested, its dust
inhaled, or if it is handled improperly. Once properly and
securely captured and encapsulated, CdTe used in
manufacturing processes may be rendered harmless.
• The disposal life-cycle and long term safety of cadmium
telluride is becoming more of a known issue in the large scale
commercialization of cadmium telluride solar panels.
 Copper indium gallium selenide (CGIS)
• CIGS is a new semiconductor material. The material is a solid
solution of copper indium selenide (CIS) and copper gallium
selenide (CGS), with a chemical formula CuInxGa(1-x)Se2,
where the value of x can vary from 1 to 0 (pure CIS to CGS).
• It is a tetrahedrally-bonded semiconductor, with a bandgap
varying continuously with x from about 1.0eV (for CIS) to
about 1.7eV (for CGS).
• Its main use is in the form of polycrystalline thin films. Unlike
silicon cells the structure of CIGS is a more complex
heterojunction system. The best efficiency achieved as of
December 2005 was 19.9%. This efficiency is by far the highest
compared with those achieved by other thin film technologies
such as cadmium-telluride (CdTe) or amorphous silicon (a-Si).
• As for CIS, and CGS solar cells, the world record total area
efficiencies are 15.0% and 10.2% respectively.
An example of a multi-bandgap cell
 Commercialization of second
generation solar cells
• However commercialization of these technologies has proven difficult.
Significant cost reduction requires mass production, which is hard to
implement as long as the technologies are not cost competititive.
• In 2007 First Solar produced 200 MW of CdTe solar cells making it the fifth
largest producer of solar cells in 2007 and the first ever to reach the top 10
from production of second generation technologies alone.
• Wurth Solar commercialized its CIS technology in 2007 producing 15 MW.
• Nanosolar commercialized its CIGS technology in 2007 with a production
capacity of 430 MW for 2008 in the USA and Germany.
• In 2007 CdTe production represented 4.7% of total market share, thin film
silicon 5.2% and CIGS 0.5%.
 Towards a third generation
• First-generation solar cells are built using a clean-
room process that's practically identical to the one
for computer CPUs.
• Second-gen solar technology places a silicon film
on glass or plastic and uses only about 1 percent of
the silicon of the older units per watt generated.
• But these energy-efficient panels are really only
cost-effective in large-scale deployment, because
their vacuum-based production process, typically
plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition
(PECVD), is quite susceptible to manufacturing
glitches.
 Third (?) generation technologies
• Instead of growing and slicing silicon ingots, or vacuum-based glass
etching, specialized printers spew nanoparticles onto rolls of thin,
flexible material through ink jet printing technology, aluminum foil,
and space-age chemical compounds. Third-gen solar factories create
panels for a fraction of the cost of earlier generations: as little as $1
per watt, compared with around $4.50 for traditional solar cells.
That's roughly equivalent to using fossil fuels.
• Even though the efficiency of these new thin solar panels is lower than that
of previous generations, their incredibly cheap price, coupled with their
flexible nature, will usher in much wider use of solar power.
• The Nanosolar corporation hopes to revolutionize power generation
by enabling a 10-megawatt real breakthrough has appeared with
solar's third-gen technology: thin-film solar solar power plant to
bloom in under a year, as opposed to the ten years needed to build a
traditional coal, gas, or nuclear plant.
 More ambitious definition of third
generation
• Some actors in the field consider third generation solar cells as just
a research target, and that they do not really exist yet.
• According to this view, the goal of third generation solar cell
research are low-cost, high efficiency cells. The goal is thin-film cells
that use novel approaches to obtain efficiencies in the range of 30-
60%.
• Some analysts predict that third generation cells could start to be
commercialized sometime around 2020, but this is just a guess.
• Technologies associated with third generation solar cells include
multijunction photovoltaic cells, tandem cells, nanostructured
cells to better pick up incident light, and using excess thermal
generation to enhance voltages or carrier collection.
The use of nanotechnology
The ability to architect and assemble
materials on a nanometer scale now
makes it possible to optimize solar
cells at the very length scale at which
the relevant photovoltaic
semiconductor quantum-physics
occurs. Molecular self-assembly
techniques for instance now give
unprecedented capability of designing
and creating nanostructured materials
with novel properties.
Printing of nanofilms
• The “absorber” (semiconductor) is
the most critical layer of a solar cell. A
thin film of CIGS can simply be
printed (solution-coated) to create an
efficient solar cell.
• Conventionally, CIGS thin-film solar
cells have been fabricated with
vacuum deposition techniques such
as sputtering or evaporation, but the
process cost of these techniques is so
high that the result is not an
inexpensive cell.
• Printing is by far the simplest and
most robust technique for depositing
thin films. But, of course, this would
require a CIGS ink to print, and such
a breakthrough ink, composed of
nanoparticles of CIGS material,
would require solving an entire array
of fundamental science challenges.
 Future possibilities
• The new materials that solar energy can be harnessed with is
one of the most exciting elements of the new technology.
• The flexible and lightweight physical characteristics of the
different types of third generation solar cells makes many
new applications possible.
• There is the possibility that solar cells could be integrated
into clothing which would allow us to have personal wireless
power without batteries.
• Another plausible application could be a type of automobile
paint that is blended with polymer solar cells. This could
help maintain the lightweight form of a solar car while still
providing ample energy to power it.
Integration of solar cells into
solar panels
• Photovoltaic cells typically require protection
from the environment. For cost and practicality
reasons a number of cells are connected
electrically and packaged in a photovoltaic
module.
• A collection of these modules that are
mechanically fastened together, wired, and
designed to be a field-installable unit, sometimes
with a glass covering and a frame and backing
made of metal, plastic or fiberglass, are known
as a photovoltaic panel or simply solar panel.
