OPERATION & INSTRUCTION

MANUAL

FOR

AIR PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM TRAINER

(PRODUCT CODE: PCST-03B)

AN ISO 9001:2008 CERTIFIED COMPANY

Manufactured by:
SAP ENGINEERS & CONSULTANTS,
Regd. office: Shop No.26-27, SRUSHTI, Near Guruganesh Nagar,
Eklavya College Rd., Kothrud, Pune-411038
PH. - (020) 25384737, Mobile-(+91)94220 88946/ 95524 75082 Fax - (020) 25383544
E-mail: -sales@sapengineers.com
Website:www.sapengineers.com / www.sapengineers.co.in
 INDEX

Sr. No. DESCRIPTION Page No.

1 PHOTOGRAPH OF THE TRAINER 2

2. PHOTOGRAPH OF THE PANEL 3

3 SYSTEM INSTALLATION PROCEDURE 4

4 SPECIFICATIONS OF COMPONENTS 5

5 INTRODUCTION 6

6 BLOCK DIAGRAM 7

7 P & I DIAGRAM 8

8 STUDY OF PRESSURE TRANSMITTER 9

9 STUDY OF FEEDBACK PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM 10

10 ELECTRICAL WIRING DIAGRAM 12

11 INTRODUCTION TO PID CONTROLLER 13

12 PNEUMATIC CONTROL VALVE (FINAL CONTROL ELEMENT) 21

13 STUDY OF I/P CONVERTOR 23

14 AFR UNIT 24

15 DO’S & DON’T’S 25

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 1 - PHOTOGRAPH OF THE TRAINER.

AIR PRESSURE CONTROL TRAINER

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 2- PHOTOGRAPH OF THE CONTROL PANEL

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 3. SYSTEM INSTALLATION PROCEDURE FOR PRESSURE PROCESS
TRAINING SYSTEM

• After unpacking the system you will find the following components.

1) Caster wheel mounted frame consisting of control panel and pilot plant governing the system.
2) Control panel comprises of microcontroller based PID controller along with panel mounted
instruments and electrical switches for operating the system.

3) Pilot plant consists of Pressure vessel, Control Valve, Pressure Transmitter, manual valves fitted
in the piping, I/P converter with FRL unit.

• Give 230 V ac power supply to the control panel.

• Give the air supply to FRL unit and adjust the pressure at 2.1 BAR, By rotating knob
clockwise, before going throw this bypass valve must open and close the ball valve near
control valve so that flow will go throw bypass way. and note that NEEDLE VALVE is
partially open.

• Adjust the air supply pressure 2.1bar. for controlling purpose

• Make the power supply to the control panel ON; you will enter into the experimental mode.
By selecting power on switches & test points, you can choose the different experiments and
perform it as per the described procedures.

And thus the system has been installed.

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 4. SPECIFICATIONS OF THE COMPONENTS USED IN THE PRESSURE
CONTROL TRAINER SETUP

PRESSURE VESSEL: -
Shape: Cylindrical, Material: CRCC, Thickness: 5mm.
Diameter: 150mm, Length: 300mm.Capacity: 15Kg/cm²,
with ½” BSP connection for pressure gauge, inlet & vent facility.

PRESSURE TRANSMITTER: -
Input: 0-2.5 Kg/cm², Output: 4-20mA, Type: 2-wire Piezoresistive type.
Supply: 24V DC, 50mA, mounting: TOP 1/4” BSP connection, Range: 0-2.5 bar,
Accuracy – 0.25% F.S.
PNEUMATIC CONTROL VALVE:-
Size: ½”, Type: Globe type (Air to Close), CV: 0.2 US GPM, With Diaphragm Actuator, Equal
% characteristics. Flange Connection: nominal size: 15mm, stem diameter:10mm,sealing :metal,
PID CONTROLLER:-
Input: 4-20mA, Output: 4-20mA, Display: Dual for PV & SP, Bar graph display for Output, inbuilt
24V DC Power Supply for 2 wire Pressure Transmitter.
ELECTRICAL CONTROL PANEL:-
MS Powder coated panel with Switches, indicator, test points, Controller on Front Fascia, UK2.5
Terminal Connectors mounted on DIN rail channel, Dimensions: 1ft(L) × 1ft(W) × 1ft(H).
APR UNIT:-
0-10 Kg/cm2. With Pressure Gauge
AFR UNIT:-
0-10 Kg/cm2. With Pressure Gauge
E/P CONVERTER:-
I/P- 4-20mADC, o/p: - 3-15psi

MIMIC DIAGRAM: 01 No.