• A photovoltaic installation typically includes
an array of photovoltaic modules or panels, an
inverter, batteries (for off grid) and
interconnection wiring.
 Norwegian solar cell effort
• The Norwegian solar energy company Renewable
Energy Corporation (REC) is unique in that it
delivers goods and services in the whole value
chain for solar energy. REC is the world’s
largest producer of “solar grade” silicon and
wafers, and a considerable producer of solar
cells and modules. The company has over 1 000
employees, and the activity is divided into three
divisions:
 Renewable Energy Corporation (REC)
• REC Silicon is the world’s largest producer of “solar grade” polysilicon
for the photoelectrical industry. The production is carried out at two
factories in the U.S., and the company is establishing a new large
factory in the U.S. that will use a new and patented technology for
the production of granulated polysilicon through the FBR process
(Fluidized Bed Reactor), that gives a more cost-efficient production
than earlier.
• REC Wafer is the world’s largest producer of multi-crystalline wafers
for the solar cell industry. The production is carried out at factories
in Glomfjord and Herøya in Norway. The company is also starting a
new factory at Herøya that will double the production capacity to 550
MWp. The company also has its own factory that produces mono-
crystalline blocks for wafer-production in Glomfjord. This factory has
a production capacity of 25 MWp.
• REC Solar produces solar cells in Narvik in Norway and solar cell
modules at Glava in Sweden. The company today has a total
production capacity of 45 MWp, but is extending the production to
225 MWp cells and 100 MWp with modules. The company also has
an operation for installation of small scale systems in South-Africa.
 Elkem Solar
• The Norwegian industry group
Elkem ventures into solar energy
through the company Elkem Solar.
• Elkem has been involved in
research and technology
development related to solar grade
silicon since the beginning of the
1980’s. Through the long
experience and broad competence
on metallurgic processes, the
company has developed a method
for producing polycrystalline Elkem Solar has decided to invest 330
silicon. million € in a new factory at Elkem
• The method is simpler and less Fiskaa in Kristiansand. The plant will
costly than the Siemens-process, have an annual production capacity of
but doesn’t provide as clean
silicon. However, tests have shown 5000 tons of clean silicon and employ
that the material can be used in some 150 people when it is completed in
solar cells and achieve an the middle of 2008.
efficiency of 18 per cent.
A new producer of wafers – Norsun
• The Norwegian Company Norsun produces monocrystalline
silicon ingots and wafers. The company was founded in 2005
by Alf Bjørseth, who was also behind the establishment of
REC.
• Monocrystalline silicon wafers give solar cells with a higher
efficiency than multicrystalline. The silicon wafers are sold to
players in the international solar energy market for
processing to solar cells and solar panels.
• The company establishes production plants in Årdal with a
production capacity of 130 MW. Norsun will also invest in
the production of the raw material in itself, polysilicon, and
within second generation solar energy based on thin film
technology.
 Solar cell research at Institute of Energy
Technology (IFE)
• IFE has recently been granted MNOK 31 by the Research
Council of Norway’s NANOMAT program. With this
funding IFE will start up an institution-based strategic project
on the solar cell technology of the future.
• The grant ensures IFE’s leading position in Norway in
photovoltaic research.The project Thin and highly efficient
silicon-based solar cells incorporating nanostructures represents an
important step forward for IFE’s photovoltaic activities.
• The aim of the project is developing new technology and
new, nanostructured materials for solar cells with a
significantly higher efficiency than previously achieved. By
employing these kinds of materials, in principle, one can
make more efficiently use of all the energies innate in the
solar spectrum. This type of technology is often referred to as
“third generation solar cells”, and is a big and active field of
research around the world.
 Nordic Centre of Excellence in
Photovoltaics
• The Nordic region has in recent years experienced the introduction
and fast expansion of a solar electricity industry. In order to secure the
continued expansion of this industry, a strong Nordic R&D platform is
required.
• Nordic Centre of Excellence in Photovoltaics consists of 7 different
research organizations within the Nordic region doing research on
solar cells; Institute for Energy Technology (IFE), Danish
Technological Institute, Helsinki University of Technology,
Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Uppsala
University, Ioffe Physico-Technical Institute in St. Petersburg, and
Tallinn University of Technology.
• To turn the network into a virtual centre, five cross disciplinary research
topics of common interest for all the groups involved in the centre
have been defined: Search for new materials, Encapsulation and
lifetime of solar panels, 3D modelling of solar cell structures,
Contacting of solar cells, and light collection/light trapping. These
topics will serve as cornerstones in the new project.
 Nordic PV - Solar Electricity from
Materials to System Integration
• The purpose of Nordic PV, a scientific project between Institute for
Energy Technology (IFE), University of Uppsala (UU), Helsinki
University of Technology (HUT), Danish Technological Institute
(DTI) Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU)
funded by Nordic Energy Research, is to stimulate research and
development related to solar electricity in order to strengthen the
commercial development of solar cells in the Nordic countries.
• Already, several Nordic companies are visible in the international
solar electricity market, including NAPS Systems Oy, Rautaruukki
Oy, Endeas Oy, Gaia Solar A/S, Topsil A/S, Elkem Solar AS,
ScanWafer ASA, ScanCell AS, SolEnergy AS, SiTech AS, Renewable
Energy Corporation AS, ScanModule AB, Gällivare Photovoltaic AB,
Arctic Solar AB and Solibro AB.
• There is no reason why these companies may not maintain their
market share in the coming years. Even using conservative scenarios
of growth within the solar cell industry there is a large potential for
industry development in the Nordic counties. However in order to
make this happening, it is important for the companies to have
presence qualified R&D personnel within the Nordic region.
Growth in world PV markets