PATCH CORDS: 2 Nos.

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 5. INTRODUCTION TO PRESSURE CONTROL TRAINING SYSTEM
FEEDBACK PRESSURE CONTROL LOOPS USING PIEZORESISTIVE PRESSURE
TRANSMITTER.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:-

Feedback Control: - Feedback control is gathering information on the controlled variable and
comparing it to the set point; making decision based on that comparison; and taking action to
eliminate any differences between the controlled variable and the set point.

In feedback control, there is a constant flow of information in a closed loop. All of the
instruments, which work together in the loop to control a process, are called feed back control loop.

Feedback pressure control loop consists of following process components: pressure built
inside pressure vessel (process), gauge pressure transmitter (sensing element as well as transmitter),
PID controller (control element), electro pneumatic converter (actuator element), and pneumatic
control valve (final control element).

The purpose of this loop is to control the pressure built inside the pressure vessel at the
desired set point pressure. The Air Compressor, pumps the air through the control valve into the
pressure vessel, which compresses the air, trapped between the Pressure vessel & SS diaphragm of
pressure sensor transmitter thereby imparting the pressure on the diaphragm. The pressure exerted
on the diaphragm is converted in to the current signal by the piezoresistive transducer/ transmitter
.Pressure Transmitter’s INPUT Range = 0-1 Kg/cm² & OUTPUT Range= 4-20mA.

Pressure transducer transmits the current output. Output current is directly proportional to the
pressure built inside the vessel. This current output is given as input to the PID controller; where it
is compared with the set point value & error signal is generated which is fed to the P, I, D control
algorithm circuit which gives the current output proportional to the error signal & the values of
proportional band (P.B=100/Gain as in this PID controller, P=Gain (0-100), integral time &
derivative time constant. The controller output is given to the E/P converter where proportional
pneumatic signal (3- 15 psi) is generated as per the input current signal (4 – 20 mA).

The output of E/P converter (ie: 3-15psi) is given to the control valve, which directly controls
the percentage opening of control valve (0-100%) to control the flow rate of air signal accordingly.

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 6. BLOCK DIAGRAM PRESSURE CONTROL LOOP

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 7. P&I DIAGRAM FOR PRESSURE CONTROL TRAINER

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 8. STUDY OF PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
INTRODUCTION:
Pressure transmitter is used to measure on line as well as off line pressure in the industries.
It gives 4-20mA standard output for specified range of pressure input.

PRINCIPAL OF OPERATION:
It is very simple method to measure the pressure. It consists of a pressure inlet through
which pressure acts on the diaphragm and the diaphragm gets deformed. This causes change in
strain of the strain gauge mounted on the diaphragm. This change causes unbalance in the bridge,
which is further, processed by the signal conditioning ckt.
Output of the signal conditioning ckt. is standard 4-20 mA signal which is proportional to
input pressure (0 to 1 Kg/cm2).

Pressure transmitter

20mA

Output
Current
mA

(0, 1) Input Pressure 10 Kg/c

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 9. STUDY OF FEEDBACK PRESSURE CONTROL SYSTEM
TITLE: Study of feedback pressure loop in a control system with SCADA application.

AIM: To Study the closed loop feedback pressure control system using pressure transmitter
& SCADA application.
OBJECTIVES:
1. To understand the concept of feedback pressure control system.
2. Determination of system response.
3. Procedure for optimizing of & setting of PID controller to suit the process.
4. Study the operation of pressure transmitter, I/P Converter & Control Valve.

PROCEDURE:

1. Turn ON the “MAINS ON” switch.

2. Make ‘PID ON’ switch ON.
3. Close bypass valve across the pneumatic control valve.
4. Start the air supply from compressor (continuous air supply is required to the control
valve as well as in the system).

5. Enter the following values while tuning of PID

OPLo =0, OPHi =100, Bias=0, Srng: rH=4.0, rL=0, Pd=1.
6. Enter the following PID Values using tune mode of PID CONTROLLER.
Take PID into AUTO mode & observe the systems response. Our recommended value
is: P=10, I=40, D=0. Controller Action = Forward.

7. Give Load disturbance to the tuned control system (S.P=M.V) by varying air flow rate by
use of gate valve.

8. Observe the system response for three different set points for these tuned values of P, I &
D (E.g. 0.50, 1, 1.5 Kg/cm2) .

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 OBSERVATION TABLE
Sr NO. Set Variable PRESSURE (P.V.)
(S.V.) (In Kg/cm2)
On PID On
PRESSUR
E GAUGE
1 1.5

2 1.8

3 2.0

4 2.2

5 2.5

TEST REPORT
Sr NO. Set Variable PRESSURE (P.V.)
(S.V.) (In Kg/cm2)
On PID On
PRESSUR
E GAUGE
1 1.5 1.5 1.5

2 1.8 1.8 1.8

3 2.0 2.0 2.0

4 2.2 2.2 2.1

5 2.5 2.6 2.5

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 10. WIRING DIAGRAM

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 11. INTRODUCTION TO PID CONTROLLER
PROPORTIONAL ACTION:-
Proportional response is basis of three-mode controller. It is characterized by a continuous
linear relationship between the controller input & output. If the other two integral & derivative are
present they are added to the proportional response.
“Proportional” means the percent change in output of the controller is some multiple of the
percent change in the measurement. This multiple is called the “Proportional Gain” of the
controller. For some controllers, proportional action is adjusted by such a gain adjustment, while for
others a “proportional band” adjustment is used. Both have the same purposes & effect. The
proportional gain, Kc is frequently expressed in terms of percent proportional band, PB as,
KC=100/PB
“Wide bands “(high percentage of PB) corresponds to less “sensitive “ controller settings, &
“narrow bands” (low percentages) correspond to more “sensitive “ controller settings. As the name
“proportional” suggests the correction generated by the proportional control mode is proportional to
the error. The following equation describes the operation of the proportional controller:

M=(Kc)(e)+b = (100/PB)(e)+b
Where,
M = the output signal to the manipulated variable (valve)
Kc = the proportional sensitivity or gain of the controller
e = the deviation from set point or error
PB=the proportional band (100/Kc)
b= the bias of the output
One consequence of the application of proportional control to the basic control loop is
“Offset” Offset means that the controller will maintain the measurement at a value different from
the set point. The acceptability of proportional only control depends on whether this offset can be
tolerated. Since the error necessary to produce any output decreases with the proportional band, the
narrower the proportional band, the less the offset. For large capacity, small dead time applications
accepting a very narrow proportional band, proportional only control will probably be satisfactory,
since the measurement will remain within a small percentage band around the set point.

INTEGRAL ACTION (reset):

As long as the measurement remains at the set point, there is no change in the output due to
the integral mode in the controller. However, when any error exists between measurement & set
point, the integral action will cause the output to begin to change & continue to change as long as
the error exists. This function then causes the output to change until the proper output is achieved in
order to hold the measurement at the set point at various loads.
This mode is also called reset mode, because after a load change it returns the controlled
variable to set point & eliminates the offset, which the plain proportional controller would leave.
The mathematical expression of the integral (I) controller:

M = (1/Ti) ∫e dt +b
The Term “Ti” is the integral time setting of the controller. It is also called reset time & is
sometimes designed as R or I instead of the more common Ti.
The open loop response of the integral mode is shown in above figure, which indicates a
step change in the artificial measurement away from the set point at some instant in time & the
response of the integral controller output.

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 The more integral action there is in the controller, the more quickly the output changes due
to the integral response. The integral adjustment determines how rapidly the output changes as a
function of time. Among the various controllers manufactured, the amount of integral action is
measured in one of two ways-either in minutes per repeat, or the number of repeats per minute. The
smaller integral time, the greater the action of the integral mode. The proper amount of integral
action depends on how fast the measurement can respond to the additional valve travel it causes.
The controller must not drive the valve faster than the dead time in the process allows the
measurement to respond or the valve will reach its limits before the measurement can be brought
back to the set point.
The valve then remain in the extreme position until the measurement crosses the set point,
whereupon the controller will drive the valve to its opposite extreme, where it will remain until the
measurement crosses the set point in the opposite direction. The result will be an integral cycle in
which the valve ravels from one extreme to another as the measurement oscillates around the set
point.
The integral mode continuously looks at the total past history of the error by continuously
integrating the area under the error curve & eliminates the offset. This is useful when the loop is
operational but it can be a problem when the loop is idle. When the plant is shutdown for night the
controllers do not need to integrate the error under the error curves because if it does, it will
eventually saturate & its output will either drop to zero or its maximum value. Once saturated the
controller will not be able to control when called upon to do so but will actually upset the process
by trying to introduce an equal & opposite area of error, which it has introduced during its idle state.
This is called as integral windup. Including a “batch function” in the controller, a function specially
designed to prevent “wind-up”, can prevent this problem
DERIVATIVE ACTION
The third response found on controllers is the derivative mode. Whereas the proportional
mode responds to the size of the error & the integral mode responds to size & time duration of the
error the derivative mode responds to how quickly the error is changing. That is the proportional