Source: IEA PVPS report 2009

Growth in world PV markets

Source: IEA PVPS report 2009

Growth in world PV markets

Source: IEA PV roadmap

 PV technology trends
• Crystalline silicon (single and multi crystalline)
– 2006: 91% of marked
– 2007: 87% of marked
– 2008: 78% of marked
• Thin film technologies have taken marked shares
– Improvements in efficiencies
– Usability on flexible substrates
• New technologies as nanostructured thin films and silicon and
dye-sensitized solar cells have a low share today, but are
expected to grow substantially in the near future.
• Cell supply shortage still limits the module production
 Nobel prize in Physics 2010:
Graphene

October 5th, 2010:

http://www.kva.se/en/
http://www.solarnovus.com/index.php?view=article&id=1454
 Instructive videos from YouTube
(there are many more…)
• PV basics
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qYeynLy6pj8
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=caeEyhJZnTs&feature=related
• Freiburg solar village
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IMnB6V5yG1I&feature=related
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RK713EYYdLo
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6kW52Xj5KaA&feature=related
• Solar energy for homes
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Tj4KAWZFZOA&feature=related
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IELITZ2VSvk&feature=related
• Large scale PV power plants
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pXyJrFKwjrc&feature=related
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L7PvUbQCLXY
• Stirling motor solar power plant (not photovoltaic)
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z4joQSkQ1_M
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OTQ4cFn5sXs&feature=related
• New technologies
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SMnx5tFrDDc&feature=related
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5NyhUQ3dmrw&feature=related
• Solar power from space
– http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V9YD9-_WTjk