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considers the present state of the process error & the integral mode looks at its past history while the
derivative mode anticipates its future state & acts on the prediction.
This third control mode became necessary as the size of processing equipment
increased & correspondingly the mass & the thermal inertia of such equipment. For such large
process it is not good enough to respond to respond to an error when it has already evolved because
the flywheel effect (the inertia or momentum) of these large processes makes it very difficult to stop
or reverse a trend once it has evolved.
The purpose of derivative mode is to predict process errors before they have evolved & take
corrective action in advance of that occurrence.
The mathematical expression for derivative (D) controller:

M = Td (de/dt) + b
Where Td is the derivative time in seconds

As shown in fig is the response to a change of measurement away from set point. For a step
the measurement is changing infinitely fast & the derivative mode in controller causes a
considerable change or spike in the output, which dies immediately because the measurement has
stopped changing after the step. The second response shows the response of the derivative mode to
a measurement that is changing at a constant rate. The derivative output is proportional to the rate of
change of this error. The greater the rate of change, greater the output due to derivative response.
The derivative holds this output as long as the measurement is changing. As soon as the
measurement stops changing, regardless of whether it at the set point above or below it the response
due to the derivative action will cease. The derivative response is commonly measured in minutes.
The derivative time in minutes is the time that the open loop proportional plus derivative
response is ahead of the response due to proportional action alone. Thus the greater the derivative
no, greater the derivative response. To avoid large output spikes caused by step changes in the set
point most modern controllers apply derivative action only to changes in the measurement.

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Derivative action in controllers helps to control processes that respond to the rapid changes in the
measurement it sees in the noise this will cause large & rapid variations in the controller output,

which will keep the valve constantly moving up & down wearing the valve & causing the
measurement to cycle.
Because the derivative mode acts on the rate at which the error signal changes it can also
cause unnecessary upsets it will react to a sudden set point change by the operator, it will amplify
noise & it will cause upsets when the measurement signal changes in steps in steps. In such
situations special precautions are recommended
For example in order to make sure that the derivative contribution to the output the valve
will respond only to the rate at which the measurement changes but will disregard the rate at which
the operator changes the set point the control equation need to be changed.

PID Action
When the measurement begins to deviate from the set point the first response from the
controller is derivative response proportional to the rate of change of measurement that opposes the
movement of the measurement away from the set point. This derivative response is combined with
the proportional response. In addition, as the integral mode in the controller sees the error increase it
drives the valve further still.
This action continues until the measurement stops changing at which point the derivative
response ceases. Since there is still an error the measurement continues to change due to integral
action until the measurement begins to move back towards the set point, there is a derivative

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response proportional to the rate of change in the measurement opposing the return of the
measurement towards the set point. The integral response continues because there is still error
although its contribution decreases with the error. Also the output due to proportional is changing.
Thus the measurement comes back towards the set point. As soon as the measurement reaches the
set point &
stops changing, the derivative response again ceases & the proportional output returns to 50%. With
the measurement back at the set point there is no longer any changing response due to integral
action. However the output is at a new value. This new value is the result of the integral action
during the time that the measurement was away from the set point & compensates for the load
change the original offset

PID CONTROLLER OPERATING MANUAL

KEY FUNCTION
SET Used to call individual operating parameter in sequence
UP Used to increase the displayed value either set point or any operating parameter.
Used to decrease the displayed value either set point or any operating parameter
DN Although when one of these UP & DN keys is pressed the numeric value Increments
or decrements in units of one, holding the key continuously causes the rate of change
to increase.
ENT Enters numeric values & changes.

DISPLAY FUNCTION
PV Display the measured value. Display the parameter set symbol while programming.
SV Display the set point value. Display the parameter value while programming.
O1 Lights when output 1 relay is ON.
O2 Lights when output 2 relay is ON.
MN Lights when Manual mode is selected.
OP Lights to indicate, the Bar graph is showing % output value (Range 0-100%).
DV Lights to indicate, the Bar graph is showing deviation value (Range -50 to +50).

OPERATING PARAMETER SETTING

The controller unit has two major display modes, Normal display mode & Operating parameter
display mode. In normal display mode the PV display shows the measured value and SV display
shows the set point value. The operating parameter mode can be achieved by pressing SET key. In
this mode the PV display shows the setting parameter symbol and SV display shows the setting
parameter numeric value.

Setting set point value (SP)

From the operating parameter setting mode, press "SET" key several times to come "Sv” on the
display. Press "ENT" key. The top display will show "SP" .Use UP and DN keys to set the desired
status of the set point value. Press "ENT" key.
The top display will show "SP" and the bottom display will show the current set point value.

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Use UP and DN keys to set the desired set point value. Press "ENT" key, this completes setting.

Setting Lock code

Menu used to set the lock code. From the operating parameter setting mode, press SET key several
times to display "LOC". Press ENT key.
The top display (PV) shows the zero. The bottom display shows the parameter "L". Use the /\ &\/
Keys to set the desired digit value (lock code). Press the ENT key. This completes setting.

If the instrument is already in lock condition, then only set point can be accessed. The
instrument will ask for the password if any attempt is made to access any other Parameter.

Setting PID values

From the operating parameter setting mode, press "SET" key. Several times to come "SPID"on the
display. Press "ENT" key. The top display will show "P" and the bottom display will show the
current proportional value. Use UP and DN keys to set the desired value. (Range 0 to 100.0). Press
"ENT" key.
Now the top display will show "I" and the bottom display will show the current integral value. Use
UP and DN keys to set the desired value. (Range 0 to 3600). Press "ENT" key.
The top display will show "D" and the bottom display will show the current derivative value. Use
UPAnd DN keys to set the desired value. (Range 0 to 600.0). Press "ENT" key.

The top display will show "OPLO" and the bottom display will show the current minimum limit
output value. Use UP and DN keys to set the desired value. (Range 0 to 100.0). Press "ENT" key.
The top display will show "OPHI" and the bottom display will show the current maximum limit
output value. Use UP and DN keys to set the desired value. (Range 0 to 100.0). Press "ENT" key.
The top display will show "BIAS" and the bottom display will show the current BIAS value. Use
UP and DN keys to set the desired value. (Range 0 to 100.0). BIAS value is the minimum % output
when both SET and PROCESS variables are equal. Press "ENT" key.
The top display will show "ACT" and the bottom display will show the current action status. Use
UP and DN keys to set the desired action (FOR or REV). Press "ENT" key.

Setting AUTO /MANUAL mode

From the operating parameter setting mode, press "ENTER" key. The controller will toggle the
mode. The bottom display will show the percentage output. Use UP and DN keys to manually
change the output. Lamp "MN" goes ON after selecting manual mode. To terminate this mode press
ENTER key again.

Setting RANGE values -

This setting defines higher range limit of the input. The top display will show rh, while bottom
display will show the current value for rh. The required value can be obtained with the help of UP
and DN keys. (RANGE 0 TO 2000) Press ENTER key.

SETTING LOW RANGE VALUE

This setting defines lower range limit of the input. The display will show "rl" on the display. The
top display will show rl, while bottom display will show the current value for rl. The required value
can be obtained with the help of UP and DN keys. (RANGE 0 TO 1000)
Press ENTER key.

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SETTING DECIMAL POINT POSITION
The display will show "Pd" on the display. The top display will show Pd, while bottom display will
show the Current value for Pd. The required value can be obtained with the help of UP and DN
keys.(RANGE 0 TO 3)
Press ENTER key.

SETTING SQUARE ROOT FUNCTION

The display will show "root" on the display. The top display will show root, while bottom display
will show the current status of the function (ON or OFF). The required status can be obtained with
the help of UP and DN keys.
Press ENTER key.

Setting ALARM values

From the operating parameter setting mode, press "SET" key several times to come "SALM" on
the display. Press "ENT" key. The top display will show "ALMH" and the bottom display will show
the current high Alarm value. Use UP and DN keys to set the desired value. Press "ENT" key.
The top display will show "HYSH" and the bottom display will show the current high Alarm
hysterisis value.
Press "ENT" key.
The top display will show "ALML" and the bottom display will show the current low Alarm value.
Use UP and DN keys to set the desired value. Press "ENT" key.
The top display will show "HYSL" and the bottom display will show the current low Alarm
hysterisis value. Use UP and DN keys to set the desired value.
Press "ENT" key.

Setting Power on condition

From the operating parameter setting mode, press "SET" key several times to come "SPON" on
the display. Press "ENT" key. The top display will show "PON" and the bottom display will show
the current status at power on. Use UP and DN keys to set the desired status (i.e. AUTO or
MANUAL) Press "ENT" key. If the manual mode is selected then you have to specify the output in
manual mode.
The top display will show "P oP" and the bottom display will show the current set output at power
on. Use up and Dn keys to set the desired output. Press "ENT" key.

Setting Room Temperature

From the operating parameter setting mode, press "SET" key several times to come "Srt" on the
display. Press "ENT" key. The top display will show "rt" and the bottom display will show the
current room temperature value. Use UP and DN keys to set the desired value. Press "ENT" key.
This mode is applicable only for Thermocouples.

Selection of the front BARGRAPH

By pressing just UP and DN keys the BARGRAPH can be switched between DEVIATION and %
OUTPUT when the controller is in the AUTO mode.

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 12. PNEUMATIC CONTROL VALVE
INTRODUCTION
Pneumatic control valve is used to control flow of fluids in industrial processes. Normally
close (Air to open) or normally open (Air to close) valves are used.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
Fig. It self describes the working principle of pneumatic control valve. It consists of a
diaphragm, feedback spring, valve plug and seat ring.

When controlling pneumatic supply (3-15 psi) is given through inlet, it creates pressure from up
side of the diaphragm and tries to push it down. Due to this the steam of the valve moves down and
control valve starts closing. Same time the feedback spring pulls the diaphragm up and balances it
to some position required to control the flow.

CONTROL VALVE SIZING

Suggestions in Control valve sizing are given here
One should first determine both the minimum &maximum Cv requirements for the valve,
considering not only normal but also start-up, & emergency conditions.

Control valve should never operate below their minimum gain point shown in fig a. Distell properly
points to the fact that all “fat” settles in the control valve. In constant speed pumping systems, each
design engineer will add his own safety margin in calculating pressure drops through pipes,
exchangers, & finally in selecting the pump

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 Therefore the control valve will end up with all these safety margins are added pressure drops,
resulting in a much over-sized valve. A highly oversized valve will operate in a nearly closed state,
which is the most unstable & least desirable operating condition.
For the above reasons, the question of how much pressure drop should be assigned for a control
valve can usually be answered simply: None. This is because the various safety margins by
themselves will usually contribute more than what is necessary to satisfy the requirements
described. In variable speed pumping systems this approach does not apply because they’re the
pump speed is adjusted to keep the control valve differential constant, & therefore the effect of
accumulated safety margins is eliminated.
Process Fluid Characteristics
In selecting control valves, the properties of the process fluid must be fully considered.
The process data should be carefully & accurately determined because even small variations in
temperature or pressure can cause flashing or cavitations. These include such obvious variables as
pressure, temp, Viscosity, slurry, or corrosive nature, or the less obvious factors of flashing,
cavitations, erosion, leakage, etc. These are discussed in the paragraphs below.
High Pressure Or High Differential Pressure Services
The design pressures for each valve type are listed in the corresponding feature summaries in
the front of their sections. Design of high-pressure valves usually necessitates at least three
considerations: Increased physical strength
Selection of erosion- resistant material
Use of special seals
Valve bodies can usually withstand higher pressures than the piping. Valve bodies for highs
pressure service are usually forged to provide homogeneous materials free of voids & with good
mechanical properties. The loads & stresses on the valve stem are also high. For this reason, higherv
strength materials are with increased diameter.

High operating pressure frequently involves high-pressure drops. This usually means erosion,
abrasion, or cavitations at the trim. Cavitations & erosion, resistance are usually not properties of
the same metal. Materials resistant to erosion & abrasion include 440C stainless steel, flamer
sprayed aluminum oxide coating & tungsten carbide.
On the stem, where the unit pressure between it & the packing is high, it is usually sufficient to
chrome plate the stem surface to prevent galling. Special “self-energizing” seals are used with
higher-pressure valves (above 10,000 PSIG or 69 M Pa service) so that the seal becomes tighter as
pressure rises. Popular body seal designs for such service include the delta ring closure and the
Bingham closure.
The self-energizing seals are used in connecting the high-pressure valves into the pipeline.
These designs depend on the elastic or plastic deformation of the seal ring at high pressures for self-
energization.
Special packing designs & materials are also required in high-pressure service, because
conventional packing would be extruded through the clearances. To prevent this, the clearance
between stem & packing box bore is minimized, & extrusion- resistant material, such as glass
impregnated Teflon, is used for packing.

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 13. STUDY OF I TO P CONVERTER
INTRODUCTION
Current to pressure conversion is done by using current to pneumatic converter i.e.
I/P Converter or E/P Converter. The current to pneumatic converter is a field-mounted instrument
that transforms a dc mA signal into pneumatic signal proportional to it.

Electro-pneumatic transmitter is important because they form the link between electric
measurement and pneumatic control system. They also convert electronic control outputs into air
pressure for operations of pneumatic control valves. Now a day’s Electro-pneumatic transducers are
widely used in the process industries. The input used for this transducer is electric that is direct
supply of current and its range is 1 to 5, 4 to 20mA, and 10 to 50mA. But mostly used in industries
range is 4 to 20mA. The output range is 3 to 15psi, 0.2 to 1 Kg/cm².

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATON:
A dc mA input signal is given to the coil shown in fig, which is kept in the
permanent magnetic field. It produces thrust, which varies gap between flapper and nozzle. This
causes a change in output pressure of the relay, which is also, converter output pressure. This
pressure is fed to the feedback bellows which exerts a force on a feedback flexure to move the
nozzle and establish a throttling relationship between the flapper and nozzle.

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 14. AFR UNIT
The air that is sucked by the air compressor is evidently not clean because of the presence of
various types of contaminants in the atmosphere; moreover, the air that is supplied to the system
from the compressor is further contaminated by virtue of generation of contaminants downstream.
Hence, to enable supply of clean pure and contamination free compressed air, the air requires to be
filtered. The three main elements of an FRL unit are

1. Air filter
2. Pressure regulator

AIR FILTER
Air filters are used in a pneumatic system to perform the following
main functions:-
1. To prevent the entrance of solid contaminants to the system.
2. To condense & remove the water vapour that is present in the air
passing through it.
3. To arrest any submicron particles that may pose a problem in the
system components.

PRESSURE REGULATOR
The main function of this valve is to regulate the incoming pressure
to the system so that the desired pressure is capable of flowing at a
steady condition. The valve has a metallic body with the two
openings – primary and secondary openings. The pressure
regulation is achieved by opening the poppet valve to a measured
amount commensurate with the desired pressure level to be achieved. This is done by an adjustable
screw. The adjusting screw will move the diaphragm upward and thus will make the poppet unseat,
thereby creating an opening to allow air to flow from the primary side to secondary side.

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 15. DO’S & DON’T

1. Always keep the air supply pressure to the electro-pneumatic converter at 2.1Kg/cm2.
2. If the Transmitter does not give 4-20mAoutput (which is Input to the PID Controller), please
check the Electrical connections of the Transmitter. Make sure that the Wires are
connected to pin no. 2 & 3 of the Pressure Transmitter (+24V supply to pin 3 & output
to pin no. 2). This is very important for receiving 4-20mA Output from Transmitter.

3. To vary the pressure by FRL, first pull out the knob in upward direction. Clockwise rotation
of the knob increases the pressure & anticlockwise rotation decreases pressure.

4. Keep the air pressure regulator knob (APR) in locked position at 2.1 kg/cm2 by
pressing/pushing the knob.

5. Once the supply pressure is set, do not vary the APR knob. Exceeding the supply pressure
beyond 3kg/cm2may damage the electro-pneumatic converter.

6. Keep all the valves open which are inline/series with the Control Valve and keep the bypass
valve closed.

7. For any electrical fault rectification, refer to wiring diagram given in manual.
8. When experiment is over, switch off all the switches on the panel & remove the mains cord
from the socket.

10. Refer to instruction & operating manual to perform the experiments.

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